Universitatea "Constantin Brancusi

SERIA LITERE I TIINE SOCIALE
LETTERS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES SERIES
NR. 1/ 2012
ISSUE 1/ 2012
Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2226996

The University "Constantin Brancusi" of Tirgu-Jiu will train students capable
to examine critical phenomena, reach the problems solutions, to imagine alternatives
to the proposed solutions, young people prepared to accept the visions of the world
of other cultures and to assume a leader position in Romania during the following
years.
The institution is called to leave the group of isolated universities that have
chronic, mediocrity tendencies by adopting strategies that would bring it on the first
place of scientific research from the space of Oltenia, in the line of national
performant universities.
The University "Constantin Brancusi" from Tirgu-Jiu must be in the
avangarde of the superior education reform, working for the clarification - at the
level of the population in the zone - of the impact of the European integration for
the creation of the European Space of the superior education and the European
Space of research.
The institution is engaged in the qualitative improving of the learning and
teaching processes, by a common reflection on the didactical and research activities,
requiring the solidarity of teachers and students in looking up for creative solutions
for the transition to an education centered on the student with clearly defined
finalities and objectives.
Prof.PhD Adrian GORUN
President of Senate
Constantin Brncui University of Trgu-Jiu
EDITURA ACADEMICA BRNCUI

ACADEMICA BRNCUI PUBLISHER
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Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2226996

Universitatea Constantin
Brncui din Trgu Jiu
Constantin Brncui
University of Trgu Jiu
Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din

Trgu Jiu
Annals of the Constantin Brncui University of

Trgu Jiu
SERIA LITERE I TIINE SOCIALE
LETTERS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES SERIES
NR. 1/2012
ISSUE 1/2012
EDITURA ACADEMICA BRNCUI

ACADEMICA BRNCUI PUBLISHER
ISSN 1844 6051
Cotare CNCSIS Tip B+, cod 42
Rating CNCSIS Type B+, code 42
Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria Litere i tiine Sociale, Nr. 1/2012
Redactor ef Editor-in-Chief:
Prof. univ. dr. Adrian GORUN, Preedintele Prof.PhD. Adrian GORUN, President of Senate,
Senatului Universitii Constantin Brncui din Constantin Brancusi University of Trgu-Jiu
Trgu-Jiu
Editorial Board:
Colegiul de redacie: - Prof. PhD. Basarab NICULESCU, honorary
- Prof. univ. dr. Basarab NICULESCU, Membru member of the Romanian Academy
de Onoare al Academiei Romne - Prof. PhD. Liviu Lucian ALBU, Institute for
- Prof. univ.dr. Liviu Lucian ALBU, Institutul Economic Forecasting, a member of the
de Prognoza Economica, membru corespondent al Romanian Academy
Academiei Romne - Prof.PhD. Andrei MARGA, Babe-Bolyai
- Prof.univ.dr. Andrei MARGA, Universitatea University, Cluj-Napoca
Babe-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca - Prof. PhD. Dumitru MIRON, Academy of
- prof.univ.dr. Dumitru MIRON, Academia de Economic Studies, Bucharest
Studii Economice , Bucureti - Prof.PhD. E. THALASSINOS, Europe Chair
- Prof.univ.dr. E. THALASSINOS, Europe Jean Monnet, University of Piraeus, Greece
Chair Jean Monnet, University of Piraeus, - Prof.PhD. Ion BULEI, Bucharest University,
Greece researcher of the Institute of Political Science and
- Prof.univ dr. Ion BULEI, Universitatea International Relations of the Romanian
Bucureti, cercettor al Institutului de tiine Academy
Politice i Relaii internaionale al Academiei - Prof.PhD. Dumitru OTOVESCU, Craiova
Romne University
- Prof.univ.dr. Dumitru OTOVESCU, - Prof.PhD. tefan, BUZRNESCU West
Universitatea Craiova University of Timisoara
- Prof.univ.dr. tefan, BUZRNESCU - Prof.PhD V. TSELENTIS , University of
Universitatea de Vest Timioara Piraeus, Greece
- Prof.Univ.dr. V. TSELENTIS, Universitatea - Prof. PhD Walter Leal FILHO, Hamburg
din Piraeus, Grecia University of Applied Sciences, Germany
- Prof.univ.dr. Walter Leal FILHO, - Prof. Ph.D Mouloud TENSAOUT
Universitatea de tiine Aplicate din University of Le Mans
Hamburg, Germania - Researcher PhD Doina TATARU, Economics
- Prof. univ. dr. Mouloud TENSAOUT Center for Industrial Services, Romanian
Universitatea din Le Mans Academy
- Cercetator dr. Doina TATARU, Centrul de - Assoc. Prof. PhD. Horaiu GORUN,
Economie Industriala a Serviciilor, Academia Constantin Brncui University of Trgu-Jiu.
Romana - PhD. Livian RDOESCU, Constantin
- Conf. univ. dr. Horaiu GORUN, Universitatea Brncui University of Trgu-Jiu.
Constantin Brncui din Trgu-Jiu - Assoc. Prof. PhD. Cornelia TOMESCU-
- Lect. univ. dr. Livian RDOESCU, DUMITRESCU, Constantin Brncui
Universitatea Constantin Brncui din Trgu-Jiu. University of Trgu-Jiu.
- Conf.univ.dr. Cornelia TOMESCU- - PhD Valentin POPA, Constantin Brncui
DUMITRESCU, Universitatea Constantin University of Trgu-Jiu.
Brncui din Trgu-Jiu. - Prof.PhD. George NICULESCU, Constantin
- lector univ.dr Valentin POPA, Universitatea Brncui University of Trgu-Jiu.
Constantin Brncui din Trgu-Jiu. - Assoc. Prof. PhD, Amalia Venera TODORU,
- Prof.univ.dr. George NICULESCU, Constantin Brncui University of Trgu-Jiu.
Universitatea Constantin Brncui din Trgu-Jiu.
- Conf.univ.dr, Amalia Venera TODORU,
Universitatea Constantin Brncui din Trgu-Jiu.
Annals of the Constantin Brncui University of Trgu Jiu, Letters and Social Sciences Series, Issue 1/2012
CUPRINS: CONTENTS:
1. DEMOCRAIA - MIT I REALITATE 1. DEMOCRACY - MITH END REALITY

Adrian GORUN ........ 7 Adrian GORUN .... 7
2. DELINCVENA JUVENIL-UN 2. THE JUVENILE DELINQUENCYAN

FENOMEN SOCIAL TOT MAI DES INCREASINGLY COMMON SOCIAL
NTLNIT PHENOMENON
Andra DASCLU, Amelia SINGH ...... 38 Andra DASCLU, Amelia SINGH ...... 38
3. GLOBALIZAREA, FUNDAMENTALISMUL 3. GLOBALIZATION, ISLAMIC

ISLAMIC I DEZVOLTAREA REELELOR FUNDAMENTALISM AND THE EVOLUTION
TERORISTE OF TERRORIST NETWORKS
Aitana BOGDAN, Oana SPRNCENATU ... 54 Aitana BOGDAN, Oana SPRNCENATU ... 54
4. ABORDARE A ECOLOGIEI POLITICE 4. INDIGENOUS POLITICAL ECOLOGY

INDIGENE ALE MICRILOR SOCIALE DIN APPROACH TO SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN
MEXIC I AMERICA LATIN MEXICO AND LATIN AMERICA
Jos G. VARGAS-HERNNDEZ . 70 Jos G. VARGAS-HERNNDEZ . 70
5. LIBERTATEA DE CIRCULAIE A 5. LA LIBERT DE CIRCULATION DES

MUNCITORILOR TRAVAILLEURS
Constantin BELU, Marina Loredana BELU Constantin BELU, Marina Loredana BELU
... 87 ... 87
6. COMUNICARE PRIN PROTEST N 6. COMMUNICATION THROUGH PROTEST

VERONA UN STUDIU DE CAZ IN VERONA A CASE STUDY
Mihai SOFONEA ... 97 Mihai SOFONEA ... 97
7. SCURTE CONSIDERAII PRIVIND 7. BRIEF CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING

INFLUENA MEDIULUI SOCIAL- THE INFLUENCE OF NATIONAL AND
POLITIC NAIONAL I INTERNATIONAL SOCIO-POLITICAL
INTERNAIONAL ASUPRA ACTULUI DE ENVIRONMENT ON THE ACT OF
LEGIFERARE LAWMAKING
Ramona DUMINIC, Andreea DRGHICI Ramona DUMINIC, Andreea DRGHICI
..... 107 ..... 107
8. LUMEA N TIMPUL EI. STUDIU ASUPRA 8. THE WORLD IN ITS TIMES. A STUDY OF
DISCURSULUI POETIC AL LUI YEATS VS YEATSS POETIC DISCOURSE VS THE
CONCEPTUL DE ISTORIE CONCEPT OF HISTORY
Maria Camelia DICU ... 120 Maria Camelia DICU ... 120
9. CERCETAREA-ACIUNE METOD 9. ACTION RESEARCH- METHOD USED IN

FOLOSIT N DIFERITE DOMENII DE DIFFERENT AREAS OF ACTIVITY
ACTIVITATE
Andreea-Mihaela VDUVA .... 137 Andreea-Mihaela VDUVA .... 137
10. POLITICA PENAL EUROPEAN I 10. EUROPEAN CRIMINAL POLICY AND

MODALITI DE RECEPTARE A ACESTEIA MEANS OF ITS RECEPTION IN THE
N ORDINEA JURIDIC INTERN ROMN ROMANIAN DOMESTIC LEGAL ORDER
Ina Raluca TOMESCU .... 152 Ina Raluca TOMESCU .... 152
Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria Litere i tiine Sociale, Nr. 1/201 2
DEMOCRAIA - MIT I DEMOCRACY - MITH END

REALITATE REALITY
1
Prof. univ. dr., Adrian Gorun Prof. Ph D., Adrian Gorun
Abstract: Esena democraiei este Abstract: The essence of democracy refers

nelegerea ei ca i stare social caracterizat prin to understanding it as social status characterized
egalitatea condiiilor i nu prin ansamblul de by equality of conditions not by the corpus of
instituii politice. Scopul acestui studiu este acela political institutions. The aim of this paper is to
de a ntreprinde o incursiune prin istoria undertake a foray through the history of the
conceptului de democraie aa cum a fost neles concept of democracy as it was grasped by
de filosofi i istorici de-a lungul timpului. Ne vom philosophers and historians throughout the time.
referi cu precdere asupra aspectelor sale We shall specifically refer to its theoretical aspects
teoretice, dar i asupra modului n care este and also on the way it is understood nowadays.
neleas ea astzi.
Cuvinte cheie: democraie, stare social,

