Information Resources Management

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
COURSE CODE: LIB 802
COURSE TITLE: INFORMATION RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
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LIB 802 Information Resources Management
DEVELOPER-PROF ZAKARI MOHAMMED A B U ZARIA
WRITER-DRLAWAL UMAR A B U ZARIA

EDITOR PROF ZAKARI MOHAMMED A B U ZARIA
MODULE ONE: Information Resources Management in Information Work

Unit 1: Information Resources and Types
Unit 2: The Concept of Information Resources Management
Unit 3: Evolution of Information Resources Management
Unit 4: Information Resources as an Asset
Unit 1:Information Resources and Types

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Information Resources
3.2 Types of Information Resources in Organisations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall examine the concept of information resources from various
definitions provided by scholars. We shall also attempt to identify and discuss the various
types of information resources as argued by several authorities in the field of library and
information science. This will enable you understand the importance attached to managing
such information resources particularly in this competitive information environment.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
Define Information Resources
Identify various information resources in organisations
Explain the types of information resources
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of Information Resources
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Information Resources include any information in electronic, audio-visual or physical
form, or any hardware or software that makes possible the storage and use of information.
This definition includes but is not limited to electronic mail, phone mail, local databases,
externally accessed databases, CD-ROM, motion picture film, recorded magnetic media,
photographs, digitized information, or microfilm. Others are: coaxial wire, radio,
electromagnetic, photo optical, photo electronic and other facility used in transmitting
electronic communications, computer facilities or related electronic equipment that
electronically stores such communications.
When the term information resource is used, it is usually regarded as "stuff (Wilson,
1985). According to Wilson the most important information resource is people. It is natural
for anyone who wants to know something, to first try asking someone else. He also pointed
out that almost no organisation sets out to record its "knowledge holders" even though it is
accepted that any newcomer to the organisation will spend "a great deal of time" to find out
"who knows what".
Marchand et al. (1986) define information resources as:
Individuals;
Information technology;
Information facilities such as a library and
Information providers.
It should be noted that Marchand included information technology as an information

resource. Information technology can, at most, be a storage medium or an information
conduit. It will be shown later that information technology, like information systems and
others, are all parts of the information infrastructure needed to facilitate the process.
Typical resources would be money/capital, people, equipment and supplies, land and
buildings and energy. Information is placed alongside these by Burk and Horton (1988).
Identifying resources such as people and equipment is easy, but identifying the information
resources of a business is not so easy as one could be dealing with something intangible.
Context plays an important role in identifying any resource, but specifically with the
information resource. What may be an information resource to one business, may not be a
resource to another (Burk et al., 1988).
The information resources can be said to be the information products, information
sources, information services, information technology and information systems. These are the
resources which an individual or an organisation turns to when information is needed. It is
important to realise that these resources may not necessarily, in fact they will in all
probability not, provide all the answers to the information needs. They are, as the name
implies, still resources and they will have to be processed further in order to satisfy the needs.
The process necessary for this transformation is the appropriation process where context and
perspective are added. When this happens, data are transformed into information.
3.2 Types of Information Resources in Organisation

Wilson (1985) puts information resources into two main categories, namely: internal
resources and external resources, as follows:
Internal information resources:
People - oral communication;
Correspondence - mail, memoranda;
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Data, records, files (on activities/operations/personnel/etc.;
Internal documentation (meeting papers, minutes, internal reports, etc.) and
Graphic materials (maps, charts, diagrams, etc.).
External information resources

People outside the organisation;
Internal information resources of other organisations;
"Published" information - books, journals, reports, government publications,
statistical information;
Mass media - news and
Electronic databases and data banks (covering parts of both of the above items).
He points out that this list is not complete and concludes that information is a multi-
media phenomenon because it involves sound (voice), numbers, text, pictures, moving
pictures, graphics and more (Wilson, 1985).
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Horton (1979) categorized information resources into four groups, namely:
Information sources (e.g. people, libraries);
Information services
Information products (e.g. maps, cassettes, encyclopedias) and
Information systems.
The information sources and systems are means-oriented. That is, they provide
answers to the "where", "who" or "how" interrogatives, while the other two, information
products and services are ends-oriented (the "what" interrogative). Horton warns that these
categories overlap and that "...some ambiguity is virtually inevitable in the end" (Horton,
1979).
Bryce (1987) categorised information resources in three groups, namely, data, people
and processes. Otten (1984) defined information resources as "Everything that is involved in
handling ...data and contributing to its use as information...".
People - the specialists

Most people prefer to get information from other people. Particularly if they know the
source, it helps to adjust their impression of authority of the information. Within
organisations, the different specialists often can make a business intelligence contribution.
Typical of the operational units that can provide intelligence are:
Customer relations because of their regular contact with the organisations clients;
personnel in these areas are likely to be the first informed if customers see advantages
in competitors, products or services, or introduce new features;
Human resources because of its knowledge of industrial relations, its monitoring of
press employment advertisements and consequent knowledge of job relativities, and
for its ability to identify employees who have worked for competitors;
Accounting because they will be aware of the financial condition of customers who
may also be competitors;
Legal department for its collection of material on the regulatory environment, and its
monitoring of cases that involve enterprises that have the same business concerns and
Research and development for its knowledge of competitor products, and the need of
its staff to follow the contents of technical literature such as scientific periodicals and
patents.
Depending upon the organisation, other departments such as sales, purchasing, public
relations and property could all have contributions to make. Structured approaches to
gathering such information vary from having regular meetings with personnel concerned to
asking them to complete reports on potentially useful material, and to use of enhanced
conferencing software that permits a degree of information assessment. An example of such
software is grapeVine, which is designed to gather, filter and classify and consolidate
information emanating from multiple personal sources, thereby building a knowledge base
from information that originates in the form of issues and opinions.
Documents
A document in this text is used to mean either a print document or its digital
equivalents. Most of the materials that are mentioned have at least some examples available
in digital forms via networks or on compact disks.
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Directories
Directories are significant, not least because they include directories of people, and it
may be possible to identify someone who can provide the required information, without
having to commit to further reading. They may be general ones such as Whos who in its
various guises, or more specialised ones for particular industries or professions. In the
business field, there are directories to provide information about the finances of companies,
their products and services, and their directors. Typical of these are the print and computer-
based Kompass directories for a number of countries.
Many professional associations, including the ones in the information management

profession such as Nigerian Library Association (NLA), maintain directories of membership,
sometimes with research specialties or special interests. Many such directories are now
available in CD-ROM form or are searchable from the Internet. These general organisational
listings carried in Telecommunications Company directories are complemented by
organisations which have a formal page structure on the Internet that includes access to their
internal telephone directory listings.
Serial publications
Serial publications are those that are issued periodically and with the intention of
indefinite continuation. Useful serials for environmental scanning include some directories
the newspapers of the national and local press, trade magazines, and the annual reports of
companies. Some environmental scanning programs consist partly of subscriptions to news
clipping services that try to cover the interests of the company.
There are also computer-based equivalents of these, sometimes called current

awareness services or Selective Dissemination of Information (SDI). The worth of such
services, print or manual, will depend upon the extent of coverage of material, the
effectiveness of the filtration process for determining what is of interest to the company, and
the currency of the service. Computer-based services are increasingly able to offer a greater
range of major newspaper and other press coverage. The SDI services have long been able to
provide abstracts from specialised research databases. However the needs of a small
organisation may be much more localised, and recourse to print may be the most appropriate
approach.
News services are the most important source of information dealing with current
events. The traditional print form of publication and the newspaper remain very significant.
However, broadcast services have greater immediacy, and online news services draw on a
wider range of sources and have great utility in the business community. These services may
provide continuous updates to news through press or business news agencies such as Reuters,
Information Access Company, NAN, AAP, Dun & Bradstreet, and Standard & Poor, or they
may have consolidated databases such as NEXIS in the USA or TEXTLINE in the UK of
issues and opinions.
General print information

Although serials, including directories are increasingly appearing in computer form
which makes them more amenable to automatic searching, there is a great deal of useful
material that appears only in print form. This ranges from books relating to particular subjects
or organisations to prospectuses for companies, government regulatory information and
reports or conference papers. Such is the great range of reference material that may be
necessary to come to terms with what is in a particular field by consulting a guide. There are
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many guides for the literature of particular areas, but it is possible to step further back in
order to identify guides about guides. Prominent guides to materials in general include latest
editions of Walfords guide to reference materials (Library Association, London) and Guide
to reference materials (American Library Association, Chicago).
The American Library Association also produces a Reference books bulletin. The
governments of the world publish a myriad of documents, and there are many print and
database directories to this information. A starting point will often be a directory of the
respective governments own publishing service. However, government publishers do not
publish all the material of the different organs of government, and it is often necessary to
seek out other catalogues and directories. A major source of government information will
usually be the relevant statistics bureau and its catalogues. Many government agencies now
maintain their own Internet sites. While it may sometimes be possible to obtain an electronic
version of a publication directly at the site, it is often the case that details of how to obtain the
print version will be provided.
Text
Textual information has long been the province of libraries and information centres,
concerned, as they have been, with the acquisition, organisation, storage and dissemination of
printed materials, most often from outside the organisation of which the library or
information centre formed a part, but also often including the maintenance of stores of
internal reports, particularly in research-intensive organisations. With the development of
office automation systems and the creation of many more electronic documents in
organisations, the producers of such systems have become increasingly aware of the need for
effective information retrieval systems to underlie the database of electronic documents.
Multimedia
Due to advances in information technology (IT) sound recordings, graphics, pictures
and video, may now exist together in a single 'document'. Examples include various
educational and reference sources published as CD-ROM packages, such as Microsoft's
Encarta encyclopedia. Increasingly however, organisations are finding applications for
multimedia databases in which, for example, word-processed documents may have sound
comments attached by readers and may include pictures. For example in a personal database,
or video clips, in records held by a consumer products test laboratory. While the other
information resources referred to above may exist in either paper or electronic format,
multimedia records require the application of information technology.
Information technology
Information technology embraces computers, telecommunications and software
systems that aid the organisation, transmission, storage and utilisation of what might better be
called the 'knowledge resources' dealt with above. The range of equipment and the variety of
specialized knowledge needed for their effective control is enormous and for these reasons
information technology is often dealt with by different sections in organisations. Thus,
telecommunications, including telephone systems and facsimile transmission systems, are
often controlled separately from the computer resources of organisation. Similarly, functional
divisions of an organisation often have more expertise in the matters underlying software
packages (for example, for accounting purposes) than the computer managers.
Structured databases
The computer-based equivalents of print material may be regarded as databases, but
they are not necessarily structured to permit effective searching and information retrieval.
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Structured databases have been created in such a manner as to facilitate a wide range of
approaches to searching.
As with print material, it is important to establish the overall content and scope of a
database before deciding upon how it will be used. With print material, this often involves
scanning of contents pages and indexes. With databases, the ease of using information
retrieval software often means that searchers may neglect to examine the structure of a
database before using it. Consequentially they make poor use of the database, even though
they pick up some relevant material. The structured database can be thought of as being
constructed of a hierarchy of building blocks. The database consists of files (or relations) that
consist of records that consist of fields (or attributes) that consist of characters (or bytes) that
consist of bits. It is of importance prior to developing a search strategy to establish what type
of database is to be searched and how the field and record levels for the database are defined.
Databases may be categorised as:
Bibliographic database: - This contains citations and subject headings for publications
such as books, periodical articles, video tapes or government documents, but not the
full text of the cited articles. In other words, it only provides the scholar with the
basic descriptive information about the indexed items such as author, title, publisher,
date etc. They do not contain the items themselves but give the researcher the clue to
find the item, e.g. ALEPH.
Full text Database: - As the name implies, it contains the complete text of a work,
such as an article, book, poem or essay in the database itself, e.g. Lexis-Nexis etc.
In conclusion, it is imperative to note that, no electronic database contains all the
information that one may need for his research. Considerations such as subject coverage,
publication coverage, date coverage, updates and timeliness must be considered.
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit tried to help you understand the concept of information resources and types
in order to equip you with the needed knowledge as information resources manager.
Essentially, we identified that information resources connotes those outfit/media through
which individuals and organisations obtain relevant information that will be adjudged as an
asset to the corporate existence and survival of oneself and the organisation as a whole. These
outfit/media included people/specialists, information technology, textual information and
electronic databases and other electronic outfit such as websites, blogs etc. It is hoped that
you will use the knowledge acquired in this unit to appreciate the roles of information
resources in the development of our organisations.
5.0 SUMMARY
We have succeeded in discussing extensively on the concept of information resources.
We observed that several definitions were provided as there are many authorities in the field
of library and information science. This is to say the fact that there is no single universally
accepted definition of information resources. The term has been used differently from
different context. We also identify and discuss the types of information resources that are
usually acquired and generated in most of our organisations. We tried to establish the fact that
as information managers our roles are not limited to libraries and information centres.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. What do you understand by the term information resources?

2. List the major types of information resources available in libraries?
3. List other types of information resources in organisations?
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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Michael Middleton (2002). Information Management: A consolidation of operations, analysis
and strategy. Centre for Information Studies, Australia
Bryce, M. (1987). The IRM Idea. Datamation. April15. Pp45

Horton, F. W., jr. (1985). Information resources management. Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ.
Otten, K. W. (1984). Information Management and Information Technologies: Keys to

professional and Business Success. Journal of information and image management.
Wilson, T. D. (1985). Information Management. The Electronic Library. 3(1).pp132

Avison, D. E. & Fitzgerald, G. (1988). Information systems development: Methodologies,
techniques and tools. Blackwell Scienti c, Oxford.
Buchanan, S. & Gibb, F. (1998) The information audit: An integrated strategic approach.
International Journal of Information Management, 18(1), 29-47.
Buckland, M. K. (1991). Information and information systems. Greenwood, Westport, CT.

Choo, C. W. (1998). The knowing organisation: How organisations use information to
construct meaning, create knowledge and make decisions. Oxford University Press, New
York
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Unit 2:The Concept of Information Resources Management
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Information Resources Management (IRM)
3.2 Key issues in Information Resources Management
3.3 The relevance of IRM in Organisations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Information is important to any organisation. Good and quality information can
improve decision making, enhance efficiency and allow organisations to gain competitive
advantages. Many organisations are continuously looking for solutions to effectively seek and
handle information within their internal and external environments. Porter and Miller (1980)
reported that one of the most important elements in competitive advantage is information.
Information resources management has been one important area in which its contribution can
ensure organisational success and effectiveness.
Information resource management is one of the concepts which attract the attention of
various researchers. There are as many definitions of IRM as there are authors dealing with
the subject. It is important to properly educate, orientate and understand some of the
definitions available.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define the concept of Information Resources Management

Highlight the key issues in Information Resources Management
Discuss the relevance/importance of IRM in organisations
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Definition of Information Resources Management (IRM)
Information Resources Management has been defined differently by different
individuals, professionals and authorities. This situation made it difficult to have one single
accepted definition of IRM worldwide. Information Resource Management (IRM) recognises
that information is an asset. Like other business or organisational assets, it is created as the
result of significant expenditures and effort. It must be managed as any other business or
organisational asset to produce value. The return on investment for Information Resources
occurs when the information resources utilisation enhance the effectiveness and/or the
efficiency of an organisation in carrying out its mission.
Information resources management is defined as applying the general principles of
resources management to identify discrete information resources, establish ownership and
responsibility, determine cost and value, and to promote development and exploitation where
appropriate. Information Resource Management includes the management of all kinds of
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data, numbers, texts, images and sounds available in making the proper strategy at a certain
moment. According to Todorova (2011) Information Resource Management (IRM) defines
the way in which the organisation will accomplish its business when using different
information resources in order to make its short term strategies. Also, Wilson (2002) referred
to IRM to include planning, organising, directing and controlling information within an open
system, and the use of technology and techniques for effective management of information
and knowledge resources and assets within the organisational internal and external
environment to gain competitive advantage and to improve performance. On the other hand,
IRM has also been equated with the management of information and knowledge resources,
the management of information tools and technologies, or the management of information
policies and standards, (Butcher, 1998).
From another perspective, IRM is mainly seen by many as a means of deploying new
technology solutions such as content or document management systems, data warehousing or
portal applications in order to provide an integrated IRM environment. It encompasses all the
systems and processes within an organisation for the creation and use of corporate
information. According to Computer Desktop Encyclopedia (2004), IRM is a discipline that
analyses information as an organisational resource. It covers the definitions, uses, value and
distribution of all data and information within an organisation whether processed by
computer or not. It evaluates the kinds of data/information an organisation requires in order
to function and progress effectively.
Horton (1985) defined IRM as "a managerial discipline which views information as a
resource equal to financial, physical, human, and natural resources. IRM addresses the
efficient and effective handling of information resources (raw data) and the resulting
information assets (knowledge)". White (1982) defined IRM as "the process of efficiently and
effectively identifying, acquiring, integrating and applying information resources to meet
current and future information requirements". Similarly, Kerr (1991) defined IRM as "the
practice of managing information as a corporate asset". Burk and Horton (1988) improved
this definition by considering IRM as a managerial link that connects corporate information
resources with the organisations goals and objectives. In another work, Horton (1985)
offerred a more comprehensive definition: IRM is a managerial discipline which views
information as a resource equal to financial, physical, human, and natural resources. Also,
IRM addresses the efficient and effective handling of information resources (raw data) and
the resulting information assets (knowledge).
3.2 Key Issues in Information Resources Management

Management challenges of accessible information resource can exist in every stage of
information resource management, namely, information requirement, information collection,
information process, information use, and information disposition. Moreover, such challenges
could also be associated with information resource management related activities. For
example, acquiring information, organising information, storing information, developing
information products and services, distributing information and using information.
Although management challenges could relate to both information resource

management stages and information resource management activities, all aspects of
information resource management should be based upon a consideration of information
requirements and information needs in practice. It is especially important to provide the
acquisition of information resources just in case they are likely to be useful for information
users, and to start providing access to information resources just in time and easy to use.
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In order to manage the accessibility of an information resource, the provision of the
right information in the right form and at the right time to meet the needs of practical
information users should always be considered as the most important objective of information
resource management. However, people do have very different opinions on the importance of
information because different life styles and cultures may affect their perceptions and
expectations. This could be closely associated with both the information provider and
information users. In practice, the key challenge of IRM is the mismatch between the
information provider and information users, which can be summarized as four types:
The important information is provided but is not important for users, and therefore the
provided information is of no use to information users;
The important information required by information users is not important for
information providers, and therefore it is not available for information users;
Although the provided information is important and exists, it may not be
understandable for information users because the inconsistent or mismatched
description and definition of information between the information provider and users.
To this end, in order to ensure the availability, reliability, integration and consistency of
information resources in organisation, we could raise and address questions such as: What is
the available approach to manage an information resource? How could we reduce the
mismatch between the information provider and information users? How can an information
resource be created and maintained? In other to answer those questions above, we will
discuss the various models for managing the information resource under unit four.
3.3 Relevance of IRM

The functions of IRM are commonly associated with managing the information assets
of an enterprise, typically a corporation or government organisation. Increasingly,
organisations are taking the view that information is an asset of the enterprise in much the
same way that a companys financial resources, capital equipment, and real estate are assets.
Effectiveness in either IRM or KM is seen as necessary to ensure organisational continuous
survival and competence in the face of increasingly continuous environmental change.
It therefore seeks to efficiently and effectively exploit the data, information and
knowledge resources available in the organisation. It ensures that all the data and information
needed by organisations are collected and processed efficiently and effectively into
information and knowledge useful to an organisation. IM also supports decision-making
through efficient access to accurate and relevant information.
Other benefits of IRM involve continuous improvement in the quality of information,
improvement in information and knowledge organisation and retrieval through the use of
appropriate technology, effective organisation of corporate memory, improvement in
information and knowledge sharing, and enhancement in organisational learning as staff are
able to share the knowledge and learn from experts and others, (Wilson, 1998). According to
Robertson (2005), organisations continue to improve IM practice due to the need to improve
the efficiency of business processes, the demands of compliance regulations and the desire to
deliver new services. Similarly, ensuring the availability, quality and integration of the firm's
data is a major goal of IRM (Friedlander, 1985; Wilson, 1985). Additional goals involve
changing attitudes about the benefits of data processing from the focus on short-range, cost
displacement, or return on investment to a higher level: longer term improvement of
competitive advantage and opportunity fulfillment, (Lucas and Turner, 1982).
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In another dimension, the goal of Information Resource Management (IRM) is to
manage information as a corporate resource, in the same way that other organisational
resources such as finance, personnel and property are managed (Henderson, 1987). In the
absence of such explicit management, different parts of an organisation are likely to collect
their own copies of information and store them in different formats. The costs of an
uncoordinated approach include duplication of capture, storage and update effort, and
difficulty in consolidating information for reporting. On this premise, Moya (2004) asserted
that to remain competitive in the future, organisations will need to abandon their ideas of
information hoarding and embrace information resources management and sharing.
Competitive success will be based less on how strategically physical and financial resources
are allocated, and more on how strategically intellectual capital is managed - from capturing,
coding and disseminating information, to acquiring new competencies through training and
development, and to re-engineering business processes. In view of these trends, and
recognising that information and knowledge has great potential value and because there is a
corresponding failure to fully exploit it, some corporations have embarked on comprehensive
information resources management programmes.
A good information system provides a framework for organisations to evaluate

themselves relative to their goals and objectives. By so doing, they can maximize the value
and impact of information as a strategic corporate asset to gain competitive advantage. The
following are the most important relevance of Information Resources management system in
organisations:
1. To control the creation and growth of records
Despite decades of using various non-paper storage media, the amount of paper in our offices
continues to escalate. An effective records information system addresses both creation control
(limits the generation of records or copies not required to operate the business) and records
retention (a system for destroying useless records or retiring inactive records), thus stabilizing
the growth of records in all formats.
2. To reduce operating costs
Recordkeeping requires administrative dollars for filing equipment, space in offices,

and staffing to maintain an organized filing system (or to search for lost records when there is
no organized system). It costs considerably less per linear foot of records to store inactive
records in a Data Records Center versus in the office. [Multiply that by 30% to 50% of the
records in an office that doesn't have a records management program in place], and there is an
opportunity to effect some cost savings in space and equipment, and an opportunity to utilize
staff more productively - just by implementing a records management program.
3. To improve efficiency and productivity
Time spent searching for missing or misfiled records is non-productive. A good

records management program (e.g. a document system) can help any organisation upgrade its
recordkeeping systems so that information retrieval is enhanced, with corresponding
improvements in office efficiency and productivity. A well designed and operated filing
system with an effective index can facilitate retrieval and deliver information to users as
quickly as they need it.
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Moreover, a well managed information system acting as a corporate asset enables
organisations to objectively evaluate their use of information and accurately lay out a
roadmap for improvements that optimize business returns.
4. To assimilate new records management technologies
A good records management program provides an organisation with the capability to

assimilate new technologies and take advantage of their many benefits. Investments in new
computer systems whether this is financial, business or otherwise, don't solve filing problems
unless current manual recordkeeping or bookkeeping systems are analysed (and occasionally,
overhauled) before automation is applied.
5. To ensure regulatory compliance
In terms of recordkeeping requirements, China is a heavily regulated country. These

laws can create major compliance problems for businesses and government agencies since
they can be difficult to locate, interpret and apply. The only way an organisation can be
reasonably sure that it is in full compliance with laws and regulations is by operating a good
management information system which takes responsibility for regulatory compliance, while
working closely with the local authorities. Failure to comply with laws and regulations could
result in severe fines, penalties or other legal consequences.
6. To minimize litigation risks
Business organisations implement management information systems and programs in

order to reduce the risks associated with litigation and potential penalties. This can be equally
true in Government agencies. For example, a consistently applied records management
program can reduce the liabilities associated with document disposal by providing for their
systematic, routine disposal in the normal course of business.
7. To safeguard vital information
Every organisation, public or private, needs a comprehensive program for protecting

its vital records and information from catastrophe or disaster, because every organisation is
vulnerable to loss. Operated as part of a good management information system, vital records
programs preserve the integrity and confidentiality of the most important records and
safeguard the vital information assets according to a "Plan" to protect the records. This is
especially the case for financial information whereby ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning)
systems are being deployed in large companies.
8. To support better management decision making
In today's business or organizational environment, the manager or Director that has

the relevant data first often wins, either by making the decision ahead of the competition, or
by making a better, more informed decision. A good management information system can
help ensure that managers and executives have the information they need when they need it.
By implementing an enterprise-wide file organisation, including indexing and

retrieval capability, managers or administrators can obtain and assemble pertinent
information quickly for current decisions and future business planning purposes. Likewise,
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implementing a good ERP system to take account of all the business processes both financial
and operational will give an organisation more advantages than one who was operating a
manual based system.
9. To preserve the corporate memory
An organisation's files, records and financial data contain its institutional memory, an
irreplaceable asset that is often overlooked. Every business day, you create the records, which
could become background data for future management decisions and planning.
10. To foster professionalism in running the business
A business office with files, documents and financial data askew, stacked on top of
file cabinets and in boxes everywhere, creates a poor working environment. The perceptions
of customers and the public, and "image" and "morale" of the staff, though hard to quantify in
cost-benefit terms, may be among the best reasons to establish a good management
information system.
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has tried to connect you to the previous unit where you were introduced to
the general discussion on information resources. In this unit specifically you are taught the
concept of information resources management and its relevance in our libraries and corporate
organisations. It was established that IRM has become an essential managerial process and
skill that needs to be applied in the general management of our organisations in order to
overcome the chaotic state of the ever-growing information resources and records generated
in such organisation. It expected that you as information manager will be able to apply the
knowledge acquired in this unit to promote and protect the integrity of information resources
and records in your custody.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt the general understanding underlying the concept of
information resource management and its relevance in organisations. We have discussed
several conceptions of IRM as put forward by different scholars and organisations. Also, we
have tried in this unit to identify and explain the relevance of information resources
management in organisations.
1. Define the term information resources management

2. Briefly explain the key issues in IRM
3. Identify and discuss the relevance of IRM in organisations
7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING
Burk, C. F. and Horton, F. W. (1988) InfoMap: A Complete Guide to Discovering Corporate

Information Resources. New Jersey: Prentice Hall,
15
HORTON, F. W. (1985) Information resources management: harnessing information assets
for productivity gains in office, factory and laborator. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Horton (Forest W.) Jr. and Burk (Cornelius F.) Jr. (1988). InfoMap: A Complete Guide to
Discovering Corporate Information Resources. Prentice Hall : Englewood Cliffs,
Hoven (John Van den) (2001). Information Resource Management: Foundation for
Knowledge Management. Information systems Management, 18, (2), p. 80.
Choi, B., Lee, I., Kim, J. and Jeon, Y. A. (2005). Qualitative Cross-National Study of
Cultural Influences on Mobile Data Service Design. Conference on Human Factors in
Computing Systems, 2005, pp. 661-670.
Law, W. K. and Karri, P. (2005). Cross-Cultural Implementation of Information System.

Journal of Cases on Information Technology, 7(2), pp.121-130.
Feng, X. (2007). Cross-cultural Information Resource Management: Challenges and

Strategies, In Wai Law (Ed.), Information Resources Management: Global Challenges, USA,
Idea group publishing, pp.1-24.
16
Unit 3:Evolution of Information Resources Management
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Early Development and Use of IRM
3.2 Causes of IRM Evolution
3.3 Interdisciplinary Nature of IRM
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Having studied the meanings and relevance of IRM in organisations in previous unit, it is
imperative for you to understand the evolution of information resources management. This
will allow you to trace the relationship and differences among concepts such as data
management, record management and information management. We shall also discuss the
interdisciplinary nature of IRM as well as some major causes of the IRM evolution.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Trace the early development of Information Resources Management
Discuss the use of IRM
Explain the interdisciplinary nature of IRM
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Early Development and use of IRM
In studying the evolution of information resource management, research about the
actual appearance and the initial use of the term itself has special significance. This could
also be regarded as one of the approaches to the evolution of information resource
management. Surely enough, one of the first requirements of this approach is to find out who
was the first to implicitly use the term information resource management, i.e. IRM. That will
give us the exact time when the term was officially introduced to the corpus of information
management knowledge.
There is no firm evidence as to who might have been the pioneer in using the term
'information resource management'. Some authors, such as Hoxie and Donald M. Shea (1976)
claim that they have coined the term information resource management (IRM) as a phrase
"for an organisational approach that encompasses all corporate information resources". A
year later Hoxie and Shea (1977) wrote another article where they made an attempt to detect
any significant shifts and trends among the 'top ten' issues for managers. Although the time
span was relatively short, some changes were noticed. Among them, IRM lost its leading role
and became part of a broader concept, namely a part of information policy. Still, they
repeated that they were the first ones to coin the term IRM "that would hopefully grease the
skids for a synergistic blending of information communications and processing units and
avoid the collision course that many companies are currently embarked upon".
The arguments offered by Hoxie and Shea about being the creators of the IRM term
unfortunately cannot sustain serious criticism. The only exception might be that they proved
the fact that a number of years had to pass before the term IRM became better known and
17
widely accepted. It seems that one of the first published documents which mentioned IRM
was F.W. Horton's book How to harness information resources: a systems approach
published in 1974 by the Association for Systems Management. Not only does this book
mentioned IRM, it is entirely devoted to the subject. Even if there was another published
work which used IRM as a term before Horton's book, we can, with full certainty, argue that
How to harness information resources was the first book to elaborate and bring a complete
system of IRM. It covered a number of topics such as information explosion, information
resources management system, information needs and uses, its origins and sources,
information handling and processing, information presentation and communication. It also
gave a useful guide for the practical implementation of IRM through various steps, starting
from inventorying and cataloguing, analysis, model development, testing, and ending with
installation and system implementation.
On the other hand, Trauth (1989) argued that two phenomena were responsible for the
emergence of IRM. The notion of knowledge work was introduced in the 1960's, followed by
the concept of the "post-industrial society" in the early 1970's. Information economics
contributed the argument for treating information as a resource. These characterisations were
popularly described in the 1970's as "the information age" and the "information economy".
3.2 Causes of IRM Evolution

The evolution of information resource management was not just a pure coincidence. It was an
outcome of a set of events which preceded it and influenced its beginning particularly in
information management. According to Savic (1992), there are at least three events which,
when combined together, triggered the inception of IRM. These main events are:
Information explosion
Proliferation of paper
Extensive use of information handling technologies
Information explosion
Information explosion is an important development of the twentieth century which
brought many changes to the way we perceive the world around us. Information explosion
can be viewed as: a sudden increase of knowledge communicated or received concerning a
particular fact or circumstances. It is information explosion that leads to information
overload. Information Overload is an overwhelming feeling upon the receipt or collection of
an indigestible or incomprehensible amount of information, the feeling of being faced with an
amount of data that one has no hope of completely processing. Katz (2002) as cited by Ifijeh
Goodluck Israel of the Covenant University in Nigeria postulated that information explosion
can be attributed to four main causes. These are: the invention of printing in the mid-15th
century, the growth of literacy among the middle classes in the 17th and 18th centuries, the
increasing relationship between information and the competitive economic advantages of
nations, and the advent of information and communication technology (ICT) (Israel, 2010).
Information Explosion could simply be defined as the rapid increase in the amount of
published information. It is a situation in which information is abundantly available or over
abundance of data. Information Explosion has been further explained as a situation in which
users and managers of information are overwhelmed with available information
Books, journals, newspapers, research reports, proceedings and correspondence, as

well as radio, telephone, television, computers, computer networks, online services, CD-
ROMs, satellites, all contribute to the flood of information in the society. This is just a short
list but illustrative enough to show the diversity of available media of information. This
18
tremendous quantity of information unfortunately does not satisfy, on its own, our need for
information, and does not solve our problems. In fact it brings some new challenges (let's not
call them problems).
The most implicit are economic storage, efficient retrieval, and effective use of such a
mountain of information. It is a paradox that we are experiencing difficulties in finding the
right information when we are living and working in a flood of information. It appears that
the critical piece of information is always somewhere else and it is missing when we need it
the most. There is an obvious need for a well organised retrieval system which will allow us
to quickly find exactly what we want. Information resource management imposed itself on us
as the way out of this information explosion. Someone once said that "realising that a
problem exists is already a half way to its solution". It was realised that the information
explosion is not a burden per se. The burden is lack of ability to make use of the increased
quantity of information in order to enhance further decision making and improve business
and other activities.
Proliferation of paper
The second event which influenced the appearance of IRM is closely related to the
above mentioned information explosion. It is the proliferation of paper. Most information is
still stored in paper form. Statistics showed that the current annual per capita consumption of
writing and printing paper today in Northern America reaches 83.2 kilograms. (This figure
excludes newsprint) (UNESCO, 1990). Another astonishing finding which sheds even more
light on the proliferation of paper, is offered by the American Paper Institute. This
tremendous amount of paper files and paper documents still available almost everywhere lead
us to at least two related conclusions. "that we have an obligation to direct our attention to
our own paper records. After all, about 95 percent of records are paper based" (Barber, 1990).
The fact that we are still living in a 'paper world' should not limit our thinking to the present
'state of the art'. This situation should be improved and changed through the application of
new and presently available technology, such as computers, networks, imaging. Still, we have
to concentrate on ways to organise efficiently this 'pile of paper files' while reducing its
quantity and increasing its usefulness. Obviously, IRM with its objectives of economic
sharing and pooling of information resources towards a common goal, comes as a way out of
this paper tunnel.
Extensive use of information handling technologies