Key-words: democracy, social status,
fenomen, resorturi, form politic
phenomenon, competence, political form
Preocupat de descoperirea naturii Concerned with tracing the nature of

democraiei, ntre 1831-1832 Alexis de democracy, Alexis de Tocqueville together
Tocqueville mpreun cu Gustave de with Gustave de Beaumont, in 1831-1832,
Beaumont realizeaz o cltoare oficial de carried out a formal journey to do research on
cercetare a regimului penitenciar din statele the penitentiary regime in the United States;
unite, ocazie cu care constat, cum afirm on that occasion they found a democracy
primul, c aici democraia i-a atins limitele which reached its natural boundaries, as the
naturale2. De altfel, Tocqueville este uimit former of the two scholars, asserts. As a
de cele dou modaliti contrastante n care se matter of fact, Tocqueville was amazed by
prezint democraia: o micare social plin the two competing ways which democracy
de convulsii, cum este cazul rii sale displayed: a social movement shattered by
Frana i un ansamblu armonios de upheavals, as it was the case of his native
obiceiuri i instituii, aa cum o descoper n country, France and on the other hand, a well-
America. orchestrated entirety of customs and
Rdcina acestor contraste se afl n traditions, as they could see in USA.
nsi esena democraiei, n nelegerea ei n The root of these contrasts lied in the
primul rnd ca stare social, caracterizat substance of democracy itself, in grasping it
prin egalitatea condiiilor i nu ca ansamblu first as a social condition, characterized by
de instituii politice. Prin urmare, dintr-o stare equality of conditions, not as an entirety of
social cu aceleai caracteristici, popoarele political institutions. It follows that from the
pot ajunge cum constat Tocqueville la same social condition bearing the same
consecine politice extraordinar de diferite.
1
Preedintele Senatului Universitii Constantin Brncui din Tg-Jiu
2
A. de Tocqueville , Despre democraie n America, vol. I, p. II (Introduction)
7
Dar, originea strii sociale este diferit la attributes, the peoples may reach as
americani, care s-au nscut i nu au devenit Tocqueville notes to extremely different
egali (s.n.)3. i cum starea social de political consequences. Yet, the origin of the
egalitate are origini diferite (dei instituiile social condition is different for the
sunt consecin a acestei stri), din originile Americans, which were born free, they did
diferite izvorsc influenele diferite asupra not become equal (s.n); and since the equal
instituiilor politice. Fin i profund analist, social condition had different origins
Pierre Manent4 explic aceast fecund idee (although the institutions are consequences of
lansat de Alexis de Tocqueville: Aceast the same condition), from the different
contradicie sau aceast dificultate se origins, different influences upon political
estompeaz dac lum n considerare c, pe institutions aroused. A subtle and deep
de o parte, starea social democratic observer, Pierre Manent explains this prolific
determin foarte riguros ce nu pot fi idea launched by Alexis de Tocqueville:
instituiile ele nu pot fi aristocratice i c, This contradiction or difficulty grows
pe de alt parte, ea nu lmurete, i deci las blurred whether we consider on the one hand
pe seama discernmntului popoarelor ce pot that democratic social condition rigorously
fi ele: tiranizate sau libere. Atunci cnd establishes what the institutions cannot be
Alexis de Tocqueville afirm c democraia they cannot be aristocratic and that on the
se definete mai nti printr-o stare social el other hand, it does not make clear, so leaves
nu sugereaz c aceasta ar fi n esen o it on peoples decision what they can be:
infrastructur social distinct n drept i n bullied or free. When Alexis de Tocqueville
fapt de o suprastructur politic n definitiv ascertains that democracy is first and
secundar, el definete momentul negativ al foremost defined by a social condition, he
democraiei: excluderea aristocraiei, a does not suggest that this would be in essence
inegalitii condiiilor. a distinct social <<infrastructure>> as to fact
Starea social de egalitate la francezi and law from a political <<superstructure>>
este dobndit, i, prin urmare, democraia eventually secondary, he defines the negative
nelege s se manifeste ca negare sau moment of democracy: exclusion of
distrugere a aristocraiei, n timp ce n aristocracy and of unequal conditions.
America, caracterul nnscut al egalitii ( Equal social condition for French
fiecare s-a nscut egal, deci, n egalitate cu people was gained and therefore democracy
ceilali), asigur realitatea dogmei understood to be manifest in the denial and
suveranitii poporului. n Statele Unite abolish of aristocracy, while in USA, the
constat Tocqueville - dogma suveranitii native feature of equality (everyone was born
poporului nu este deloc o doctrin izolat equals, so as equal as the others), established
care s nu in seama de obiceiurile, nici de the reality of peoples sovereignty dogma. In
ansamblul ideilor dominante; putem, USA, Tocqueville ascertains the dogma of
dimpotriv, s o imaginm pe ultima verig a peoples sovereignty is not at all an isolated
unui lan de opinii care nvluie ntreaga lume doctrine that takes into account neither the
anglo-american. Providena a dat fiecrui traditions, nor the entirety of dominant ideas;
3
Idem, vol III, p. 108
4
Pierre Manent, Istoria intelectual a liberalismului, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1992,p. 152
8
individ, oricare ar fi el, gradul de raiune on the contrary, we can imagine it as the last
necesar s se poat conduce el nsui, n link of a chain of opinions which wraps the
lucrurile care l intereseaz exclusiv. Aceasta whole American world. Providence has given
este marea maxim pe care, n Statele Unite, to each individual, no matter his identity, the
se sprijin societatea civil i politic: tatl de degree of necessary raison d'tre to lead his
familie o aplic copiilor si, stpnul being in the world, surrounded exclusively by
servitorilor, localitatea administraiilor, the things he is interested in. This is the great
provincia localitilor, statul provinciilor, maxima which uphold the civil and political
Uniunea statelor. Extinse la nivelul naiunii, society in USA: the father of the family
ea devine dogma suveranitii poporului. applies to his children, the master to his
Astfel, n Statele Unite, principiul generator attendants, local authorities to their
al republicii este acelai care regleaz administrative services, the state to its cities,
majoritatea aciunilor umane5. towns and villages, the state to its governors,
Preocupat de resorturile i mecanismele the Union to its states. By extending them at
democraiei, la un moment dat Giovani the level of the whole nation, it becomes the
Sartori a exprimat un punct de vedere extrem dogma of peoples sovereignty. Accordingly,
de controversat, pe care muli autori au in USA, the principle generating the republic
considerat c i-ar fi compromis opera. Iat-l : is the same that regulates most of the human
Democraie! Numele propus al unui lucru acts.
care nu exist. Eu spun c aceast Here, some emphases are necessary,
exclamaie cu valoare conclusiv nu este nici particularly regarding the dogma of peoples
superficial, nici iresponsabil cum o sovereignty, taking into consideration the
calific J. Baudouin. Dimpotriv, ea este recent theories on democracy. Accordingly,
semnificativ i responsabilizatoare dac nu many authors have considered that one idea
dorim s limitm nepermis nelegerea launched by Giovanni Sartori would have
democraiei azi. compromised his work. Preoccupied by the
Voi explica n cele ce urmeaz. nainte resorts and mechanisms of democracy, at a
de a exista elaborri sistematice, ideea de given moment he expressed an extremely
democraie, ca i metodele de punere a ei n controversial view. Here it is: Democracy!
aplicare, au aprut n prima jumtate a The name proposed for a subject matter that
secolului al V-lea .H. la greci, ei exercitnd does not exist.
o influen deosebit n istoria universal. I would contend that this conclusive
Grecii, ndeosebi atenienii constat Robert exclamation is neither superficial nor
A. Dahl au fost primii care au produs ceea irresponsible as J. Baudouin characterizes
ce a numi prima transformare democratic: it. On the contrary it is both significant and
de la ideea i practica guvernrii de ctre cei responsible unless we desire to forbiddingly
puini la ideea i practica guvernrii de ctre limit the understanding of democracy today.
cei muli. Pentru greci supremul loc propice Allow me to explain myself. Before
democraiei era, desigur, statulcetate6. systematic enacting, the idea of democracy as
Derularea evenimentelor n istoria well as its method to apply it emerged in the
5
A. de Tocqueville, op. cit. p. 414
6
Robert A. Dahl, Democraia i criticii ei, Iai, Institutul European, 2002, p.9
9
universal demonstreaz c democraia este second half of 5th century with the Greeks
un fenomen extrem de complex, a crei and they were particularly influential for the
analiz a provocat pe cei mai muli gnditori, world history. Greek people, especially
dar i oameni simpli, care din vremuri Athenians Robert Dahl ascertains were
strvechi i-au imaginat un model de the first to yield what I would call the first
organizare a sistemului politic n care membri democratic transformation: from the idea and
comunitari s fie egali din punct de vedere practice of few governors, to the idea and
politic, s guverneze mpreun i s dispun practice of many governors. With the Greeks,
de caliti proprii, resurse i instituii necesare the supreme place appropriate to democracy
pentru a se autoguverna. Problema raportului was obviously the state-citadel.
dintre cercetarea empiric i reflecia The events in the world history
normativ n teoria democratic, a constituit demonstrated that democracy was an
mult vreme subiect de dezbatere, iar Dahl extremely complex phenomenon, whose
este contient c tiina politic nu poate fi analysis challenged most of thinkers and also
una exclusiv empiric (opera sa poate fi common people who as early as ancient times
considerat un proiect de mbinare a celor imagined a model of political system
dou dimensiuni)7 arrangement where the community members
Democraia este studiat, deopotriv, de should be equal politically speaking, should
filosofi, care propun chiar modele ideale de govern together and should have at their
democraie, istorici, preocupai de disposal their qualities, resources and
ascensiunea i declinul acesteia, politologi, necessary institutions to exercise self-
care ncearc s dea o explicaie empiric a governing. The subject matter of the relation
condiiilor afirmrii, meninerii, funcionrii, between empirical research and normative
rspndirii i posibilei sale prbuiri8. Este reflection within the democratic theory has
cert c existena acestei diversiti de been for a long time a debatable issue and
unghiuri de abordare conduce i la unele Dahl is aware that the political science may
suprapuneri, ns diversitatea conduce mai be exclusively empirical (his work itself may
totdeauna la rezultate fecunde n cercetare. be considered a draft to intermix the two
Chiar i unele construcii ce mbrac forme dimensions).
utopice ideii ale de democraie pot conduce la Democracy has been studied
mbuntirea democraiilor real-funcionale. concomitantly by philosophers, who even
Totui, n evoluia sa istoric, guvernarea suggested ideal models of democracy,
majoritii a fost n multe situaii repudiat, historians concerned with its ascent and
puini oameni fiind n situaia de a cuta i a decline, political scientists, who endeavour in
reui s adapteze realitatea politic, ntr-o giving an empirical explanation to its being in
msur semnificativ, la cerinele ei the world, maintaining, operating,
imperioase 9. disseminating and its possible collapse. It is
Mai mult, democraia este forma certain that this diversity of approach
politic ce i-a dovedit n timpuri perspectives leads to overlays; still diversity
ndelungate, o nou capacitate de adaptare la next to always leads to prolific results in
7
Lucian Dumitru Drdal, Postfa la cartea lui R.A. Dahl, Democraia i criticii ei, p. 527
8
Vezi i Gianfranco Pasquino, Curs de tiin politic, Institutul European, 2002, p. 305
9
R. Dahl, op. cit. p. 9
10
diferite condiii, o mare capacitate de nvare research. Even some constructions taking
i un interes potenial de transformare10; ea utopia shapes of democracy idea may lead to
s-a manifestat ca idee a guvernrii de ctre improving the real-functioning democracies.
cei muli transformnd viaa politic cam n Yet along its historic evolution, majority
aceeai perioad att n Atena (i alte orae governing was many times repudiated, few
state greceti), ct i n statul cetate al people being in the situation to search and
Romei. succeed in adapting the political reality in a
Germeni ai ideilor referitoare la significant extent to its imperative
democraie se regsesc nc din perioada requirements.
gruprii denumit de Karl Popper Marea Moreover, democracy is the political
Generaie care traverseaz colile sofitilor form which has proved its new adaptability
Protagoras i Gorgias, atomistului Democrit, to different circumstances for long time, great
democratului Pericle, generaie, creia, de capacity of changing and a potential interest
altfel, i-au aparinut Alcidamus i Lycopfron. of transformation; it was manifest as an idea
Prin Oraia funerar a lui Pericle sunt puse of governing by the majority, changing
bazele acestei Generaii care i-au afirmat political life roughly in the same period both
principiile egalitarist-liberale i in Athens (and other Greek towns-states) and
individualismului i care a trit n Atena n in the state-citadel Rome.
timpul rzboiului peloponezian. Totodat, Seeds of ideas referring to democracy
Protagoras a elaborat un fundament teoretic al were to be found as early as the period of the
democraiei participative (conform lui, toi group named by Karl Popper Great
oamenii au o contribuie chiar inegal Generation who ran through the schools of
uneori la asigurarea dreptii), el fiind the sophists Protagoras and Georgias, of the
iniiatorul doctrinei egalitii politice n atomist Democrit, of the democrat Pericles, a
istoria gndirii politice, doctrin dezvoltat generation to which, in fact, Alcidamus and
pentru prima oar ca o critic a concepiilor Lycopfron belonged. Pericless Funeral
esoterice i etiliste privind statul (concepii Oration laid the bases of this Generation who
frecvente n Grecia) aa cum observ i G.B. stated their equalitarian-liberal principles
Kerferd n The Sophistic Movement. and individualism and who lived in Athens
Complexitatea problematicii during the Peloponnesian War. All the more,
constrngerii i libertilor, a democraiei i Protagoras elaborated a theoretical basis of
libertii face i obiectul miniaturalei. participative democracy (according to him,
Democraia ca violen, atribuit Anonimului everybody has a contribution sometimes
atenian (cca 450 .H.N.) reprezint, de altfel, unequal to furnish justice); he was the
cea mai veche critic a democraiei ca sistem initiator of political equality doctrine within
distrugtor i opresiv, dar perfect11. Dar the history of political thought, a doctrine
democraia, nscut ca un cuvnt de ruptur which was first developed as a critique of
i nu de convenien, exprim prevalena esoteric and elitist conceptions regarding the
unei pri i nu participarea egal a tuturor, state (frequent in Greece) as G.B. Kerferd
participare echidistant la viaa cetii (pentru notices in The Sophist Movement.
10
G. Pasquino, op. cit. p. 305
11
Anonimo ateniese: La democrazia come violenza
11
aceasta, mai apropiat n coninut ar fi The issue complexity of constraints and

insonomia). Aa cum observa nc Platon, freedoms, of democracy and freedoms is also
democraia se nate ca un act de violen n the subject matter of miniaturization.
momentul n care ctig sracii, ucignd pe Democracy as violence assigned to Athenian
civa dintre bogai, alungndu-i pe alii. Anonymous (roughly 450 BC) represented in
Aceast instauraie violent se realizeaz fie fact the oldest critique of democracy as
prin fora armelor, fie prin extinderea prii destructive and oppressive system, still
adverse care se retrage prin team12. perfect. Yet democracy arising as a word of
De altfel, n accepiunea lui J. Gray, breach not of convenience, expressed the
Platon i Aristotel se opun germenilor prevalence of one part, not the equal
liberalismului exprimai de Marea participation of all, equidistant participation
Generaie. Astfel, citndu-i pe E. A. to citadels life (for this more close to the
Havelock i K. Popper, Gray consemneaz: subject matter would be isonomia). As Plato
n operele lui Platon i Aristotel, nu vom himself noticed, democracy was given rise as
descoperi o dezvoltare a concepiei Marii violent acts the very moment when the poor
Generaii, ci o reacie mpotriva acesteia, o people win, killing some of the rich people,
efeminare a liberalismului grec, sau o banishing others. This violent instauration
contrarevoluie ndreptat spre societatea was accomplished either by the weapons
deschis din Atena lui Pericle13. n acest force or through extension of the opposite
sens, Gray susine c: part that fearful withdraws.
Perspectiva sceptic i empiric a As a matter of fact, in J. Grays
sofitilor i a lui Democrit este nlocuit, n opinion, Plato and Aristotle were against the
scrierile lui Platon i Aristotel, de un tip de seeds of liberalism expressed by the Great
raionalism metafizic; Generation. By quoting E.A. Havelock and
Platon repudiaz etica libertii i K. Popper, Gray writes: In Plato and
egalitii filosofilor Marii Generaii n mod Aristotles works, we shall not find an
radical ;Aristotel procedeaz n aceeai enlargement on Great Generation concept,
problem ceva mai moderat, dar nu mai but a reaction against it, an unmanly of Greek
puin substanial; liberalism or a counter-revolution against the
Platon repudiaz n Republica o society open in Pericless Athens. In this
adevrat utopie antiliberal, sense, Gray ascertains that:
nerecunoscnd cerinele individualiste, The sceptical and empirical
respingnd egalitatea moral ntre oameni, perspective of sophists and Democrit was
repudiind critica instituiilor care, o dat replaced with a
stabilite, devin imuabile. kind of metaphysical rationalism in
Noi atragem, ns, atenia asupra Plato and Aristotles writings;
faptului c Platon, preocupat de ntrirea Plato radically repudiated the
statului grec n faa pericolului iminent al ethics of Great Generation philosophers
decderii, de statul ideal, (ca necesitate freedom and equality; Aristotle proceeds
absolut i realizare suprem), a lsat n more moderately still not much less
12
Platon, Republica, Cartea a VIII-a, n Opere, V, Bucureti, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1986
13
John Gray, Liberalismul, Editura Du Style, Bucureti, 1998, p.29
12
umbr semnificaia valorii intrinseci a substantially on the same issue;

libertii individuale. Demersul su privind In the Republic, Plato repudiated a
elaborarea unei teorii organice asupra true anti-liberal utopia without
statului i legilor este unul finalist. Apoi, acknowledging the individualist
trebuie precizat i c opera lui Platon nu este requirements, rejecting the moral equality
absolut omogen i nu este reprezentat doar among people, repudiating the institutions
de Republica i alte cteva dialoguri. Prin critique, which one they were established,
urmare, transferul de la punctul de vedere become immutable.
sceptic i empirist ctre raionalismul Nonetheless we draw the attention upon
metafizic de care vorbete J. Gray, trebuie the fact that Plato concerned with reinforcing
privit cu o anumit rezerv i, mai ales, the Greek state in the early stage of collapse
contextual. Invocm doar faptul c, n opera as imminent danger, concerned with the ideal
trzie, de exemplu, n Legile, Platon prezint state (as an absolute necessity and supreme
o ncercare de prescriere exhaustiv a sferei achievement), left behind the significance of
de aciune individual sub forma unor legi intrinsic value on individual freedom. His
atotcuprinztoare care pot fi garantul approach towards framing an organic theory
aciunilor libere ale individului, on state and laws is a final one. Then we
constrngerea limitndu-se la acele aciuni have to specify that Platos work was not at
care nu sunt prescrise de lege. Iar cum legile all homogeneous and was not represented
pot s acopere o arie extrem de mic din sfera only by the Republic and other few dialogues.
aciunilor umane, este cert c aciunea It follows that, the transfer from sceptical and
aparine n spe libertii, voinei libere. empirical point of view towards metaphysical
n privina lui Aristotel, Gray se rationalism J. Gray speaks about, has to be
manifest cu mai mult ngduin, regarded somehow reservedly and above all
remarcnd ns faptul c sentimentul within a context. We only mention the fact
antiliberal dei nu este la fel de virulent ca that in his later work, Laws, for instance,
cel care anim operele lui Platon, rmne Plato presented an endeavour of exhaustive
riguros i ptrunztor14. n acest sens, el prescription of individual activity domain as
constat c, cei mai muli gnditori au ajuns self-encompassing laws which may be the
la concluzia c n opera lui Aristotel nu se warrant of the individuals free activities, the
gsete nicio concesie a libertii individuale constraint being limited only to those
sau a drepturilor omului, ns, asumpia activities which were not under the law. And
acestora c orice ncercare de a atribui as the laws may cover an extremely small
elemente ale concepiei liberale unui gnditor area of human actions, it is certain that in
premodern este anacronica nu este de substance the action belonged to freedom as
acceptat. Motivul respingerii acestui punct de free will.
vedere de ctre Gray este reprezentat de Regarding Aristotle, Gray manifests
trsturile evidente ale individualismului ce himself more tolerantly, yet remarking the
se regsesc n concepia sofitilor, trsturi pe fact that the anti-liberal feeling, though not as
care el le-a surprins sub denumirea de vehement as the one that breathes from
germeni de gndire liberal existent n Platos works, remains rigorous and
14
Ibidem
13
lumea antic i la care am fcut i noi pervasive. In the same sense he notices that
referiri mai sus. most thinkers reached the conclusion that in
Aprofundnd analiza operei lui Aristotles work, any concession of
Aristotel prin raportare la sofitii cu care individual freedom or human rights is not to
acesta a fost contemporan, dar i la be found, yet their assumption that any
precursorii gndirii moderne (Hobbes, attempt to assign elements of liberal
Locke), Gray ajunge la concluzia c dei conception to a pre-modern thinker is an
nicieri n opera acestuia nu exist vreo anachronism is unacceptable. The reasons
sugestie referitoare la drepturile negative ale for Gray to reject this standpoint is
libertii individuale, etica Stagiritului represented by the obvious features of
conine ntr-o form rudimentar, o anumit individualism that are to be found in the
concepie a drepturilor naturale ale omului sophists conceptions, features that he
adic a acelor drepturi pe care toi oamenii le established under the seeds of liberal
dein n virtutea apartenenei lor la specia thinking in ancient world to which we also
uman15. De altfel, Gray, referindu-se la referred above.
Etica Nicomahic, dezvolt argumentaia Considering thoroughly Aristotles
privind caracterul rudimentar al concepiei work by relating it to the sophists whom he
aristotdice a drepturilor naturale ale omului, was contemporary with, and also to the
ca drepturi universale fondate pe apartenena precursors of modern thought (Hobbes,
la specia uman, gsind chiar i o asemnare Locke), Gray reaches the conclusion that
ntre afirmarea drepturilor naturale la Stagirit even though nowhere in the work of this
i concepia lui Toma dAquino referitoare la thinker there is any suggestion referring to
ntemeierea n dreptatea natural a acestor the negative rights of individual freedom;
drepturi. n acest sens trebuie neleas the ethics of Stagirite includes in a
respingerea radicalismului lui MacIntyre care rudimentary form a certain conception on
susine c ideea de drept natural este strin natural human rights, namely on those rights
gndirii antice i apropierea lui Gray de which everybody enjoys under their
poziia moderat a lui Strauss conform creia belonging to human species. Furthermore,
ideea esenial a dreptului natural al anticilor referring to Ethica Nichomachica, Gray
era ntemeiat pe ideea de datorie. ntr- enlarge on the debate concerning the
adevr remarc J. Gray la Aristotel exist rudimentary character of Aristotelian
o concepie aproape funcional a drepturilor, conception about natural human rights, as
unde acestea apreau datorit rolurilor universal rights based on belonging to human
diferite pe care indivizii le ndeplineau n species and even finds a similarity between
cadrul polisului. n viziunea lui Aristotel, statement of natural rights in Stagirite and
aceste funcii erau ataate n mod clar unor Tomas dAquinos conception regarding
drepturi extrem de inegale, fr a genera nici establishing these rights in natural justice.
mcar dreptul la noninterferen sau MacIntyres rejection of radicalism has to be
independen personal. Respingerea understood in this sense; MacIntyre asserts
consecvent a egalitii politice de ctre that the idea of natural right is far from
Aristotel trebuie neleas ca fcnd parte din ancient thinking, whereas Grays approaching
15
Idem, p. 30
14
reacia sa conservatoare mpotriva to moderate interference position of Strauss