The third event which helped to bring about IRM, was the extensive use of
information handling technologies, mainly computers and telecommunications. In his book
The Third Wave, Toffler (1980) suggested that the world will never be the same after the
computer revolution. The 'information civilisation' which came after the industrial revolution
(the second wave brought us some dramatic changes.
Every single aspect of society is being affected. It changed the way we organise
business and governmental affairs, run the economy, plan agriculture, and changes in our
social and cultural lives followed. The computer technology offered an opportunity to
reorganise our activities, such as the way we store, retrieve and process information. It was
left to people to start exploiting this new opportunity. The attention of human minds switched
from tangible resources such as raw materials, equipment, property, finance, energy and
labour, to some more elusive resources such as information and knowledge. Hundreds and
hundreds of books and articles were written with one goal in common, to explain the way
people can benefit from the new concept of information handling based on powerful
computer technology. Management of information resources, using the great capabilities of
19
computers to store, retrieve and process information, became the main topic for many
researchers and information scientists.
3.3 Interdisciplinary Nature of IRM

There is wide variation of opinion as to how the IRM philosophy should be
implemented. By looking at the origins and evolution of IRM, we find that the seeds of IRM
were planted in three disciplines: database management, records management, and data
processing management. The activities of each discipline were generally independent of one
another. This partially explains the wide variation in meaning of the term. This diversity of
origins and opinions suggests that IRM is a response to the interdisciplinary nature of
information problems.
It is important to state that evolution of information resource management can be

studied from the perspective of its relationship with other concepts. In other words, an
attempt can be made to identify the line of thought which preceded the appearance of IRM,
helped in shaping it, and drew, a line of difference with other related concepts. Information
resource management therefore represents a multi-disciplinary concept. Most authors are of
the opinion that there are three main concepts used as sources of IRM's intellectual
inspiration.
Records management
Data management
Information management.
Records Management
The records management approach to IRM has its origins in library science, records
management, administrative management, and other disciplines concerned with the effective
storage, retrieval, and utilisation of documents in organisations. This was the first area to use
the term IRM to describe a coherent and global approach to managing information, (Trauth,
1989). The prime goal of records management was always-to facilitate access to documents,
improve its use and allow sharing correspondences, documentations and other sources of
information. Information storage, organisation, retrieval, dissemination, evaluation, as well as
information creation control, and its maintenance, were the categories used and developed by
the records management adopted by the new concept of IRM.
The Commission on Federal Paperwork was established in 1974 by the US
Government in response to growing Federal information reporting requirements and the
burden placed upon both government agencies and private citizens. At the conclusion of its
work, the Commission produced over twenty documents that recommend ways to minimize
the paperwork burden. This work resulted in the passage of the Paperwork Reduction Act in
1980. This Act produced a framework for the implementation of IRM. Some library schools
changed their names to reflect a wider concern and to acknowledge the growing presence of
more than paper documents.
Data Management
Data management and electronic data processing (EDP) was another source from
which the theory and practice of IRM was developed. According to Gillenson (1985), data
administration is made up of two components: data management (DM) and database
administration (DBA). The DM is primarily responsible for planning of data, its
accountability, training of personnel, policy setting, development of standards, database
design and users' technical support. However, the DBA has a more operational responsibility
20
to manage data on a day-to-day basis. This perspective is concerned with establishing and
enforcing standards to support a global view and integrated use of enterprise data. The need
for the coordination and control of organisational data was recognized from the start.
As increasing volumes of data led to an interest in the development of more efficient
information storage and retrieval methods in the 1960's, groups were also addressing its
administration. The 1970's and 1980's witnessed an increased growth in the use of databases
and database management systems, with a gradual shift toward data management as database
management sys terns were recognized as only one part of the management of data. The
notion of treating data as a true organisational resource had emerged along with a new
corporate position: database administrator. The job of the database administrator was to
define the rules that control the database and to determine the manner in which the data
would be stored. The scope of responsibility was, thus, the creation, design, and operation of
databases. This observation provides part of the explanation for the emergence of the term
IRM. It can be seen as an attempt to disassociate the data administrator's role from the data
processing image. The IRM can be viewed in this context as the term for what data
administration would like to be. It would like to address questions such as: What information
is most crucial to the success of the company? How can the quality, timeliness, reliability,
consistency, and accuracy of the information be improved? And how can data redundancy be
reduced?
Information Management
The third related concept is information management, or more precisely management
of information as a resource. The introduction of a concept that information represents an
asset, a real resource as any other resource available in a company, was a crucial step towards
a change from information management to IRM. Many business organisations were faced
with a need to design more efficient offices based on information automation technology.
This required an interdisciplinary approach and use of electronic data processing,
communications, office administration and paper or records management personnel. The
outcome was increased office efficiency but, at the same time, it raised investments in
information assets such as information hardware and software, data storage facilities, as well
as data, documents and literature stored in either electronic or paper form. This was the easier
part of change. A more complex change was in bringing the 'business or organizational
mentality' to information storage, retrieval, and its use.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, we tried to help you trace the evolutionary trend that occurred in the
development of information resources management (IRM) in our organisations. We have
established that information resource management represents a multi-disciplinary concept.
Most authors are of the opinion that there are three main concepts used as sources of IRM's
intellectual inspiration. They are data management, records management and information
management. It can therefore be concluded that no successful effort could be carried out to
study IRM without making reference to data management, records management and
information management. It is hoped that as students of library and information science it is
incumbent upon you to guarantee the realisation of your organisational goals and objectives
through active use of information resources and records.
5.0 SUMMARY
We have succeeded in this unit to have discussed the evolutionary trends of
information resources management noting its interdisciplinary nature. There exist a plethora
21
of literature that relates IRM with data management, records management and information
management. Also, we have identified and discussed some of the major causes of information
resources management evolution. It is important to note that the concept of IRM has
continued to evolve in such a manner that it becomes an integral part of organisational
management.

1. Discuss evolution of information resources management?
2. Outline and discuss the major disciplines that are related to information resource
management?
3. List and explain the major causes of IRM evolution in our society?
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Hoxie, G.H. and Shea, D. M. (1976). Ten hot buttons facing management. Infosystems, 23,
(8), 28
Hoxie, G.H. and Shea, D. M. (1977). Ten hot buttons facing management: a year later.
Infosystems, 24, (9), 60
Savic, D. (1992). Evolution of information resource management. Journal of Librarianship

And Information Science, 2 4 (3)
Trauth, Eileen M. (1989) The evolution of information resource management. Information

and Management, 16,257-268
UNESCO (1990) Facts in figures: books around the world. UNESCO Sources, 14, (April), 7
Toffler, Alvin (1980) The third wave. New York: William Morrow
Gillenson, M. (1985) Trends in data administration. MIS Quarterly, 9, (December), 317-325
Gluckman, P., "Educating the Information Manager," Information Manager, Volume 1,

August 1978, pp. 30-31.
Horton, F. W., jr. (1991). Information resources management: An overview. In S. Koskiala &
R. Launo (eds.), Information, knowledge, evolution North-Holland, Helsinki, pp. 185-191.
[19.3]
22
Unit 4:Information Resources as Asset
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Information Assets in Organisation
3.2 Attributes of information resources as assets
3.3 How to manage Information as assets in Organisations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units, you have learnt the concepts of information resources and
information resources management and its evolution. Now, you shall understand the place of
those information resources as assets to your organisation in addition to other assets. Various
attributes of information assets shall be highlighted so as to be able to identify which type of
information constitutes asset to you as information manager and your organisation as a
whole. Also, some vital techniques for managing information assets have been identified and
discussed in order to equip you with the requisite skills and abilities to manage them
effectively to ensure the success of your entire organisation.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Discuss information assets in organisations
Identify the basic attributes of information assets
Explain the various ways and techniques to manage information as assets to
organisations
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Information Assets in Organisation
How does an information resource fit within conventional notions of an asset?
Information assets are not always easy to identify. In accounting parlance, an asset is the
right or access to future economic benefits that is controlled by the firm as a result of past
transactions or events. So from an economic perspective a defining feature of any asset is its
longevity. Individual items of data are frequently transitory. They are specific to a place and
time. A stock of information, an information resource, may only have longevity if it is
replenished with a flow of new data. The extent to which the stock will need to be
replenished and the frequency of updating, depends very much on context. In library and
information centres, information resources are acquired and updated daily, weekly, or as the
case may be. So in conventional asset terms, a stock of information resources could be
viewed as an asset that may require continuous maintenance by library staff to preserve its
functionality. An information asset is a body of information resources, defined and managed
as a single unit so it can be understood, shared, protected and exploited effectively.
Information assets have recognisable and manageable value, risk, content and lifecycles.
Like some other intangible assets, a distinguishing feature of information assets over
conventional assets is that, although they can depreciate over time if not maintained, they are
23
not depleted by use. The marginal cost of exploiting them may be very low. This is an
important reason why intangibles can be so valuable.
The Hawley Committee recommended the identification of information as an asset in
1994 (KPMG/IMPACT, 1994).The Hawley Committee comprised a leading group of
business executives from the financial, retail and security industries. Dr Robert Hawley,
former Chief Executive of Nuclear Power plc, explained that the failure of organisations to
address their information resource and its value would result: at best, in a lack of
consistency in strategic understanding, planning, budgeting, management and control and, at
worst, the very existence of organisations can be under threat, (Hawley, 1995). Hawley
(1995) pointed out that, while intangible assets like brands and intellectual property were
discussed in the business literature and so brought to the attention of boards of directors,
information was still a mysterious and little discussed resource.
They found that a number of information types or assets were consistently identified across
organisations. These information assets were:
Customer Information
Competitor Information
Product Information
Business Process Information
Management Information,
Human Resource Information
Supplier information
Legal and regulatory information
Organisational information
However, to assess whether an information resource is an asset, you need to ask the
following questions: Does the information resource has a value to the organisation? How
useful is it? Will it cost money to reacquire? Will there be legal, reputational or financial
repercussions if your library could not produce it on request? Will it have an effect on
operational efficiency if you cannot access it easily? Will there be consequences of not
having it? Is there a risk associated with the information? Is there a risk of losing it? Does the
information resource has a manageable lifecycle?
In conclusion, it is important for information managers to note that like any other valuable
business asset, information must be seen as an asset that is valuable to the organisation and,
therefore, needs suitable protection against any type of threats. The threats come not just from
the internet; in fact, over 50% of all security breaches result from insiders activities.
One of the biggest trends we see is organisations not focusing enough on the threat of
data leakage from their own employees. Many threat analyses and risk models have been
created that focus on preventing outside access to information. But we frequently see that
internal employees who have a right to access sensitive information are making improper
internal decisions that create serious compliance risks.
3.2 Attributes of Information Assets
A literature review was undertaken to identify the attributes of information as an asset.
Many of the attributes which have appeared in the literature over the years are summarised by
Repo (1986) as follows:
Information is human. It exists only through human perception;
Information is expandable. The free flow of information maximises its use;
Information is compressible;
Information is substitutable. It may save money by substituting the use of other
resources;
24
Information is easily transportable by using applications of new information
technology;
Information is diffusable. It tends to leak though we try to contain it;
Information is shareable; giving it away does not mean losing it (Repo, 1986).
While all of these attributes are significant, two of them have long histories in the
information and economics literature making them particularly interesting for thinking about
the value of information. These are the attributes shareable and expandable. Arrow
(1984) explained that information cannot enter into traditional economic exchange because it
becomes the possession of both buyer and seller: .information is inappropriable because
an individual who has some can never lose it by transmitting it, (Arrow, 1984). Information
is not lost when given to others. It is Shareable. As such it is unlike any other resource.
The second economic attribute identified by Repo (1986) is Expandable. Information
expands as more uses are found for it. This does not mean that information cannot be out of
date or defunct, but even out of date information can be reused and it is this reusability of
information which again makes it unique as an asset. Attributes of information assets relating
to utility are also well documented. According to Boisot (1998) the value of an
information asset is derived partly from the utility of the service and partly from its positional
status. Currency and Accuracy are necessary attributes for information assets (Burk and
Horton, 1988).
Another attribute related to quantity of information proposed by Burk and Horton
(1988) is comprehensiveness. This was redefined as sufficiency for a purpose on the
recommendation of the information managers discussion group. Even a comprehensive
information collection is not useful if it does not fulfill its purpose.
3.3 How to Manage Information as Assets in organisation

Managing data as a resource is an important managerial task in any organisation
today. It is evident that business or organisational success depends not only on the possession
of resources, but on the efficient utilisation of resources - data and information within an
organisation and its environment form part of the strategic, tactical and operational resources
of an enterprise (Lessing & Scheepers, 2001). It can therefore be deduced that managing
information as a resource is an important managerial activity. Information management is
described by Lessing & Scheepers (2001) as the management of information as a
resource of an enterprise by applying sound management principles, including planning,
organising, development of and control over data and information, integrating people,
hardware, software and systems, converting data into information, and utilising the
information ethically in decision-making for goal achievement.
Eaton & Bawden (1991) remarked that information is a resource that should be
managed like other resources (i.e. people, money, land and equipment). This implies applying
resource management techniques like planning, costing, budgeting and evaluating, to the
information resources of the firm, and assigning the position for information resources
management responsibilities to more senior levels within the organisation (Marchand &
Horton 1986). Eaton & Bawden (1991) showed that information can only be managed as an
asset if the following three conditions are fulfilled:
The production of the information is undertaken to contribute to some purpose of the
organisation.
The relationship of the information to the achievement of the stated purpose can be
clearly shown.
The relationship can be empirically tested.
25
Information impacts on all aspects of the organisation: marketing, distribution,
production, operations management, management economics, finance, public policy, industry
dynamics, office automation, human resource management. That is why a great quantity of
information and its optimal use is needed especially by decision makers in the processes of
decision making. The more information is used the better for the company. The better the
instrument of using this information the better the decision will be. The better the decision
will be the less the risks for the company are. For this reason information is an important
resource which should be managed appropriately and thus it increases the company's chances
of success.
However, Skyrme (1999) outline the following points as techniques for managing
information as an asset to the organisation:-
1. Understand the role of Information.

Information can add value to your products and services. Improved information flows
can improve the quality of decision making and internal operations. Yet many
managers do not fully understand the real impact of information - the cost of a lost
opportunity, of a poor product, of a strategic mistake - all risks that can be reduced by
using the appropriate information.
2. Assign Responsibility for Leading your IRM Initiative.

Developing value from information resources is often a responsibility that falls
between the cracks of several departments - the user departments in different business
units, and corporate planning, MIS units or librarians..
3. Develop Clear Policies on Information Resources

Policies for ascertaining information needs, acquiring and managing information
throughout its life cycle. Pay particular attention to ownership, information integrity
and sharing. Make the policies consistent with your organisational culture.
4. Conduct an Information Audit (Knowledge Inventory).

Identify current knowledge and information resources (or entities), their users, usage
and importance. Identify sources, cost and value. Classify information and knowledge
by its key attributes. Develop knowledge maps. As knowledge management gains
prominence, this is sometimes called a knowledge inventory "knowing what you
know".
5. Link to Management Processes.

Make sure that key decision and business process are supported with high leverage
information. Assess each process for its information needs.
6. Systematic scanning.
Systematically assess your business environment. This includes the wider
environment - legal and regulatory, political, social, economic and technological - as
well as the inner environment of your industry, markets, customers and competitors.
Provide selective and tailored dissemination of vital signs to key executives. This
goes beyond the daily abstracting service provided by many suppliers.
26
7. Mix hard/soft, internal/external.
True patterns and insights emerge when internal and external data is juxtaposed, when
hard data is evaluated against qualitative analysis. Tweak your MkIS system to do
these comparisons.
7. Optimize your information purchases.

You don't have to control purchasing, but most organisations do not know how much
they are really spending on external information. By treating consultancy, market
research, library expenses, report and databases as separate categories, many
organisations are confusing media with content.
8. Introduce mining and refining processes.

Good information management involves 'data mining', 'information refining' and
'knowledge editing'. You can use technology such as intelligent agents, to help, but
ultimately subject matter experts are needed to repackage relevant material in a user
friendly format. One useful technique is content analysis, which is being used in
analysis information contents. The classifying, synthesising and refining of
information combines the crafts of the information scientist, librarian, business
analyst and market researcher/analyst. Yet many organisations do not integrate these
disciplines.
9. Develop Appropriate Technological Systems

Continual advances in technology increase the opportunities available for competitive
advantage through effective information management. In particular, intranets,
groupware and other collaborative technologies make it possible for more widespread
sharing and collaborative use of information. Advances in text retrieval, document
management and a host of other trends in knowledge management technologies have
all created new opportunities for providers and users alike.
10. Exploit technology convergence.

Telecommunications, office systems, publishing, documentation are converging.
Exploit this convergence through open networking, using facilities such as the World
Wide Web, not just for external information dissemination but for sharing information
internally.
11. Encourage a Sharing Culture

Information acquires value when turned into intelligence. Market Intelligence
Systems (MkIS) are human expert-centred. Raw information needs interpretation,
discussing and analysing teams of experts, offering different perspectives. This know-
how sharing is a hall-mark of successful organisations
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has identified information resources as assets and some attributes of information
assets as discussed in the library and information science literature. It has also presented
some techniques to be adopted in the management of information resources as assets. This
will enable the information manager to effectively manage his/her organisations information
resources and records to guarantee continued survival and development of the organisation. It
is hoped that as information resource managers, we should endeavour to ensure that
information resources are properly arranged, processed, secured and used.
27
5.0 SUMMARY
We have learnt and understood the meaning of information resources as assets to
organisations. We also make attempted to identify the important attributes of such
information assets. Lastly, the unit itemised and discussed the techniques used for managing
information resources as assets in organisations. This will assist you to support your
organisation towards the realisation of its goals and objectives.

1. Define the term Information asset?
2. List any 5types of Information asset in Library and information centres?
3. Identify the major attributes of Information Asset?
4. Discuss how information resources as asset be managed?

Arrow, K. J. (1984) The economics of information in Collected papers of Kenneth
J.Arrow: the economics of information, (Volume 4), Oxford: Blackwell.
Boisot, M.H. (1998) Knowledge assets: securing competitive advantage in the information
economy, Oxford: OUP
Burk, C. and Horton, F. (1988) Infomap: a complete guide to discovering corporate

information resources, Englewood Cliffs:N.J. Prentice-Hall.
Higson, C. & Waltho, D. (2009). Valuing Information as an Asset. A Whitepaper. Retrieved

online on 23/8/14 from www.eurim.org.uk/activities/ig/voi/voi.php.
Skyrme, D. J. (1999). Information Resources Management. Management Insight, 1 (2). David

Skyrmes Associates. Retrieved on line on 5/9/14 from
http://www.skyrme.com/insights/8irm.htm
Eaton, J. J. & Bawden D. (1991). What kind of resource is information? International Journal
of Information Management, 11(2):157-165.
Hawley, R. (1995) Information as an asset: the board agenda, Information management and
technology, 28 (6): 237-239.
KPMG/IMPACT (1994) The Hawley report: information as an asset: the board agenda,
London: KPMG/IMPACT.
Lessing, N & Scheepers C. (2001). Information is a management issue. 5th ed. Johannesburg
: CSIC
Marchand,D.A. (2000) Competing with information: a managers guide to creating business

value with information content, Chicester:Wiley.
Marchand, D. A. & Horton, F. W. (1986). Infotrends: profiting from your information

resources. Wiley
Oppenheim, C. and Stenson, J. (nd). The attributes of information as an asset, its
measurement and role in enhancing organisational effectiveness. Fourth NorthUmbria.
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Hitt, M. A, Ireland, R. D & Hoskisson, R. E. (2003). Strategic Management: Competitiveness
and Globalization. 5th ed. Ohio : Thomson.
Repo, A. J. (1986) The dual approach to the value of information an appraisal of use and
exchange values, Information processing & management, 22 (5): 373-383.
The National Archives (2007). Identifying Information Assets and Business. Retrieved online
on 13/10/14 from nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/identify-information-assets.pdf
29
MODULE TWO: Strategies and Methodologies of information Resources
Evaluation
Unit 1: The concept of Information Resources Evaluation
Unit 2: Criteria and techniques of Information Resources Evaluation
Unit 3: Roles of Information Resources Evaluation in Libraries/information centres
Unit 4: Strategies/Methodologies for Information Resources Evaluation
Unit 1:Concept of Information Resources Evaluation

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 An Overview of the concept of Evaluation
3.2 Types of Evaluation
3.3 Definition of Information Resources Evaluation
3.4 Reasons for Information Resources Evaluation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous module, you have learnt the indispensable place of information
resources as asset to organisations. Information resources in form of print and non print,
electronic and digital including people need to be integrated and constantly evaluated to
determine their effectiveness, relevance and cost effectiveness. As library managers, we are
saddled with the responsibility of ensuring that information resources are regularly evaluated
quantitatively and qualitatively. This will go a long way in ensuring that our customers are
highly satisfied and delighted with the use of information resources, systems and services
provided to them. In this unit, you will learn the basic concepts of Information resources
Evaluation and types. Also, reasons for evaluating information resources will be highlighted.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

Discuss the concept of Evaluation.
Identify and discuss the major types of Evaluation.
Define the term Information resources Evaluation.
State the reasons for Information resources Evaluation in organisations.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 An Overview of the concept of Evaluation
The notion of evaluation has been around a long time. In fact, the Chinese had a large
functional evaluation system in place for their civil servants as far back as 2000 B.C. In
addition to its long history, evaluation has varied definitions and may mean different things to
different people. Evaluation can be seen as synonymous with tests, descriptions, documents,
30
or even management. Many definitions have been developed, but a comprehensive definition
presented by the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation (1994) holds that
evaluation is systematic investigation of the worth or merit of an object. This definition
centres on the goal of using evaluation for a purpose. Accordingly, evaluations should be
conducted for action-related reasons. The information so provided should facilitate deciding a
course of action.
Over the years, evaluation has frequently been viewed as an adversarial process. Its
main use has been to provide a thumbsup or thumbs-down about a program or project. In
this role, it has all too often been considered by program or project directors and coordinators
as an external imposition that is threatening, disruptive, and not very helpful to project staff.
While that may be true in some situations, evaluations need not be, and most often are not,
conducted in an adversarial mode.
The current view of evaluation stresses the inherent interrelationships between

evaluation and program implementation. Evaluation is not separate from, or added to, an IRM
system, but rather, is part of it from the beginning. Planning, evaluation, and implementation
are all parts of a whole, and they work best when they work together. Evaluation, on the other
hand, is used to assess the effectiveness (and sometimes the cost) of efforts to improve
services and to prevent and manage priority health problems. Evaluation measures outcomes
and impact. It assesses the extent to which your organisation achieves its desired results and
helps you understand why the results were or were not achieved. Evaluation also provides an
opportunity for continuous learning from experience. There are two reasons for carrying out
an evaluation.
Evaluation provides information about the success of your team, unit, or organisation
in meeting its objectives. This information helps determine which activities to expand,
modify, or eliminate. It can also reveal ways to improve the design and management
of future activities.
Evaluation can demonstrate accountability to your donor and other stakeholders,
including your government and the beneficiaries of your services.
3.2 Types of Evaluation
Managers can carry out two broad types of evaluations: formative and summative.
According to evaluation theorist Bob Stake, When the cook tastes the soup, thats formative;
When the guests taste the soup, thats summative. We shall discuss them as follows:
Formative Evaluation
This type of evaluation is conducted during the development and implementation of a

program. Its purpose is to guide the design and implementation of activities that include the
best or most promising practices that will increase the chances of success. Formative
evaluation is more commonly used by large or long-term projects rather than small, short-
term ones. They permit the designers, learners, and instructors to monitor how well the
instructional goals and objectives are being met. Its main purpose is to catch deficiencies so
that proper learning interventions can take place and allow the learners to master the required
skills and knowledge.
Formative evaluation includes a needs assessment to discern the desires and
requirements of a population group and determine how best to meet them. It also includes
process evaluation to investigate the process used for delivering an information resource to
31
the customers. You can use process evaluation to assess whether activities have been
conducted according to planin terms of the original design, estimated costs, and number of
people to be servedand whether the quality of the processes used is in accord with the best
known practices. Formative evaluation is also useful in analysing learning materials, student
learning and achievements, and teacher effectiveness.... Formative evaluation is primarily a
building process which accumulates a series of components of new materials, skills, and
problems into an ultimate meaningful whole
A process evaluation typically includes several approaches. It may involve a review

of output data (e.g., number of information resources procured, number of training workshops
conducted, number of workshop participants) as well as individual interviews or focus groups
among stakeholders in the organisation. It is good practice for organisations including
libraries to carry out process evaluation, even if it is limited to participant feedback.
Summative Evaluation
This type of evaluation is conducted after the completion of a set of activities or

intervention to assess the quality of the information resources systems and services and their
key results. Summative evaluation includes outcome evaluation, impact evaluation, cost-
effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis, and operations research.
Outcome evaluation assesses the extent to which a team, unit, or entire organisation
has achieved its intended results. It is used to demonstrate accountability, improve the design
of organisational activities, better allocate resources, and promote successful future
interventions. The main questions addressed are:
What has changed in the lives of individual members of the organisation, library
customers, entire organisation or the community as a result of their access to our
information resources?
What difference did we make in terms of the realisation of their respective goals and
objectives?
Are there any impact on the use of information resources by customers and
organisation as well?
To what extent do the information resources meet the needs of the customers and
organisation as a whole?
As pointed out earlier in this chapter, outcomes are typically measurable and/or
observable changes in two dimensions. The first dimension encompasses awareness,
knowledge, attitudes, values, and skills of stakeholders in IRM program or beneficiaries of
services during or after their involvement in the use of the system. The second dimension
involves changes in behavior in these same groups. Ideally, both dimensions should be
measured at three points: at the beginning and end of the implementation period, and, if
possible, after a suitable follow-up period. If the follow-up measurement is not feasible, at
least baseline and post-intervention measures should be compared. In many cases, the
changes may be modest, but there must be some improvement in at least one or two outcomes
for the intervention to be considered a success.
Outcome evaluations typically use a non-experimental design (often called pre-post

evaluation) that simply measures changes before and after an intervention, as opposed to an
experimental design (comparing participants to a control group with random assignment to
both groups) or quasi-experimental design (comparing participants to a control group, but
32
with no random assignment). The non-experimental design is acceptable for standard
outcome measurement and reporting purposes.
Impact evaluation is another component of summative evaluation. It is broader than

outcome evaluation. It assesses the overall or net effectsboth intended and unintended. It
usually takes place over three to five years. But for IRM, impact evaluation is always
recommended to be carried out periodically at regular short intervals. This will enable
information managers ascertain the consequences of their action and make appropriate
decisions for the betterment of the IRM system. Taking a longer time to conduct impact
evaluation of information resources and products in organisations and libraries in particular is
inimical to the success, development and survival of the entire organisation.
It is important to note that summative evaluation collects information about outcomes
and related processes, strategies, and activities that have led to them. The evaluation is an
appraisal of worth, or merit. Usually, this type of evaluation is needed for decision making.
Also, when conducting a summative evaluation of information resources, systems and
services, it is important to consider unanticipated outcomes. These are findings that emerge
during data collection or data analyses that were never anticipated when the study was first
designed. These results could suggest new requirements/information resources, systems and
services for stakeholders to be procured or cautions to bear in mind.
The various instruments used to collect the data are questionnaires, surveys,
interviews, observations, and test. The model or methodology used to gather the data should
be a specified step-by-step procedure. It should be carefully designed and executed to ensure
the data is accurate and valid.
Questionnaire application is the least expensive procedure for external evaluations. It

can be used to collect large samples of graduate information. The questionnaires should be
trialed (tested) before using to ensure that the recipients understand their operation the way
the designer intended. When designing questionnaire, keep in mind the most important
feature is the guidance given for its completion. All instructions should be clearly stated and
let nothing be taken for granted.
Other Types of Evaluation
Apart from the previous types of evaluation of information resources discussed, there
are others which include cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis. These types of analysis
address an information resources and services efficiency by analysing outcomes in terms of
their financial costs and value.
Operations research (OR): is the assessment or evaluation of specific activities within

the context of a broader program as contained in an organisations manual. For instance, an
information manager may be interested in evaluating certain methods and approaches or
paradigms of reference service provision in a University Library. Also, OR is used to test and
evaluate new approaches in delivering information services. It could be used to identify
problems in service delivery and to develop solutions. Generally, OR is a powerful tool that
librarians/information managers and decision-makers can use to improve and expand their
services.
33
3.3 Definitions of Information Resources Evaluation
Evaluation of the performance of library and information systems is one of the major
concerns and an integral part of the library and information systems managers job. It is
widely recognised as an important issue, although it has been looked at or defined variously.
For example, Cronin (1982b) wrote that it is a process of systematically assessing
effectiveness against a predetermined norm, standard...;. According to Mackenzie (1990),
it is a systematic measurement of the extent to which a system (for example a library) has
achieved its objectives in a certain period of time. It is also described as a systematic process
of determining value (in terms of benefit gained) and quality (as reflected in customer
satisfaction) of a system (McKee 1989: 156). Fundamentally, evaluation remains comparing
what is with what ought to be for the purpose of exercising judgement (Van House et. al.
1990: 3). The process of evaluation of performance can focus on the whole of a system or the
components of a system (such as the individual services of a library and information system)
as the assessment needed can be at any level of a given library and information system.
In another dimension, Information resources Evaluation can be defined as a
systematic set of data collection and analysis of activities, undertaken to determine the value
of an information resource in order to aid management, information resource planning, staff
development, public accountability and promotion. Evaluation activities make it possible to
make reasonable judgements about efforts, effectiveness, adequacy, and provide a
comparison of programme options. They determine the worth of an information resource and
provide an opportunity to explore other alternative approaches or strategies to reach specific
objectives.
Evaluation seeks to provide objective evidence of whether the information resources,

systems and services have met the desired objectives. It provides an opportunity for
programme planning and decision- making. It is important to evaluate information resources
in organisations since it offers a chance for continued organisations improvement. Shertzer
and Stone (2005) view evaluation as necessary to provide for the effectiveness of achieving
organisational goals, in relation to specific standards. Concrete data, indicating the benefits
and limitations of the information resources, can be accumulated through the evaluation of
library and information resources and services. The effectiveness of any programme can be
sustained through continuous evaluation. Practitioners need to carry it out rather than pay lip
service to it. It should, however, be noted that the main purpose of IR evaluation is to
improve access and use of such information resources.
3.4 Reasons for Information Resources Evaluation

Performance evaluation of a library and information system or its components is
required for different reasons. For example, an evaluation of the performance of library and
information resources and systems and the resulting data could be used to assess how well the
information resources and system meet stated objectives or for justification of continuance of
a service (Bawden, 1990: 49). It can be used to convince institutions that the library needs the
same relative share of institutional budget, even if the budget itself is shrinking (Mackenzie
1990; Rodger, 1987).
It may allow a librarian to demonstrate how ones library stands in relation to others
(Winkworth 1993). It can help the librarian to describe the extent, range and importance of
the resources and services being provided and that it is being given efficiently (Abbot 194:4).
It may be used to assess how well library and information resources and system contributes to
34
achieving the goals of parent constituents (Pritchard 1996). It can diagnose particular
problem areas of service or monitor progress towards specification or even compare past,
current and desired level of performance (Van House et. al. 1990: 8) It can identify areas
where improvement is needed (Van House et. al. 1990: 3).
Finally, it can identify what we have yet to accomplish and to communicate what we do, how
well we do it and what we need to accomplish them (Van House 1995) or to provide evidence
that the expectations of a variety of stakeholders are being met (Cullen 1998). However, there
is an overwhelming agreement that library and information systems first and foremost have to
justify their existence and the cost to their constituencies. Secondly, they have to be evaluated
in order for their managers to find out if there are deficiencies in the system. This is the major
reason why performance evaluation started to gain in significance in the 1980s in the
increasing hostile financial climate of the period (Bawden 1990: 73). The rising costs of
libraries, in particular, have become one of the major concerns causing the management of
many organisations to require library and information systems to provide evidence to justify
their cost using objective data acquired from evaluation of performance.
External funding agencies financing projects, or some aspect of services or resources,

normally require progress reports to monitor whether or not the activities as well as the
expenditures are according to the agreed upon plan before releasing funds or before letting
themselves into any additional financial commitment. They also require a final report, whose
major part is the financial detail, on the success or failure of the project. This is the basis for
any healthy, continuing relationship between funding agencies and a given library and
information system. Every library and information system has to be careful about it to stay in
the good graces of a particular funding or other similar agency. It is also required that library
and information systems show funding agencies, in acceptable form, that they are competent
and trustworthy in managing their finances.
Library and information systems can communicate their concern for efficiency and
effectiveness to the funding agencies by using performance evaluation data as evidence
(Van House et al. 1990: 3). Particularly in times of tight budget resulting in stiff
competition for donor recipients, evaluation data to justify the worth and importance or value
of library and information systems has become critical (Van House et al. 1990: 3).
It is essential for library and information systems to prove that the activities they are
engaged in and the subsequent costs that they incur are worth doing. It is also critical that the
investment made on the systems is well managed and utilised in the best interest of the
funding bodies as library and information systems almost entirely depend on these internal
and external sources of funds. All proofs to justify the importance and the resources
consumed by the library and information systems require compelling data that can be
acquired through conducting performance evaluation, as evaluation can provide objective
data on library and information systems performances (Van House et al. 1990: 3).
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit of our course has tried to help you understand the meaning of evaluation. It
is a concept that is very much applied as an integral aspect of library and information
resources management. Essentially, evaluation of information resources is an effort aimed at
determining the worth or otherwise of information resources in our libraries and
organisations. The process of evaluation is an assured effort to correct the discovered
weakness in these resources and concerned with whether the goals of meeting the users
35
needs are reached or not. You should not only be current and knowledgeable in this area, but
should be able to conduct a thorough evaluation of information resources in your
establishment.
5.0 SUMMARY
Under this unit, we have discussed extensively on the concepts of evaluation on one
hand and evaluation of information resources on the other. We have learnt that evaluation is
an important component of information resources management to the extent that achieving
organisational goals and objectives will be near impossible without a standard framework for
evaluation of information resources. Also, different types of evaluation ranging from
formative and summative were highlighted with the hope that librarians can have a good
grasp of the concepts. The many reasons and justifications for conducting evaluation in
libraries which include the need to improve the image and self esteem of our libraries and
librarians were enumerated and explained.

1. What do you understand by the term Evaluation?
2. Distinguish between the two major types of Evaluation?
3. Discuss the term Information Resources Evaluation?
4. State any 4 reasons for Evaluating Information Resources in organisations?

Blank, R. (1993) Developing a System of Education Indicators: Selecting,
Implementing, and Reporting Indicators. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis,
15 (1, Spring): 65-80.
Patton, Michael Quinn. Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. Newbury

Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1990.
Rossett, Allison & Sheldon, Kendra (2001). Beyond the Podium: Delivering Training
and Performance to a Digital World. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer
Cronholm S & Goldkuhl G (2002) Actable Information Systems - Quality Ideals Put
Into Practice, Presented at the Eleventh Conference on Information Systems (ISD
2002) 12-14 September, Riga, Latvia.
Hirschheim R & Smithson S (1988) A Critical Analysis of Information Systems

Evaluation, in ,IS Assessment: Issues and Change (eds N Bjorn- Andersen & G B
Davis), North- Holland, Amsterdam
Patton, M. Q. (1990) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, second edition,

Sage Publications, London
Seddon P (2001) IT Evaluation Revisted: Plus Va Change, Proceedings of Eight

European Conference on Information Techology (ECIT), Oxford, United Kingdom
Stefan Cronholm, Gran Goldkuhl (2003) Strategies for Information Systems

Evaluation- Six Generic Types. Electronic Journal of Information Systems Evaluation
6(2)
36
Andr Cossette (2010). Evaluating the effectiveness of a library: a theoretical and
methodological framework
37
Unit 2:Criteria and Techniques of Information Resources Evaluation
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Criteria for Information Resources Evaluation
3.2 Techniques of Information Resources Evaluation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit is intended to give you a foundation for evaluation of Information
Resources. As information managers, once you find information, you need to evaluate it, to
determine its value with respect to the information needs of your customers and organisation
as a whole. This Unit is presented in three parts. Part I covered the criteria by which you may
evaluate information resources (IR). Part II discussed about the techniques used in evaluating
information resources, systems and services be it in the library or any organisation. Part III
discussed the problems of conducting successful information resources evaluation
particularly in developing economies. When you have any item of information you should
critically evaluate it to determine its suitability and value. This applies to any information
resource no matter what format it might be, including a story told by your superior, found on
the Internet, or an article in a major journal. There is no one single test or criterion which you
may use to judge your information's value. There are a number of clues or criteria, you
should use to base your judgment.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Identify the variety of criteria used for information resources evaluation
Explain the techniques of information resources evaluation
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Criteria for Information Resources Evaluation
There are a variety of criteria to consider when evaluating information resources,
ranging from personal, informal methods to the more educational, formal techniques. There is
no one single perfect method of evaluating information resources. Rather, you must make an
inference from a collection of clues or indicators, based on the use you plan to make of your
information resource.
Similarly, there are exist variety of criteria for information resources evaluation as
there are variety of information resources that are generated and used by individuals and
organisations. As we learnt earlier in module one, information resources could be categorized
into different types ranging from people, textbooks, journals, magazines, newspapers, reports,
policies, databases, CD-ROMs, computers, software, electronic resources/web resources,
reference sources, etc. As the list of information resources is endless, so also is the criteria for
information resources evaluation. You should understand that every type of information
38
resources has unique criteria for their evaluation. The criteria used for evaluating textbooks
might not fit for evaluating journals and databases respectively. The same situation applies to
the other types of information resources. To avoid poor evaluation of information resources,
information managers should employ relevant and appropriate indicator that suit each type of
information resources. Some of the evaluation criteria are discussed below:
External/Internal Criteria
External: External criteria refers to who and where of information. In other words,
who wrote the article and from where did it come? When we cannot evaluate the information
itself, we can evaluate where it has come from, and hope that those sources are credible. For
example, if the author has a Ph.D in his/her title, does this increase or decrease his/her
credibility? Does this title increase your belief in their information provided, or does it
decrease it? Did they include this title because otherwise they had no substantial proof of
knowledge in that area/topic? These are just some of the questions you should ask yourself.
Internal: Internal criteria are using our own expertise, or independent knowledge, to
determine if the information is accurate. Everyone has an area in which they are proficient,
when encountering information which contains inaccurate pieces of data, one would surmise
that the site is not a credible source to gather information.
Credibility Indicators
There are a multitude of indicators which you can use to evaluate a site. Some of the
most common indicators mentioned in several sources are to look at the following:
Authorship: This is a major factor in considering the accuracy and credibility of information
found on the Internet. Evaluating credentials of an author involves analysing the educational
background, past writings, expertise, and responsibility he/she has for the information. One
should check the knowledge base, skills, or standards employed by the author in gathering
and communicating the data. Obviously, when we look for information of critical value, we
want to know the level of the authority with which he/she speaks. The most effective means
of discovering the credibility of an author is to ask yourself the following questions:
Has the content been reviewed, critiqued, or verified in any way?
Is the author a well-known and well-regarded name you recognise?
Have you seen the author's name cited in other sources or bibliographies? Do authoritative
sites link to the page?
What biographical information is available--author's position, address, and institutional or

organisational affiliations? What are the basic values and goals of the institution or
organisation?
Links to and from a Resource: credibility of information could be determined when one
person links to or cites another. They propose that the "web links that constitute the Internet
is a vast network of relations of credibility: the people who establish active links to reliable
information, and whose information or viewpoints are in turn identified and recommended by
others, gain credibility both as users of information and as providers of it." Also noted here
39
was the fact that there are many times when the author or agent of a particular piece of
information cannot be identified. Judgments of credibility rely upon the avenues through
which the information was attained, the links others have made to the information, and the
frequency with which the information has been accessed.
Publisher: The publisher of the document should be noted. Unlike print materials, Web
pages do not have to go through a screening process in order to verify that it has met the
standards or aims of the organisation that serves as publisher. On the contrary, the publisher
of Internet materials may simply be the server (computer) where the document lives. There
are a series of questions to assess the role and authority of the "publisher," or server:
Is the name of any organisation given on the document you are reading? Are there headers,
footers, or a distinctive watermark that show the document to be part of an official academic
or scholarly Web site? Can you contact the Webmaster from this document?
Can you link to a page where the above information is listed? Can you tell that its on the
same server and in the same directory (by looking at the URL)?
Is this organisation recognized in the field in which you are studying?
Is this organisation suitable to address the topic at hand?
Can you ascertain the relationship of the author and the publisher/server? Was the document
that you are viewing prepared as part of the author's professional duties within his/her
expertise? Is the relationship of a casual or for-fee nature, tells you nothing about the author's
credentials within an institution?
Can you verify the identity of the server where the document resides?
Does the Web page actually reside in an individual's personal Internet account, rather than
being part of an official Web site?
To check the validity of the publisher, Web databases, to which academic institutions often
subscribe, are highly reliable. This information, along with information one can receive from
government agencies, trade and professional associations, major universities, or research
centers, can equip navigators with the necessary tools to evaluate publisher validity.
Date of Publication/Currency: Determining when the source was published is a necessary

step in discerning a site's accuracy. It can usually be found at the bottom of the home page,
and sometimes every page. Look to make sure the source is current or out-of-date for your
specific topic. Topics which continually change or develop rapidly (sciences) require more
current information. The reverse may also be true, if, perhaps, you were studying humanities.
The following criteria can be used to ascertain the timeliness of a document:
The article includes the date on which information was gathered.
The document refers to clearly dated information.
Where there is a need to add data or update it on a constant basis, the document includes
information of the regularity of updates.
40
The document includes a publication date or a "last updated" date.
The document includes a date of copyright.
If no date is given in an electronic document, you can view the directory in which it resides
and read the date of latest modification.
Domain Types: This involves examining the end of the URL. For example, if the following
domain types were found in the URL, you would be able to determine where the information
came from:
.gov is a U.S. government site
.mil is a U.S. military site
.edu is an accredited post-secondary educational institution
.com is a commercial, for-profit entity
.org is a noncommercial, not-for-profit entity
.net is a computer network, particularly an Internet-related network
.int is an international organisation
.jp, .ru, .ca, .au, etc. are country identifiers
Site Format/Overall Design: Certain types of formats are more accessible on the Web, and
are easier to use. When selecting first rate sites, a variety of qualities should be present. The
information should be easy to find and use. The design should be appealing to its audience.
The text should be easy to read, not muddled with distracting graphics, fonts, and
backgrounds. The site should be well organized and easy to get around. The page should load
in a reasonable amount of time and consistently be available. In addition, recognising spelling
errors, grammatical errors, and profanity will assist in evaluating Web site design. "A great
site has personality and strength and character.
Purpose
Credibility issues are not only related to the material itself, but also to the reader's purpose.
Another method of evaluating information is to consider the viewer's purpose for using the
site. For instance, a viewer's purpose might be for their personal interest or for professional or
educational reasons. A person viewing a site about another country, for example, may be
looking at that site to plan a vacation. The purpose of locating and evaluating the information
is personal. On the other hand, if the viewer is using the site for educational reasons, such as
researching the government, economy, natural resources, etc. of this country, their purpose is
quite different, and a different type of site would be necessary. Obviously, this information
needs to be accurate and verified in several other types of sources. These two uses of the
information, personal and professional/educational, are quite different and will make a
difference in the evaluation of information.
Tools
41
The evaluation tools designed and used for centuries to evaluate traditional printed resources
though still relevant, are not sufficient in assessing the credibility of material found on the
Web due to the nature of this vast new medium. However, there are varieties of tools
designed to assist in the evaluation of Internet information. These include checklists, surveys
or worksheets, as well as rubrics. The creators of these evaluation tools have utilized different
credibility indicators which are evaluated using the criteria they have established. A few of
the more useful evaluation tools include Kathy Schrock's surveys, Alexander and Tate's
checklist, and the CARS checklist which assess the credibility, accuracy, reasonableness and
support presented within an Internet site. These tools are especially useful for educators in
evaluating Web sites to be incorporated into classrooms for teaching evaluation criteria and
critical thinking skills to their students prior to using the Internet.
AUTHORITY: The authoritativeness of information resources can usually be judged on the

basic qualification, experience of the editors, and contributors. Also, to be considered by
librarian is the reputation and financial standing of the publishers or sponsoring agencies.
Questions requiring answers include: Where did the information come from? Did it come
from an authority in the field? Authority should be judged on both the author and the
publisher of the material Author:
Is the author's name available?

What is the author's training, education, experience in the field?
Are there other works by this author in this field? Books, articles?
Does the author have a reputation in the field - good or bad?
If your information source is a web site, this might be harder to figure out. Is there an
author or contact person listed, and is there a contact e-mail address available. It could
be at the top of the page with the title, or at the bottom of the page.
Publisher:
Is the Publisher well known in the field?

How much do they publish?
Is this a "vanity press" where anyone can have something published, for a fee?
Is it a university press?
Is the publisher a professional organisation or association?
Generally, it is assumed that known publishing houses, university presses, and professional
organisations publish quality materials.
RELIABILITY: Reliability is directly related to Authority, but does address different issues.
Reliability in this context relates to the accuracy and treatment of the information. How
reliable is this information resources? Can you trust and believe it?
ACCURACY:
Is the information correct, as far as you can tell? Look at several information sources
and compare them.
Does the author cite his or her sources? Does it have a complete bibliography?
Were primary or secondary sources used?
42
Does it appear to be well edited? Do you see poor grammar, nonstandard language or
misspelled words?
If your information source is a web site, what is the origin of the source? The domain
or last part of the web address can tell something about its origin. The most common
are:
o .edu - an educational institution
o .gov - a government agency
o .com - a commercial entity
o .org - a not-for-profit organisation
Keep in mind that while .com sites might provide valid information, they are probably more
interested in selling something. How reliable is this information source? Can you trust and
believe it?
OBJECTIVITY OR BIAS
Do you detect a bias on the part of the author in the writing?

Do the facts support the viewpoint of the author?
Is it written from an objective viewpoint, or does it appeal to emotions or biases?
Is the information presented as facts, which can be documented, or opinions of the
author?
Bias is not necessarily a bad thing as we all have our own opinions and biases on issues.
But you should be aware of them, and take that into consideration when looking at an
information resource. The National Rifle Association of America and The Brady Campaign
to Prevent Gun Violence will both give you accurate facts and statistics, but the way they are
presented - the bias of the source - will present very different information.
CURRENCY:
How old is this information? Is there newer information available?
When was the information published?

Can you tell when it was published? If it is not dated, you should be cautious of the
information source.
Is that information up-to-date? Have new discoveries been made, or have other events
taken place since the information was published?
Is your topic one which is changing quickly, such as medical research or technology,
or one which is fairly stable and requires more background information such as
history or literature?
If your information source is a web site, the date of publication and/or last updated
date are usually found at the bottom of the page.
SCOPE:
Is the complete information available? Is it comprehensive? Who is it written for?
Is the information complete, or is it a summary of other work?

Is the subject covered completely?
What level is the information? Is it advanced, technical, basic information?
Who is the intended audience for the material? Is it popular or scholarly?
If your information source is a web site, does it include links and are they annotated?
43
RELEVANCY:
After all is said and done, does the information source answer your questions? Does it satisfy
your information need?
While the other criteria are based on facts, things you can see or find out about your
information resource, this one is a total judgment call. You must know what information you
need, what type of information resource you need it to come from, and what you will be
using that information for (a final term paper, a short composition, your personal knowledge
or information, etc.).
You must make the judgment as to the relevancy of your information resource. Is the
information resource relevant to your information need? It is entirely possible and highly
likely that you will find an item which is very reliable from a very authoritative source, very
current, and very complete... but not relevant to your topic.
3.2 Techniques for Information Resources Evaluation

There are several evaluation techniques or ways of collecting data. It is important for
the evaluator to select the best technique to suit the purpose. You can choose which
stakeholders can be used to check the value and relevance of their information resources.
These include tests, interviews, observations, questionnaire, inspection of records,
discussions and open box suggestions. We shall briefly discuss them as follows:
1. Observations
This is a visual technique where the evaluator observes, and records, any findings. Here, the
evaluator decides whether he/she will observe as an outsider, or as a participant. This requires
full concentration by the observer, who should study an aspect in detail, after consultation
with other staffs. The observer actually serves as a second person for what other
implementors are looking for. For this technique to be worthwhile, the observer should report
and discuss any findings immediately, so that possible distortions, or failure to remember, do
not affect the results. When using this technique, observers need to have sharp eyes and ears
to be able to collect adequate data. The observer should carefully guard against bias. For
instance, a librarian can decide to evaluate the effectiveness of OPAC in the library by mere
observing the functionality of the system. He may also decide to be a participant observer. In
this case, the librarian will act as a customer and operate the OPAC himself. As a result of
this observation, he will collect relevant data that will help in improving the effectiveness and
efficiency of the OPAC.
2. Interviews
Interviews are a basic evaluation technique. They can be structured or unstructured. This
requires a good ability to listen. A more structured interview would require the preparation of
interview questions prior to the interview itself. It is important that data be recorded. The
evaluator may use a tape recorder, in order to transcribe the relevant parts later, or take notes
throughout the interview. Some evaluators depend on their memory, but this leads to a great
risk of missing out important information. It is important that notes taken are discussed with
the person interviewed, to check whether the information was correctly recorded.
Information managers can use interview technique to find out the worth or otherwise
of information resources and services assembled for their customers. In this regard, customers
are selected for interview sessions with the aim of collecting data that might perhaps improve
the information resources provision in the library.
44
3. Questionnaire
This involves a structured series of questions and statements that enable the librarian
to gather information about a particular information resource or the entire library collection.
The advantage is that it can be sent to clients, to be completed in the absence of the evaluator.
Unlike an interview, it also gives the evaluator an opportunity to cover a larger number of
people at one time.
All evaluation techniques require planning on the part of the evaluator. It is important
for the evaluator to consult with relevant beneficiaries on the evaluation techniques they
would like to use, so that conflicts of interest are avoided.
4. Focus group discussion
It is a facilitated discussion among 812 carefully selected participants with similar

backgrounds. Participants might be beneficiaries or program staff. For example, the facilitator
may use a discussion guide, note-takers record comments and observations.
5. Routine Data
Data collected and analysed on a routine basis by an IRM system are referred to as
service statistics. You can draw on several routine service information systems to monitor
services from all divisions and units. These include the basic recording and reporting system;
use statistics; information officer reporting systems. These systems provide data that are
readily available and are intended to tell you what is happening in the organisation. Examples
of routine data include, for example, the number of customer visits at a library, the number
and type of information resources provided on site, or the number and types of electronic
resources subscribed each month. It is important to emphasise that these data are usually
generated at the departments, divisions or units for onward transmission to higher level for
aggregation and decision making.
Ideally, information managers would use these data to guide daily operations, track
performance and accountability, and make decisions that will continuously improve
performance in their organisations. However, there are many impediments to this use. All too
often, routine data are inaccurate or incomplete. Another drawback is that service statistics
provide information only about the customers who use information systems and services.
They cannot provide the information about the many people who do not use the services. For
these reasons, as an evaluator of information resources, systems and services you cannot rely
solely on service statistics alone for an evaluation.
6. Large-scale surveys
Large-scale surveys constitute another readily available source of information. These

include population-based surveys such as the Demographic and information resources use
Surveys. In many cases, managers can use the data from an existing large-scale survey to
provide context for interpreting the data captured through their own evaluations. Data
collected via large scale surveys are useful for understanding national or regional and global
trends that may help explain data gathered in a focused evaluation in a given locality.
7. Rapid Assessments
45
These are quick and inexpensive ways to obtain information for decision-making
especially at the activity level. Examples include customer exit interviews, small-scale
facility assessments, rapid sample surveys, record reviews, focus group interviews, and other
participatory methods. You may use rapid assessment techniques to supplement information
from routine data or large-scale surveys. Rapid assessments can provide you with valuable
information about the stakeholders feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with your
information resources provided to them. They can also provide context and qualitative
understanding of quantitative data collected by more formal methods.
8. Participatory methods (also called participatory learning and action)
These techniques and methods aim to incorporate the knowledge and opinions of
community members in planning and managing development projects, influencing policy,
and implementing programs. They enable voices from the community to be included in
policy, planning, and research to generate a sense of ownership in the IRM results and the
recommendations made by both the organisation and its beneficiaries. Unlike other
techniques for rapid assessment, participatory methods are not based on samples. They use
individual or key informant interviews (including client exit interviews), group interviews,
case studies, and other qualitative approaches to determine the worth or otherwise of an
information resources, systems and services in libraries and information centres. In many
locations where community members cannot read and write, participatory methods can rely
on oral communication supported by pictures, symbols, physical objects, and group memory.
Participatory methods can be used before, during, and after assemblage and implementation
of an information resource or system as well as set of activities. They provide information for
both design and evaluation of information resources infrastructure and allow active
involvement of stakeholders in decision-making. During access and use of information
resources in organisations including libraries, participatory methods are useful approach for
identifying and trouble-shooting problems.
9. Rapid Sample Surveys
These surveys can be used to collect standardized information from a carefully

selected small sample of people or units/divisions within the whole organisation. These types
of surveys can describe conditions and opinions of specific stakeholders within a given group
and allow comparison of different groups at a given point in time or changes in the same
group over time. For instance, librarians may decide to conduct a rapid sample surveys using
a segment of their library customers e.g. (undergraduate students) and compare their feelings
with that of the postgraduate students. They also permit the comparison of actual conditions
with planned results.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Despite the importance of performance evaluation for library and information systems
in developing countries, it is almost absent. This is primarily so because the information
scenario of developing countries makes performance evaluation one of the very difficult tasks
to undertake. It is impossible to fully implement the existing evaluation tools that the
profession can provide. The methodological issues achieve prominence, as these are
important problems particularly in these countries. Although the profession has some tools to
offer they dont provide the kind of flexibility and appropriateness for developing countries
46
needs. All the same, one thing remains true, that library and information systems in
developing countries have to be able to conduct performance evaluations using tools and
methods that are appropriate to their context.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that the success, efficiency, effectiveness and benefits of
information resource can only be measured through a systematic, critical and logical
evaluation using certain techniques and criteria. It was established that the success of
information resources evaluation is a function of how well and appropriate techniques and
criteria are used for that purpose. Different types of information resources either in our
libraries or organisation require variety of evaluation criteria to ascertain their worth and
place in the library or organisation.

1. Identify and discuss the techniques of evaluation that could be used in Library and
Information center?
2. Identify any 4 evaluation criteria used for evaluating web based information
resources?
Kebede, G. (1999) Performance Evaluation in Library and Information Systems of
Developing Countries: A Study of the Literature. Libri, 49, pp. 106119
Abbot, C. (1994). Performance measurement. London: Aslib.
Adeyami, N. M. (1991). Issues in the provision of services to developing countries. African

Journal of Library, Archives and Information Science 1(1): 18.
Baba, Zawiyah and Broady, Judith. (1998). Organisational effectiveness assessment: case
studies of the National Library of Wales and Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia. In: Pat Wressell
& Associates, eds. Proceedings of the 2nd North umbria International Conference on
Performance Measurement in Libraries and Information Services. Newcastle upon Tyne:
Information
Bawden, D. (1990). User oriented evaluation of information systems and services. Aldershot,
Hants: Gower Publishing Company Ltd.
Boekhorst, P. T. (1995). Measuring quality: the IFLA guidelines for performance

measurement in academic libraries. IFLA Journal 21(4): 27881.
Cronin, B. (1982). Taking the measure of service. Aslib Proceedings 34(6/7): 27394.
Cronin, B. (1982). Performance measurement and information management. Aslib

Proceedings 34(5): 22736
Goodall, D. L. (1988). Performance measurement: A historical perspective. Journal of
Librarianship 20(2): 12844.
Pritchard, S. M. (1996). Determining quality in academic libraries. Library Trends 44(3):

57294.
Rodger, M. E. (1987). The evaluation of library and information services in times of
economic restraint: The university view. Aslib Proceedings 39(11/12): 34954.
47
Unit 3: Roles of Information Resources Evaluation in Libraries/information
centres
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Roles of Information Resources Evaluation
3.2 Problems for conducting Information Resources Evaluation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Explain the roles of information resources evaluation in Libraries

Discuss the major problems of conducting successful information resources
evaluation
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Roles of Information Resources Evaluation in Libraries

Many managers of library and information science (LIS) now routinely build into
their planning and operation some kind of measurement and evaluation of their information
resources. Although the degree to which they do this varies considerably, according to the
size and nature of their resources and services that they offered. Whatever the situation,
information resources evaluation plays a significant contribution towards the realisation of
the goals and objectives of the library and individual customers in particular. Below are some
of the salient contributions of evaluation of library and information systems particularly in
the developing societies:
Performance evaluation for self-improvement purposes

Apart from justifying their existence and the cost that is expended on them, library
and information systems need to take a look at their information resources on a continuing
basis to find out whether each of them are relevant and being utilized in the best possible
way. Library and information systems managers, like any responsible managers, need to
monitor their progress to determine if they are on the right track in implementing their
various undertakings. These include determining the relevance and meaningfulness of their
information resources, systems and services, their cost effectiveness, the systems efficiency
in executing tasks, what is needed to realise the desired goal, and the professionalism of their
work.
Willemse (1995) confirms that a continuous evaluation contributes to improving
services by revealing remedial actions that need to be taken based on the result of the ongoing
48
evaluation. In his report of the experience of the University of South Africa, Willemse
discusses in detail how performance evaluation has been useful in improving information
resources and services and instrumental in winning over the support of the parent institution.
As a management tool evaluation helps library and information systems managers to have
better knowledge of the status of their information resources, system, allowing them to be in
a better position to make informed decisions and to exercise better control over the destiny of
their systems. Without performance evaluation data, managers have to rely on intuition and
anecdotal information as the basis for assessing the usefulness and value of their activities
(McClure and Lopata 1995) which could lead to failure.
To justify the existence and cost of the information resources and systems, and to
improve continuously their internal working, performance evaluation is thus a necessity. This
applies equally to library and information systems in developing and developed countries.
Justification of worth and resources consumed

One of the major obstacles that library and information systems face in developing
countries is that their role and importance is highly undermined and so they are not taken
seriously. For example, Rosenbergs report indicated that the libraries and information
systems in Africa did not have access to expenditure figures. Consequently the library and
information systems in these countries are in desperate need of data to prove that they have
useful contributions to make in the fulfilment of the objectives of their parent organisations,
or to prove that without them the organisation can be at a disadvantage. Library and
information systems in developing countries have more at stake because they are units that
are grudgingly tolerated by government bodies and that appear at the bottom of any
national list of priorities (Neill 1991). In fact, this situation has not improved up till now.
The library and information systems managers struggle to win sufficient funding or
to receive a due share of the organisations budget is even more difficult when compared to
managers of most of the other departments within the same organisation. This is because
library and information systems rarely are accorded the proper status on a par with other
departments (Neill 1991). When the financial constraints on the parent organisations increase,
a common phenomenon in developing countries, library and information systems are among
the first departments to be targeted for budget reduction. And it is not even uncommon for
library and information systems to have no separate budget of their own or to have no
channel to fight for the manager and for the budget like managers of other departments. If
they cannot come up with strong evidence to support their claim to change the opinion of the
already decided management, the possibility of getting financial support will continue to get
worse. Therefore, engaging in an evaluation process is a life and death option if library and
information systems in developing countries are to live up to their purposes. It is the only
way to generate objective data about their performance to demonstrate their worth against the
traditional belief of their worthlessness held by parent management and the nation at large.
However, the prevailing attitude of management towards library and information
systems in developing countries, which implies worthlessness, can be changed only by
showing their worth using performance evaluation data, the only effective way to prove their
value (Pritchard 1996).
Improving competitiveness for securing financial support

As finance underpins everything, it is a key issue to library and information systems
in developing countries for a number of reasons. The scarcity of finances in these countries
makes the competition for organisational budgets among departments fiercer than in
49
developed countries. This makes performance evaluation data more important to library and
information systems in developing countries. Furthermore, as Rodger (1987) stressed,
evaluation is needed more in economically constrained situations because there is less
money with which to attempt to do the same, or more than before, the permanent situation of
library and information systems in developing countries.
It is also true that performance evaluation is most needed during times of economic
constraint as such situations result in pressure for cost justification of all activities (Baba
and Broady 1998;Bawden 1990: 73). Library managers have to present strong cases to justify
increments in investment because what they currently receive is already much below what
they require. The poor situation of these library and information systems and their need for
greater financing each year is exacerbated by the increasing cost of library resources which
affects the library and information systems in developing countries more). This has made it
important for the managers to devise the means of winning the required resources while
parent organisations must be convinced to accommodate this increasing cost. Performance
data from evaluation can then be one way of showing why the money should be made
available as well as how it has been expended effectively on a continuing basis.
Similarly, technological developments also contribute to the increasing financial

requirements of library and information systems of developing countries. The need to get
enough money is critical. Some information technologies (ITs) currently in use by library and
information systems in the developed world are becoming absolutely necessary to keep the
gap in meeting the needs of the users of developing countries from widening further.
Thus, in these days of constrained financial input, it is accepted that library and
information systems cannot be continually financed on the assumption that they are good
things in their own right (Winkworth 1993), but instead they have to prove their goodness
by demonstrating their relevance and usefulness. Performance evaluation data is needed if
they are to be successful in competing for organisational budgets. The outcome of their
requests depends on managements appreciation of these justifications (Abbot 1994: 4).
Improving internal efficiency and services provided to users
The exercise of performance evaluation is needed to find out the relevance of each
information resources and services and their efficiency. The internal workings of library and
information systems will also be improved when remedial measures can be taken as needed
based on the results of the assessment desperately needed by library and information systems
of developing countries. It will provide the data needed to make sound and informed
decisions and to take effective measures to survive even under their constrained situations.
Thus, to identify areas where improvement is needed and to live up to the

requirements and expectations put on them, library and information systems need to perform
self-audits with more zeal and commitment. Library and information systems in developing
countries have been unable to prove what good they can do and to meet the expectations of
their patrons. Neill (1991) summarises it well as for the majority of Africans, libraries
appeared to have very little to offer. Furthermore, mainly because library and information
systems in developing countries have not succeeded in living up to these expectations, the
role of information in the development process is sidelined by the majority of decision
makers. This has a profound impact on the future and the status with which library and
information systems in developing countries are held.
50
Library and information systems in developing countries are for the most part under-
performing and this requires an immediate solution. As a part of improving their internal
workings, library and information systems in these countries can use performance evaluation
data to improve their efficiency, particularly in the area of financial management. Proving
value through improved ways of doing things is then one major aim towards which library
and information systems in developing countries need to work. This requires continual
monitoring through performance evaluation as improved services using such evaluation help
in gaining the support of parent organisations (Willemse 1995). The importance of the
performance evaluation exercise in developing countries is thus very high. And library and
information systems in developing countries have greater need for supporting evidence to
prove their worth and to improve their performance now more than anytime previously.
3.2 Problems for conducting Information Resources Evaluation

Unfortunately, evaluation, while critically needed and potentially beneficial
particularly to library and information resources and systems of developing countries, is the
least practised management tool in these countries (Town 1998). Although no formal survey
for this study has been conducted, performance evaluation was almost non-existent in the
seven universities participating in a CD-ROM pilot project sponsored by American
Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS) from 19941996. Only one participant
confirmed that they had any evaluation activity in the past. Taking into account, furthermore,
the case of Ethiopia, no performance evaluation has been made in any library and information
system for any of the two main purposes of performance evaluation, i.e., diagnostic and
justification.
Although there is the possibility that such activity was not reported, the general
absence of reports on performance evaluation from developing countries in international
library and information science indexes, such as Library Literature, confirms this as well. Of
course this excludes evaluative work conducted by sponsoring agencies on information
projects implemented in developing countries. But these, too, are very few.
In a different context, Saracevic (1980) also confirms that very few actual evaluative
studies have been conducted in developing countries and this holds true largely up to this
time. Why is such a timely and much needed management practice ignored by library and
information systems in developing countries? There are a number of possible reasons for the
absence of performance evaluations in these countries. Some of the reasons are problems that
are known to exist even in library and information systems of developed countries. But in
developing countries, these problems are more severe, to the extent of becoming major
stumbling blocks for performance evaluation to take place. Some of the reasons, on the other
hand, are peculiar to library and information systems of developing countries.
Specifically the first three problems discussed below are common but are severely felt
in developing countries. The fourth is peculiar and more important to library and information
systems in developing countries and is discussed in a detailed manner.
Low level of awareness of relevance and importance of performance evaluation