16
liberalismului incipient la Atena . according to whom the essential idea of
Este tiut c, pentru greci, democraia natural right pertaining to ancient thinkers
nseamn guvernarea de ctre oameni was based on the idea of duty. Indeed
obinuii, oameni care n cea mai mare parte Gray remarks with Aristotle, there is an
erau sraci, fr experien i needucati. La almost functional conception of rights which
general vorbind, demosul reprezenta emerged due to different roles undertaken by
categoria oarecum majoritar, guvernarea individuals within the polis. In Aristotles
realizndu-se, n primul rnd, n beneficiul view, these functions were clearly attached to
su, prin opoziie la aristrocaie care some extremely unequal rights, without
presupune conducerea de ctre aristoi, cei engendering at least the right to non-
mai buni, cei despre care muli gnditori interference or personal independence.
greci afirmau c erau cei mai n msur s Consistent rejection of political equality by
guverneze. Descentralizarea vieii politice Aristotle has to be understood as part of his
presupunea autogenerarea la nivelul oraului conservative reaction against incipient
stat (polis-ului), iar n perioada numit a liberalism in Athens.
vrstei de Aur a Atenei, locuitorii si It is well known the fact that for
considerau polisul o democraie. Greeks, democracy meant governing by
Forma noastr de guvernare rostea common people, people who were mostly
Pericle nu rivalizeaz cu instituiile altora. poor, inexperienced and uneducated.
Nu i copiem pe vecinii notri, ci suntem un Generally speaking, demos represented the
exemplu pentru ei. Este adevrat c suntem majority category, governing was
numii o democraie, deoarece administraia accomplished, in the first place, to their
se afl n minile celor muli, i nu a celor benefit, competing with aristocracy
puini. Dar n timp ce legea asigur dreptate supposing leadership by aristot people
egal tuturor n disputele lor particulare, este (aristocrats), the best, those about whom
recunoscut i cerina de a fi cei mai buni, i most thinkers stated they were in the position
atunci cnd un cetean se distinge n orice to govern. De-centralizing the political life
fel, el este preferat pentru funcii publice nu supposed self-generating at the level of city-
ca un privilegiu, ci ca o rsplat a meritului state (polis), and in the period called Golden
su. Srcia nu este o piedic, dimpotriv, un Era of Athens, its inhabitants considered their
om poate aduce beneficii rii sale [polis], polis a democracy.
orict de obscur ar fi condiia sa17. Our government form Pericles
Oraia Funerar a lui Pericle sugereaz, uttered does not rival the institutions of
pe lng distincia democrai-aristocrai i o others. We do not imitate our neighbours, but
alt distincie de mare nsemntate pentru we are an example for them. It is true they
atenieni, aceea ntre cetenii interesai de call us a democracy, since the more and
treburile publice (polites) i persoanele care common people are in charge with
i urmreau doar propriul interes (ideotes): administration, not the few and aristocrats.
Un cetean atenian afirma el nu Yet, while law enforce equal justice for
16
Idem, pp. 30-31
17
Pericles, Funerar Oration, n Tucidide, History of the Peloponnesian War, vol.4, pp. 127-128
15
neglijeaz statul polis deoarece el are grij everyone in their particular disputes, the
de propria sa gospodrie; i chiar aceia dintre requirement to be the best is also granted and
noi care sunt implicai n afaceri au o foarte when a citizen is different in any kind, he is
bun idee despre politic. Numai noi privim in favour for public service not as a privilege,
un brbat care nu este interesat n problemele but as a reward for his merits. Poverty is not
publice, nu ca fiind un caracter duntor, ci an obstacle; on the contrary, a man can bring
unul fr folos; i dac puini dintre noi benefits to his polis, no matter how obscure
iniiaz o politic, noi cu toii o judecm his condition.
temeinic18. Apart from the distinction between
La atenieni, noiunea de cetenie democrats and aristocrats, Pericles Funeral
indic i un anumit sens al libertii; pentru a Oration suggests another distinction of an
fi cetean, individul trebuia s fie liber, utmost importance for Athenians: that
adult, brbat atenian. Ct de inclusiv era referring to the citizens interested in public
democraia atenian rezult exact din faptul matters (polities, Gr.) and the self-interested
c femeile, strinii rezideni i sclavii, care persons (idiotes, Gr.): An Athenian citizen
alctuiau, prin urmare, majoritatea populaiei, he stated does not neglect the state
erau exclui. Practic, doar unul din zece <<polis>> because he takes care of his own
locuitori ai Atenei era cetean (deci liber). household; and even those among us implied
Participarea la viaa public in business are good in politics. With the only
presupunea: difference that we regard a man who is not
calitatea de cetean major al Atenei interested in political matters, not as a
(la nivelul ceteniei, interdiciile vizau harmful character, but a useless one; and
femeile); whether few of us initiate a politics, we all
calitatea de om liber, derivat din judge it thoroughly.
calitatea de cetean; With the Athenians, the notion of
o responsabilitate public ce nu citizenship indicates a certain sense of
exclude cetenii implicai n afaceri freedom; in order to be a citizen the
(dimpotriv, acetia sunt considerai a avea individual had to be free, adult, man and
o foarte bun idee despre politic); Athenian. How comprehensive was
remunerarea activitilor de Athenian democracy flowed from the fact
participare la viaa public, asigurndu-se, that the women, foreigner residents and the
astfel, cointeresarea celor implicai (fie ei slaves who consisted most of the population
sraci sau bogai) s participe la adunri i s were excluded. In practice, one of ten
decid politica prin vot direct; inhabitants of Athens was a citizen (therefore
ocuparea unor posturi politice free).
(urmare a ncrederii n demos) nu prin vot, ci Participation to public life supposed:
pe baza tragerii la sori. Unele dintre aceste The adult citizenship of Athens (at
practici, la care se adaug protecia redus a the level of citizenship, interdiction referred
drepturilor minoritilor, limitele libertii de to women;
exprimare, practica ostracizrii (ostakon The quality of free man derived from
scoica sau ciobul pe care cetenii Atenei the citizenship;
18
Idem, p. 129
16
scriau numele celor pe care doreau s-i A public responsibility which did
ndeprteze fr proces i fr a li se aduce not leave out the citizens engaged in business
acuzaii legale); fac din democraia atenian o (on the contrary, they were considered to
form de guvernare inacceptabil pentru a fi have a very good idea on politics);
luat ca model. Asemenea aspecte ridic Remunerating the activities of
multe ntrebri legate de caracterul participation in public life, thus ensuring the
democratic al oraului stat Atena. De altfel, interest of those involved (either poor or rich)
Atena prima democraie a creat primul to participate in meetings and decide the
martir al libertii de gndire i de exprimare policy by direct vote;
Socrate. Taking hold of some political
n acest context trebuie privite criticile positions (as a follow up of trust in demos)
lui Platon i Aristotel la adresa democraiei not by direct vote but by balloting for a place.
ateniene, form de guvernare considerat de Some of these practises to which reduced
ei ca instabil i, prin urmare, periculoas. protection of minorities rights was added,
Astfel, Platon insist pe ideea c, plasnd the limits of freedom of expression, the
puterea politic n minile poporului ignorant practice of ostracize (ostrakon the shell or
i mcinat de invidie, n Cartea a VIII-a a shiver on which the citizens of Athens wrote
lucrrii sale Republica decreteaz democraia the name of those who they wanted removed
periculoas ntruct: without a trial and without legal accusation);
- ignorana oamenilor de rnd make Athenian democracy a form of
genereaz imposibilitatea utilizrii puterii government unacceptable to be taken as a
politice pentru binele comun; model. Such aspects pose many questions
- invidia produce discriminri ntre related to democratic character of the city-
promovarea binelui comun, i binelui state Athens. To state precisely, Athens the
propriu, poporul fiind nclinat s-i acopere first democracy created the first martyr of
propriile interese (o privilegiere a binelui freedom of thought and expression
propriu); Socrates.
- renunarea la binele comun n It is in this context that Plato and
favoarea binelui propriu conduce la jefuirea i Aristotles critiques have to be regarded on
deposedarea celor mai nstrii; Athenian democracy, a form of governing
- ignorana i invidia fac din demos o considered by them unstable and
mas de manevr pentru liderii si (liderii consequently dangerous. Thus, Plato insists
demosului, prin demagogie i flatare vor upon the idea, that placing the political power
specula invidia i vor strni oamenii, unii in the hands of an ignorant people, red with
mpotriva altora); envy, in Book VIII of his work Republic says
- starea de lupt din interiorul cetii, about democracy it is dangerous because:
caracteristic democraiei, evolueaz ctre - Common peoples ignorance
rzboi civil i anarhie, ctre distrugerea generates the impossibility of utilizing
oraului stat; political power for the common benefit;
- anarhia generat va face ca oamenii s - Envy engenders discriminations
cear lege i ordine, apelnd la persoane between promoting the common benefit and
dornice de putere (i suficient de puternice), self-benefit, the people being inclined to
care s conduc prin mijloace despotice cover its own interest (privilege of self-
17
(tiranului nu-i sunt specifice nici interesele benefit);

polisului, nici cele ale poporului, ci doar - Giving up common benefit in favour
puterea exercitat n nume propriu). of self-benefit leads to plundering and
n esen, democraia, conducerea dispossession of wealthy people;
poporului, la Platon nu reprezint altceva - The ignorance and envy transform
dect o serie de pai mruni ctre despotism. demos into a manoeuvre mass for its leaders
i pentru Aristotel democraia era rea i (the demos leaders through demagogy and
de nedorit, el preciznd c aceasta reprezint flattering will speculate the envy and provoke
unul din cele ase tipuri principale de regim people against one another);
politic (constituii). - The fight condition inside the citadel,
Puterea de guvernare susine characteristic to democracy evolves towards
Stagiritul n Politica trebuie s fie civil war and anarchy, ultimately to
exercitat de ctre o persoan, de un grup destruction of the city-state;
restrns de persoane sau de un grup larg de - The generated anarchy will cause
oameni. Aceast putere se exercit potenial people ask for law and order, by appealing to
fie spre binele ntregii comuniti caz n individuals willing to be in power (powerful
care ea este bun, adevrat, fie numai enough) to lead by despotic means (the polis
pentru binele conductorilor caz n care este interests, the peoples interests are not
pervertit. Realiznd o combinare a acestor specific to the tyrant, but only power
caracteristici, lund ca referin interesul la exercised on his own behalf).
care se raporteaz exercitarea puterii, In essence, with Plato leading the
Aristotel consider c exist trei forme people represents nothing other than a series
adevrate (puterea este exercitat n interes of small steps towards despotism.
public): monarhia (conduce o persoan), With Aristotle too, democracy was evil
aristocraia (conduc civa) i politeia and undesired, he himself specifying that this
(conduc muli) forme crora li se contrapun is one of the six main types of political
alte trei, pervertite (n interes propriu): regime (constitutions).
tirania (conduce o persoan), oligarhia The governing power Stagirite claims
(conduc civa) i democraia (conduc muli). in Politics has to be exercised by a person,
Prin urmare, nu numrul celor care a small group of persons or a large group of
exercit puterea este esenial n calificarea people. This power is potentially
drept adevrate sau pervertite a formelor exercised either to the benefit of whole
de guvernare, ci tipul interesului urmrit n community which is well, true, or to the
exercitarea puterii. leaders benefit which is perverted. By
Ca i Platon, Aristotel susine c combining the two characteristics and taking
democraia este o form de conducere the interest to which exercising the power is
corupt, ntruct demosul tinde ctre interese related to as a reference point, Aristotle
egoiste, urmare a vederilor sale nguste. considers that there are three real forms
Oamenii simpli nu sunt interesai de pacea i (power is exercised in the public interest):
stabilitatea polisului (deci, nu susin monarchy (one person leads), aristocracy (a
interesele de durat), ci se orienteaz n small group of persons leads) and politeia (a
funcie de propriile interese pe termen scurt, large group leads); to these other three
nsuindu-i proprieti, bogii i putere de la perverted counterpoise (in self interest):
18
cei puini. Aceast nclinaie a demersului are tyranny (one person leads), oligarchy (a small
aceleai consecine cu cele descrise de Platon: group leads) and democracy (a large group
instaurarea haosului i, n final, a leads).
despotismului n ntreg polisul. It follows that it is not the number of
O caracteristic desprins din those exercising the power that is essential in
clasificarea aristotelic este aceea c prin characterizing the governing forms as real
prisma unor judeci normative include or perverted, but the type of the interest
politeia ca form buna a guvernrii de ctre pursued in exercising power.
cei muli. Pentru Aristotel politeia difer de Just like Plato, Aristotle too, claimed
democraie prin aceea c ea mbin elemente that democracy was a corrupt form of
ale guvernrii de ctre cei muli rezultnd o governing, since the demos tended to selfish
constituie mixt ce const n faptul c fiecare interests as a follow up of its narrow views.
grup l poate supraveghea pe cellalt, cei Common people were not interested in the
puini pe cei muli, cei muli pe cei puini, polis peace and stability (so they did not
astfel nct nici una din clase nu-i poate foster interests in long term), but they
urmri propriul interes n detrimentul binelui directed themselves depending on their
comun. interests in short term, by taking possession
O alt deosebire, sugerat de Stagirit, of properties, wealth and power from the few.
ntre politeia i democraie izvorte din This approach had the same consequences as
modul de distribuie a bogiei i a the ones described by Plato: instauration of
proprietii. ntr-o democraie, n condiii chaos and ultimately despotism in the whole
aproape cvasitotale, inevitabile (acesta este polis.
modul n care decurg lucrurile i el nu poate One characteristic flowing from
fi schimbat), cei muli sunt cei sraci. Numai Aristotelian classification is that through
n condiiile extrem de rare, cei mai muli normative judgement he encompasses
oameni nu sunt nici bogai, nici sraci, ci au politeia as a good form of governing by a
o proprietate (bogie) moderat i large group. For Aristotle, politeia differs
suficient19, existnd posibilitatea ca ei s from democracy in that it intermixes the
conduc de o manier prudent. Este vorba de elements of governing by a large group, a
permanent invocata clas de mijloc i mixed constitution following, consisting in
devenirea ei ca majoritar, situaie that each group can oversee the other, the few
considerat de natur a evita excesele oversee the many and the many oversee the
caracteristice sracilor invidioi i few, so that none of the classes can pursue its
bogtailor arogani. Aceast clas de own interest to the detriment of the common
mijloc vede binele polisului ca propriul su benefit.
bine, i astfel, va pleda i aciona pentru a se Yet Stagirite suggests another
menine pacea i stabilitatea oraului stat. difference between politeia and democracy,
Ct de actual este aceast apreciere a under quasi overall conditions, though
Stagiritului se poate observa i numai inevitable (this is the way in which things
analiznd fenomenalizrile democraiei flow and it cannot be altered), the many are
formale i democraiei substaniale, distincii the poor people. Only under very rare
19
Aristotel, Politica, Editura Antet, Bucureti, 1996, p. 192
19
nuanate de mine n numeroase studii. circumstances, the many are neither rich, not
Aristotel considera, deci, politeia drept poor, but they possess a property which is
cel mai bun dintre cele ase regimuri, n timp both moderate and self-sufficient; there is a
ce democraia era considerat rea. possibility for them to lead cautiously. In this
Totui, ntr-o ierarhizare (fondat tot n case, this the permanently invoked middle
normativ), el argumenteaz c democraia class and it becoming a majority, a situation
este mai bun dect tirania i oligarhia (o meant to avoid the excesses proper to
comparaie gradual n interiorul formelor envious poor people and arrogant rich
pervertite), ntruct judecata colectiv este people. This middle class regards the poleis
mai bun dect aceea a oricrui individ sau well as its well and thus it will always plead
grup restrns, inclusiv a unui grup de oameni for and act to maintain the city-states peace
pricepui (nici un om obinuit nu are and stability. How contemporary is Stagirites
capacitatea de a judeca bine ceea ce este drept characterization it can be implied by
sau nedrept, bun sau ru, urt sau frumos). analyzing the formal democracy and
Acest lucru este adevrat la fel cum un osp substantial democracy phenomenology,
la care contribuie muli este mai bun dect o distinctions emphasized by me in numerous
cin bazat pe o singur pung20. studies.
Cel de-al doilea element care face din Thus Aristotle considered politeia as
democraie un ru mai mic dect tirania sau the best of the six regimes, while democracy
oligarhia este acela c cea dinti ofer was considered evil.
posibilitatea mai multor brbai de a participa However, in a hierarchy (also based on
la viaa activ de cetean, de a conduce i de normative judgement) he brings arguments to
a fi condus. demonstrate that democracy is better than
Este tiut c libertatea politic greac tyranny and oligarchy (a gradual comparison
apare ca un dat istoric, cu precdere, ca un within perverted forms), since the collective
rezultat al rzboaielor. Chiar n perioada judgement is better than that of an individual
formrii ideii libertii politice clasice se or small group, including a group of people
constat o difereniere ntre libertatea with expertise (no common people does not
caracterizat prin adeziunea la sophrosyne have the ability to judge well what is right or
(respect pentru tradiie i existen, pentru not, good or bad, ugly or beautiful). This is as
viaa social, disciplin i ordine) pe de o true as a feast to which more than one based
parte i libertatea democratic neleas ca on a single purse contribute.
libertinism, desfru, akolasia, pe de alt The second element which makes
parte. Aceasta de pe urm este cauzatoare de democracy a smaller evil than tyranny or
arogan i hybris, disoluie i instabilitate n oligarchy is that the former furnish the
i pentru viaa comunitii. De altfel, n possibility for many men to participate in the
Testamentul su, Pericle atrgea atenia active life of citizen, to lead and to be lead.
asupra pericolului pentru stat a celei de a It is well-known the fact that Greek
doua form a libertii, subliniind c politics emerges as a historic given fact,
libertatea fr legalitate (fr supunere n faa especially as an outcome of wars. As early as
autoritilor nvestite) nu exist, iar dac the period when the idea of classic political
20
Idem, p. 146
20
exist, desemneaz deviere fundamental de freedom crystallization, a differentiation