The first problem is a low level of awareness as to the relevance of evaluation by
library and information systems managers and/or management of the parent organisations.
This includes not being convinced of its value or of its worth as a priority in many library and
51
information systems in developing countries. This problem is more prevalent in library and
information systems of developing countries because the issue of evaluation itself is little
known. This problem has a far reaching impact in that no resources have been allocated for
this purpose nor is it one of the areas that library and information systems in these countries
normally consider their territory. Performance evaluation is more of an academic exercise in
these countries; if used at all, it is confined to research related to academic requirements. This
is very true as most modern management techniques are by in large unknown in library and
information systems of developing countries. The environment can be said to lack, for the
most part, managers and professionals of library and information systems who appreciate its
value and the necessity for it on a continuous basis leaving alone those who are willing to
initiate and use it to convince the management. As a result there is no receptive ground even
when motivated individual staff members want to engage in such exercise. Because of the
low level of awareness about the relevance of performance evaluation by library and
information systems managers or management of the parent organisations, performance
evaluation is almost non-existent. As a one-time-only exercise, in rare cases, it is done
haphazardly, rendering the resulting data almost useless for the purpose (Town 1998).
Lack of finances
The second reason for not exercising performance evaluation is the cost of such
exercises even if their importance is recognised. Although the problem of finance is common
to all countries (Cronin 1982b; Goodall 1988), it is more severe in developing countries. This
makes performance evaluation among the least likely technique to occur in these countries.
Particularly because it is research, money that needs to be allocated for it is beyond the reach
of the majority of library and information systems. Because of the financial realities of
developing countries, only basic activities are considered at any one time, diminishing the
chance of conducting performance evaluation, among others. The problem of finance has
been one of the long-standing problems which library and information systems in developing
countries may not hope to overcome in the near future.
Shortage of required staff
The third problem is shortage of staff, both in quantity and quality, to undertake
performance evaluation in library and information systems in these countries. It is known that
library and information systems managers with appropriate conviction may shy away from
conducting performance evaluation because of the resulting unacceptable increase in the
existing work load on the library and information systems all over the world (Cronin
1982b). But in developing countries since the shortage of staff is acute and more pronounced,
the resulting workload on already over-extended staff makes it the least welcome
commitment. The meagre professional staff is highly in demand to cover all aspects of library
and information work, including even non-professional jobs (Lawal 1991).
Thus, lack of staff who can be spared or whose time can be spent on performance
evaluation puts pressure on considering the exercise as a routine and necessary activity.
Equally problematic is the scarcity of qualified/ trained personnel to plan and execute
performance evaluation activities in library and information systems of developing countries.
Managers found in most library and information systems in these countries are good
indicators of lack of qualified personnel. Qualified/trained library and information workers as
heads of library and information systems are found in limited number. It is just a new
development in developing countries.
This is the general workforce situation in the information sector of developing
countries as indicated by Adeyemi (1991): Information activities in most third world
countries suffer from absence of relevant expertise in the areas of generation, processing,
52
storage and retrieval. The problem of staff adequate in number and qualification is also an
issue that library and information systems have a long way to overcome.
Lack of evaluation tools / methodologies

Apart from these three major problems, also encountered by library and information
systems all over the world at varying degrees, there is a major problem prohibiting
performance evaluation that is peculiar to library and information systems in developing
countries. The problem is unique because it is results mainly from the characteristic features
of library and information systems in these countries. The problem is also more important
because even when the problems of awareness, finances and staff are overcome, this problem
persists making it difficult to conduct performance evaluation by library and information
resources, systems and services of these countries. The problem remains strong for all sorts of
library and information systems managers, including those strongly motivated and
convinced as to the importance of performance evaluation as a management tool. The
problem is lack of appropriate evaluation tools (methodology), as the library and information
systems in developing countries have difficulty in using existing evaluation tools and
methods developed by the profession.
Although the profession acknowledges that it lacks widely accepted and applicable
tools and methods for performance evaluation (Pritchard 1996; Winkworth 1993), there is a
continuing effort and marked achievement in developing and employing tools, methods and
frameworks for evaluation of performance of library and information systems in the
developed world. The reviews made by Goodall (1988) and Pritchard (1996), for example,
present these different models and approaches for evaluation of the performance of library
and information systems. These evaluation models and approaches are being used with a
degree of success in developed countries, primarily as they result from work done in these
countries and hence fit the needs of these countries environments.
In the effort to use these performance evaluation models and approaches, the library
and information systems of developing countries, however, run into complications, rendering
the models/approaches inapplicable by in large. The methodologies can only be of use if they
are appropriate and practical in the environment where the evaluation is to take place.
Unfortunately the prerequisites for the use of most existing bases for evaluation are grossly
absent in developing countries, making existing methodologies practically of little help to
developing countries. To appreciate this situation, this section elaborates on the issues. For
example in the review of performance measurement by Goodall, three approaches emerge as
the dominant bases for evaluation during the period under review: the use of stated
objectives, standards and user opinion (Goodall 1988). In the literature these bases for
evaluation are brought out as prominent more frequently. They are the most highly included
elements of the models and the approaches for evaluating the performance of library and
information systems. This paper uses these commonly mentioned and highly rated means of
evaluating performance in library and information systems to demonstrate the difficulty that
library and information systems in developing countries encounter in attempting to use them.
Use of Stated Objectives

To use stated objectives to assess the performance of library and information
systems, the system needs clearly stated objectives. The overwhelming majority of library
and information systems in developing countries have no clearly stated objectives or else the
occasionally available objectives lack the quality needed to determine an evaluation of the
performance of the library and information systems. Stated objectives outlining which
activities should have efforts and resources directed to them are lacking, or not clearly
53
enough brought out to guide the efforts and resources expenditures in library and information
systems of developing countries.
It is important to understand that when there is no such element in place, library and
information resources and systems cannot be assessed to see how much they have succeeded
in their effort of information service delivery. However, in cases where objectives are
available, they are either too broad or vague to point out specific targets to be measured.
These are rather mission statements, according to Mackenzie (1990) whose definition
statements do not lend themselves for measurement. And these seemingly objective
statements are also objectives that have generally outlived their purposes, e.g. objectives for
services that no longer exist or objectives that were set years ago no longer reflect the current
needs and situation.
Lack of clearly stated objectives also implies that it is difficult to determine the
relevance of information services and resources since normally objectives serve as basis for
defining the services to be provided (Abbot 1994: 13). Each service or resources has to be
selected on the basis of its usefulness and relevance in achieving the objectives of the
organisation.
Use of standards
Evaluating library and information systems performance by comparing their
achievements/output against standards or agreed upon norms or theoretically maximum
targets is also equally hampered as a performance evaluation method to be used in
developing countries. Standards developed for each country and for type of library in each
country is by and large lacking, as only few developing countries have tried to have these in
place.
Having standards for each country is necessary because what has been set as a
standard for one country cannot be used as a standard for another country, simply because
setting standards is affected by the local circumstances of each country (Boekhorst 1995; Van
House 1995). Standards, either set by consensus or by taking average achievements in
comparable systems, need to be unique to each country (or to similar library and information
systems in a given country), as standards have to be based on what is possible in each specific
environment (Kasar 1982). As a result, if developing countries use standards initiated by
developed countries to evaluate their information resources, systems and services, then the
result is known even before conducting the assessment.
As library managers, we should note that no developing country meets the standards
set by and for developed countries that take into consideration the relatively fortunate local
situations of these developed countries. Unfortunately developing ones own standard is one
of the areas in which very little progress has been made by developing countries.
Use of user opinion
The use of users opinions as a measure of the performance of library and

information systems in developing countries, encounters a variety of problems. Although
users are important indicators of whether a given library and information system is doing
well, they are liable to a number of factors that can affect the reliability of their judgments.
Line (1990) pointed out that users perceptions of the quality of library services are
affected by circumstances, opportunities and expectations. Specifically in developing
countries these factors are generally affecting the users view in a particular way rendering
54
this method of performance evaluation as shaky as the earlier ones. First their exposure to
quality library and information systems or services is very limited so that their expectations
are low. If a user deprived of all basic resources sees materials of, say, average quality in
terms of currency and coverage in a given library and information system, for example, he
may claim that the particular system is satisfactory because this is the best thing that has
happened to him. This misleading opinion is what should be expected as the majority of
library and information systems in developing countries continue serving without
subscriptions to current journals, using books 2530 years old and are usually limited to the
traditional library services (Adeyami 1991).
In addition, a situation unique to users in developing countries is the low level of

information literacy among the population, which indicates the general difficulties that the
users face in understanding their own information needs, the ways of satisfying them, the
ways of expressing needs, etc. This can then render them more or less inappropriate judges as
to whether the library is meeting their needs, whether it is doing well, etc.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you are introduced to the major roles of information resources evaluation
in our library and information system. It was established that the internal workings of library
and information systems will also be improved when remedial measures can be taken as
needed based on the results of the assessment desperately needed by library and information
systems of developing countries. It will provide the data needed to make sound and informed
decisions and to take effective measures to survive even under their constrained situations.
Also, some challenges inhibiting successful information resources evaluation particularly in
developing economies which include among others lack of competent staff/shortage of staff;
lack of evaluation tools and standards, lack of finances etc. were discussed with the hope that
information managers would become very conversant of the likely challenges to face or
facing our libraries. This will enable them become more proactive in addressing the
challenges instead of being only reactionary.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt the roles of information resources evaluation in library
and information systems with particular reference to developing countries. It was established
that library and information systems need to conduct performance evaluation of their
resources, systems, operations and services to ensure that their information resources are
meeting the information needs of their target customers. Also, evaluating the library
resources and systems will guarantee the continued funding and patronage from the parent
organisation and donor agencies.
Also, you have learnt that certain factors such as lack of awareness of the value of
evaluation, shortage of qualified staff, lack of standards, absence of clearly stated objectives
etc have to greater extent affected information resources evaluation particularly in library and
information systems.

1. Discuss the roles of information resources evaluation in a University library?
55
2. Highlight any 4 major problems militating against information resources evaluation in
Library and Information System?

Kebede, G. (1999) Performance Evaluation in Library and Information Systems of
Developing Countries: A Study of the Literature. Libri, 49, pp. 106119
Abbot, C. 1994. Performance measurement. London: Aslib.
Adeyami, NM. 1991. Issues in the provision of services to developing countries. African
Journal of Library, Archives and Information Science 1(1): 18.
Baba, Zawiyah and Broady, Judith. (1998). Organisational effectiveness assessment: case
studies of the National Library of Wales and Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia. In: Pat Wressell
& Associates, eds. Proceedings of the 2nd North umbria International Conference on
Performance Measurement in Libraries and Information Services. Newcastle upon Tyne:
Information
Bawden, D. (1990). User oriented evaluation of information systems and services. Aldershot,
Hants: Gower Publishing Company Ltd.
Line, M. B. (1990). The concept of library goodness: Users perspective and value. In
Maurice, LB, ed. Academic library management. London: The Library Association: 18595.
Boekhorst, P. T. (1995). Measuring quality: the IFLA guidelines for performance
measurement in academic libraries. IFLA Journal 21(4): 27881.
Van House, N. (1995). Organisation politics and performance measurement (introductory

talk). In: Pat Wressell, ed. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Performance
Measurement in Libraries and Information Services. Newcastle upon Tyne:
Information North: 110.
Kasar, D. (1982). Standards for college libraries. Library Trends 31(1): 719.
Mackenzie, GA. 1990. Performance measurement. In: Maurice, LB, ed. Academic library
management. London: The Library Association: 196205.
Goodall, D. L. (1988). Performance measurement: A historical perspective. Journal of

Librarianship 20(2): 12844
Pritchard, S. M. (1996). Determining quality in academic libraries. Library Trends 44(3):

57294.
Lawal, O.O. (1991). A Survey of task performance in Library and information work:
Nigerian perspective. African Journal of Library, Archives and Information Science 1(1): 29
35
56
Unit 4:Strategies/Methodologies for Information Resources Evaluation
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Information Audit as a Strategy for Information resources evaluation
3.2 strategies/methodologies for Information resources Evaluation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall further examine the concept of information audit as a veritable
strategy in information resources evaluation in organisation, noting the various
arguments put forward by different scholars and authorities in information resources
management. We shall as well attempt to highlight some other strategies such as Goal
Based Evaluation (GBE); Goal Free Evaluation (GFE) and Criteria based Evaluation
(CBE) strategies that can be used in the evaluation of information resources, systems
and services in our libraries and information centres.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define the concept of Information Audit
Identify the relevance of information audit
Discuss the stages for conducting information audit
Explain the basic three strategies of Information Resources Evaluation
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Information Audit as a strategy for IR evaluation
For many years, the information audit process has been promoted by information
professionals as a means of identifying the information needs of an organisation and
matching them against existing services and resources. In more recent years, it has been used
extensively, mainly by consultants, as the first step in the development of a knowledge
management strategy. An information audit is 'a systematic evaluation of information use,
resources and flows, with a verification by reference to both people and existing documents
in order to establish the extent to which they are contributing to an organisation's objectives'.
Although there is no universally accepted definition of an information audit, this definition
adopted by Aslib, the Association for Information Management in the UK is the most
appropriate as it incorporates the critical elements of 'information use' and 'people' (Orna,
1999 p69). An information audit is a process used to
Identify the information needs of the organisation and assign a level of strategic
importance to those needs Identify the resources and services currently provided to
meet those needs
Map information flows within an organisation and between an organisation and its
external environment
Analyse gaps, duplications, inefficiencies and areas of over-provision that enables the
identification of where changes are necessary.
57
The term audit implies a counting. An information audit not only counts resources but also
examines how they are used, by whom and for what purpose. The information audit examines
the activities and tasks that occur in an organisation and identifies the information resources
that support them. It examines, not only the resources used, but how they are used and how
critical they are to the successful completion of each task. Combining this with the
assignment of a level of strategic significance to all tasks and activities enables the
identification of the areas where strategically significant knowledge is being created. It also
identifies those tasks that rely on knowledge sharing or transfer and those that rely on a high
quality of knowledge.
The information audit process enables the mapping of information flows within an
organisation and between an organisation and its external environment. It allows for
identifying efficient flows, gaps, duplications, bottlenecks and other inefficiencies in existing
flows. Also, it identifies existing channels that can be utilised for knowledge-transfer and
areas of the organisation where there is a need for high quality knowledge that isnt being
met.
The information audit goes one step further in not only finding out what information
resources and services people need to do their jobs, but how those information resources and
services are actually used. It looks at the objectives, critical success factors and tasks and
activities of each group, business unit, department or section, and links them with the relevant
organisational objective. It identifies the information that is required to support each task or
activity. It is then possible to trace a specific resource from the task it supports to the
organisation objective, and assign a level of strategic significance to it. This allows you to not
only identify those resources and services that are supporting organisational objectives but
also to rate them according to their strategic significance.
An information audit also enables you to map information flows within an organisation and
between an organisation and its external environment. This is a significant feature of the
process as it identifies the existing formal and informal communication channels that are used
to transfer information as well as highlighting inefficiencies such as bottlenecks, gaps and
duplications.
How to conduct an information audit - introducing the model
Just as there is no universally accepted definition of an information audit, there is also no

universally accepted model for information audit process because of the dramatically varying
structures, nature and circumstances of the organisations in which they are conducted. The
model presented here is one that was developed by the author as a result of examining the
methodologies used by librarians and consultants and extracting the components necessary to
achieve the objectives of an information audit.
The seven-stage information audit model as shown in figure 3 takes you through the
information audit process stage-by-stage highlighting those aspects of the process that are
critical to its success and the issues that you may face that can impact on the value of your
outcomes. The seven stages are:-
Planning
Data collection
58
Data analysis
Data evaluation
Communicating recommendations
Implementing recommendations
The Information Audit as a continuum
The model is not a highly structured and controlled process that operates in a tightly defined
manner. Rather it is a structured framework that is flexible and can 'bend' to meet the varying
conditions and constraints of an organisation. In other words, the components can be 'tailored'
to suit the objectives of the organisation and the resources available (Henczel, 2000).
Stage One - Planning

As with any major project, the planning stage is critical as it can determine the project's
success or failure. In order to plan properly for an information audit there are five steps to
work through. These are:-
Understand your organisation and develop clear objectives
Determine the scope and resource allocation
Choose a methodology
Develop a communication strategy
Enlist management support
Stage Two - Data Collection
This stage involves collecting the data you need to achieve your objectives. Data can be
collected by questionnaire, personal interview or focus group interview. Whether you create a
questionnaire or conduct interviews it is critical that the right people are asked the right
questions. It is critical that the questions you ask result in a dataset that is usable, in terms of
its volume, content and format. It is usual to collect three types of data:-
data relating to information required to perform tasks and activities
data relating to the level of criticality of information resources, tasks and activities
data relating to information transfer
This stage involves the creation of an information resources database that is used as the tool
to establish the strategic significance of resources. Records must be created for all business
units/sections/departments that include their objectives, critical success factors and tasks and
activities. The data collection process will gather the data relating to the information
resources that enable and support the tasks and activities.
Stage Three - Data Analysis
Once the data has been collected it must be analysed. The analysis process will identify gaps,
duplications and over provisions and the use of sub-standard or inappropriate resources. It
will enable a level of strategic significance to be assigned to tasks and activities that can then
be used to determine where critical knowledge is being produced and stored and where it is
required for re-use. Analysis can be done inhouse or by external analysts depending on the
resources available inhouse, and the complexity and volume of the data collected. There are
three types of analysis carried out on the data collected: General analysis; Strategic
significance analysis and Information flow mapping.
Stage Four - Data Evaluation
59
Once the data has been analysed, problems and opportunities can be identified and then
interpreted and evaluated within the context of the organisation. Not every problem will need
to be addressed and some will be unable to be addressed due to organisational constraints
such as insufficient resources (people, money, technical or physical resources).
Many of the problems that are identified are opportunities to improve the provision of
information, extend information services and improve the quality of knowledge created. They
can include:-
Information hoarding
Biased distribution of resources
use of sub-standard resources
gaps in the provision of resources
information overload issues
lack of transparency and accountability
lack of traceability
in order to evaluate how significant the problems are, a number of questions need to be
answered before a decision can be made regarding the feasibility and cost effectiveness of
addressing the problems. These relate to its level of criticality, the cost of addressing it, the
cost of not addressing it, and the level of formality needed to address it (local, departmental
or organisational).
It is important that the recommendations that are formulated in this stage are realistic,
achievable and manageable. The costs associated with the recommendation, the processes for
incorporation and implementation and quantifiable goals must all be established and
documented.
Stage Five - Communicating the Recommendations
Communication strategies are important throughout the entire information audit process.
However, it is critical that once the recommendations have been made, they are
communicated to the people who are integral to their being implemented. Since many of the
recommendations will represent an element of change to the resources and services available
in the organisation, they may affect the daily work processes of some, if not many,
employees. It is critical that the changes are communicated in a positive way, and in a way
that guarantees management support for their implementation. Also, if you have established
and maintained successful communication channels throughout the audit process, the
employees will recognise the validity of the process that has been worked through to reach
the final recommendations.
There are many ways in which you can communicate the information audit results and
recommendations. The most common method is a written report, or oral presentation (or a
series of presentations depending on the size and structure of the organisation). Other
methods include seminars and workshops, newsletters and bulletins either in hardcopy or
posted on corporate intranets and web sites.
Stage Six - Implementing the Recommendations

Once the findings of an information audit have been developed into strategies, and the
recommendations that have been formulated from the strategies have been successfully
communicated to management and throughout the organisation, plans must be made for
implementation of the recommendations. Nothing can be changed in isolation and each
change that is made in an organisation has a roll on effect. This must be understood when
60
formulating the recommendations, and also during the implementation process. The
development of a comprehensive implementation plan. A post-implementation review
strategy will facilitate the changes and minimise resistance.
Stage Seven - The Continuum

The initial information audit is the 1st generation information audit (Buchanan, 1998). It has
provided you with a rich dataset that presents a 'snapshot' of where the organisation is at with
regard to its information - this is your first information baseline. It has also provided you with
a database that contains information relating to the information resources, and the
organisation's business units, tasks and activities. Subsequent audits add to the dataset and re-
assess the validity of the information baseline which is constantly changing as the
organisation changes. They also add to and supplement the information resources database to
reflect changes in significance, tasks or organisational structure.
3.2 Strategies/methodologies for IRs Evaluation

When evaluating information resources, we can think of at least three different
strategies/methodologies that can be adopted. In this unit, we identify that information
managers can evaluate their information resources using any of the following strategies or
methodologies: Goal Based Evaluation (GBE); Goal Free Evaluation (GFE) and Criterion
Based Evaluation (CBE) as the case and situation demand.
Goal-Based Evaluation (GBE)
According to Patton (1990) goal- based evaluation is defined as measuring the extent to
which a program or intervention has attained clear and specific objectives. The focus is on
intended services and outcomes of a program the goals. A GBE is any type of evaluation
based on and knowledge of and referenced to the goals and objectives of the program, person,
or product, (Scriven, 1991). This is the typical evaluation with which most of us are
familiar. We have a list of goals and objectives, and we design an evaluation to see how well
we deal with each.
Good et al (1986) claim that evaluations should be measurable and that the evaluation should
meet the requirements specification. The goals that are used for evaluation are derived from
an organisational context. That means that they are situationally applicable, which means that
they act like specific business goals. The basic strategy of this approach is to measure if
predefined goals are fulfilled or not; to what extent and in what ways. The approach is
deductive. What is measured depends on the character of the goals and a quantitative
approach as well as qualitative approach could be used. In this paper we adopt the concept of
goal-based evaluation from Patton (1990) in order to identify this approach.
Goal Free Evaluation (GFE)
Goal-free evaluation (GFE) is any evaluation in which the evaluator conducts the evaluation
without particular knowledge of or reference to stated or predetermined goals and objectives.
GFE is defined as gathering data on a broad array of actual effects and evaluating the
importance of these effects in meeting demonstrated needs (Patton, 1990, Scriven, 1972). The
evaluator makes a deliberate attempt to avoid all rhetoric related to program goals; no
discussion about goals is held with staff; no program brochures or proposals are read; only
the programs outcomes and measurable effects are studied.
61
GFE as a strategy for evaluation is identified as a more interpretative approach (e.g.
Remenyi, 1999; Walsham, 1993). The aim of interpretive evaluation is to gain a deeper
understanding of the nature of what is to be evaluated and to generate motivation and
commitment (Hirschheim & Smithson, 1988).
The involvement of a wide range of stakeholder groups is often considered essential to this
approach of evaluation. This can also be a practical obstacle where time or resources for the
evaluation are limited.
Goal-free evaluation has been conducted in program evaluation both by design and by default
in the more than 40 years since Scriven (1972) introduced it, yet several evaluators criticize
GFE as pure rhetoric and imply that it lacks practical application (Irvine, 1979; Mathison,
2005). Although evaluators know of GFE in theory, they have little knowledge of it in
practice. Without knowledge of GFEs use, evaluators are less likely to believe it can be used.
Shadish, Cook, and Leviton (1991) describe how this leads to a perpetuation of goal-based
evaluation (GBE)
Patton (1990) uses the term goal-free evaluation. The aim of goal-free evaluation is to
(Patton, 1990):
avoid the risk of narrowly studying stated program objectives and thereby missing
important unanticipated outcomes
remove the negative connotations attached to discovery of unanticipated effect: The
whole language of side-effected or secondary effect or even unanticipated effect
tended to be a put-down of what might well be a crucial achievement, especially in
terms of new priorities.
eliminate the perceptual biases introduced into an evaluation by knowledge of goals;
and
maintain evaluator objectivity and independence through goal-free conditions. In this
paper, we adopt the concept of goal-free evaluation from Patton (1990) in order to
identify this approach. The basic strategy of this approach is inductive evaluation. The
approach aims at discovering qualities of the object of study. One can say that the
evaluator makes an inventory of possible problems and that the knowledge of the
object of study emerges during the progress of the evaluation.
Goal-free evaluation is also used by default in situations where program goals have not been
previously stated or the goals are not known. The case of the anonymous philanthropist who
donates without direction or stipulation serves as an example of GFE by default. For instance,
consider the university that receives money from an anonymous donor who gives to a
universitys endowment: The typical assumption is that the donor supports the existing goals
of the university, but this is clearly an assumption. It is possible that the donor wants to
improve the reputation of the school, increase aid and access to minority students, enhance
the aesthetics of facilities, or to stroke his or her own ego. The point is that if the donor
chooses not to elaborate on the intentions, no one can speak definitively on the true goals.
Goal-free evaluation can be used with quantitative or qualitative data-collection
methodologies and Success Case Method.
Criteria-Based Strategy
62
The third identified strategy is a criteria-based approach. There are lots of criteria-based
approaches around such as checklists, heuristics, principles or quality ideals. What is typical
for this approach is that the IT systems interface/library system is the interaction between
users and IT-systems and that serves as a basis for the evaluation together with a set of
predefined criteria. Over the years, library and information systems have been using several
criteria for assessing the worth of their information resources. More of such criteria used and
principles for evaluation can be found in Cronholm & Goldkuhl (2002) and in gerfalk et al
(2002). The basis for these action-oriented criteria is to understand if and how the
information resources support the actions performed in the business or meet the needs of
users.
However, using criteria simply means to set focus on certain qualities that according to the
perspective is important to evaluate. At the same time the attention according to the criteria
also de-emphasize other qualities. The criteria chosen govern the evaluators attention and
thereby the kind of knowledge the evaluator achieves. This particular topic has been
discussed previously in this module. The criteria of the evaluation must:
be relevant
be easy to use and valid
be accommodating and include an element of fitness-for-purpose
be operational and form the basis for real assessment
focus on implementation and not only principles
be in consistency with each other
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has succeeded in establishing the relevance of conducting information audit
as veritable tool and strategy for successful information resources evaluation in every
organisation whether profit making or not. It was also revealed that library managers as
information resources evaluators can decide on what strategy or method of evaluation to
adopt among Goal based strategy, Goal Free strategy or Criteria based strategy. Also, you
have learnt that each of these strategies has its strength, weakness and criticism. However,
information managers, of which librarians are one, must ensure that information resources are
evaluated accordingly.
5.0 SUMMARY
We have discussed the concept of information audit. We noted that a number of
perspectives have been advanced in order to develop a clear cut difference between
information audit and other audits such as communication audit, financial audit, knowledge
audit, etc. Again, a model was introduced in order to learn how to conduct information audit
in your organisation. The concepts of Goal Based, Goal Free and Criteria based strategies in
information resources evaluation were also explained noting some major differences and
relationships among them.

1. What do you understand by information audit?
2. As information manager, what procedures do you follow to conduct a successful
information audit?
3. Why do we conduct information audit in our libraries and information centres?
63
4. Explain the three strategies/methodologies for information resources evaluation?

Youker, W. B. & Ingraham, A. (2014).Goal-Free Evaluation: An Orientation for
Foundations Evaluations. The Foundation Review, 5(4) Article 7. DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.9707/1944-5660.1182 Available at:
http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/tfr/vol5/iss4/7
Patton, M. Q. (1997). Utilisation-Focused Evaluation: The new century text (3rd ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
The Danish Evaluation Institute (2004). Criteria based evaluations: EVA's experience in
evaluations based on criteria
Davidson, E. J. (2005). Evaluation Methodology basics: The nuts and bolts of sound
evaluation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Scriven, M. (1991). Prose and Cons about Goal-Free Evaluation. American Journal of
Evaluation; 12; (55) DOI: 10.1177/109821409101200108,
http://aje.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/12/1/55 retrieved 10th may 2009
Worthen, B. (1990). Program evaluation. H. Walberg & G. Haertel (Eds.), international

encyclopedia of educational evaluation (pp. 42-47). Toronto, ON: Pergammon Press.
Buchanan, S.J. The Information Audit: An Integrated Strategic Approach.

http://www.strath.ac.uk/Departments/InfoStrategy/. Downloaded 28/09/99.
Henczel, S.M. The Information Audit: A Practical Guide. [To be published East Grinstead:
Bowker-Saur, November 2000].
Horne, N.W. Information As An Asset. Impact Apr. 1999.
Henczel, S. (2000). The information audit as a first step towards Effective knowledge
management: an Opportunity for the special librarian. INSPEL, 34(3/4).
Dante, G. P. (2008). Information and knowledge organisational audit: Genesis of integration.

Brazilian Journal Information Science (BJIS), 2, (2), p.3-15, Available in:
<http://www.bjis.unesp.br/>.
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MODULE THREE: APPLICATION OF ICTs IN INFORMATION RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Unit 1: The Concept of ICTs
Unit 2: Types of ICTs Used in Information Resource Management
Unit 3: Roles of ICTs in Information Resource Management
Unit 4: Emerging Technologies and Tools in Information Resource Management
Unit 5: Challenges and Constraints in ICTs Application in Information Resource

Management
UNIT 1: The Concept of ICTs

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Meaning of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs)
3.2 Characteristics/Features of ICTs
3.3 Development of ICTs in Libraries
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is an electronic means of
capturing, processing, storing, retrieving and disseminating information. The ICT has caused
socio-cultural, political, educational, and economic change. In the view of Salisu (2002), ICT
has brought a new approach to work of information services delivery. It is a technological
development that has changed work and job expectations in library. The traditional ways of
acquiring, storing, retrieving and processing information in libraries have given way for
modern ways via Information and Communication Technology (ICT). This has touched all
facets of library as an organisation and librarians who have been the custodians of
information resources. Nwachukwu (2005) clearly observed that due to the changes in
information and the processes of access, storage, transmission, management, and
reproduction, libraries and librarians must adapt to new roles and skills to cope with change.
These developments in library and information services that have come with the new
information age pose reasonable range of developments for libraries. Today, in what could be
called the digital age, librarians can no longer be simply information providers or keepers of
knowledge. The change in technology using electronically stored and retrieved information
have change the way information resources are managed using ICT facilities.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
65
State the meaning of ICT

Identify the characteristics/features of ICTs
Explain the Development of ICTs in Libraries and Information centres
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Meaning of ICT
The ICT is a compound term that is used to refer to the convergence of a wide array
of new technologies presently being developed and used in the creation, processing and
transmission of information. Ngenge also defined ICTs as encompassing all those
technologies that enable the handling and storing of information and facilitate communication
between humans and electronic systems, and between electronic systems themselves. This
view embraces the full range of ICTs and includes capturing technologies that collect and
convert information into digital form, for example keyboards, mice, voice recognition
systems, barcode readers, and image scanners, to name a few. Following closely are storage
technologies such as magnetic tapes, hard disks, optical discs (such as CD ROMs),
microcards and smart cards (such as those used in financial transactions).
According to UNESCO (2010), the term ICT is plural, referring to a great many
technologies and it is an all encompassing term that includes the full gamut of electronic tools
by means of which we gather, record and store information, and by means of which we
exchange and distribute information to others. ICT are composted of many different tools that
enable capturing, interpreting, storing and transmitting information in a fast and easy way. In
the following figure (UNESCO, 2010), we can observe several options which allow us to
better understand the society where we live:
Isah (2006) added that Information Communication Technology devices include

telephone, mobile phone. Private automatic box exchange (PABX), photocopier, scanners,
fax machines, close circuit television sets, cameras, conventional digital camera, microwave
link systems and very small aperture terminal (V-Sat), computer and the internet. Moreover,
Association of African Universities (2000) sees Information Communication Technology as a
diverse set of technological tools and resources used for creating, storing, managing and
communicating information.
The term is used broadly to address a range of technologies, including telephones and
emerging technology devices. Central to these is the internet, which provides the mechanism
for transporting data in a number of formats including text, images, sound, and video.
Information and Communications Technology or Technologies is an umbrella term that
includes any communication device or application, encompassing: radio, television, cellular
phones, computer and network hardware and software, satellite systems and so on, as well as
the various services and applications associated with them, such as videoconferencing and
distance learning.
ICT can be defined as tools used for collection, processing, storage, transmission, and
dissemination of information. It can also view as the electronic means of capturing,
processing, storing, and disseminating information. The American Library Association
(1983) defined information technology (IT) as the application of computers and other
technologies to the acquisition, organisation, storage, retrieval, and dissemination of
information
66
A good way to think about ICT is to consider all the uses of digital technology that
already exist to help individuals, businesses and organisations use information. ICT covers
any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit or receive information
electronically in a digital form. For example, personal computers, digital television, email,
robots.
ICT is the integration of information processing, computing and communication
technologies. ICT is changing the way we learn, work and live in society and in a particular
context, such as in education, health care, or libraries. A good way to think about ICT is to
consider all the uses of digital technology that already exist to help individuals, businesses
and organisations use information. ICT covers any product that will store, retrieve,
manipulate, transmit or receive information electronically in a digital form and is concerned
with these products. More importantly, it is also concerned with the way these different uses
can work with each other. For example, personal computers, digital television, email, robots.
Information and communications technology (ICT) refers to all the technology used
to handle telecommunications, broadcast media, intelligent building management systems,
audiovisual processing and transmission systems, and network-based control and monitoring
functions. ICT has more recently been used to describe the convergence of several
technologies and the use of common transmission lines carrying very diverse data and
communication types and formats. Converging technologies that exemplify ICT include the
merging of audiovisual, telephone and computer networks through a common cabling system.
Internet service providers (ISP) commonly provide Internet, phone and television services to
homes and businesses through a single optical cable. The elimination of the telephone
networks has provided huge economic incentives to implement this convergence, which
eliminates many of the costs associated with cabling, signal distribution, user installation,
servicing and maintenance costs.
The ever-changing field of technology has made the world a smaller place, as
information is easily and rapidly exchanged through devices of telecommunication. The
Internet has proved a huge advancement in the ICT community. Videoconferencing and
distance learning allow people thousands of miles apart to speak together as if they were in
the same room. ICT involves more than just sharing of information, however. It also includes
the quest to improve communication throughout the world, especially to more underserved
areas of the globe.
3.2 Characteristics/features of ICT

Laudon and Laudon (2010) stated that the most important drive behind globalization
has been the explosion in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) sectors. For
these authors the main ICTs characteristic are:
Mobile Learning. New advances in hardware and software are making mobile smart
phones indispensible tools.
Cloud computing. The implications of this trend for education systems are huge; they
will make cheaper information appliances available which do not require the
processing power or size of the PC.
One-to-One computing. The trend in information management and education around
the world is to provide an information appliance to every user/learner and create
learning environments that assume universal access to the technology.
Ubiquitous learning. Library and School systems around the world are developing the
ability to provide learning opportunities to students anytime, anywhere.
67
Gaming. The phenomenal success of games with a focus on active participation, built
in incentives and interaction suggests that current educational methods are not falling
short and that educational games could more effectively attract the interest and
attention of learners.
Personalized learning. Education systems are increasingly investigating the use of
technology to better understand a students knowledge base from prior learning and to
tailor teaching to both address learning gaps as well as learning styles.
Redefinition of learning spaces. Schools and libraries around the world are re-thinking
the most appropriate learning environments to foster collaborative, cross-disciplinary,
students centered learning.
Smart portfolio assessment. The collection, management, sorting, and retrieving of
data related to learning will help teachers to better understand learning gaps and
customize content and pedagogical approaches.
However, James Thompson (1982) observed that there are three key components of
Information Communication Technology: first, new ways to store information compactly and
cheaply-magnetic storage on tapes and discs, optical storage, and video discs etc. Second,
new mechanisms to manipulate, scan and search such stored records the large scale
computer, the mini computer, the micro-processor and related devices and third, new
facilities for cheap and rapid transmission of information over long distance,
telecommunication systems and networks.
On the other hand, Supo (2000) viewed features of Information Communication
Technology in the form of their operations. He notes that the main features of recent
development in information and communication technologies can be summed up as follows;
Increase computer power leading to speed and cheaper computer processing.