la elentherie (comunitate) spre un demos between the freedoms characterized through
dominat de frdelege, anarhie. joining the sophrosyne (respect for tradition
Este cunoscut i recunoscut c and being in the world, for social life,
guvernmntul popular a supravieuit n discipline and order) on the one hand and
lumea antic sub forma republicii mai democratic freedom understood as
degrab dect sub forma democraiei libertinism, debauchery, akolasia, on the
(republica deriv din latinescul res publica, other. The last one causes arrogance and
lucrul public, treburi publice). De altfel, cei hubris, dissolution and instability within and
mai muli cercettori consider c for the community life. In fact in his Last
fundamentele individualismului se gsesc n Will, Pericles drew the attention upon the
dreptul roman ntruct Legea celor XII Table danger that the second form of freedom
(care are, se pare, ca model legile lui Solon), incurred upon the state, emphasizing that
coninea importante garanii ale libertii freedom without legal bases (obeying the
individuale. Prima dintre legile publice appointed authorities) does not exist, and if it
stipuleaz c nici un privilegiu sau statut nu does means fundamental deviation from
va fi decretat n favoarea unei persoane Eleutherie (community) towards a demos
private, dac acesta reprezint o nedreptate i dominated by unlawfulness and anarchy.
e contrar legii comune tuturor cetenilor, It is well-known and acknowledged the
lege de care indivizii, independent de rang, fact that the popular governing outlived in
pot face uz. Pe aceast baz s-a dezvoltat la ancient world rather as a republic than as a
Roma un drept privat puternic, de factur democracy (the word republic derives from
individual i s-a impus o tradiie legislativ the Latin res public, public thing, and
care, dei a deczut n timpul domniilor lui public business). As a matter of fact, most of
Iustinian i Constantin, a influenat the researchers considers that the bases of
modernitatea, ndeosebi prin intermediul individualism are to be found in the Roman
Renaterii latine din secolul al XVII-lea. law since Law of the Twelve Tables (which it
Operele istoricilor i oratorilor Titus Livius, seems has as a model Solons laws) included
Tacit i Cicero exprim spiritul liber al legilor important warranties of individual freedom.
romane n perioada considerat a reprezenta The first of the public laws stipulates that any
fundamentarea individualismului. privilege or statute will not be favour a
Vorbind despre Cicero, Fr. A. Hayek private person if he represents an injustice
consemneaz: and is contrary to the laws common to all
Lui i se datoreaz concepia referitoare citizens, a law which all the citizens
la regulile generale leges legum, care irrespective of their rank will utilize. Based
genereaz dreptul, concepie dup care, noi on it, a powerful private law developed in
dm ascultare legii pentru a ne proteja Rome, of individual kind and a legislative
libertatea i concepia conform creia tradition imposed which, though it fell into
judectorul nu trebuie s fie dect gura prin decay during Justinian and Constantin,
intermediul creia vorbete legea21. influenced modernity especially via Latin
O remarcabil analiz a republicii Renaissance of 17th century. The works of
21
Fr. A. Hazek, The Constition of Liberty, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1978, p. 166
21
romane se regsete la istoricul grec Polybius historians and orators Titus Livius, Tacitus
(cca 200 .Hr. cca 118 .Hr.), ostatic la and Cicero express the free spirit of Roman
Roma aproximativ 17 ani. Acesta, analiznd laws in the period considered to represent
ciclicitatea ascensiunii i decderii marilor substantiation of individualism.
puteri (deci, i a Romei) a dat termenului de Speaking about Cicero, Fr. A. Hayek
republic o conotaie specific prin reportare notes:
la guvernmntul mixt. Explicnd de ce unii The conception referring to general
dein puterea mai mult dect alii, lund rules <<leges legume>> generating the law is
exemplul Romei, Polybius analizeaz owed to him, a conception which generates
guvernmntul mixt al acesteia, nuannd the law, a conception which urges us to obey
discuiile lui Platon i Aristotel asupra the law in order to protect our freedom, a
politeiei. Republica Roman e un conception according to which the judge
guvernmnt mixt n opinia lui Poybius, should only be the mouth via which the law
ntruct puterea nu este deinut exclusiv nici speaks.
de o singur persoan sau de un grup, nici de A remarkable analysis of Roman
ctre cei muli. Republica amesteca republic is to be found in the Greek historian
(guvernmntul mixt) aceste trei regimuri pe Polybius (roughly 200 B.C.) who was a
baza selectrii elementelor pozitive i hostage in Rome for 17 years. He, by
respingerii aspectelor negative ale acestora. analyzing the ascent and decay of great
Republica Roman nu a acordat ntreaga powers as cycles (Rome included) gave to the
putere unei singure persoane sau oamenilor term of republic a specific connotation by
simpli, ci a mprit puterea ntre ei. Poporul relating it to mixed government. By
(de regul, constituit din brbaii liberi i explaining why some held the power longer
aduli), ca ntreg, exercita un anumit control, than others, taking Romes example, Polybius
prin adunri, asupra deciziilor politice, iar analyzed its mixed government, emphasizing
aristocraii controlau senatul. Pentru Platos and Aristotles discussions on
realizarea politicilor, Republica nu se bizuia politeia. Roman republic is a mixed
pe un monarh, ci pe consuli. government in Polybius conception, since
Guvernmntul mixt asigur, n the power is not within the exclusive power
concepia lui Polybius, o asemenea stare, of any one person or a small group or a large
nct nici un grup nu-i putea urmri i realiza group. The republic mixed (mixed
propriul interes, n detrimentul binelui public, government) these three regimes based on
fiecare controlndu-l pe cellalt, rezultatul selecting both their positive and negative
fiind o form de guvernmnt liber, stabil aspects. Roman republic did not assigned
i durabil. power to one person or common people, but
Trebuie spus c, dei republica era o divided power between them. The people (as
form popular de guvernmnt, aprtorii ei a rule constituted of free, adult men) as a
au insistat s nu fie confundat cu whole exercised a certain control through
democraia, ntruct prima promova virtutea, meetings, upon political decisions, while the
iar cea de-a doua viciul conducerea egoist aristocrats controlled the senate. In order to
a oamenilor obinuii. Virtutea republican achieve the policies, the Republic was not
consta n puterea de a depi interesul based on the monarch but on the consuls.
personal sau de grup, de a plasa binele Mixed governing ensures, in Polybius
22
comunitii ca primordialitate i ea aparine conception, such a condition that any group

cetenilor activi, dornici s-i exercite could not pursue and achieve its own interest
libertatea i vigilena n a o apra. to the detriment of public well, each being in
Guvernmntul mixt ntrunea ambele control o the other, the outcome being a form
coordonate: ncuraja participarea popular la o government free, stable and lasting.
guvernare i ncuraja obinerea de ctre o It is worth mentioning thus that, though
persoan sau un grup a unei puteri suficient the republic was a popular form of
de mare, care s amenine libertatea i binele government, its defenders insisted it should
comun. Poate c aa se explic i faptul not be taken for democracy, since the first
istoric c, la 100 de ani de la moartea lui promoted virtue, while the second the bad
Polybius, Republica Roman a creat Imperiul habit the selfish leadership of common
Roman. people. The republican virtue lied in the
Am fcut aceast succint incursiune power to overcome the personal or group
spre a evidenia ct de mari sunt diferenele n interest, to place the community well in the
abordarea democraiei la antici comparativ cu forefront and it pertained to the active
modernii. De aceea mindul american nu citizens, willing to exercise freedom and
trebuie s surprind pe cei ce-i caut tainele. vigilance to protect it.
Azi, pe lng marea diversitate de Mixed government fulfilled both
structuri i modaliti de funcionare a coordinates: encouraged the popular
regimurilor democratice (deci, pe lng participation to governing and also
diversitatea manifestrii in actu, n plan encouraged obtaining a high enough power
existenial), exist o ntreag problematic by one person or group of persons, to threaten
istorico-filosofic referitoare la democraie, the common liberty and well. Maybe this is
problematic imposibil de redus la realitatea the explanation o the historical fact that, 100
politic. years after Polybius death, the Roman
n nelegerea complexitii republic created the Roman Empire.
democraiei, R. Dahl previne pe cei interesai The aim of this short outline was to
de proces asupra coordonatei istorice. Astfel, emphasize how big are the differences in
el etaleaz ideea persistenei modelului approaching democracy in ancient times
instituiilor politice ale republicii romane n comparatively to modern times. Therefore
dou situaii istorice, ambele reprezentnd o American mind should not be a surprise or
reflectare a acestui model printr-un produs those who search for its secrets.
identic: matricea micului ora-cetate. Este Today, apart from the great variety of
vorba de reflectarea modelului respectiv, sub operating structures and modalities in the
forma matricei invocate, mult timp dup ce democratic regimes (so, apart from the
romanii au depit limitele cetii lor i au diversity of in actu manifestation, in
cucerit Peninsula Italic, o parte a Europei i existential plan), an entire historical-
zona mediteranean, precum i de reapariia philosophical problematic referring to
guvernrii populare printre statele ceti ale democracy exists, a problematic impossible
Italiei medievale i renascentiste, adic la mai to reduce to political reality.
bine de o mie de ani dup ce Cezar i In understanding the complexity o
Augustus nlturaser guvernarea democracy, R. Dahl warns those interested in
23
republican22. the process on historical coordinate. Thus he

Trecerea de la statul cetate la statul displays the idea of pattern persistence of
naiune a condus la cea de-a doua political institutions in Roman republic in two
transformare democratic, transformare ce a historical situations, both representing a
avut ca rezultat un transfer al ideii de reflection of this pattern into an identical
democraie. Transferul lrgete sfera ideii de outcome: the matrix of the small city-citadel.
democraie de la statul-cetate, la scara It refers to reflecting the respective pattern,
mult mai mare a statului-naiune, iar under the shape of invoked matrix, much time
transformarea democratic produs a generat after the Romans surpassed the borders o
un sistem de instituii politice complet noi: their citadel and conquered Italic Peninsula,
Tocmai acest nou complex de instituii, luate part o Europe and Mediterranean area as well
mpreun, poart numele generic de the re-emergence of popular governing
democraie23 constat Dahl. among the states-citadels of Medieval and
Acceptarea democraiei ca regimul cel Renaissance Italy, namely more than 1000
mai dezirabil nu trebuie s ne conduc la after Caesar and Augustus removed the
trecerea sub tcere a limitelor i criticilor ei. republican governing.
Analiznd transformrile democratice Passing from the state-citadel to state-
statul-cetate, statul-naiune i transformarea nation led to the second democratic
spre care se nzuiete azi R Dahl insist i transformation, a transformation which
pe confuzia creat n jurul semnificaiei resulted in a transfer into the idea of
democraiei. Aceast confuzie i are cauza democracy. The transfer widens the area of
tocmai n evoluia istoric de-a lungul democracy idea from the state-citadel to a
ctorva mii de ani a democraiei, precum i wider scale of state-nation, while
n originile sale multiple: Ceea ce nelegem democratic transformation generated a system
noi prin democraie nu este ceea ce nelegea of completely new political institutions: This
un atenian n timpul lui Pericle. Noiuni is the reason why this new complex of
greceti, romane, medievale i renascentiste institutions, taken together is called
se mbin cu noiuni de secole mai apropiate, generically <<democracy>> Dahl notices.
pentru a produce un amestec adesea extrem Accepting democracy as the most
de incontient de teorie i metode24. desirable regime does not have to lead us to
De altfel, constatm odat cu R. Dahl, pass its limits and critics over in silence.
c abordarea atent a ideilor legate de Analyzing the democratic transformation
democraie i a metodelor ei evideniaz the state-citadel, the state-nation and the
existena multor probleme pentru care nu transformation which is hoped today R.
exist soluii definitive, nsi noiunea de Dahl insists on the confusion created around
demonstratic oferind un teren propice the significance of democracy. This
criticilor ei. confusion is rooted precisely in the historical
Insistnd asupra criticilor, Dahl observ evolution along few thousands of years of
trei categorii n care ei se pot ncadra: democracy, as well as in its myriad origins:
cei ce se opun n mod fundamental What we understand in democracy is not
22
R. Dahl, op. cit. pp. 9-10
23
Ibidem
24
Idem, p. 10
24
democraiei, considernd-o (n linia lui what an Athenian understood in Pericles

Platon), ca inerent indezirabil; time. Greek, Roman, medieval and
cei ce se opun n mod fundamental Renaissance notions intermix with recent
democraiei, dar nu pentru c ea ar fi n mod notions to produce a mixture often extremely
inerent indezirabil, ci pentru c, asemenea unconscious of theories and methods.
lui Roberto Michels, sunt de prere c, dei As a matter of fact we notice together
democraia ar putea fi dezirabil dac ar fi with R. Dahl that the attentive approach of
posibil, n realitate este inerent imposibil; the ideas related to democracy and its
cei ce sunt n favoarea democraiei, methods emphasizes the existence, of many
doresc s o susin, dar o privesc cu ochi problems to which there are no definite
foarte critic. solutions, the notion of democracy itself
Numindu-i pe cei din primele dou being a favourable ground to its critiques.
categorii critici ostili ai democraiei i pe Insisting upon critics, Dahl finds out
cei din ultima critici favorabili, R. Dahl three categories in which they can be
constat c mai toate criticile se concentreaz included:
asupra unor probleme pe care susintorii Those who fundamentally oppose to
democraiei fie au tendina de a le neglija, fie, democracy, considering it (along the line of
mai grav, de a le escamota. Astfel, ceea ce n Plato) as inherent undesirable;
sens larg este numit teoria democratic Those who fundamentally oppose to
termen asupra cruia i Dahl i exprim democracy, not because it would be inherent
rezervele depinde de supoziii i premise pe undesirable, but because, just like Roberto
care susintorii nerezervai fie au evitat s le Michels opinionated that though democracy
analizeze, fie nici mcar nu le-au recunoscut. could be desirable on condition it were
Astfel, Robert Dahl menioneaz cteva possible, in reality it is inherently impossible;
dintre aceste probleme vitale ascunse n Those who are in favour of
teoriile explicite, aspecte ce contureaz democracy, wish to foster it, yet regard it
teoria fantom a democraiei. El identific very critically.
n acest sens problematica pe care o ridic By calling the critics in the first two
ideea de notorietate a guvernrii de ctre categories hostile critics of democracy and
popor, problematic ce genereaz multe those in the last category favourable critics,
inadvertene. Aici teoreticianul american R. Dahl observes that almost all the critiques
indic i disec originea ideii, demonstrnd are focused upon problems which the
c grecii, pentru a denumi noua lor concepie upholders of democracy either tend to
despre viaa politic i practicile create n neglect, or even more serious, to conceal.
statele-ceti (mijlocul secolului al V-lea Thus that which in a broad sense is called
.Hr.) au nceput s utilizeze termenul democratic theory a term on which Dahl
demokratia (demos, popor, kratia, guvernare, himself expresses his reserves depends on
autoritate, guvernarea de ctre popor). suppositions and premises which the
Dar chiar rdcinile termenului ridic, unreserved upholders either avoid analyzing
dup cum constat corect Dahl, unele semne or fail to recognize.
de ntrebare referitoare la cine constituie Accordingly Robert Dahl mentions
poporul i ce nseamn a guverna? some of these vital problems hidden in the
Constituenii poporului care sunt ei? explicit theories, aspects which outline the
25
genereaz i ambiguitate i multiple ghost-theory o democracy. In this sense he

controverse. Prima ambiguitate remarcat de identifies the problematic arisen by the idea
R. Dahl se afl chiar n coninutul acestei of notoriety for peoples governing, a
noiuni: cine face parte din popor pentru a problematic generating many inconsistencies.
guverna democratic? Aici, autorul crii Here the American theoretician indicates and
Democraia i criticii si, pe baza analizei de explores the origin of the idea, showing that
contrast, simte nevoia s nuaneze: la greci, the Greeks, in order to call their new
atenienii, corintienii, spartanii i locuitorii conception upon political life and practices
altor state-ceti greceti constituiau, fiecare created in the states-citadels (middle of 5
n parte, poporul ndreptit la propria century B C) started to utilize the term
autonomie politic. Prin contrast, deii vechii demokratia (demos, people, kratia, governing,
greci elenii se autopercepeau ca popor authority, peoples governing).
distinct, cu limb i istorie proprie, nu se Yet even the roots of the term arise
considerau un popor n sensul politic al some question marks referring to who the
unui grup de persoane care ar trebui, cu people are and what governing means, as R.
ndreptire s se autoguverneze ntr-o Dahl correctly notices.
singur unitate democratic. Democraia The peoples constituents who are
greac nu a fost, de fapt, democraie greac: a they generate both ambiguity and multiple
fost atenian, corintian sau orice altceva25. controversies. The first ambiguity remarked
Ceea ce trebuie remarcat n analiza by R. Dahl is within this notion: who is part
ntreprins de R. Dahl este constatarea sa of this people for a democratic governing?
privind persistena mentalitii statului-cetate Here, the author of the book Democracy and
i n zilele noastre: De ce ar trebui se its critics, based on the contrast analysis, feels
ntreba el ca americanii s constituie un the need to emphasize: with the Greeks,
popor iar vecinii lor, canadienii i mexicanii, Athenians, Corinthians, Spartans and the
popoare separate? De ce s existe o grani inhabitants of other Greek states-citadels
politic ntre, s spunem, Norvegia i Suedia, constituted each of them <<the people>>
Belgia i Olanda, elveienii de expresie entitled to its own political autonomy. By
francez i francezii de expresie francez? contrast, though the ancient Greeks Helens
Sau formulat altfel: membrii comunitilor perceived themselves as a distinct people,
locale dintr-un stat-naiune sunt oare with its own language and history, did not
ndreptii la un anumit grad de consider itself as <<a people>> in the
autoguvernare? i dac da, care persoane, n political sense of a group of persons, which
ce domenii?26. would be entitled to self-governing in one
Robert Dahl demonstreaz c aceste democratic unity. Greek democracy was not,
ntrebri transcend teoria democratic, in fact, Greek democracy: it was Athenian,
filosofii politici pornind de la ipoteza c Corinthian or something else. What is to be
poporul deja exist, existena nsi a remarked in Dahls analysis is its finding
poporului fiind perceput ca un fapt, ca o concerning the persistence of state-citadels
creaie a istoriei. mentality which is also to be found
25
Ibidem, p. 12
26
Ibidem
26
Caracterul faptic al acestui fapt este nowadays: Why should the Americans
nu doar discutabil, ci chiar pus sub semnul constitute a people and their neighbours,
ntrebrii, exemplul Statelor Unite la 1861 Canadians and Mexicans, separate peoples?
fiind edificator, demonstrndu-se c disputa Why should a political border exist among
n-a putut fi aplanat nici prin acceptare, nici lets say Norway and Sweden, Belgium and
prin consens, ci prin violen. Aceasta l Netherlands, the French in Switzerland and
determin pe R. Dahl s susin c att the French in France? Put in other words: are
ipoteza existenei unui popor, ct i the members of local communities in a state-
presupunerile ce rezult din aceast ipotez nation entitled to a certain degree of self-
reprezint o parte a teoriei-fantom a governing? And if the answer is yes, which
democraiei. persons and in which areas are entitled?
Dac prima ambiguitate se afl n Robert Dahl demonstrates that these
noiunea de popor cea de-a doua este questions transcend the democratic theory,
coninut chiar de prima: n cadrul unui the political philosophers starting from the
popor, numai o subcategorie limitat de hypothesis that the people already exists,
persoane este ndreptit s participe la the peoples being in the world itself being
guvernare. Persoanele respective alctuiesc perceived as a fact, a creation of history.
poporul dintr-un alt punct de vedere. Cu alte The factual character is not only
cuvinte, ele constituie cetenii sau grupul de debatable, but also questionable, the example
ceteni aa, cum i voi numi deseori de acum of the United States being edifying showing
ncolo demosul27. that the dispute could be appeased neither by
Susintorii democraiei s-au confruntat acceptance, nor by consensus, but by
cu o alt ntrebare: Cine se cuvine s fie un violence. This determines Dahl claim that
membru al demosului? John Locke i Jean- both the hypothesis of existence of a people
Jaque Rousseau au propus chiar teorii publice and the suppositions resulting from this
explicite ale demosului, teorii aflate n mare hypothesis represent part of ghost-theory of
discordan cu supoziiile lor semivoalate sau, democracy.
uneori, complet voalate care stau ascunse, Whether the first ambiguity lies within
neasumate, n teoria fantom, din care sunt the notion of people, the second is within the
totui smulse de criticii externi ai democraiei first notion: Within <<a people>>, only a
pentru a le servi drept martori la aa-zisele limited subcategory of persons is entitled to
autocontradicii din ideea de democraie28. participate to governing. The respective
Analizele istorice l ajut pe Dahl s persons form the people from another
formuleze o concluzie corect privind standpoint. In other words, they are the
concreteea demosului, anume aceea c, nici citizens or the group of citizens, as I will
la apogeul democraiei ateniene, demosul n-a often call them from now on demos.
inclus mai mult de o minoritate restrns din The defenders of democracy have been
populaia adult a Atenei. Ideea esenial ce confronted with yet another question: Who
se poate extrage este aceea c experiena ought to be a member of demos? John Locke
istoric confer concretee naturii abstracte a and Jean-Jacques Rousseau even proposed
27
Ibidem, pp. 11-12
28
Idem, p. 13
27
demosului: Se poate c democraia atenian explicit public theories of demos, theories