Cheaper data storage facilities for example optical storage media.
Digitization of information text, graphics, photographs, speed, sound, video e.t.c.
Better data transfer between different system and media.
Improved telecommunications such as ISDN, with greatly increased capacity for data
transmission
Decrease size of equipment
Increased reliability of hardware and software.
3.3 Development of ICT

The term "ICT" evolved in the 1970s. It is a basic concept, however, can be traced to
the World War II alliance of the military and industry in the development of electronics,
computers, and information theory. After the 1940s, the military remained the major source
of research and development funding for the expansion of automation to replace manpower
with machine power.
Since the 1950s, four generations of computers have evolved. Each generation
reflected a change to hardware of decreased size but increased capabilities to control
computer operations. The first generation used vacuum tubes, the second used transistors, the
third used integrated circuits, and the fourth used integrated circuits on a single computer
chip. Advances in artificial intelligence that will minimize the need for complex
programming characterize the fifth generation of computers, still in the experimental stage.
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The first commercial computer was the UNIVAC I, developed by John Eckert and John W.
Mauchly in 1951. It was used by the Census Bureau to predict the outcome of the 1952
presidential election. For the next twenty-five years, mainframe computers were used in large
corporations to do calculations and manipulate large amounts of information stored in
databases. Supercomputers were used in science and engineering, for designing aircraft and
nuclear reactors, and for predicting worldwide weather patterns. Minicomputers came on to
the scene in the early 1980s in small businesses, manufacturing plants, and factories.
In 1975, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology developed microcomputers. In 1976,
Tandy Corporation's first Radio Shack microcomputer followed; the Apple microcomputer
was introduced in 1977. The market for microcomputers increased dramatically when IBM
introduced the first personal computer in the fall of 1981. Because of dramatic improvements
in computer components and manufacturing, personal computers today do more than the
largest computers of the mid-1960s at about a thousandth of the cost.
Computers today are divided into four categories by size, cost, and processing ability. They
are supercomputer, mainframe, minicomputer, and microcomputer, more commonly known
as a personal computer. Personal computer categories include desktop, network, laptop, and
handheld.
3.4 Development of ICTs in Libraries
The development and availability of information and communication technologies
(ICTs) in libraries have today not only increased and broadened the impact of information
resources at their doorsteps, but also placed more emphasis on effective and efficient
services. Their applications in libraries, commonly known as library automation, have indeed
continued to ease and promote quick and timely access to and transfer of information
resources that are found dispensed round the globe.
The sudden emergence of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in the

1940s launched the worlds information packaging and services into a global electronic
platform. Thus, libraries no longer disseminate information only in a packaged a print media
but in a multimedia format with a speed of light. Ukoha (2010) observed that the way
information is made available and the way users access it have changed. However, the current
decade is one in which digital technology is making a huge impact on libraries. Not only are
library systems becoming increasingly more commonly computerised, the availability of
library management software is dictating that library automation be the norm, rather than the
exception (Freeman, 1999). Tanner (1997) noted the effect not only of automation of library
management, but Local Area Networks, Wide Area Networks, Internet access and an
increasing diversity in format of resources.
The first and foremost ICT component, which can be adopted in the libraries, is the
computer for library automation and to have an in-house database of library holdings in
electronic form. As many primary journals and being published in CD form, it becomes
necessary to equip the libraries with ICT to optimize the use of information, E-mails, online
retrieval networking, multimedia and internet are the other important technologies, which can
be used for faster access to information in the libraries. Therefore, ICT enables a library:
To capture, store, manipulate, and distribute information;

To introduce and provide new services, revitalize the existing services by providing
faster access to the resources, by overcoming the space and time barriers;
69
To provide need-based, (tailor made), browsing and retrospective search services to
the users; to have large number of databases in CDs;
To utilize the staff for providing better information services;
To develop/upgrade the abilities of professionals;
To encourage networking and resource sharing at local level;
To have access to a number of national and international journals which are being
published only in machine readable form;
To digitize the documents for preservation and for space saving;
To support library functions such as circulation, serials control, acquisition control,
stock
maintenance and other routine office works and developing in-house database;
To retrieve and disseminate the information in user-defined format;
To access library catalogues databases of other libraries through library networks;
To improve the efficiency of library functions; and
To improve the cost effectiveness of library operations.
Nwachuku (2004) opines that ICTs application to library works and services could be
seen as the best way that could be used to assist researchers to adequately solve their
literature need for effective research activities. This, according to the writer, is because the
application of ICT to library operations greatly helps in the provision of efficient reference
and information services, the utilisation of network operations such as cataloguing, authority
control, inter library loans and co-operation and in the participation of international
bibliographic project.
However, the LIS curriculum development in Nigeria has shown considerable strides in
infusing ICT competencies as most LIS schools have developed relevant ICT courses and
also merged relevant ICT knowledge in traditional curriculum. However, most LIS schools
teach these ICT courses theoretically because they have inadequate laboratories of computers
and poor Internet access. Several African LIS educators and scholars have reiterated the need
to produce efficient and effective graduates equipped with competencies for working in the
current information environment, which though still largely traditional, is increasingly
becoming ICT-dependent (Adeya, 2001; Minishi Majanja, 2004; Ocholla, 2003).
Ocholla (2003) observes that the LIS job market requires additional and new competencies
such as computer literacy, word processing, spreadsheets, database construction and
management, online searching and retrieval, CD-ROM services. Others include electronic
current awareness service, automatic indexing and abstracting, text digitisation, desktop
publishing, electronic publishing, library automation systems, telecommunications, selection
of software and hardware, home page design and administration, facsimile transmission, and
archiving of audio visual and electronic documents. It is unfortunate, that LIS curriculum in
Nigeria did not integrate majority of the courses or competencies highlighted above by
Ocholla which made the Job market in Nigeria unattractive to the practitioners. This negative
development has been caused by the Government for not providing effective policy
formulation and implementation especially with regards to ICTs deployment in the
educational development.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have been exposed to topics that are related to ICTs and ICTs in Libraries
which is new trends that help in effective and efficient resource management in libraries.
70
5.0 SUMMARY
In the unit, we have devoted some time to the discussion of ICTs and ICTs related facilities
that take new shape in the library as well as the characteristics of ICTs. In the next unit, you
will learn many other things in relation to ICTs in libraries. The aim of this exercise is to
make you a good information resource manager using ICT facilities.

1. Define the concept of information and communication technology?
2. Identify the basic characteristics/features of ICT?
3. Highlight the development of ICTs in Libraries?

Adeya CN (2001). Information and communication technologies in Africa: a selective review
of studies and projects. Oxford: INASP.
Association of Africa Universities (2000) The use and application of Information

Communication Technology in Higher Education Institutions in Africa. Technical Experts
meeting, 17th 19th May.
Ben, Mbomu (2003) Internet and the World Wide Web. Lagos, Dacomms Communications
Diso LI, Njoku IF (2007) Library and information science education in Nigeria: curricula
contents versus cultural realities. Inter. Info. Lib. Rev., 39(2): 121-133.
Freeman, A. (1999). Organisation of resources: Introductory talk for Charles Sturt subject
ETL403. Macquarie University, February 12.
Isah, A. (2006) Professional Development of Business Education teachers on Information

Communication Technology for effective leadership in education. A paper presented at
National Conference organized by CAMS, HVK Polytechnic 5 th December
Laudon, K. C. & Laudon, J. P. (2010). Management Information Systems. Eleventh Edition.

Upper Saddle River (New Jersey): Pearson Global Edition,
Minishi-Majanja MK, Ocholla DN (2004). Auditing of information and communication

technologies in library and information science education in Africa. Edu. Info., 22(3/4): 187-
221.
Nwachukwu, V.N. (2004). Computer skill competencies among academic librarian: An

imperative for the computerization of Nigerian University Libraries. The Nigerian
Library Link 2 (1)
Ocholla DN (2003). An overview of information and communication technologies (ICT) in

the LIS schools of Eastern and Southern Africa. Edu. Info., 21(2-3): 181-194.
Ogunsola, L. A. and Aboyade, W. A. (2005). Information and Communication Technology in

Nigeria: Revolution or Evolution. Journal of Social Sciences, 11(1): 7-14
Salisu, T.M. (2002) Whiter continuing professional education (CPE) for librarians Lagos
Librarian 23 (182) 15-22
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Tanner, K. (1997). Do teacher librarians still buy books? School library collection in the
electronic age. Paper presented at the ALA schools section (Victorian Group) seminar, 28
June, pp. 2 - 8.
Ukoha, O.I. (2010). Current technologies in library and information services: issues and
challenges. A paper presented at the international Workshop on Current trends and
technologies in libraries and information services in the 21st century the way forward at
covenant university, Ogun state, 24th-26th March, 2010.
Ukoh, K. A. (1984). Application of Modern Technology in the Library. Nigerian Library

and Information Science Review, 2(1&2): 3.
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UNIT TWO: TYPES OF ICT USED IN INFORMATION RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 ICT Facilities Used in Information Resource Management
3.2 Need for Intranet in Information Resource Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
One of the fundamental functions of the Library and information centres is Collection
Development. It is the aspect of the practice that is responsible for selecting, and acquiring
information resources that will enable Libraries and Librarians to perform their myriad
functions to the users effectively.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Identify various ICT facilities used in information resource management

Discuss the need for Intranet in Information Resource Management
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Information Resource Management
While collection development relates to the selection and acquisition of information
Resources, Information Resource Management is an all-encompassing term that ensures there
is a balance of materials acquired with respect to various disciplines, types of materials, etc.
in additions, it includes a policy on the general management of resources in the library known
as Information Resource Management Policy which may include the policy on the
conservation, preservation, weeding, selection, and security of Library Resources.
Information Resource Management also is a term regarding to planning, budgeting,
organising, directing, training, promoting, controlling, and management activities associated
with the burden, collection, creation, use, and dissemination of information by libraries, and
includes the management of information and related resources in the library
3.2 ICT Facilities Used in Information Resource Management

With the invention of Information and Communication Technology, libraries now use various
types of technologies to aid the services they render. Everyday new technological advances
affect the way information is handled in libraries and information centres. The impacts of
new technologies are felt by libraries in every aspect including information resource
management. One of the fundamental of ICT used in Information resource management is
Internet.
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Internet is the worldwide interconnection of all smart communication devices that have a
valid IP. On the other hand, intranet is a privately owned part of the internet under which
only a selected number of IPs are allowed to communicate. Intranet is commonly used in
connecting computers of a certain organisation to remain connected and dont face any
interference from the IPs outside the intranet. Most of intranet accessing modes refer to the
website of the organisation which can only be accessed by its employees who have a user
name and password. However, the website and the servers for this purpose form the essential
information technology foundation for the company. Thus, the website enables a network for
its employees to connect irrespective of their location and time. The website, though
available through the internet methods, is not accessible unless a gateway is provided for data
exchange.
Internet is a collection of websites that are fairly connected to each other in every possible
manner and readily accept new users to be registered irrespective of the fact that they are
employees of that particular organisation or not. The information shared on the internet is
unbound in terms of location, type of data exchanged. Even though the internet regulatory
organisations of various countries have some restrictions on the internet, the potential of
internet exploitation is multifold extra than the network limited intranet. A clear difference
between internet and intranet can be understood with the help of an example explained below
Consider Facebook employees to be connected to each other through a back end
interconnection. The interconnection of the employee computers makes them exchange
crucial information and program codes very easily and swiftly over LAN. However, this
interconnection portal is totally aloof from the Facebook accounts of the employees or their
Gmail accounts. Hence, employees cannot access. To access the employee interconnection,
they might have to open a different browser window or even activate an employee IM
communicator. Whereas, in order to access the Facebook accounts, they need to activate any
such pre-requisite and just logging on to the webpage would be enough requirement. The
method through which only employees can connect and communicate is the intranet working
and the connection through which employees can access Facebook and their Gmail accounts
is internet enabled and is not restricted.
3.3 Need for Intranet in Information Resource Management

As an organisation grows in terms of data and services, integration of all departments is
highly desired. Even a little glitch in communication can cause big problems in data
processing and fiscal matters. Installing a separate division that keeps the hard copies of all
company services is quite lumber some and is difficult to maintain. When the data storage
and access is turned into the software way with allowing only a selective number of people to
access it, it not only becomes easier to access data but is also very cost effective as lesser
amount of hardware is required by the organisation then. Moreover, accessing data and
calculating it becomes very easy. This functionality of easy employee access with significant
security measures is provided by intranet.
There's one major distinction between an intranet and the Internet, The Internet is an open,
public space, a worldwide system of interconnected computer networks. It is a worldwide,
publicly accessible series of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet
switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It is a network of networks that consists
of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which
together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file
transfer, and the interlinked Web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web. The
74
Internet is a combination of several media technologies and an electronic version of
newspapers, magazines, books, catalogues, bulletin boards, and much more. This versatility
gives the Internet its power. While an intranet is designed to be a private space, an intranet
may be accessible from the Internet, but as a rule it's protected by a password and accessible
only to employees or other authorized users.
From within a company, an intranet server may respond much more quickly than a typical
Web site. This is because the public Internet is at the mercy of traffic spikes, server
breakdowns and other problems that may slow the network. Within a company, however,
users have much more bandwidth and network hardware may be more reliable. This makes it
easier to serve high-bandwidth content, such as audio and video, over an intranet.
An intranet often gets confused with the Internet. While there are a lot of similarities between
them, they really are two different things. Simply put, the Internet is the global World Wide
Web, while an intranet is a private Internet operating within a company. Both the Internet and
an intranet use TCP/IP protocol as well as features like e-mail and typical World Wide Web
standards. One main difference is that users of an intranet can get on the Internet, but thanks
to protection measures like computer firewalls, global Internet users cannot get onto an
intranet unless they have access to it. In fact, an intranet can be ran without an Internet
connection. While Internet technologies like browsers, servers, and chat scripts are still used,
an intranet can be a separate entity as long as its owners do not require that users have access
to information found on the Internet.
When they were first introduced, intranets were dismissed by critics as the latest in a
seemingly endless parade of technological fads and buzzwords. That soon changed when
businesses started to realize just how important a tool an intranet can be. A company would
want to set up an intranet for many reasons. The broad bandwidths that are used in intranets
allow for speedier communication and access to information than the Internet. The private
internal networks (such as a LAN) offer security and protection in the form of the
aforementioned firewalls as well as password-protected access and secure servers. The use of
an intranet allows companies to control their business easier and manage their employees
more successfully. Less paperwork, increased productivity, added flexibility, and versatility
are other factors that intranet users take advantage of. All of this adds up to a bottom line that
is attractive in any business decision: the ability to save money and increase profit.
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has exposed you to different ICT facilities that can be use in information resource
management. You should start explore the ICTs facilities in your library
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we discussed some of the available ICT facilities in Information resource
management like Internet and Intranet.

1. Mention and explain any five ICT facilities that can be used in information resource
management in any Nigerian Academic library?
2. Discuss the need for Intranet in organisations?
75
Obaseki Tony .I. (2012) Availability and use of Electronic Information Resources in
University libraries in South South Nigeria. Phd thesis Department of Library and
Information Science. University of Nigeria.
Obaseki, Tony .I. (2010) Library Computerization; The Nigerian reality Brazillian Journal of
library & Information Science 5 (1) pp 60 68
76
UNIT THREE: ROLES OF ICTS IN INFORMATION RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 ICTs used in Information Resources Management
3.2 ICTs used in Libraries and Information Centres
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Rana (2009) opines that ICT holds the key to the success of modernizing information
services. Applications of ICT are numerous but mainly it is used in converting the existing
paper-print records in the entire process of storage, retrieval and dissemination of information
to the users
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Identify ICTs Used in Information Resource Management

Discuss the areas of ICTs application in Libraries
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 ICTs Used in Information Resource Management

ICT on LIS means as the application of computers and communication technologies to the
acquisition, organisation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information process.
Convergence of computer and communication technologies and their subsequent application
to library and information activities such as information resource management has changed
the philosophy of information from unitary to universal access. Therefore, ICT can be use in
information resource management in the following:
3.2 ICTs Used in Libraries and Information Centres

Cataloguing and Catalogs
Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC) is a great relief to users of the library catalogue in
the sense that, different users can search for the same information at the same time using
different terminals which is impossible through the traditional card catalogue. Also, users can
search the online library catalogue through ISSN, ISBN, and combination of title and author
etc. Overdue notices are generated and sent to users through their e-mails.
The card catalog which was replaced in the early 1990s has itself been replaced with a Web-
based interface. This means that the maintenance of the information, typically handled by
library support staff, has to be accurate and the level of sophistication and technical expertise
to handle the amount of information added to the librarys own knowledge base increases
77
yearly as the capacity to store and access information has increased. Also important to note,
the online catalog is accessible from anywhere as it is a web-based catalog.
Acquisition of library resources

With the help of web, acquisition work has become very much simplified. Order placing,
duplication checking, price checking etc are done very effectively using ICT technique.
Online bookshops and publishers websites save the time of the librarians. For the
procurement of journals, order is placed in the prescribed format to the publishers through
Internet. Invoices can be downloaded from the websites that makes service faster and avoids
postal delay. E-mail helps in sending reminders to the publishers, vendors and even to the
borrowers of the books. IT also helps in the process of the serial control in the university
library. It helps in preparing union list of serials and helps in circulating via e-mail to the
branch libraries.
Collection Development
Collection development can be defined as the selection and acquisition of library materials
based on current and potential user needs. Collection management goes beyond this. It is
concerned with managing the utilisation, storage and accessibility of a collection. Collection
development can thus be seen as a subdivision of collection management (Singh, 2004:1).
Although, ICT in its capacity aids collection development by providing a wider range of
information resources to choose from, it also impacts the collection development process of
library negatively.
Academic librarians find themselves in an era of unparalleled access to information. The
latest edition of Uhlrichs has indicated the availability of more than 172 000 journal titles.
Although this appears to be a most ideal situation it is not because the financial resources
available in acquisitions departments have not necessarily increased. The sheer volume of
information available also makes selection of the most suitable information a complex task
(Fishel, 2000:463).
The impact of electronic resources has made collection management a very complex and
challenging task. There are budgetary constraints, numerous formats, ever changing user
needs. Collection management implies involvement in tasks such as analysis of needs,
negotiation of contracts and evaluation of resources.
Digital Preservation of Data

One of the major costs facing the academic library is the cost related to the conversion and
preservation of information in digital format. This does not include the cost relating to the
annotation for indexing purposes and the cost of conversion of audio-visual material. One of
the problems with converting records into digital image is the fact that the technology used to
store these pages as a digital photograph results in large files which have storage implications
and place demands on band-with (Wood & Walther, 2000:175).
Funding allocated to preservation of digital material is generally inadequate. This has to do
with expectations that the costs of digital preservation over length of time might be very high.
It is also difficult to forecast cost in terms of how long to retain digital material in an archive
and computer architectures needed to access material (Lavoie & Dempsey, 2004:5).
Preservation of digital materials poses many challenges. It is further complicated by the fact
that computer technology changes at an unprecedented rate.
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Bibliographic Service
Compilation of bibliographies, reading lists and state-of-art reports are very parts of LIS
work, particularly in research and academic libraries. Browsing through the manual indexes
and abstracts is a tedious and time consuming work, and does not always produce up to date
result. Availability of databases in electronic form on CDROM or online, offers convenient,
efficient and cost effective information retrieval. Electronic databases also provide unique
search features such as searching on multiple criteria (key-word, subject, author, source,
classification code, year of publication, language etc.), and variety of display formats &
styles.
Advance features like natural language query ranking the search results in also available in
many databases. Web based services facilitate full text searches and link to full text of the
documents. Dialog, STN and Silver Platter are some of the popular database companies that
offer bibliographic and reference databases on CDROM and Online platforms.
4.0 CONCLUSION
We concluded that there are a lot of ICT facilities that can be used in information resource
management. Some of these facilities are already in our libraries while others are yet to be
exploited.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you now understand the various ICT facilities that can be used to manage our
library resources.

1. What are the roles of ICTs in information resource management?
2. Discuss the areas of ICT application in Libraries and Information centers?
Fishel, F. (2000). Training on use of technology in Libraries Oral interview. In
Crosby, O. (2001). Information experts in the Information age. Occupational Outlook
Quarterly (Winter, 2001).www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2000/winter/art01.pdf on 18/5/2010
Rao, K.N. and Babu, K.H. (2001). Role of Librarian in internet and World Wide Web
Environment. Information Science 4 (1) 25-34. inform.nu/Articles/Vol 4/v4n/po25-
034-pdf.on 4/6/2010.
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UNIT FOUR: EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES AND TOOLS IN INFORMATION
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 ICT tools and Information Services
3.2 ICT based New Services in Libraries and Information Centres
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
80
1.0 INTRODUCTION
ICTs has tremendously changed the Management of Resources or House Keeping
Operations as well as the way services are delivered. While general IT application tools and
Integrated Library Management Systems are largely used in housekeeping operations, like
acquisition, cataloguing, circulation control, serials control etc; Internet has been used
extensively as a resource as well as a tool to deliver the Library and Information Services.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Identify ICTs Tools and Information services

Discuss the ICT Based New Services
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 ICTs Tools and Information Resource Management

In the specific context of Library and Information Services, one of the implications of use of
ICT is that Libraries can reach out globally to provide their services 24-hours a day in very
cost effective manner. ICT has enabled users to avail many services without any human
intervention, the role of the LIS professional is changing from an intermediary to a facilitator
and enabler. In this Unit we have grouped the ICT enabled services into two categories as
follow:
1. ICT enabled conventional LIS, that can be delivered more efficiently through use of
ICT, and
2. New Services, which have been made possible due to developments in ICT.
Information Services
Some of the important changes that developments in ICT have brought about in information
services are:
1. Changes in formats, contents and methods of production & delivery of information
products, and a new business model for use of information products. This requires
procedural and infrastructural changes and cost implications in Libraries.
2. Emergence of Internet as the largest repository of information and knowledge.
3. Extinction or significant transformation of some of the conventional information
services such as press clippings, contents pages, company information etc.
4. Use of new tools and technologies for dissemination of information.
5. Transformation of role of LIS professional as the subject specialist and end-user gets
directly involved in the information work and consequent need for new skills.
6. Shift from physical to virtual services that offer convenience of time and location for
access to services.
Today almost every important reference tools is available in electronic format whether offline
(CDROM) or online, providing convenience of use, storage, timeliness and currency of
information. Computer storage and compression technologies have made it possible to store
81
large amount of data and information on small digital and optical media, eliminating
requirement for large space for holding the printed sources. It is also faster and easier to keep
the electronic sources up to date. For example a 24-volume Encyclopedia Britannica can be
stored on a single CDROM, and online edition of chemical abstracts is updated every week.
Information can also be delivered in a variety of media using different tools, such as
CDROM, email, chat, discussion forum etc.
Since its inception, Internet has emerged as the largest repository of knowledge and
information containing billions of documents, a major part of which is available free of cost.
It means that the library has access to more reference tools that are more up to date and
cheaper. Finding particular information in an electronic reference tool is also very convenient
and fast. Search engines now provide tremendous power to search and select Internet
information effectively and in a user friendly manner.
From the LIS professionals point of view, new environment means adaptation to a different
management paradigm. For example the focus has shifted from owning the information to
right to use. This has opened a whole new area of interest in issues like licensing, copyrights,
pricing and evaluation of services and products. New skills in information retrieval,
marketing, web design, user training, technology management etc are required by the LIS
professionals. The LIS professionals focus is on making partnership and designing user-
friendly interfaces to facilitate users to do their information work.
In the following paragraphs we will now briefly discuss a few types of information services
viz. Reference service, Bibliographic Service, and Current Awareness Service in ICT enabled
environment. Some new information services are described later.
Reference Service: Asynchronous tools such as email, subject gateways, FAQs, and
electronic libraries and interactive tools like chat rooms, virtual reference desk, and ask-me
are replacing theconventional means of post, phone or in-person reference enquiries. Ask-a-
Librarian allows the user to click on ask-a-librarian link to send a formatted enquiry to the
reference librarian. The reference librarian either provides an answer, links to resources or
link to a subject expert. Interactive tools now allow a reference interview online.
Bibliographic Service: Compilation of bibliographies, reading lists and state-of-art reports
are very parts of LIS work, particularly in research and academic libraries. Browsing through
the manual indexes and abstracts is a tedious and time consuming work, and does not always
produce up to date result. Availability of databases in electronic form on CDROM or online,
offers convenient, efficient and cost effective information retrieval. Electronic databases also
provide unique search features such as searching on multiple criteria (key-word, subject,
author, source, classification code, year of publication, language etc.), and variety of display
formats & styles. Advance features like natural language query ranking the search results in
also available in many databases. Web based services facilitate full text searches and link to
full text of the documents. Dialog, STN and Silver Platter are some of the popular database
companies that offer bibliographic and reference databases on CDROM and Online
platforms.
Current Awareness Service: Current Awareness Services has been important means for
keeping the users up to date in their areas of interest. A current awareness service may be as
simple as copy of table of contents or a bulletin containing bibliographic records, of articles
selected from the current issues of journals and other material, and usually organized by
subjects. Libraries now compile current awareness bulletins using predefined search strategy
and running on the database either on CDROM or online periodically and getting the desired
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output. Subject to copyrights, the output can also be stored on a local system, and
disseminated online (internet, intranet) and offline (print, CDROM, email). Table of contents
of most journals are available free from the publishers sites. Some publishers even offer free
email update of table of contents. A large number of electronic publishing sites or portals
now offer current information via email to registered users. For example one can register on
New York Times newspapers to receive summary of news on daily basis.
Internet has enabled a lot of innovations in contents, methods of production and distribution
of current awareness products. Tools such as Listserv, Weblog, Webzines and e-newsletters
are common. Listserv give the latest information, hot topics, ideas and opinions, a chance to
discuss issues, a source of advice and assistance. Weblogs literally log the web. They review,
select and package the latest relevant information, in a subject area.
Document Delivery
It is not possible for libraries to have everything that its clients may need. Libraries use
document delivery services from other libraries and commercial organisations for copies of
research papers etc not held by them. Locating a source and procuring the document requires
considerable time and efforts and the process is laden with uncertainties. ICT has made the
document delivery services very simple and reliable. From searching the holdings to ordering
and delivery have been benefited by the use of ICT. A large number of libraries now host
their up to date holdings on their website and can be searched on internet. Many library
networks maintain union catalogue of their members journal holdings. One such document
delivery service provider British Library Document Supply Service (BLDSC) offers a flexible
system of receiving orders and tracking. BLDSCs email based document supply system
allows registered users to send requests through a formatted email that automatically is
processed by BLDSCs system, which generates location of the sources. The documents can
be received in print as well as electronic format. Online and web based database services such
as STN provides link to document delivery services of their own or a third party. Full text of
electronic journal articles that are available in electronic form may also be downloaded
through links provided by aggregator or gateway services.
Inter-Library Loans and Union Catalogues

As described earlier, no library can fulfill all the needs of its users from its collection.
Resource sharing through Inter-library loan is a necessity for the libraries. Access to the
catalogue of partner libraries is crucial to inter-library lending. Union catalogues,
standardization and machine readable catalogues are aimed at promoting resource sharing.
Printed union catalogues and Computer Output on Microfiche (COM) catalogues and
CDROM are now being replaced by web OPAC and web based union catalogues. Librarians
can now access catalogues of thousands of libraries across the world using Internet.
Developments in digital library and internet technologies have made it possible to
automatically update the catalogue records from member library systems, distributed searches
using a single user interface, and value added services.
Audiovisual Services
Audiovisual materials are important sources of information, education and entertainment.
Many libraries particularly media libraries and large academic and public libraries hold audio
visual material such as music, films, pictures and photographs etc. Old media of LP records
and tape slide have long been replaced with audio and video tape. The new multimedia of
audio CD, Video CD (VCD), and Digital Video Disks (DVD) have advantage of higher
83
storage capacity, random access and longer life than audio and video tapes and cassettes.
Many libraries allow their members to borrow these. Multimedia documents can now be
played on standard PCs, stand-alone or networked. Recent developments in storage media,
compression and encryption technology have made it possible to store large amount of
multimedia documents on hard disk and disseminate through internet. Software such as
Quick Time Player, Microsoft Media Player etc are now freely available to play or see these
documents in a browser.
Customer Relations and User Education

Library being service organisation, customer services and user training are important aspects
of its activities. A continuous interaction with users for feedback and information is a must to
maintain the standards of service. While the conventional means of interaction such as
meetings, suggestion box, surveys and interviews are still important, use of new means of
communications such as email, web forms, bulletins boards, discussion forums and listserv
are fast replacing these. Not only these tools provide a fast, convenient and transparent and
cost effective medium, but also offer scope for innovations and greater peer participation.
Some of these tools can even be used by the libraries to involve the users in book selection
etc. Librarys customer relations can be tremendously improved by innovative use of
technology like virtual library tours, making interactive library maps and floor plan available
on the library web site. A highly ICT enabled environment requires appropriate training to its
users also. The contents of user training must include use of internet tools and resources.
Conventional user education programs can be supplemented with web based instructions and
guides for use of resources. In the conventional class room based user education also ICT
tools are used for presentation and demonstration.
3.2 ICT Based New Services

A library web page or Universal Resource Locator (URL) facilitates single window access to
various web enabled library services. A URL could be as simple as a library web page listing
the services with some links to catalogue and external free and subscribed resources or may
include advance features like interactive helps and value added services such as subject
gateways, self-help tools and frequently asked questions, and information about the library
such as timings, calendar, rules etc can be hosted on the library web site. Apart from the ICTs
enabled conventional services, Libraries are making use of potential of internet and
computing power to provide new and innovative services. In a web enabled environment the
new LIS services can be grouped into the following three categories:
Providing access to internet and internet based services
Providing access to web based resources
Providing access local or internal information resources in digital form
Internet Access
Internet is not only a medium for digital communication but also the worlds largest
repository of information. However, under developed internet infrastructure in a country like
Nigeria, poses a serious challenge to growth of ICT enabled services. Large segment of user
groups may still be deprived of personal access to internet facility. Libraries, therefore,
provide free or controlled access to internet and email. Depending upon the availability users
84
can be given time slots for use of internet facility. Usually a few internet enabled terminals
are provided in the library that can be used by the visitors for internet access and email etc.
Access to Web Based Resources

As already discussed, many types of library materials such as journals, books, patents,
newspapers, standards, photographs, pictures, motion pictures or music are now available in
electronic or digital form. From the users point of view digital resources hold many
advantages such as time and place convenience, timeliness, ability to search directly on text
(as against the catalogue records), ability to link to further reading material, and ability to
disseminate and share information. From the librarys point of view digital format offers
convenience of storage and maintenance, cost advantage, ability to target global users, etc.
However, digital resources also pose human, social and technological problems, such as
discomfiture in reading on the screen, problems in internet access and speed, poor
infrastructure, lack of sufficient skills to use the digital resources, and perceptional change
resulting from right to use rather than physical possession, etc.
E-Journals: Libraries have been exploring easy to cope with the problems of ever increasing
prices of the journals, space requirements and decreasing level of usage as the journals get
older. Nevertheless, libraries are required to maintain back issues of the journals, usually in
bound form. Electronic Journal helps the librarians in addressing these problems to a great
extent without significantly affecting the service levels. Electronic Journals can be accessed
via internet from any web enabled PC. Depending on the type of subscription, one or more
users can access the service simultaneously, either directly from an independent web enabled
PC or in a local area network through a proxy server (IP addresses based access). Electronic
journals also offer benefit of full text searching and downloading of articles. Many publishers
of electronic journals offer their journals through consortia of libraries at much lower rates.
Access to articles in electronic journals can also be made through aggregator services which
offer searchable databases of contents of e-journals from several publishers, and links to
journal site for full text. Emerald, OCLC and J-Gate are some of the example of e-journal
aggregator services. The main disadvantage of electronic journal is that libraries cannot
physically possess the journals.
E-Books: E-Book has been described as a text analogous to a book that is in digital form to
be displayed on a computer screen. E-books can be read just like a paper book, using
dedicated E-Book reader such as GemStar eBook or on a computer screen after downloading
it. There are also some newer technologies developing such as electronic paper, which is
much like paper, except that the text can be changed, and talking books in MP3 format. E-
book offer advantages like portability, 24 hours access, text search, annotation, linking, and
multimedia and self-publishing possibilities. Development of e-book in Nigeria is still in the
infancy stage and issues like compatibility, e-book readers, availability and intellectual
property rights are to be addressed before it can be implemented on large scale.
Electronic Theses and Dissertations (ETD): Dissertations and theses produced at
universities are important sources of information and knowledge for further research. A large
number of universities have converted their theses and dissertation collection into digital
libraries and have made it available on Internet for global access. A number of universities
have also implemented Electronic Theses and Dissertation programmes, where researchers
submit theses in electronic format. Some initiatives such as Networked Digital Library of
Dissertation and Theses (NDLTD) (www.ndltd.org) in development of web based union
catalogues of ETDs submitted over 100 libraries throughout the world are worth mentioning.
85
Patents: Many patent issuing authorities now have made their complete full text patent
records online. For example United States patent documents can be searched and downloaded
free of cost from (www.uspto.gov/patft/index.html ). Some of the commercial organisations
such as Derwent also provide downloading of full text patent from either an online database
vendor (e.g. Dialog, STN) or directly from their site to the subscribers
Course Material: A large number of web based course ware and teaching aids are being
developed to facilitate flexible open learning by many universities and commercial
organisations. Many academic institutions have adopted such course material for their
curricula. Libraries can provide access to course material to the learners and teacher and thus
contribute to open learning. This can be done by providing links to the courseware sites
through subject gateways or provide local access after downloading the material. Some of the
important sites where web based course material and tools can be found are Ask ERIC
(http://ericir.syr.edu/), CAREO-Campus Alberta Repository of Educational Objects
Alexandria (http://www.careo.org) , LESTER-Learning Science & Technology Repository
(http://lester.rice.edu/), MERLOT-Multimedia Educational Resources for Learningand
Online Teaching(http://www.merlot.org/), and GEM- The Gateway to Educational Materials
(http://www.thegateway.org/) .
Subject Gateways
Preparing subject guides or path finders has been an intellectual activity for reference
librarians. Such guides are normally prepared in consultation with the subject experts or by a
subject librarian, who picks up the sources after careful evaluation. Random surfing of the
Internet may be a popular pastime, but is an inefficient use of bandwidth and time. One of the
most useful ways to discover quality resources in a particular subject area is use of subject-
based Internet gateways and directories. A subject gateway thus is a facility that allows easier
access to web based resources in a defined subject area. These are basically a dynamic
catalogues of pre-dominantly online resources, though some libraries include information on
print resources as well. Generally access to subject gateways is provided through library
website, designed to help library users discover high-quality information on the internet in a
quick and effective way. A simple subject gateway may list web based or print resources on a
given subject with links to the website of the resources and some useful information such as
keywords, class number, description and how to access. Advanced subject gateways offer
searchable catalogue or even full text search facility on listed sources.
Digital Library and Archives
Many Libraries traditionally have been repositories of local information and heritage
documents such as manuscripts, rare books, maps, photographs and paintings etc. Archives or
record management is also part of Librarys function, particularly in business and research
organisations. In other cases such as university libraries, documents generated in-house such
as dissertation and theses, research reports etc represent the intellectual strength of the
institution. Libraries are developing digital repositories of such resources, and providing
Internet or intranet access to these. Large public and academic libraries also provide up to
date local information via internet. Digital libraries are a natural progression from electronic
document sharing. The main benefit of digital library is the ability to provide 24-hour, remote
access to high-demand or restricted materials for multiple concurrent users. Setting up a
digital library can either be done using off-the-shelf digital library products, document
management products or library management products capable of digital library management;
or in-house system development using open archives software. Some of the off-the-shelf
products are from Blue Angel Technologies, CONTENTdm, Crossnet Systems Ltd, Endeavor
86
Information Systems , Epixtech, ESP, Ex Libris ,Fretwell-Downing Informatics, IBM, Sirsi,
and SydneyPlus. Greenstone (http://www.greenstone.org ) is leading open source digital
library management software.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In the specific context of Library and Information Science, one of the implications of use of
ICT for information resource management is that, it make the resources to manage effectively
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit you are exposed to the emerging technologies in information resource
management that really changed the way information resources are managed. These
technologies include the new ICT based services such as providing access to internet and
internet based services providing access to web based resources and providingto access local
or internal information resources in digital form

1. Identify the emerging ICT tools in Information Resources Management?
2. Explain how ICT tools could be used in the provision of information services?
3. Identify the ICT new based services that could be introduce in any organisation of
your choice?
Lytle, R.H. (1988) 'Information resource management: a five-year perspective', Information

Management Review3(3), 9-16.
Leow, K.M. and MacLennan, A. (2000) 'An investigation of the use of intranet technology in
UK retail banks', Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 32(3), 135-
146
87
UNIT FIVE: CHALLENGES AND CONSTRAINTS IN ICTs APPLICATION IN
INFORMATION RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Challenges of Using ICT in Information Resource Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Libraries have always been repositories of learning resources. From earliest time, they have
provided access to information for scholars and researchers. The constantly increasing
amount of information been generated and published, the expanding formats of information
storage and retrieval, and ever changing education and research needs of library users make it
difficult for any library to be an effective learning resources without using ICT facilities.
2.0 OBJECTIVE
At the end of this unit, students should be able:
Identify the constrains of using ICT facilities

Find out ways of dealing with the constrains
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Challenges of Using ICT in Information Resource Management
Despite the challenges facing the availability and usability of ICTs in libraries, librarians
andAuthorities concern must find means of making the ICT facilities and resources available
to the libraries for effective information resource management
a. Inadequate Funds in the libraries for acquiring ICT facilities: most of the libraries
havenot been given key attention that they deserve in terms of financial allocations --
thus limiting their ability to meet the targeted requirements of supporting the learning
process positively. The libraries are, therefore, not able to acquire adequate ICT
services for effective information resource management (e.g., access to computers,
copies, printers, network/internet and subscriptions to more electronic databases,
modern bindery equipment etc.).
b. User Education: Technological factors, such as ICT illiteracy is also a bottleneck in
the management of information resources since many library users in developing
countries are not able to utilize ICT services and their applications in library hence
there in need for consistent user training and user support services.
c. Staff Training: most of the staffs in the libraries need more experience and training to
deal with ICT services
88
d. Political and economic instability in developing countries have negatively impacted
the operations of libraries external funding agencies taking advantage of this
instability to push for their own agenda and priorities.
e. Inadequate access to technical expertise: the ICT department that is responsible for
the installation, development and expansion of the backbone network (WLAN/LAN)
in the library has undermined diffusion of ICT in information resource management.
Such a team is required to have basic training in troubleshooting skills and support of
library hardware and software
f. The outdated and bureaucratic procedures in acquisition of ICT equipment and
materials coupled with lack of appropriate policies to support development of ICT in
is noted to slow down implementation of ICT in information resource management.
g. Inadequate diffusion of ICT in information resource management can also be
attributed to lack of real awareness about the benefits of ICT, and the implications if
ICT is not integrated in this library operation.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Libraries have always been repositories of learning resources. From earliest time, they have
provided access to information for scholars and researchers. The constantly increasing
amount of information been generated and published, the expanding formats of information
storage and retrieval, and ever changing education and research needs of library users make it
difficult for any library to be an effective learning resources without using ICT facilities.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, various challenges in the application of ICT in information resource management
has been discussed like Inadequate Funds in the libraries for acquiring ICT facilities, Staff
Training etc

What are the challenge and constrain in the application of ICT for information resources in
your library

Fishel, F. (2000). Training on use of technology in Libraries Oral interview. In Crosby,
O. (2001). Information experts in the Information age. Occupational Outlook
Quarterly (Winter, 2001).www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2000/winter/art01.pdf on 18/5/2010
Francis Swanson, S. (2010). Information for a new age; Redefining the role of
http:/www.theviocelu.com/features/2010/april/17-04-10/Information- for-a-new-a
Libraries and Librarians.
89
MODULE FOUR: Models of Information Resources Management
Unit 1: Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model
Unit 2: A Dual loop Model
Unit 3: Event driven Interactive Model
Unit 4: The Willard Model
Unit 1:Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 An overview of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model
3.2 History of OSI
3.3 Layers of OSI Reference Model
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A model can come in many shapes, sizes, and styles. It is important to emphasize that
a model is not the real world but merely a human construct to help us better understand real
world systems. In general all models have an information input, an information processor,
and an output of expected results. Key features common with the development of any model
is that:
simplifying assumptions must be made;

boundary conditions or initial conditions must be identified;
the range of applicability of the model should be understood
However, models are useful because they help us understand difficult concepts and
complicated systems. When it comes to information resource management and networking,
there are several models that are used to explain the roles played by various technologies, and
how they interact. Of these models is one of the most popular and commonly used is the
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model.
The idea behind the OSI Reference Model is to provide a framework for both
designing networking systems and for explaining how they work. As you read about
networking as an important component of IRM, you will frequently find references to the
various levels, or layers, of the OSI Reference Model. The existence of the model makes it
easier for networks to be analysed, designed, built and rearranged, by allowing them to be
considered as modular pieces that interact in predictable ways, rather than enormous,
complex monoliths. In fact, it is impossible to read a lot of literature about IRM without
encountering discussions that presume at least some knowledge of how the OSI Reference
Model works.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Explain the thrust and philosophy of OSI Reference Model
90
Account for the historical development of OSI Model
Identify and discuss the seven layers of OSI reference Model
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 An Overview of Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model has served as the most
basic elements of computer networking since the inception in 1984. The OSI Reference
Model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organisation (ISO).
The original objective of the OSI model was to provide a set of design standards for
equipment manufacturers so they could communicate with each other. The OSI model
defines a hierarchical architecture that logically partitions the functions required to support
system-to-system communication.
The OSI model has seven layers, each of which has a different level of abstraction and
performs a well-defined function. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven
layers are as follows:
A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed.
Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.
The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be
thrown together in the same layer out of necessary, and small enough that the
architecture does not become unwieldy.
However, the layered approach offers several advantages. By separating networking
functions into logical smaller pieces, network problems can more easily be solved through a
divide-and-conquer methodology. OSI layers also allow extensibility. New protocols and
other network services are generally easier to add to a layered architecture.
The layered approach offers several advantages. By separating networking functions into
logical smaller pieces, network problems can more easily be solved through a divide-and-
conquer methodology. OSI layers also allow extensibility. New protocols and other network
services are generally easier to add to a layered architecture.
Distributed applications services, whether OSI or TCP/IP based, have some common
characteristics:
An end-user interface that provides a human or another application with the means to
enter commands that direct the application to send files to and receive files from a
remote host, list or change directories, rename or delete files, etc.
The means of performing input to and output from mass storage devices.
The means of transferring the files and file-related information between hosts.
The seven OSI layers are defines as follows:

7. Application: Provides different services to the application
6. Presentation: Converts the information
5. Session: Handles problems which are not communication issues
4. Transport: Provides end to end communication control
3. Network: Routes the information in the network
2. Data Link: Provides error control
1. Physical: Connects the entity to the transmission media
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(An acronym used to help remember the model from bottom to top is Please Do Not Throw
Sausage Pizza Away. From top down the All People Seem To Need Data Processing
acronym can be utilized.)
The application, presentation, and session layers comprise the upper layers of the OSI Model.
Software in these layers performs application specific functions like data formatting,
encryption, and connection management. The transport, network, data link, and physical
layers comprise the lower layers, which provide more primitive network specific functions
like routing, addressing, and flow controls. Below is the diagram showing the OSI Model:
3.2 History of OSI
The idea behind the creation of networking standards is to define widely-accepted

ways of setting up networks and connecting them together. The OSI Reference Model
represented an early attempt to get all of the various hardware and software manufacturers to
agree on a framework for developing various networking technologies.
In the late 1970s, two projects began independently, with the same goal: to define a
unifying standard for the architecture of networking systems. One was administered by the
International Organisation for Standardization (ISO), while the other was undertaken by the
International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee, or CCITT (the abbreviation
is from the French version of the name). These two international standards bodies each
developed a document that defined similar networking models.
In 1983, these two documents were merged together to form a standard called The
Basic Reference Model for Open Systems Interconnection. The standard is usually referred to
as the Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model, the OSI Reference Model, or even just
the OSI Model. It was published in 1984 by both the ISO, as standard ISO 7498, and the
renamed CCITT (now called the Telecommunications Standardization Sector of the
International Telecommunication Union or ITU-T) as standard X.200
One interesting aspect of the history of the OSI Reference Model is that the original
objective was not to create a model primarily for educational purposes even though many
people today think that this was the case. The OSI Reference Model was intended to serve as
the foundation for the establishment of a widely adopted suite of protocols that would be used
by international internetworks basically, what the Internet became. This was called,
unsurprisingly, the OSI Protocol Suite.
However, things did not quite work out as planned. The rise in popularity of the
Internet and its TCP/IP protocols met the OSI suite head on, and in a nutshell, TCP/IP won.
Some of the OSI protocols were implemented, but as a whole, the OSI protocols lost out to
TCP/IP when the Internet started to grow. The OSI model itself, however, found a home as a
device for explaining the operation of not just the OSI protocols, but networking in general
terms. It was used widely as an educational toolmuch as I use it myself in this Guideand
also to help describe interactions between the components of other protocol suites and even
hardware devices. While most technologies were not designed specifically to meet the
dictates of the OSI model, many are described in terms of how they fit into its layers. This
includes networking protocols, software applications, and even different types of hardware
devices, such as switches and routers. The model is also useful to those who develop software
92
and hardware products, by helping to make clear the roles performed by each of the
components in a networking system.
3.3 Layers of OSI Reference Model

The Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model has seven layers. This unit describes and
explains them, beginning with the 'highest' in the hierarchy (the Application) and proceeding
to the 'lowest' (the Physical). To understand the layers, you should think of them as the
assembly line in the computer. At each layer, certain activities happen to the data that prepare
it for the next layer. Also, the seven layers can be grouped into the Application and transport
sets. Layers seven, six and five are grouped under the application set while layers four, three,
two and one are under the transport set. Generally the layers are discussed below:
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Application Layer (Layer 7)
The application layer is the top layer of the OSI model. It provides a set of interfaces
for applications to obtain access to networked services as well as access to network services
that support applications directly. This layer also provides application access security
checking and information validation. The Application Layer provides the following
functions:
File Transfer, Access and Management (FTAM): Provides handling services in the
network. This includes the movement of files between different systems, reading,
writing and deletion of remote files, and management of remote file storage.
Virtual Terminal (VT): Provides services to access applications in different remote
computer systems through stimulating a real terminal.
Electronic Mail and Messaging Handling (MHS): Facilitates the electronic exchange
of documents.
Directory Services (DS): Provides services with the ability to match names with
addressing information.
Common management Information Protocol (CMIP): Provides services for network
management
Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
The presentation layer is responsible for the format of the data transferred during
network communications. This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information transmitted. For outgoing messages, it converts data into a generic format for the
transmission. For the incoming messages, it converts the data from the generic form to a
format understandable to the receiving application. It can be viewed as the translator for the
network. This layer may translate data from a format used by the application layer into a
93
common format at the sending station, then, translate the common format to a format known
to the application layer at the receiving station.
Different computers have different codes for representing data. The presentation layer
makes it possible for computers with different representation to communicate. The
presentation layer provides common communication services such as encryption, text
compression, and reformatting. The presentation layer is also concerned with other aspects of
information representation. Data compression can be used to reduce the number of bits that
have to be transmitted. Cryptography is frequently required for privacy and authentication.
Specifically, the presentation layer provides:
Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on.
Data compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.
Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example, password
encryption.
Session Layer (Layer 5)
The session layer permits two parties to hold ongoing communications called a
session across a network. The applications on either end of the session can exchange data or
send packets to another for as long as the session lasts. The session layer handles session
setup, data or message exchanges, and tear down when the session ends. It also monitors
session identification so only designated parties can participate and security services to
control access to session information. A session can be used to allow a user to log into a
remote time-sharing system or transfer a file between two machines.
The session layer has the option of providing one-or-two-way communication called
dialogue control. Sessions can allow traffic to go in both directions at the same time, or in
only one direction at a time. Token management may be used to prevent both sides from
attempting the same operation at the same time. To manage these activities, the session layer
provides tokens that can be exchanged. Only the side holding the token is permitted to
perform the critical operation.
Another session service is synchronization. Consider the problems that occur when
transferring a file between two machines and the system crashes not being able to complete
the transfer. This process must be restarted from the beginning. To avoid this problem, the
session layer provides a way to insert checkpoints into the data stream, so that after a crash,
only the data after the last checkpoint has to be repeated.
Transport Layer (Layer 4)
The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from the session layer, split
it up into smaller units, pass it to the network layer, and ensure that the bits delivered are the
same as the bits transmitted without modification, loss or duplication. It relieves the higher
layer protocols from any concern with the transfer of data between them and their peers. If
an error occurs during transmission, the transport layer must correct it. There is a set of rules
to follow that detail the handling of the error and how to correct it. The correction may mean
re-sending just the damaged data or restarting from the beginning. This can be achieved
because the transport layer protocol includes the capability to acknowledge the receipt of a
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packet. If no acknowledgement is received, the transport layer can retransmit the packet or
time-out the connection and signal an error. The transport protocol can also mark packets
with sequencing information so that the destination system can properly order the packets if
they are received out of order. (Tan Ten Hong, 2001)
If the transport connection requires a high throughput, the transport layer might create
multiple network connection by dividing the data among the network connections to improve
the throughput. However, the transport layer might multiplex several transport connections
onto the same network to reduce costs. This multiplexing is transparent to the session layer.
It is important to stress that transport protocols provide the capability for multiple
application processes to access the network by using individual local addresses to determine
the destination process for each data stream. These addresses are often referred to as ports
and connection opened to these ports as sockets. (Tan Ten Hong, 2001). The size and
complexity of a transport protocol depends on the type of service it can get from the network
layer. For a reliable network layer with virtual circuit capability, a minimal transport layer is
required. If the network layer is unreliable and/or only supports datagrams, the transport
protocol should include extensive error detection and recovery. However, in specific terms
the transport layer provides:
Message segmentation: accepts a message from the (session) layer above it, splits the
message into smaller units (if not already small enough), and passes the smaller units
down to the network layer. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles
the message.
Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with
acknowledgments.
Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when no message
buffers are available.
Session multiplexing: multiplexes several message streams, or sessions onto one
logical link and keeps track of which messages belong to which sessions (see session
layer).
Typically, the transport layer can accept relatively large messages, but there are strict
message size limits imposed by the network (or lower) layer. Consequently, the transport
layer must break up the messages into smaller units, or frames, prepending a header to each
frame. The transport layer header information must then include control information, such as
message start and message end flags, to enable the transport layer on the other end to
recognize message boundaries. In addition, if the lower layers do not maintain sequence, the
transport header must contain sequence information to enable the transport layer on the
receiving end to get the pieces back together in the right order before handing the received
message up to the layer above.
Network Layer (Layer 3)
The network layer controls the operation of a sub-net, provides routing, congestion
control and accounting. The network layer provides both connectionless and connection-
oriented services. A key design issue is determining how packets are routed from source to
destination. The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding which physical
path the data should take based on network conditions, priority of service, and other factors.
It provides:
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Routing: routes frames among networks.
Subnet traffic control: routers (network layer intermediate systems) can instruct a
sending station to "throttle back" its frame transmission when the router's buffer fills
up.
Frame fragmentation: if it determines that a downstream router's maximum
transmission unit (MTU) size is less than the frame size, a router can fragment a
frame for transmission and re-assembly at the destination station.
Logical-physical address mapping: translates logical addresses, or names, into
physical addresses.
Subnet usage accounting: has accounting functions to keep track of frames forwarded
by subnet intermediate systems, to produce billing information.
The network layer software must build headers so that the network layer software
residing in the subnet intermediate systems can recognize them and use them to route data to
the destination address. This layer relieves the upper layers of the need to know anything
about the data transmission and intermediate switching technologies used to connect systems.
It establishes, maintains and terminates connections across the intervening communications
facility (one or several intermediate systems in the communication subnet).
In the network layer and the layers below, peer protocols exist between a node and its
immediate neighbor, but the neighbor may be a node through which data is routed, not the
destination station. The source and destination stations may be separated by many
intermediate systems.
Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
The main task of the data link layer is to take a raw transmission and transform it into
a line that appears free of transmission errors in the network layer. It accomplishes this task
by having the sender break the input data up into data frames, transmit the frames
sequentially, and process the acknowledgment frames sent back by the receiver. The protocol
packages the data into frames that contain source and destination addresses. These frames
refer to the physical hardware address of each network card attached to the network cable.
Ethernet, Token Ring, and ARCnet are examples of LAN data link protocols. If
communication extends beyond the LAN onto the Internet, the network might use other data
link protocols, such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) or Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP).
The data link layer sends blocks of data with the necessary synchronization, bit error
detection/correction error control, and flow control. This control of data flow controls
approximately 70 percent of all error handling. Since the physical layer merely accepts and
transmits a stream of bits without any regard to the meaning of the structure, it is up to the
data link layer to create and recognize frame boundaries. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
Encryption can be used to protect the message as it flows between each network node.
Each node then decrypts the message received and re-encrypts it for transmission to the next
node. To be specific, the data layer provides:
Link establishment and termination: establishes and terminates the logical link
between two nodes.
Frame traffic control: tells the transmitting node to "back-off" when no frame buffers
are available.
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Frame sequencing: transmits/receives frames sequentially.
Frame acknowledgment: provides/expects frame acknowledgments. Detects and
recovers from errors that occur in the physical layer by retransmitting non-
acknowledged frames and handling duplicate frame receipt.
Frame delimiting: creates and recognizes frame boundaries.
Frame error checking: checks received frames for integrity.
Media access management: determines when the node "has the right" to use the
physical medium.
Physical Layer (Layer 1)

The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the
transmission and reception of the unstructured raw bit stream over a physical medium. It
describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional interfaces to the physical medium,
and carries the signals for all of the higher layers. It provides:
Data encoding: modifies the simple digital signal pattern (1s and 0s) used by the PC
to better accommodate the characteristics of the physical medium, and to aid in bit
and frame synchronization. It determines:
o What signal state represents a binary 1

o How the receiving station knows when a "bit-time" starts
o How the receiving station delimits a frame
Physical medium attachment, accommodating various possibilities in the medium:
o Will an external transceiver (MAU) be used to connect to the medium?

o How many pins do the connectors have and what is each pin used for?
Transmission technique: determines whether the encoded bits will be transmitted by
baseband (digital) or broadband (analog) signaling.
Physical medium transmission: transmits bits as electrical or optical signals
appropriate for the physical medium, and determines:
o What physical medium options can be used

o How many volts/db should be used to represent a given signal state, using a
given physical medium
4.0 CONCLUSION
Based on our previous discussions of the OSI model, it is pertinent to state that not
every network uses all of the models layers in information resource management. ISOs
intent in creating the OSI model was not to describe every network but to give protocol
designers a map to follow to aid in design. This model is useful for conceptualizing network
components to demonstrate how they fit together to help the computers within the network
communicate.
5.0 SUMMARY
Under this unit, we tried to understand that The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model has served as the most basic elements of computer networking since the
inception in 1984. It has seven layers, each of which has a different level of abstraction and
performs a well-defined function as summarized below:
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The application layer is the layer at which a user and a computer interface to a
network to view a message, data request, or response. It contains a variety of
commonly used protocols, such as file transfer, virtual terminal, and email.
The presentation layer converts incoming and outgoing data from one presentation
format to another. It manages the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted
between two computers.
The session layer manages the establishment of a continuing series of requests and
responses between the applications at each end. It establishes and manages sessions,
conversions, and dialogues between two computers.
The transport layer manages the end-to-end control and error checking.
The network layer handles the routing of the data. It controls the operation of a packet
from one network to another.
The data link layer provides error control and synchronization for the physical level.
The physical layer conveys the bit stream through the network at the electrical and
mechanical level. It physically transmits signals across a communication medium.

1. Trace the historical development of OSI reference model?
2. Briefly discuss the basic layers of OSI model?
3. What is the main thrust of the OSI model with particular reference to information
resource management?

Charles M. Kozierok (2012) The TCP/IP Guide available online:
http://www.TCPIPGuide.com
Microsoft Support Group (2014). The OSI Model's Seven Layers Defined and Functions
Explained.
Miller, R. L. (2014. The OSI Model: An Overview. SANS Institute InfoSec Reading Room
Feig, R. (2004). Computer Networks: The OSI Reference Model. URL:

http://www.rad.com/networks/1994/osi/intro.htm .
Mitchell, B. (2001). Basic Network Design The OSI Model. URL:

http://compnetworking.about.com/library/weekly/aa052800a.htm
Tan Teng Hong, A.; Chee Meng, M.; Yew Wai, C.; Yoke Chuan, T.; & Kim M., Cheong
(2001). Comparing OSI and TCP/IP. URL: http://members.tripodasia.com.sg/osi/home.htm
(31 July 2001).
Rohlin, Robert W. OSI Model: Upper Layers. URL:
http://www.rohlin.com/helpdesk//CCNA/upper_layers.htm (31 July 2001).
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Unit 2:A Dual loop Model
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Principles of a Dual Loop Model
3.2 Basic Elements of a Dual Loop Model
3.3 Importance of the Model
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Having learnt the OSI model, we shall now proceed to discuss dual loop model in
order to establish the relationship between individuals and organisations in order to
understand the processes involved in the creation of information resources and knowledge for
the overall realisation of the organisations goals and objectives. A Dual Loop model
emphasizes that both individuals and the organisation itself are major essential stakeholders
in the management of information resources. Thus the need for a system that will integrate
the information resources and knowledge created in the organisation life cycle.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Discuss the basic principles and philosophy of a Dual Loop Model
Explain the basic elements of a Dual Loop Model
Highlight the importance of the Model
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Principles of a Dual Loop Model
An organisation stands to be a phenomenon within which individuals and group of
peoples divide and carry out roles and work together to achieve the so called shared
objectives within a formal social structure and with established processes. The dual loop
model is a reference model of the information system design. This model reflects the key idea
of our approach inspired by the theories of Senges Learning Organisation and Nonakas
Organisational Knowledge Creation. This is the basis of expressing behavior in
knowledge management, to clarify who must be informed of what knowledge in which
situation. It is on the line of Knowledge Awareness proposed by Ogata. It works as the
reference model for designing a learning-oriented knowledge management support
environment. The dual loop model is constructed from an individuals intellect conversion
process (personal loop) and organisational intellect conversion process (Organisational loop),
and it represents the flow of intellect between them. The flow of knowledge creation
activities in this dual loop model is explained herein and functions supporting each activity
are detailed in the next subheading.
It is seen by many as a term used to represents the flow of information in an

organisation. It reflects the idea of reference approach; this is because, it is used in designing
a knowledge management support environment. It is thus constructed from an individual
knowledge conversion process. It is nothing, but the combination of centrally two integrated
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ideas that are used to coordinate some activities relating to the formation of an organisational
knowledge; which is thus explained from the viewpoints of an individual and organisation as
the aggregation of individuals. The two are modeled as separated loops of activities related to
each other by making the interaction between the loops clear. It is also the reference model
for designing a knowledge management support environment.
Our goal is to present a framework that supports all the activities from the practical
ones in an organisation to the knowledge creation ones. In this research, based on the two
ideas set out in previous section, some activities relating to the formation of organisational
knowledge are explained from both viewpoints of the individual as the substantial actor in
an organisation and the organisation as the aggregation of the individuals. The two
viewpoints are modeled as two separated loops of activities and related each other by making
the interaction between the loops clear. The whole model called Dual Loop Model is
roughly illustrated in the figure 1.
3.2 Basic Elements of a Dual Loop Model

Minsky (1975), asserts that Dual Loop Model is made up of the Personal Loop and
the Organisational Loop. And they are explained below:
Personal Loop
The personal loop is a loop of individual activities of knowledge acquisition and
creation. It consists of four processes: Internalization, Amplification, Externalization and the
Combination. This loop has a learning mode, in which an individual acquires knowledge
from his or her surroundings, and a creative mode in which he/she creates knowledge of
which the significance is approved in an organisation. Systems supporting the learning and
the creation modes can be considered the learning support and creative support systems
respectively. Possible common basic requirements for supporting these two models are:
Easy access to useful knowledge for its acquisition and creation activities. This is
closely equivalent to the considerations in the study of knowledge awareness support.
Creates rational learning process for an organisation in the creative mode.
Supports acquiring knowledge and sending it to others as the basis of an individual
amplifying process.
Organisational Loop
This is an abstracted model that reflects members activities in personal loops in an
organisation as knowledge inheriting and creating activities from an organisational
viewpoint. The typical activities include acquisition and creation of knowledge inside and
outside an organisation. The loop consists of internalization, socialization, externalization,
and combination. In the organisational structure of the middle up-down management, the
process of internalization and socialization (on the left), and the process of externalization
and combination (on the right) are the activities for K-practitioners and K-engineers
respectively.
Further, this dual loop can explain learning conditions in an organisation. For
example, an organisation that frequently has events in the socialization process (at the top
left) and rarely has events in the combination process (at the bottom right) mean that even
though a K-practitioner actively carries out knowledge acquiring and creating activities , they
are not likely to be recognized as organisational knowledge. Lack of activities of K-
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practitioners and K-engineers can be identified as the causes. Further, when an organisations
have events only in the internalization process in the organisational loop (at the bottom left),
it can be seen that a tendency of the organisation leans to practice acquisitional activity. Thus,
the dual loop model is also use as a reference for analyzing the proper flow of knowledge
acquisition, passing down and creation in an organisation.
An organisational loop there is a typical example of creative organisational behavior
that each member has appropriate knowledge, exchange the knowledge and create innovative
ideas. At the same time, the organisation immediately adopts the ideas and clarifies the value
of the idea from an organisational view point. To develop such a knowledge creation process,
information technology is thought to be able to support the maintenance of the creation
process.
However, K-practitioners acquire knowledge in the socialization and internalization
process of the organisation loop, and create innovative ideas based on the acquired
knowledge. Socialization can be regarded as knowledge communication among K-
practitioners, and can be supported by the information and communication technology so as
to improve the accessibility of others knowledge in organisation. Internalization, however, is
regarded as inheritance of systemic knowledge that is explicit knowledge externalized and
socialized.
3.3 Importance of the Model

The dual loop model for information resource management indicates a number of
significant improvements in practice. First, this model serves as a useful communication
channel to capture users preferences when they access to an information resource. In this
way the channel could transmit information users preference, perception and opinion for
information resource management.
Meanwhile, this model is also a useful channel for information provider to gain users
preference, perception and opinion. Second, if information resource management is armed
with this approach, it can then try to ensure that the information resource management
delivers what users liked and preferred. In return, information users will benefit, and should
be satisfied if they can access an information resource that is as pleasant as they thought.
Third, based on the continuous and repetitive updating the contributions from
information user and information provider, this model can be a way of learning for
information resource designed in one location and will be implemented to another.
Accordingly this model, on the one hand, can help information provider to extend the
information service wherever the business to be deployed.
On the other hand, it can also help information provider provide information service
in the specified filed. From time to time, the adaptable information resource could bridge
information users and information resource both professionally and individually, which will
greatly contribute not only the information recourse management and information service
business, but also various information requirements for information users. It is believed that
the dual loop model provides a sound management mechanism by linking both information
users and information providers to building up an adaptable information resource.
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4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit tried to equip you with the requisite knowledge to understand the need for
integrating both the information users and information providers to developing an effective
and efficient information resources management system. This explains the justification for a
Dual Loop Model. The dual loop model is a reference model of the information system
design. This model reflects the key idea of our approach inspired by the theories of Senges
Learning Organisation and Nonakas Organisational Knowledge Creation. This is the
basis of expressing behavior in knowledge management, to clarify who must be informed
of what knowledge in which situation. The dual loop model is constructed from an
individuals intellect conversion process (personal loop) and organisational intellect
conversion process (Organisational loop), and it represents the flow of intellect between
them.
5.0 SUMMARY
We have succeeded in discussing the theoretical framework of a dual loop model
noting the major key variables of individual user loop and organisational loop. Also, we have
learnt the importance of this model in the management of information resources. It allows for
information resources and needs of both the user and organisation to be identified, analysed,
synthesized, and distributed for use. It is hoped that information managers of which librarians
are one would apply this model in order to guarantee maximum customer satisfaction as well
as the realisation of the goals and objectives of the organisation.

1. What are the basic principles and philosophy underlying the Dual Loop Model?
2. Briefly discuss the 2 elements of a Dual Loop Model?
3. Enumerate the importance of the Model to information resource managers?

Ikujiro Nonaka and Hirotaka Takeuchi (1995) The Knowledge-Creating Company: How
Japanese Companies Createthe Dynamics of Innovation, Oxford University Press, 1995.
Yusuke Hayashi, Hiroyuki Tsumoto, Mitsuru Ikeda, Riichiro MizoguchiKfarm: A

Knowledge Management Support System Based on Dual Loop Model
Nonaka I., Toyama R., and Konno N. (2000). SECI, Ba, Leadership: a Unified Model of
Dynamic Knowledge Creation, Long Range Planning, 33, pp. 5-34
Brown J. S. and Duguid P. (2000).The Social Life of Information, Harvard Business

School Press, Boston
Tobin D. (1996). Transformational Learning: Renewing Your Company thought Knowledge

and Skills, John Wiley & Sons
Mitsuru Ikeda, Yusuke Hayashi, Hiroyuki Tsumoto, Riichiro Mizoguchi, "A Knowledge
Management Support Environment based on Dual Loop Model", ICME, 2001, 2001 IEEE
International Conference on Multimedia and Expo, 2001 IEEE International Conference on
Multimedia and Expo 2001, pp. 162, doi:10.1109/ICME.2001.1237800
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Xiuzhen F. (2008). A Dual Loop Model for Managing Information Resource. International
Business Information Management Association (IBIMA).
Minsky, M. (1975). A Framework for Representing Knowledge in the Psychology of
Computer Vision. Winston: Mc Graw-Hill.
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Unit 3:Event Driven Interactive Model
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Event Driven Interactive Model
3.2 Components of Event Driven Interactive Model
3.3 Characteristics of an Event
3.4 Criticism of Event Driven Interactive Model
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will learn the basics of event interactive model used for information
resources management in organisation. It is a model that is based on computer programming
that allows information resources to be managed according to series of events interacting as a
system to facilitate data input, output and retrieval as well as dissemination to the target
audience. The model is beneficial to information managers in such a way that information
resources provision and use in organisations could be enhanced, secured and effective.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define the concept of Event Driven Interactive Model
Identify the components of the Model
Discuss the various characteristics of an Event
Highlight the major criticism of the Model
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Concept of Event Driven Interactive Model

It is a programming paradigm in a computer programming that is used to manage
information in which the flow of the program is determined by the events such as user actions
for example mouse clicks, key presses, sensor output, or messages from other
programs/threads. It is thus a dominant paradigm used in graphical user interfaces and other
applications (for example, java script web application) that are centered and are performing
certain actions in response to user input.
On the other hand, an event-driven model is a computer program that is written to

respond to actions generated by the user or the system. In a computing context, an event is
any identifiable occurrence that has significance for system hardware or software. As such,
events include both user-generated actions like mouse clicks and keystrokes and system-
generated events such as program loading.
Event-driven programming separates event-processing logic from the rest of a

programs code. The event-driven approach contrasts with batch processing. Because event-
driven programming is an approach rather than a type of language, event-driven apps can be
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created in any programming language. Depending on the specific application, event-driven
processing can improve responsiveness and flexibility.
In an event driven application, there is generally a main loop that listens for events,
and then triggers a callback function when one of those events is detected (Samek, 2009). In
embedded systems the same may be achieved using hard ware interrupts instead of a
constantly running main loop. Event driven programs can be written in any programming
language, although the task is easier in languages that provide high-level abstractions, such as
closures.
In their book Event-Driven Processing in Action, authors Peter Niblett and Dr. Opher
Etzion describe some purposes of event-driven applications:
Your application might be naturally centered on events. They involve some kind of
sensor that detects and reports events and the purpose of the application is to analyse
and react to these events.
Your application might need to identify and react to certain situations (either good or
bad) as they occur. An event-driven approach, where changes in state are monitored
as they happen lets an application respond in a much more timely fashion than a batch
approach where the detection process runs only intermittently.
Your application might involve analysis of a large amount of data in order to provide
some output to be delivered to a human user or some other application. By treating the
input data as events you can use an event-driven approach to distribute this analysis
across multiple computing nodes.
The event-driven approach can give you a way of extending an existing application in
a flexible, non-invasive manner. Rather than changing the original application to add
the extra function it's sometimes possible to instrument the original application by
adding event producers to it (for example by processing the log files that it produces).
The additional functionality can then be implemented by processing the events
generated by these event producers
3.2 Components of the Event Driven Interactive Model

A Trivial Event Handler
Because the code for checking events and the main loop do not depend on the
application, many programming frameworks take care of their implementation and expect the
user to provide only the code for the event handlers. In this simple example, there may be a
call to an event handler called On Key Enter that includes an argument with a string of
characters, corresponding to what the user typed before hitting the ENTER key.
Exception Handlers
In PLK/1, even though a program itself may not be predominantly event driven,
certain abnormal events such as a hard ware error. Overflow or program checks, may occur
that possibly prevent further processing. Exception handlers may be provided by ON
statements in unseen callers to provide housekeeping routines to clean up afterwards before
termination.
Creating Event Handlers
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The first step in developing event-driven program is to write a series of subroutines,
or methods called event handler routines. These routines handle the event to which the main
program will respond. For example, a single left button mouse click on a mouse button in a
GUI program may trigger a routine that will open another window, save data to a database or
exit the application. Many modern day programming environments provide programmer with
an event templates, allowing the programmer to focus on the writing the event code.
The second step is to blind event handlers to events so that the correct function is
called when the event takes place. Graphical editors combine the first two steps: Double click
on a button, and the editor creates an empty event handler and associated with the user
clicking the button and opens a text window so you can edit the event handler.
The third step in developing an event driven program is to write the main loop. This is
a function that checks for the occurrence of events, and then calls the matching event handler
to process it. Most event driven programming environments already provide this main loop,
so it need not be specifically provided by the application programmer. RPG, an early
programming language from IBM, whose 1960s design concept was similar to event driven
programming as it is discussed above, provided a built in main I/O loop known as the
program cycle, where the calculations responded in accordance to indicators that were set
earlier in the cycle.
3.3 Characteristics of an Event
To cope with asynchrony, programmers have described the event driven programming
model. An event can be anything that can happen asynchronously and has meaning for a
computation. Each event is received and then processed according to the type of the event
and the data that carries with it. Events can be produced almost anywhere in a system. The
user, an I/O module, another computation or even the same computation can produce events.
As one can understand from the description above event is a very wide and often
subtle notion. There is not a clear description for what is an event and there is no clear
description on who produces the events. Generally someone can interpret and use the notion
of what is an event according to its needs. But generally there are some characteristics that
cannot be changed. A characteristic that we can conclude is that event driven discipline
follows concurrency and parallelism. In order to program event driven applications we must
be familiar with the notions and the basics of concurrent and parallel programming.
Communication also plays an important role when dealing with this kind of situations.
Another characteristic is that of asynchrony. Events can happen at almost any time.
Many libraries, programming languages, OS extensions, compilers etc where

developed over the years as tools for developers to handle event driven programming. In
these kind of applications in an event was given a programming instance. All applications of
this category tried to focus on aspects such as performance, efficiency, usability and tried to
include a wider set of application to the event definition.
There are two ways to handle events in an application. Either we spawn new threads
to handle them or we create a context for each event and we process it along with the other
contexts in one computation stream. Many researchers and developers have also
experimented with hybrid event models that spawn threads, each one of them responsible to
handle multiple event contexts. If someone decides to take the first approach then the
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principles of thread or process programming should be applied. Thread creation, shared
memory or message passing communication and synchronisation are some of the
characteristic of this kind of computation. For a more advanced study of the subject, the
thread processing overhead should be taken into account.
The second approach requires for knowledge such as creating and storing an event
context. For example if we are waiting for a response from an event then it is best to store it
until if the response is ready and proceed with the processing of another event. These
contexts should be distinct, in a sense that contexts exist in its own memory boundaries.
Scheduling is also important. The application must be able to decide which context to process
next. Communication between events can easily be done since the contexts exist on the same
memory space. Communication raises issues around synchronisation, but this should not be a
big problem since the context switching is done in known time.
In conclusion, a careful consideration of the first approach will reveal the fact that
thread-spawning is actually an instance of the second approach. Context switching,
scheduling, communication and synchronization are left to be done by the operating system.
Hybrid approaches are actually systems with two levels of event processing. This provides
more flexibility and fine tuning to the application.
3.4 Its Criticism and Best Practices

Event driven programming models widely used graphical user interfaces, for instance
the Android concurrency frameworks are designed using the half-Sync/Half-Async pattern,
and where a combination of a single- threaded event loop processing for the main UI threads
is used. This is because the UI widgets are not thread safe, and while they are extensible,
there is no way to guarantee that all the implementations are thread safe, thus single-threaded
model alleviates this issue.
The design of those toolkits has been criticized by many for example Miro Samek, for
promoting an over simplified model of event action, leading programmers to create error
prone, difficult to extend and excessively complex application code. It is thus fertile ground
for bugs, this is because:
1. It always leads to convoluted conditional logic.
2. Each branching point requires evaluation of a complex expression.
3. Switching between different modes requires modifying many variables, which all can
easily lead to inconsistencies.
Stack-less Threading
An event driven model is used in hardware description languages. A thread context
only needs a CPU stack while actively processing an event. Once done the CPU can move on
to process other event driven threads, which allows an extremely large number of threads to
be handled. This is essentially a finite state machine approach.
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit tried to provide you with the comprehensive explanation of the event
interactive model which is a model that is mostly applied in the management of information
resources in organisations. It is considered a viable and effective framework for ensuring
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information quality, security, access, use and distribution. That is why event interactive
model is viewed as a computer programming which enables user input, output and process
data and information for onward transmission to managers for effective decision making. It is
our hope that you will apply the knowledge in your establishment.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have explained to you the basic principles of event driven interactive
model. We observed that several scholars have suggested its use and adoption for effective
information resources management. Also, we learnt the characteristics of the model with the
hope that as library managers we should be seen to be applying models as the case may be in
our attempt to manage our information resources in our libraries and information centres.
This will go a long way in ensuring that right information is provided at the right time and in
the right format to a right customer.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSISGNMENT

1. Discuss the basic principles of Event Driven Interactive Model
2. Identify the major characteristics of an event
Dimitrios Kouzapas (2009) A Session Type Discipline for Event Driven Programming
Models. AN Unpublished Thesis Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
MSc Degree in Advanced Computing of Imperial College London
Maxwell Krohn, Eddie Kohler, and M. Frans Kaashoek (2007) Events can make sense. In
2007 USENIX Annual Technical Conference on Proceedings of the USENIX Annual
Technical Conference, 2007.
Philipp Haller and Martin Odersky. Scala actors: Unifying thread-based and event-based
programming. TCS, 410(2-3):202{220, 2009.
Rob von Behren, Jeremy Condit, and Eric Brewer (2003) Why events are a bad idea (for
highconcurrency servers). In Proceedings of the 9th conference on Hot Topics in Operating
Systems, volume 9, 2003.
Samek, M. (2009). State Machines for Event Driven System. Webmaster
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Unit 4:The Willard Model
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The philosophy of Willard Model
3.2 Elements of Willard Model
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall as usual examine the philosophy of Willard Model noting the
fact that information resources have been regarded as essential ingredient for the attainment
of the goals and objectives of our libraries. We shall also attempt to explain the various
elements of the model taking into cognizance their relationship with information resources
access, processing and utilisation. The intent of this unit is to provide you with a framework
that will facilitate access and use of information resources by stakeholders using a more
traditional information resources management.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students shall be able to:
Discuss the basic philosophy of Willard Model
Explain the elements of Willard Model
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The philosophy of Willard Model
It is one of the most important models used in the field of Information Resources
Management [IRM] particularly to manage explicit knowledge. Its name was derived
etymologically from one of the IIRMC associates Nick Willard in its year of invention
(2003). He (Willard) made mention that the reason behind business information is feed
decision through the filter of knowledge. The trend in information resources management
took a definite shape when Nick Willard proposed a model based on traditional resource
management principles. The model eventually became known as 'The Willard Model'. The
essence of the model was to facilitate access and use of information resources by stakeholders
in different organisations. This is because IRM stresses upon Information as a resource just as
any other resource like human resources and financial resources in organisations. Information
is a resource with a final value established according to information quality criteria (novelty,
reliability, precision, etc.), potential, and effectiveness of its application.
IRM affect all functional areas and all management levels of an organisation. On this
note, Nick Willard proposes his Model in order to ensure organisations could realize their
goals and objectives and remain competitive in their business environment. In order to realize
this he identifies five key elements to justify the need for the efficacy of the model. These key
elements will be discussed under the next subheading.
3.2 Elements of Willard Model
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To expatiate his model, Nick Willard identified six basic elements to represent the
essential components of his model for effective Information Resource Management in both
profit and nonprofit making organisations. Information and resource managers, archivist and
librarians including information scientist have realized the need to embrace frameworks and
theories to manage information resources as their organisation asset. Below is the brief
discussion of the five key elements of Willard Model:
1. IDENTIFICATION
Labels are assigned or any other means of identification; creating an information
resource directory. To conduct an information inventory, one needs to specify information
with its attributes and specification. This also entails the assignment of responsibility for
various information management processes that has to do with sourcing, distributing and
maintaining information throughout its life cycle.
It enhances resource discovery and recording essential features in an inventory. To
identify the resource by means of a string or number conforming to a formal identification
system. An identifier embodies the information required to distinguish what is being
identified from all other things within its scope of identification. Eg: Metadata stores the
ISBN (International Standard Book Number) . A different ISBN is allocated to each
manifestation of a title (Paperback , Hardback, CD ROM etc.). So, a user with a specific
ISBN can find the resource efficiently.
2. OWNERSHIP
This includes the sponsors (those who agree with its value to the business); stewards
(those who are front line users) and custodians (those who physically hold the information,
such as the librarians and the database managers). They do measure information utility and
express it in monetary form as a means of making an objective judgment.
Ownership establishes the responsibility for maintenance of resources Eg: If a Digital Library
is holding a resource, the library is also responsible for exposing information regarding
applicable rights and permissions to resources.
3. COST AND VALUE

This may be acquisition or any replacement costs. And then, value may be expressed
in any number of ways. The need to enhance and sustain the resource in a charging
environment, were lack of creativity will result in the diminution of its value and utility.
4. DEVELOPMENT
The proactive maximization of value by seeking for opportunities to benefit from the
improving efficiency, effectiveness or strategies position enables an organisation to be
successful in developmental accomplishment.
5. EXPLOITATION
This may be identifying who else could take advantage of the existing information,
how could it be used to improve existing processes; or external commercialization
opportunities. For example, how could it add value to products, can it be sold as an asset in
its own right (like database marketing)?
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4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you will be able to understand the fact that Willard Model is an essential
instrument for IRM that facilitate access and use of information resources in our organisation.
This is made possible considering the various key elements of the model which are
identification, ownership, cost and value, development and exploitation. The essence of
identification is to know who as a part of a knowledge audit, identifying experts in various
knowledge areas to the organisation. For ownership, it clearly identifies who is responsible
for ensuring a core of excellence in a particular field. But then, cost and value places business
value on different categories of knowledge than not easily being purchased externally (for
example, if people leave). Development helps to introduce mechanisms to share the expertise
of individuals more widely across the organisation.
5.0 SUMMARY
We have succeeded in this unit to highlight the basic philosophy of Willard Model
noting some salient facts as proposed by Nick Willard. Also, we have identified and
discussed the important key elements of the model for easy application in our respective
libraries and information centres. It is therefore hope that you would find this model
worthwhile in guaranteeing maximum customer satisfaction on one hand and ensuring the
realisation of the organisational goals and objectives on the other.

1. Highlight the basic philosophy of Willard Model?
2. Identify and briefly discuss the key elements of Willard Model?
7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Devika P Madalli (ND) Re-defining Resource Management using Semantic Technologies
SCHNEYMAN, Arthur H. Organising information resources. Information Management
Review, Summer 1985, pp.35-45.
WILLARD, Nick. Information resource management. Aslib Information, 1993, 21(5).
Guidelines for using resource identifiers in Dublin Core metadata. Available at:http:
//dublincore.org/ architecturewiki/Resource Identifier Guidelines (Accessed on 12/12/2009)
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MODULE 5: CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN INFORMATION RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Unit 1: Emerging Technologies and Social Networking Sites (SNSs)

Unit 2: Ethical and legal issues
Unit 3: Development of Institutional Digital Repository
Unit 4: Electronic Resources Management (ERM)
UNIT 1: EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES AND SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES

(SNSS)
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Social Networking Sites and Libraries
3.2 The Changing Library Environment
3.3 Social Networking Opportunities for Libraries
3.4 Challenges of Social Networking
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the first decade of the 21st century, new media technologies for social networking such as
Facebook, MySpace, Twitter and YouTube began to transform the social, political and
informational practices of individuals and institutions across the globe, inviting a
philosophical response from the community of applied ethicists and philosophers of
technology. While this scholarly response continues to be challenged by the rapidly evolving
nature of social networking technologies, the urgent need for attention to this phenomenon is
underscored by the fact that it is reshaping how human beings initiate and/or maintain
virtually every type of ethically significant social bond or role: friend-to-friend, parent-to-
child, co-worker-to co-worker, employer-to-employee, teacher-to-student, neighbour-to-
neighbour, seller-to-buyer, and doctor-to-patient, to offer just a partial list. Nor are the ethical
implications of these technologies strictly interpersonal.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define the Concept of Social Networking

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Discuss Social Networking Sites and Libraries
Explain the Changing Library Environment and Social Networking
Enumerate the Social Networking Opportunities for Libraries
State the Challenges of Social Networking
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Concept of Social Networking
A social networking service is a platform to build social networks or social relations among
people who share interests, activities, backgrounds or real-life connections. A social network
service consists of a representation of each user (often a profile), his or her social links, and a
variety of additional services. Social networks are web-based services that allow individuals
to create a public profile, to create a list of users with whom to share connections, and view
and cross the connections within the system. Most social network services are web-based and
provide means for users to interact over the Internet, such as e-mail and instant messaging.
Social network sites are varied and they incorporate new information and communication
tools such as mobile connectivity, photo/video/sharing and blogging. Online community
services are sometimes considered as a social network service, though in a broader sense,
social network service usually means an individual-centered service whereas online
community services are group-centered. Social networking sites allow users to share ideas,
pictures, posts, activities, events, interests with people in their network.
3.2 Social Networking Sites and Libraries

Social networking sites are web-based services that allow individuals to construct a public or
semi-public profile within a bounded system, to articulate a list of other users with whom
they share a connection, and view and traverse their list of connections and those made by
others within the system. Different social groups in Nigeria such as Nigerian Library
Association (NLA) can establish contacts and online forum. Social Network Sites (also called
Social Networking Services or Social Networking Communities), are those Internet systems
that have at their heart the personalized profile. Some of the prominent examples include:
Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter, and MySpace. Social networking sites are two-way transparent
communication that encourage a feedback mechanism; connecting people with shared
interest. Social networking sites allow librarians to adopt a new role by placing themselves
into a social realm with users. By reading blogs, group postings, and message boards, the
librarian becomes an active participant, who is able to anticipate and advise patrons as needs
arise. Linking to patron profiles also keeps the library within the consciousness of users,
potentially increasing interaction. In the social network site, the user is a participant, a co-
creator, and a builder of knowledge. The dynamic nature of this technology enables users to
have an open access to knowledge and contribute local content on the social network space.
Some of these Social Networking Sites (SNS) popularly used by librarians in Nigeria to meet
the information needs of the users include:
Facebook: most popular now because it is librarian- friendly, with many applications like
JSTOR search, World Cat, and much more. Librarians can interact with users to know their
information need. Libraries try to link some of these specialized library applications to
Facebook.
MySpace: In Academic institutions where the students are; libraries have taken advantage of
this site to post, calendar, custom catalog search tools, and blog features to improve their
presence.
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Ning: Librarians can get connected with users, library associations, and more. The Nigerian
Library Association (NLA) utilizes this platform to discuss topical issues among the
members.
Blogs: Here, librarians can periodically post messages; share information on a particular
subject or issue, and allow users to contribute to content. They can write articles, news on
topical issues and expect an instant reaction from their users.
Wikis: is a free online encyclopedia that gives a background knowledge and definition of
concepts. It offers a platform for users to access, edit and contribute to content. This is a
collaborative web page for developing web content.
LinkedIn: Librarians can get patrons connected with specialists in their particular field of
interest via LinkedIn. Librarians can use this platform to render specialized services such as
Strategic Dissemination of Information (SDI).
Twitter: a micro blogging application, to keep staff and patrons updated on daily activities,
like frequently updated collections. Users can utilize this platform to type in short messages
or status update. Librarians in Nigeria can use this platform to give users firsthand
information on the on-going national elections. Users can send Instant Messages (IM) on
complaints or ask questions on a particular issue and get a feedback on the spot using twitter.
YouTube: In institutions in Nigeria, events such as important highlights of inaugural
lectures, conferences and workshops are disseminated via the YouTube.
Flickr: Librarians can use this tool to share and distribute new images of library collections.
Cover page of new arrivals of both books and journals can be disseminated to users via
Flickr. It can also be used to enlighten users on topical issues such as the different pictures of
emblems of the political parties in Nigeria; for the on-going lections in Nigeria, many Public
and Academic libraries put this to great use.
Library Thing: Atool that enriches the library OPAC. Once an account is created, a list of
books with ISBNs is sent to Library Thing which sends back a piece of code which is pasted
into the footer of the Library OPAC. Librarians can utilize this to send a list of current
publications to users.
3.3 The Changing Library Environment and Social Networking

Today, libraries are using the latest technologies and trends to make their services popular
and user friendly. The concept of a library as physical place where one can visit to get
information is rapidly changing to a social cyberspace where users access, communicate and
contribute to existing knowledge.
This is because the modern library of the 21st century is characterized with collective
knowledge creation and enabling technologies; and also a movement away from the old
stereotype, conventional and one directional library services to users to a more dynamic, two-
way communicational network environment characterized by open access, content creation,
collaborative and participatory social space where users are free to access and contribute
content. The potentials of the modern technology with the Open Access Protocols provide the
opportunity for free access, free interaction, free communication and contribution to
knowledge. Tise (2009) posits that libraries facilitate access to information thereby providing
the means through which new knowledge is developed and made available to all. Ezeani and
Eke (2010) posit that the most applicable web 2.0 technology for library services is the social
114
networking tools where librarians can interact with their users to study their needs and give
a feedback; photo sharing where archival pictures can be posted to users or uploaded on the
library websitesLibrarians in Nigeria are gradually utilizing these tools to offer on the
spot library services to users. These are made possible with the present social networking
sites such as Facebook, MySpace, Wiki, etc. which provide interactive platform for users to
access and generate content. Information is now produced in a variety of media whose
representation can no longer be presented in the physical books alone. Libraries need to
realize that in order to engage with their users they will need to reach them in their preferred
methods of communication (Topper, 2007, p. 378).
3.4 Social Networking Opportunities for Libraries

Social networking sites are constantly promoting open access to knowledge. Open access is
the term used to refer to resources that are openly available to users with no requirements for
authentication or payment. It is a model that presents free access to publications. In an open
access platform, users are not charged for access to articles or other resources, and are free to
read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to full texts of these resources,
provided they do not violet copyright rules, Budapest Open Access Initiative, 2002. In:
Tiamiyu and Aina (2008). The feature of social networking allows users to search, browse,
filter, find, collaborate and have online open access to knowledge and contribute to web
content.
Social networking presents some important opportunities to libraries which include marketing
of library services and reference services.
Marketing of library services the growing population of patrons and librarians that make
use of social networking is an indication that it is an ideal vehicle for marketing the services
of libraries to patrons. Flickr is an excellent marketing tool which could be used by librarians
to sensitize the users on general library services. Most students are not aware of the different
services offered in the library such as reservation of books, reference services and Strategic
Dissemination of Information (SDI). Librarians can spread awareness of library services to
those who may not be aware of these services via social media. Librarians can also develop
subject-specific blogs and play a leading role in advocating the use of blogs for scholarly
communication and commenting on research findings.
Reference Services the use of social networking tools enable librarians to identify library
patrons on the social cyberspace and pro-actively provide the type of information that would
normally result from reference service. Social networking tools are not only being used as a
vehicle for promoting services, programs and new resources but they are also used for
reference service. (Steiner, 2009, p. 4) Students are using tools like Ask a Librarian, meebo
and twitter to ask questions in real time(Steiner, 2009, p. 5) and this is assisting in
promoting the library as a relevant, efficient and helpful place. Social networking tools like
Instant Messaging (IM), Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) could be used to achieve a
successful and sustainable reference services in an online social space by engaging in an
online face-to-face interaction. This is particularly useful for distance learners who may call
in from any part of the country with reference queries. Reference interaction has always been
a conversation (Lankes, 2008); moving towards reference in the social environment is
therefore a natural development that has been shown to be not only practically viable, but
also to benefit the researcher. Using social networking tools for making the reference act a
participatory one means that the client can be served by multiple sources and a variety of
authoritative, scholarly perspectives resulting in an enriching
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3.5 Challenges of Social Networking
Lack of Awareness Most librarians in the developing countries are not aware of social
networking services, even the few that are aware are still struggling to find out the productive
uses of these sites for library services. Users are also not aware of the protocols involved in
social communication. Many students and possibly even some of the academic staff may be
unaware that there is a subject specialist in their discipline. It is important for librarians to
initiate contact with clients and experiment with developing a public self (Horizon Report,
2007).
Getting students and Facebook users to move beyond the social aspect of Facebook to use it
for more serious and productive outcome is a challenge in Nigeria. In fact, there is a general
slogan in Nigeria that says leave Face book and face your book. This point to the fact that
Face book is usually seen as a vehicle for unserious communication
Bandwidth problem Most institutions have limited bandwidth to support this practice.
Poor connectivity can frustrate effective online participation.
Technophobia Many librarians and users are afraid of handling computers. They make the
traditional library services their comfort zone and are not eager to embrace change.
Lack of maintenance culture Maintenance culture is seriously lacking in most institutions
in developing countries. The few available technologies are in moribund conditions that may
not support remote access to information.
Unreliable power supply The low supply of electricity discourage people from
participating in the online forum.
Lack of training of staff Most librarians lack the 21st century skills that could be required
to adopt the social networking tools for effective library services.
Government intervention: There is little or no intervention of the government in the area of
ICT in Nigeria.
Copyright Issue The free access to information where people copy, paste and edit without
acknowledging the authority is a serious challenge to copyright management.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The complex web of interactions between social networking service users and their online
and offline communities, social network developers, corporations, governments and other
institutions like libraries along with the diverse and sometimes conflicting motives and
interests of these various stakeholderswill continue to require rigorous philosophical
analysis for decades to come.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this chapter various social network site have been discuss in general, it also discuss the
sites that can be used for information resource management in the libraries.

1. What are Social Networking Sites?
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2. Enumerate the advantage and disadvantages of using social network sites in our
libraries for information resource management?
3. Discuss the challenges of adopting Social Networking media in IRM?

Moor, J., 2008, Why We Need Better Ethics for Emerging Technologies, in Information
Technology and Moral Philosophy, J. van den Hoven and J. Weckert (eds.),
Cambridge: UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 2639.
Bakardjieva, M. and Gaden, G., 2011, Web 2.0 Technologies of the Self, Philosophy of
Technology, DOI 10.1007/s13347-011-0032-9 [published online May 2011, print
edition forthcoming]
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UNIT 2: ETHICAL AND LEGAL ISSUES IN INFORMATION RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Copyright as Legal Issue in Information Resource Management
3.2Copyright as a balancing of interests
3.3 Libraries as creatures of the balance in copyright law

3.4 What librarians seek in any copyright law revision or rulemakings?
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Information resources come in many forms. Many literatures show a great deal on copyright
and intellectual property. For example characteristics of the environment in which librarians
are now working include greater access to a range of information, increased speed in
acquiring information, greater complexity in locating, analyzing, and linking information."
New approaches came with the arrival of information communication technologies (ICT).
Robson (1994) observes that electronically stored data is a recent phenomenon and that the
confidentiality of manually stored data has been protected by law for many years. Nigeria
acceded to the Universal Copyright Convention in 1961 and promulgated a copyright decree
in 1970, establishing the Nigeria Copyright Council. The law was repealed because it was
ineffective and was replaced by the copyright act of 1988. The 1988 copyright act extended
the duration of copyright from 25 years to 50 years for creators or authors.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students should be to:
Understand copyright as a legal Issue in Information Resource Management

Understand Copyright as a Balancing of Interests in Information Resource
Management
Explain the role of Libraries in the implementation of Copyright Law
Know What Librarians Seek in any Copyright Law
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Copyright as Legal Issue in Information Resource Management

Ekpo (1992) notes that copyright allows authors to enjoy the full benefits of creative works
for a limited period of time. For economic value to be enjoyed by creator, copyright
infringement must be viewed seriously. Eisenschitz (1993) observes that the ease of
accessing information online has led to the growth of a large number of criminal activities,
which have brought barriers to access and communication in their wake. Zhu, Hongwei, et al.
(2002) agree that "there are several possible legal mechanisms for conventional database
protection, such as trade secrets, contract law, and copyright. But on the Internet, many
databases are made available to the general public for free access, eliminating the possibility
118
of trade secret protection. Although some database owners have managed to negotiate
licensing agreements with their users, it is costly and sometimes impossible to enforce those
contracts."
3.2 Copyright as a Balancing of Interests in Information Resource Management
The roles libraries play are shaped by copyright law. Copyright in its origins and in the way it
has evolved in the United States has always involved a balancing of interests. Authors and
creators are granted certain monopoly rights in order that adequate return stimulates the
creation of intellectual works, but those rights are limited in various ways in order, in the
Constitution's phrase, to promote science and the useful arts. Thus authors are granted rights,
and through limitations and exceptions such as fair use, users have rights. The Copyright Act
also provides that authors may transfer their rights to publishers in order to bring their works
to market.
So there are really three groups -- creators who are granted legal rights under the Constitution
and the Act, publishers who have legal rights by transfer, and users (or institutions such as
libraries and schools) who have legal rights through exceptions and limitations to creators'
rights. In practice, creators' rights are almost always transferred, and the interactions between
creators and publishers, and between publishers and users, are governed by contract.
Focusing on three groups is a convenient simplification. In the digital age, many more
industries, innovators and creators, institutions, and groups of users are affected by the
outcome of intellectual policy deliberations.
A crucial function of the Copyright Act, and one of the principles underlying copyright, is to
help equalize the bargaining leverage among the three groups. If copyright owners' (most
often the publishers) rights were too strong or unlimited, authors and creators might be little
rewarded for their efforts, and public access could be inhibited through monopoly pricing or
other monopoly-like practices.
Monopolies in intellectual property in a democracy can also be in tension with the First
Amendment. The First Amendment protects the right to speak and to publish as well as the
right to read and to hear. Some even see these rights implicit in the copyright clause of the
Constitution stemming from its purpose of advancing knowledge and creativity.
Another part of the bargain or balance in copyright has historically been that in return for
limited rights to exploit a newly created work, that work will eventually enter the public
domain, thus enriching society's store of intellectual material.
3.3 Libraries as Creatures of the Balance in Copyright Law
Libraries are creatures of the historical and statutory balance in copyright law. Libraries lend
materials based on the First Sale doctrine. Libraries share materials and preserve works under
specific provisions for libraries in the Act. Libraries are often the only entities that provide
access to the vast majority of copyrighted works that lose market vitality long before the
expiration of the copyrights, and are often the only entities that preserve public domain
materials. Libraries enable users to access copyrighted and public domain works and to
exercise their rights under the exceptions and limitations to creators' rights in the law. The
creation of new intellectual property building on the old is stimulated as a result of the
existence of libraries. Libraries are places where the public and the proprietary meet. The
119
multiple roles of libraries as social organisations address the balance in the law, and are
shaped by it.
Because of their institutional roles, librarians and their associations pay close attention to that
balance and to the need to promote users' rights as well as creators' rights. Librarians
recognize that most users of copyrighted material are not aware of their dependence on
balanced law and policy for access to information and for gaining knowledge. Members of
the public take their rights for granted and generally exercise common-sense, but do not
usually get involved in policy deliberations. Librarians take seriously their role as advocates
for individual users of copyrighted materials.
Libraries are a small but significant market for published works. The vast majority of
copyrighted works in library collections was purchased or was acquired through license
agreements. Often libraries pay more for copyrighted works than would an individual. This is
especially true of subscriptions to periodicals, to ongoing reference works, and to electronic
information. These higher rates are presumably to account for multiple uses in libraries.
Libraries often aggregate their purchases or licenses to enhance their buying power. In the
electronic environment, this may mean that a consortium of libraries negotiates on behalf of
all its members, or a state library agency may negotiate agreements on behalf of all the public
libraries in a state.
3.4 What Librarians Seek in any Copyright Law?
What librarians seek as copyright law and related rules are being reshaped for the digital age
is to maintain for users, and for libraries and educational institutions acting on their behalf,
their rights to at least the same extent as they have enjoyed them in the analog environment.
Should any new rights be granted to copyright proprietors in copyright law revision, they
should be circumscribed in analogous and appropriate ways on behalf of users. Libraries and
educational institutions expect the law to continue to equalize the bargaining leverage among
the three groups -- creators, publishers, and users. This becomes even more important as
licensing replaces purchasing.
Librarians also recognize that a key societal function of libraries -- the archival function -- is
at risk because electronic information is so seldom actually available for purchase and
permanent retention or preservation. Libraries play this archival role because history has
shown that it is not economically viable for profit-based businesses to do so. The
disappearance of much electronic information after a very short period of time, the fragility
of digital bits, and the short life of hardware and software suggest that this role of libraries
will be more needed than ever before, but harder and harder for libraries to accomplish.
Librarians seek incentives under the law to be able, at reasonable prices, to maintain and
preserve electronic information, most of which will not retain economic viability.
4.0 CONCLUSION
With a good balanced copyright law and intellectual property policy, there is no reason why
the digital information environment should not increase the opportunities for creators,
publishers, and users. Librarians do not see debate over intellectual property policy issues in
terms of winners and losers. Debate on such crucial policy matters is healthy. Adapting
policy to rapid technological change is never easy. It makes all parties nervous because they
know they cannot accurately foretell the future. The difficulty and the complexity underscore
120
the importance of a careful and thoughtful approach to copyright law revision and
rulemakings
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you are exposed to the legal issues in information resource management
especially issues that has to do with copyright and intellectual property.

1. Discuss the possible legal issues in managing information resources in our libraries?
2. Explain the roles of libraries and librarians in the protection of copyright?
Skog, D., 2011, Ethical Aspects of Managing A Social Network Site: A Disclosive
Analysis,International Review of Information Ethics, 16: 2732.
Wong, P.H., 2010, The Good Life in Intercultural Information Ethics: A New Agenda,
International Review of Information Ethics 13: 2632.
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UNIT 3: DEVELOPMENT OF INSTITUTIONAL DIGITAL REPOSITORY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 An Overview of Institutional Digital Repository
3.2 Examples of Institutional Digital Repository
3.3 Access and Use in Digital Repositories
3.4 Policies of Digital Repositories
3.5 Legal Considerations in Digital Repositories
3.6Standardization in Digital Repositories
3.7 Collaboration in Digital Repositories
3.8 Sustainability and Funding of Digital Repositories
3.9 Effect of Digital Repositories on Publishing
3.10 Richard Johnson observation on Digital Repositories
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The world's universities, museums, governments, and other organisations house treasures that
have been hidden in archives, basements, attics, print formats, and a variety of storage
devices. These treasures encompass scientific, technological, cultural, artistic, and historical
materials generally unavailable to searchers and the public. Institutional repositories are now
being created to manage, preserve, and maintain the digital assets, intellectual output, and
histories of institutions. Librarians are taking leadership roles in planning and building these
repositories, fulfilling their roles as experts in collecting, describing, preserving, and
providing stewardship for documents and digital information.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
explain Institutional Digital Repository

identify various examples of Institutional Digital Repository
identify the requirements for Access and Use of Digital Repositories
highlight the different Policies of Digital Repositories
discuss the Legal Considerations in Digital Repositories
identify the Standardization issues in Digital Repositories
identify the techniques for collaboration in Digital Repositories
discuss the various ways for Sustainability and Funding of Digital Repositories
explain the effect of Digital Repositories on Publishing
account for the Richard Johnson observation on Digital Repositories
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 An Overview of Institutional Digital Repository
Development of institutional repositories has largely taken place in universities. Three
articles describe the activities of universities. While the key articles describing institutional
122
repositories relate to universities, any organisation can adapt and adopt the concept.
Corporations and not-for-profits may establish repositories to archive and preserve their
institutional histories and administrative documents. Materials in corporate repositories
would most likely remain proprietary and unavailable to people outside the company. Not-
for-profit organisations may find repositories useful for relating the histories of the
organisations, raising funds, and creating interest in the projects and activities of the
organisations.
Repositories provide services to faculty, researchers, and administrators who want to archive
research, historic, and creative materials. The open access and open archives movement, the
need for changes in scholarly communication to remove barriers to access, and the increasing
awareness that universities and research institutions are losing valuable digital and print
materials have begun driving the establishment of institutional repositories. Using open
archive models [http://www.openarchives.org], established metadata standards, and digital
rights management, important new information sources are seeing the light of day and
becoming more generally available.
While the main purposes of institutional repositories are to bring together and preserve the
intellectual output of a laboratory, department, university, or other entity, the incentives and
commitments to change the process of scholarly communication have also begun serving as
strong motivators. Computers have been ubiquitous on campuses since the late 1980s.
Students and faculty are comfortable with the power of online communication. Faculty
teachers and researchers want to archive their own materials and have them available on
personal or institutional Web sites, these articles, along with the development of the Internet
and more powerful search engines, have enabled people to think in practical terms about the
establishment of central facilities for storing, archiving, preserving, and making scholarly and
artistic materials available. Repositories may be limited to one field, one department, one
institution, or a consortium of several institutions. Collaboration through a consortium
reduces costs for each member through resource sharing while expanding access to digital
materials.
For universities, repositories are marketing tools communicating capabilities and quality by
showcasing faculty and student research, public service projects, and other activities and
collections. Repositories in universities may include preprints and post prints of journal
articles, technical reports, white papers, research data, theses, dissertations, work in progress,
important print and image collections, teaching and learning materials, and materials
documenting the history of the institution. Digital university presses, such as High wire
[http://highwire.Stanford.edu], University of California scholarships editions
[http://escholarship.cdlib.org/ucpressbooks.html], the University of Chicago Press, the
Chicago Digital Distribution Center, and BiblioVault [http://cddc.uchicago.edu] are
publishing online and establishing digital archives.
Scholarly societies may establish discipline-based repositories to preserve the history and
literature of a particular subject area. However, these societies have a serious dilemma. They
publish journals to disseminate research about their fields. If the societies establish open
access repositories, they could experience reduced or zero publishing profits, which might in
turn affect their ability to pay overhead expenses and to provide enhanced member services.
The loss of revenue could place these societies in the position of having to ask members to
pay more of the cost of member services.
123
The increased demand for scholarly information, especially in science, will probably increase
the pressure on scholarly societies and universities. Digital publishing, global networking,
more research, and increased communication among communities of scholars are driving the
demand for broader access. The idea of the invisible college nurtured by meetings and
preprints of journal articles has been replaced by global, discipline- or project-based online
communities.
Governments and government agencies may use repositories in the same ways as universities
to document work in progress and the histories of agencies. Some agencies will find
repositories useful for storage and access to technical reports, white papers, hearings, and
other documents.
3.2 Examples of Institutional Digital Repository

The Dspace repository project [http://dspace.org] at MIT has received extensive coverage in
the news and literature. The Dspace Web page describes the project as "a groundbreaking
digital institutional repository that captures, stores, indexes, preserves, and redistributes the
intellectual output of a university's research faculty in digital formats".
The MIT repository contains a variety of research materials deposited in accordance with the
policies developed by departments and research units at MIT. Dspace developed open source
software with a grant from Hewlett Packard and created a federation of universities to work
collaboratively on the project. The Federation includes Cambridge University, Columbia,
Cornell, MIT, Ohio State, University of Rochester, University of Toronto, and the University
of Washington. Research institutions worldwide may acquire the Dspace software at no cost
and any institution can adapt it to their own needs.
The University of California's eScholarship Repository [http://repositories.cdlib.org], part
of the California Digital Library, offers faculty on the 10 UC campuses a central facility for
the deposit of research or scholarly output. Individual research centers, departments, and
sponsoring units set the policies for acceptance of content. Determination of acceptable
content is in the hands of researchers and faculty. The system uses Berkeley Electronic Press
software [http://www.bepress.com] licensed by the University of California.
The developers of the Ohio State University (OSU) Knowledge Bank [http://www.lib.ohio-
state.edu/Kbinfo] plan to include the digital assets and information services available to the
OSU community in the repository. The library manages the Knowledge Bank as part of its
knowledge management initiative.
In the U.K., the Consortium of University Research Libraries (CURL) and the Joint
Information Systems Committee (JISC) have established Project SHERPA
[http://www.sherpa.ac.uk] to build institutional repositories in U.K. research universities.
CURL's [http://www.curl.ac.uk] mission is to increase the ability of research universities to
share research for the benefit of research communities. JISC [http://www.jisc.ac.uk] aims to
support teaching, learning, research, and administration in higher education through the use
of information and communications technology. The institutional repository projects support
the goals of both organisations and promote collaborative development and operations.
Repositories and open archives are being established worldwide. Many institutions use GNU
e-print software for these projects. The software, developed at the University of Southampton
in England, is free. It creates an open access archive through author and/or institutional
124
archives [http://software.eprints.org]. For a list of projects using the GNU software for
author self-archiving, go to http://www.eprint.org.
3.3 Access and Use in Digital Repositories

Repositories now represent potentially rich sources of information, data, images, and valuable
research results. The movement is new and the time it takes to plan, formulate policies, and
bring institutional communities to consensus can make it a slow process. Each institution
defines its own policies dealing with access to and use of materials in repositories. Not all
materials can be made available freely. Copyrighted materials may carry a variety of
restrictions. Nonexclusive publisher licenses would increase availability to these materials
and place the publishers in the open access arena.
Some publishers permit authors to self-archive. Other publishers opt for exclusive licenses
for a limited time, while still others will not allow any deviation from exclusive copyright.
Some materials may be restricted to a small group of researchers or to people associated with
the institution because they represent work in progress deemed proprietary or that may entail
sponsor restrictions. For example, a group working on a patentable device or process may
want to share data only with members of the group.
3.4 Policies of Digital Repositories
Librarians both use and create institutional repositories. In establishing repositories there are
a variety of decisions to make. Policies, systems architecture, and other elements will depend
on institutional context and the scope and purposes of the repository. Policies appropriate for
an academic institution may not work in a corporate setting. Not-for-profit organisations have
unique purposes and cultures that will dictate how their repositories are formed and
maintained.
Here are some of the key issues to consider when developing repositories:
the institutional culture
the scope of the repository
content
access levels
legal aspects
standards
sustainability
funding
Institutional culture depends on how the organisation is structured as well as how much
collaboration and trust exists within an institution. In academic organisations, faculty belong
to departments, disciplines, and research groups. Academic competition may be fiercer in
some universities than in corporations. In an internally competitive environment where
cooperation and trust are not nurtured, building a repository will become more difficult.
Faculty will not contribute willingly to a central repository unless they have been consulted
and trust the process. Faculty need to be convinced that contributing to a repository will
enhance their reputations in their disciplines and result in wider dissemination of their work.
Repository advocates must decide early on the purposes and scope of the repository and
communicate them to all affected parties. The sooner participants can buy into the process,
the better. Will the repository be central? Distributed? Will it cover only parts or all of the
125
organisation? For some institutions, community-based repositories will work well. Large and
complex institutions will need consensus on key issues and technical standards. A repository
may be limited to self-archiving by authors or may include the intellectual output and
business and administrative documents for the whole institution. Many institutions have
treasures known to only a few people. Repositories provide the means for unearthing these
treasures and bringing them to light.
Decision-making on content can become a contentious issue. Criteria for deposit into the
repository could come from each community or from a central body with input from the
participants. The Dspace project at MIT includes articles, reprints, technical reports, working
papers, conference papers, e-theses, data sets, image files, audio and video files, and
reformatted digital library collections. Policies for the deposit of content and who may
contribute content come from each MIT community, but the Dspace guidelines specify that
material must be "education-oriented," in digital format, and produced by an MIT faculty
member. The author/owner agrees to give MIT permission to distribute and preserve the
material. Access policies are determined by MIT
[http://libraries.mit.edu/mit/policies/content.html].
3.5 Legal Considerations in Digital Repositories

Librarians and administrators responsible for operating and maintaining repositories need to
ensure that all legal requirements are met. These requirements include appropriate software
and content licenses. At MIT, authors must sign a nonexclusive license granting MIT
permission to deposit, distribute, and preserve repository materials. Many universities have
comprehensive intellectual property policies setting forth the responsibilities of faculty and
administration. Corporations and not-for-profit organisations may have formal intellectual
property policies. In some cases, intellectual property issues may be covered in employment
contracts.
If there are limits on distribution of materials or access levels, the repository software needs
to build in those limits to ensure compliance. Academic institutions usually opt for open
access but may have to restrict access for some research activities. If student portfolios are
included in the repository, privacy considerations may limit access.
3.6 Standardization in Digital Repositories

Interoperability requires that repositories employ standards developed to handle issues
associated with open access. These standards include the Open Archival Information System
(OAIS) Reference Model, Open Archives Metadata Harvesting Protocol (OAIPMH), and the
Metadata Encoding and Transmission Standard (METS). Software is a key element in the
construction of an institutional repository. Guide to Institutional Repository Software, version
2, published by the Open Access Society [http://www.soros.org/openaccess/software] is a
valuable tool for selecting software appropriate to the needs and context of the institution and
its repository.
Other organisations involved in standards and repository design and operations include the
Digital Library Federation, Coalition for Networked Information, OCLC, the electronic
theses and dissertations program at Virginia Tech, and Creative Commons.
3.7 Collaboration in Digital Repositories

Librarians, archivists, faculty, and information technology staff have gained increased
understanding of each other's work and learned to work more collaboratively in recent years.
126
Each group now recognizes and appreciates the expertise and creativity of the others. The
talents and commitment of time and energy from each group are essential to the success of a
repository project. Creation and sustainability of a repository heavily depend on thinking
together and learning what others on the team think so decisions can be made within their
working context.
In simple terms, success in building a repository involves eight "C" words:
comprehension
collaboration
context
change
caring
commitment
creativity
competence
Comprehension means that all members of the team must share a common vision and
understanding of the purposes and scope of the repository. Collaboration involves thinking
and working together, with different people contributing their different talents, working with
others to solve problems, and making important decisions. Context is each person's world
view and working environment. Each person has a unique mind-set based on background,
education, and experience. Thinking and working together in a non-threatening atmosphere
helps people integrate other contexts into their own.
Repositories involve change in the way research is disseminated, preserved, and published.
This change requires faculty to deposit their research results, data sets, and other materials in
the repository a new step in the research process. In corporations, management may
require staff to deposit items, such as strategic plans, marketing plans, and working papers.
Caring motivates the desire to share research results and joint scholarly endeavors, preserve
history, and provide knowledge and information needed for future generations to learn.
Caring leads to the commitment to deposit one's scholarly work in the repository,
encouraging others to do likewise by contributing ideas and energy. Managers show their
commitment by understanding that repositories will grow and require support and funding in
perpetuity.
Creativity involves imagination and the ability to visualize a new way of doing things. New
ideas can come from anywhere from individuals or groups of individuals.
Competency means knowing how to make the repository work for all its constituents.
Librarians and archivists need to carry their collection development skills and operational
know-how to the repository project. Information technology staff demonstrates their
competencies by knowing about the software, hardware, networking, and standards needed to
make the repository serve everyone.
3.8 Sustainability and Funding of Digital Repositories

Maintenance and sustainability are key issues that involve the long-term commitment of
money by management. A repository cannot run by itself. It needs constant attention.
Maintenance of content, software, and accessibility can change. IT staff and librarians need to
know the consequences of changes in hardware, software, and standards and be able to adjust
accordingly.
127
Librarians need to prepare to handle problems arising from a faculty member or key person
leaving the organisation, faculty collaborating with faculty in another institution or group of
institutions, or with government or industry. Having clear policies concerning deposit,
accessibility, and other anticipated contingencies will ease the problem-solving process.
Repositories cannot be sustained without long-term infusions of funds. Everyone involved in

a repository needs to understand that the project has become part of their everyday lives and
will require attention and funding in perpetuity. Too often managers in corporations seem
unable to look beyond the quarter's bottom line and shy away from long term commitments.
Their reluctance to commit funds is exacerbated in an uncertain economy. Many managers in
academe emulate their corporate colleagues through their reluctance to raise and dedicate
enough money to ensure that the repository is funded at an appropriate level forever.
3.9 Effect of Digital Repositories on Publishing

Institutional repositories and the open access movement will affect the publishing business.
Each day, it becomes clearer and clearer that academic institution, corporations, and other
organisations will no longer pay the prices charged by scholarly publishers.
Players in the open access movement and builders of repositories have reacted to high journal
prices by beginning plans to disaggregate the structure of scholarly publishing, to eliminate or
curtail the distance between author and reader, to disinter mediate. Raym Crow points out
that one of the purposes of institutional repositories is to form a global system of
interoperable repositories that will become centers for scholarly publishing. "Altering the
structure of the scholarly publishing model will be neither simple nor immediate. The stakes
are high for all the well-entrenched participants in the system faculty, librarians, and
publishers and the inertia of the traditional publishing paradigm is immense."
The open access movement is driving changes in how publishing costs are paid. For example,
the Public Library of Science charges authors for value-added services (editing, refereeing,
marketing, etc.) but does not charge readers for access. The drivers of the open access
movement are high. In a world where journal prices continue to rise while the costs of
information and networking technologies that enable interoperability continue to drop,
recognition of the benefits of knowledge sharing grows.
3.10 Richard Johnson observation on Digital Repositories

The current system of scholarly publication limits, rather than expands, the readership and
availability of most scholarly research (while also obscuring its institutional origins) People
with no affiliation with research institutions have a difficult time identifying and finding
research information. Despite the vast amount of U.S. government information available
online, large amounts of scientific and medical research results are not readily available.
Libraries buy technical reports from the National Technical Information Service and, until
recently, the National Institutes of Health. The availability of these reports would increase if
they were made part of the Federal Depository Library Program. Governments at all levels
need to regard dissemination of the information they generate as crucial parts of
technological and economic infrastructures and essential in a democratic republic.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The open access movement and institutional repositories could contribute significantly to
economic growth by broadening the market for scholarly publications and research results,
especially in science and medicine. Lower access costs would broaden usage. Economist Joel
128
Mokyr found in his studies of knowledge creation and dissemination that lower access costs
brought knowledge to people who used that knowledge as the basis of invention and
innovation. He also pointed out that ideas and knowledge may be expensive to generate, but
inexpensive to use once implemented. The future will bring greater innovation and
technologies through open access and institutional repositories.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you are exposed to the different issues in building successful and effective digital
repository

1. Define the term Institutional Digital Repository?
2. Outline the key issues to consider in developing IDR?
3. How can our Universities build effective digital repository?
Stone, N. (1988) 'InfoFind: a practical tool for managing information', Information
Strassman, P.A. (1976) 'Managing the costs of information', Harvard Business Review, 54
(September/October), 133-42.
Strassman, P.A. (1986) 'Improving information worker productivity', Information
Management Review, 1(4), 55-60.
129
UNIT 4: ELECTRONIC RESOURCES MANAGEMENT (ERM)
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Electronic Resources Management (ERM)
3.2 History of Electronic Resources Management (ERM)

3.3 Features of Electronic Resources Management (ERM)
3.4 Recent Developments in Electronic Resource Management in Libraries
3.5 Electronic Resource Management Processes
3.6 Functional Requirements in Electronic Resources Management (ERM)
3.7 DLF ERMI and Consortia
3.8 Interpretability, Ambiguity, and Adaptability in Electronic Resources Management
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Several strands have contributed to the development of electronic information management.

First, it has its origins in a variety of fields that have had to do, traditionally, with the
acquisition, organisation, maintenance and use of electronic documents: archives and records
management, and librarianship and information science (especially in special librarianship
and information work). Many of the areas of concern within EIM have long been the concern
of other professional groups in the information field, including database design and
development, information storage and retrieval, and the economics of information.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define the Concept of Electronic Resources Management (ERM)

Trace the history of Electronic Resources Management (ERM)
Identify the Features of Electronic Resources Management (ERM)
Trace the recent developments in Electronic Resource Management in Libraries
Identify the Electronic Resource Management Processes
List the Functional Requirements in Electronic Resources Management (ERM)
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
130
3.1 Concept of Electronic Resources Management (ERM)
Electronic resource management (ERM) is the practices and software systems used by
libraries to keep track of important information about electronic information resources,
especially internet-based resources such as electronic journals, databases, and electronic
books. The development of ERM became necessary in the early 2000s as it became clear that
traditional library catalogues and integrated library systems were not designed to handle
metadata for resources as mutable as many online products are
3.2 History of Electronic Resources Management (ERM)

The idea of developing electronic resource management systems emerged in 2001-2002,
growing out of research by Tim Jewell at the University of Washington. The Digital Library
Federation and NISO began work in May 2002 to develop standards for ERM data. These
standards were published in the 2004 as Electronic Resource Management: Report of the
DLF ERM Initiative. Since the publication of the report, several vendors of integrated library
systems have released ERM products.
3.3 Features of Electronic Resources Management (ERM)

In future releases, vendors plan to incorporate overlap analysis and cost-per-use analysis into
their ERM systems to help with collection development. Integration with content modules,
such as e resource registration processes, incident report mechanisms and license
descriptions, is also on the agenda. Standardizing usage data collection is a major objective of
the ERM industry, as represented by the Standardized Usage Statistics Harvesting Initiative
(SUSHI), whose objective is to develop a standard for downloading COUNTER-compliant
(Counting Online Usage of Networked Electronic Resources) usage statistics from vendor
sites into ERM systems.
Features of some ERM systems include:
Supporting acquisition and management of licensed e-resources

May be integrated into other library system modules or may be a standalone system
May have a public interface, either separate or integrated into the OPAC
Providing descriptions of resources at the package (database) level and relate package
contents (e.g. e-journals) to the package record
Encoding and perhaps publicly displaying licensed rights such as e-reserves,
coursepacks, and interlibrary loan
Tracking electronic resources from point of order through licensing and final access
Providing information about the data providers, consortia arrangements, access

platform
Providing contact information for all content providers
Logging problems with resources and providers
Providing customizable e-mail alerting systems (e.g. notices to managers when
actions are expected or required)
131
Linking license documents to resource records
Supports retrieval of SUSHI usage statistics
3.4 Recent Developments in Electronic Resource Management in Libraries

At the 2005 Annual Meeting of ASIS&T, a panel composed of Ivy Anderson, representing
Harvard University and the Digital Library Federations Electronic Resources Management
Initiative (DLF ERMI) steering group; Barbara Weir, representing the Tri-College
Consortium (Bryn Mawr, Haverford and Swarthmore); and Ted Fons, representing
Innovative Interfaces Inc., discussed the recent advent of electronic resource management
(ERM) systems for libraries.
3.5 Electronic Resource Management Processes

The steps required for managing e-resources are more complex than those for print resources.
A process that consisted of selecting, ordering, cataloging and binding now includes
selecting, evaluating, approving, licensing, billing and registering access and is accompanied
by a series of technical aspects, such as usability, performance, access technologies, public
interfaces, troubleshooting and usage statistics. E-resource management is a time-intensive
and iterative process, often requiring more staff with a greater skill set at each stage. As
demand for e-resources grew, storing and managing administrative information in
spreadsheets, paper files or email folders became increasingly cumbersome, and a more
integrated solution was called for.
3.6 Functional Requirements in Electronic Resources Management (ERM)

The functional requirements were developed from an initial collaboration between Harvard
University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the vendor Ex Libris to define
the necessary functions of an ERM system. The resulting document covered the information
and workflows that an ERM system should integrate in the key areas of selection and
acquisition, access provision, resource administration, user support and troubleshooting,
renewal and retention. The document contained data elements new to ERM systems at that
time, relevant to both users (e.g., license permissions and restrictions, resource availability)
and staff (e.g., detailed license information, administrative IDs and passwords, usage
statistics, training information). Also addressed were problem-solving activities (e.g.,
troubleshooting, vendor communications) and business functions (e.g., pricing models,
renewal and termination information).
3.7 DLF ERMI and Consortia

The DLF ERMI guide is intended mostly for individual libraries; the intricacies of consortial
arrangements still need to be resolved by libraries and vendors. Entities that do not require
multiple fields for single libraries often do so for consortia. For example, all three colleges
may run a trial separately, but only one may actually buy the resource. The Electronic
Resource Status field, defined by the DLF as non-repeatable, could actually be Active, Under
Review and Rejected by any of the three colleges at one time. Any field should also be
customizable locally and not limited to a prescribed set of values.
3.8 Interpretability, Ambiguity, and Adaptability in Electronic Resources Management

Currently licensing values are often left open to varying interpretations. ERMI developed a
value schema to take into account the entire range of permissions, explicit or not: Permitted
132
(explicit), prohibited (explicit), Permitted (interpreted), Prohibited (interpreted), Silent
(uninterrupted), Not Applicable. Rights expression languages (RELs) only support two
values: Permitted (explicit) and Prohibited (interpreted). It is believed that any new licensing
language would have to accommodate a certain level of ambiguity, which would require a
novel encoding system. ERMI plans to develop an ERM language that is open enough to
accept new trends and address the needs of all relevant communities, such as cultural
memory organisations and creative commons. In participation with the joint National
Information Standards Organisation (NISO)/DLF/EDItEUR License Expression Working
Group (LEWG), it seeks to develop a single standard to support internal library management,
as well as exchanges between publishers, libraries and various cultural communities.
EDItEUR is the international group coordinating the development of electronic commerce in
the books and serials sector. EDItEUR has become involved in the license expression work
initiated by ERMI and is working on a license transmission standard that will be part of the
ONIX (Online Information eXchange) for Serials format.
4.0 CONCLUSION
A long-term goal for e-resource management is ensuring interoperability between systems.
Imported data could originate from several sources, e.g., acquisitions data from the librarys
serial vendor, XML-formatted license terms from publishers, aggregator packages from e-
journal management services, serial subscription and holdings data in the ONIX for Serials
format from publishers. ERM system data describing downtimes or use restrictions could be
exported to the librarys online public access catalogue (OPAC), link-resolver menu or Web-
based news blog.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit different concept in relation to electronic information management has been
discussed; all in an attempt to come out with ways through which electronic information
resources can be manage effectively.

1. Define the concept of Electronic Resources Management (ERM)
2. Trace the historical development of ERM?
3. Discuss the important features of ERM?
4. What are the constrains in managing electronic information resources in Nigerian
libraries?
Lytle, R.H. (1988) 'Electronic Information resource management: a five-year perspective',

Information Management Review3(3), 9-16.
Knoppers, J.V.T. (1986) 'Information law and information management', Information

133

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

COURSE CODE: LIB 802

COURSE TITLE: INFORMATION RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

WRITER-DRLAWAL UMAR A B U ZARIA

MODULE ONE: Information Resources Management in Information Work

Unit 1:Information Resources and Types

3.1 Definition of Information Resources

It should be noted that Marchand included information technology as an information

3.2 Types of Information Resources in Organisation

External information resources

People - the specialists

Many professional associations, including the ones in the information management

There are also computer-based equivalents of these, sometimes called current

General print information

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What do you understand by the term information resources?

Bryce, M. (1987). The IRM Idea. Datamation. April15. Pp45

Otten, K. W. (1984). Information Management and Information Technologies: Keys to

Wilson, T. D. (1985). Information Management. The Electronic Library. 3(1).pp132

Buckland, M. K. (1991). Information and information systems. Greenwood, Westport, CT.

Define the concept of Information Resources Management

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.2 Key Issues in Information Resources Management

Although management challenges could relate to both information resource

3.3 Relevance of IRM

A good information system provides a framework for organisations to evaluate

1. To control the creation and growth of records

2. To reduce operating costs

Recordkeeping requires administrative dollars for filing equipment, space in offices,

3. To improve efficiency and productivity

Time spent searching for missing or misfiled records is non-productive. A good

4. To assimilate new records management technologies

A good records management program provides an organisation with the capability to

5. To ensure regulatory compliance

In terms of recordkeeping requirements, China is a heavily regulated country. These

6. To minimize litigation risks

Business organisations implement management information systems and programs in

7. To safeguard vital information

Every organisation, public or private, needs a comprehensive program for protecting

8. To support better management decision making

In today's business or organizational environment, the manager or Director that has

By implementing an enterprise-wide file organisation, including indexing and

9. To preserve the corporate memory

10. To foster professionalism in running the business

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Define the term information resources management

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING

Burk, C. F. and Horton, F. W. (1988) InfoMap: A Complete Guide to Discovering Corporate

Law, W. K. and Karri, P. (2005). Cross-Cultural Implementation of Information System.

Feng, X. (2007). Cross-cultural Information Resource Management: Challenges and

3.2 Causes of IRM Evolution

Books, journals, newspapers, research reports, proceedings and correspondence, as

Extensive use of information handling technologies

3.3 Interdisciplinary Nature of IRM

It is important to state that evolution of information resource management can be

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Savic, D. (1992). Evolution of information resource management. Journal of Librarianship

Trauth, Eileen M. (1989) The evolution of information resource management. Information

Gillenson, M. (1985) Trends in data administration. MIS Quarterly, 9, (December), 317-325

Gluckman, P., "Educating the Information Manager," Information Manager, Volume 1,

3.3 How to Manage Information as Assets in organisation

1. Understand the role of Information.

2. Assign Responsibility for Leading your IRM Initiative.