s fi fost extrem prin exclusivismul ei, unic which in fact are conflicting with their semi-
ns nu a fost n nici un fel. Din Grecia antic veiled suppositions or at times completely
pn n timpurile moderne, unele persoane au veiled, lying hidden, non-assumed inside the
fost invariabil excluse ca fiind ghost-theory, of which the external critics of
nereprezentative i, pn n acest secol, cnd democracy tear them away in order to make
femeile i-au ctigat dreptul de a vota use of them as witnesses of the so-called self-
(secolul al XX-lea, n.n.), numrul persoanelor contractions of democracy idea.
excluse a depit uneori cu mult, la fel ca Historical analyses help Dahl formulate
n Atena numrul celor acceptate. Ca i n an accurate conclusion concerning the reality
cazul primeidemocraii moderne, Statele of demos, namely that not even at the height
Unite, care a exclus nu numai femeile i, of Athenian democracy, the demos could not
desigur, copiii, ci i majoritatea negrilor i include more than a small minority of
amerindienilor29. Athenss adult population. The essential idea
Aici se pune o ntrebare legitim: care that can be inferred is that the historical
este supoziia voalat a teoriei fantom a experience gives the reality to the abstract
democraiei din moment ce excluderile sunt nature of demos: Athenian democracy may
considerate, invariabil, justificate de have been extreme by its exclusive character,
caracterul concret al demosului? Sau: yet it has never been unique. From ancient
demosul i include pe toi sau doar pe toi cei Greece to modern times, some individuals
ndreptii s participe la guvernare? have been invariably excluded as non-
Supoziia voalat constat R. Dashl este representative and until this century, when
aceea ca numai anumii oameni sunt women have gained the right to vote (20th
competeni s guverneze. century, n.n.), the number of the excluded
Iar criticii ostili ai democraiei nu doar persons exceeded sometimes more, just like
c denun aceast supoziie voalat, ci o i in Athens the number of those accepted.
convertesc ntr-un argument explicit n cadrul Just as it happened with <<modern
teoriei antidemocratice a protectoratului: democracies>>, the United States not only
Ideea protectoratului scrie Dahl, care este excluded women and of course children, but
probabil cea mai ademenitoare viziune creat also excluded the black people (Afro-
vreodat de adversarii democraiei, nu numai Americans) and Amerindians.
c a fost adoptat de Platon n Atena At this point a legitimate question
democratic, dar a i aprut pretutindeni n arises: which is the veiled supposition of the
lume, ntr-o varietate de forme disparate, ghost-theory of democracy seeing that
dintre care confucianismul i leninismul, exclusions were considered invariably
orict ar fi de diferite, au influenat, de justified by the real character of demos? Or:
departe, cel mai mare numr de oameni. do demos include everybody or only the ones
Criticii ostili ne oblig s examinm cu entitled to take part in governing? The veiled
maxim minuiozitate asumpiile privind supposition R. Dahl notices is that only
competena politic ascunse n teoria certain people have the expertise to govern.
29
Ibidem
28
fantom30. Whereas the critics hostile to

Un alt aspect circumscris teoriei- democracy not only denounce this veiled
fantom a democraiei este cel referitor la supposition, but they convert it into an
dimensiunile ei. Astfel, dac pentru greci explicit argument inside the anti-democratic
dimensiunile unei democraii se limitau la un theory of protectorate: The idea of
numr extrem de redus doar cteva zeci de protectorate Dahl writes which is
mii de persoane, la sfritul secolului al probably the most attractive vision that has
XVIII-lea, susintorii democraiei i-au ever been created by the democracy
delimitat cadrul firesc la nivelul statului- opponents, was not only adopted by Plato in
naiune, adic n general, la ar. Prin democratic Athens, but it also emerged
adoptarea acestei asumpii, scrie Dahl, ceea everywhere in the world, in a variety of
ce de multe ori nu se recunoate este ct de disparate shapes, of which, Confucianism and
profund a afectat limitele i posibilitile Leninism, no matter how different, by far
democraiei trecerea istoriei de la statul-cetate influenced the greatest number of people.
la statul-naiune. Transformarea este att de Nonetheless the hostile critics compel us to
profund nct, dac un cetean atenian din examine extremely thorough the assumptions
secolul al V-lea ar aprea brusc n mijlocul concerning the political expertise hidden
nostru (fiind atenian, ar trebui s fie neaprat inside the ghost-theory.
un brbat) probabil ar considera c ceea ce Another aspect circumscribed to
numim noi democraie este ceva cu totul democracy is that referring to its dimensions.
strin, neatrgtor i nedemocratic. Unui Thus, whether with Greeks, the dimensions of
atenian din vremea lui Pericle democraia a democracy limited to a small number only
noastr i s-ar prea departe de a fi few thousands of persons - at the end of 18th
democraie, n primul rnd din cauza century, the defenders of democracy
consecinelor asupra vieii politice i a delineated its natural setting at the level of
instituiilor politice, ale trecerii de la nivelul state-nation that is generally, in the country-
stat-cetate, mai intim i mai participativ, la side. By adopting this assumption, Dahl
giganticele forme de guvernmnt, mai writes, what many times one does not
impersonale i mai indirecte, din ziua de recognize is how profoundly the limits and
azi31. possibilities of democracy affected the of
Mai precizm c, tot o consecin a passing history from state-citadel to state-
schimbrilor intervenite la nivelul nation. The transformation is so profound
dimensiunilor unei democraii este, n opinia that, whether an Athenian citizen of 5th
lui Dahl, i amplificarea caracterului utopic al century appeared suddenly among us (as an
idealului democratic, teoria public Athenian it should necessarily be a man) he
considernd c democraia actual poate would probably consider that what we call
pstra n totalitate att avantajele dimensiunii democracy is as a matter of fact something
mari, dar i virtuile i posibilitile completely strange, unattractive and non-
democraiei la scar redus: Astfel, teoria democratic. Moreover to an Athenian from
public tinde s neglijeze limitele Pericles times, our democracy would seem
30
Ibidem
31
Ibidem
29
amndurora, problema domeniilor fiind lsat far from being democracy, first because of
n seama teoriei - fantom32. i pentru a the consequences upon political life and
dovedi schimbrile intervenite n nelegerea political institutions, of passing from the level
democraiei R. Dahl exemplific, de of state-citadel, more intimately and more
asemenea, prin modalitile diferite n care participative, to todays huge forms of
aceast consecin ca o entitate real sau government, more impersonal and indirect.
aparinnd lumii reale a fost perceput n It is also worth specifying that another
evoluia istoriei: consequence of changes occurred at the level
un grup distinct de instituii i of democracy dimensions is, in Dahls
practici politice; opinion, amplifying the character of utopia
un sistem de drepturi; for the democratic ideal, the public theory
o ordine social i economic; considering that the present democracy may
un sistem ce asigur anumite completely retain both the advantages of
rezultate dezirabile; un proces unic de luare a great dimension and the virtues and the
unor decizii colective obligatorii33. possibilities of democracy at small scale:
Am fcut aceast nuanare pentru a Therefore, the public theory tends to neglect
ilustra prin argumente logico-istorice c, dei the limits of both, the problem of areas being
democraia este azi apreciat n majoritatea left it up to ghost-theory. And in order to
abordrilor ca inerent dezirabil, ea este prove the changes occurred in understanding
departe n a se manifesta prin forme i the democracy, R. Dahl exemplifies also
practici politice unanim acceptate. Ca de la through different modalities in which this
matricea micuului ora-cetate la matricea consequence as a real entity or pertaining to
generat de forme i structuri transnaionale real world, was perceived throughout the
dogma suveranitii poporului a suferit evolution of history:
transformri enorme, chiar dac i matricea A distinct group of political
micuului ora-cetate i aceast dogm institutions and practices;
persist nc n gndirea uman. Cci, odat A system of rights;
cu transferul ideii de democraie-suprapus A social and economic order;
coordonatei istorice a procesului s-au A system ensuring certain desirable
transferat i modalitile de percepie a results; a unique process of collective
democraiei nsi, obinndu-se un tip de compulsory decisions making.
hibridare teoretic ce ascunde o serie de This emphasis aims at illustrating
supoziii care au dobndit valene axiomatice. through logical and historical arguments that,
Revenim la concluzia lui Alexis de although democracy is considered in most of
Tocqueville referitoare la aspectul c, n approaches as inherent desirable, it is far
Statele Unite, democraia este o stare social from manifesting through political forms and
care transcende orice individ i, prin esena practices unanimously accepted. From the
sa, reprezint dogma politic a suveranitii matrix of the small city-citadel to the matrix
poporului. n linia lui P. Manent trebuie s generated by transnational forms and
observm compatibilitatea celor dou definiii structures, the dogma of peoples sovereignty
32
Ibidem
33
Ibidem; Dahl se ncadreaz n ultima modalitate de percepie a democraiei
30
ale democraiei ce apar implicit n analiza lui incurred great transformations, even if the
A. de Tocqueville: definiia social i both matrix of the small city-citadel and this
definiia politic: S afirmm dogma still persists in human thinking. For,
consemneaz P. Manent c starea social concomitantly with the transfer of the
este democratic, nseamn s afirmm c democracy idea overlaid to historical
nici un cetean nu trebuie s asculte de alt coordinate, the perception modalities of
cetean cu excepia cazului, n care, democracy itself were transferred, thus a new
desigur, acesta din urm, este un agent al type of theoretical hybridization concealing a
suveranitii poporului - i c nici un series of suppositions with axiomatic values
cetean nu depinde de alt cetean; s were obtained.
afirmi c aici domnete suveranitatea Coming back to Alexis de
poporului nseamn s afirmi c fiecare Tocquevilles conclusion referring to the
ascult doar de el nsui sau de reprezentantul aspect that in the United States, democracy is
su. Starea social definete momentul a social condition which transcends any
negativ al democraiei, suveranitatea individual and in essence, it represents the
poporului momentul pozitiv34. political dogma of peoples sovereignty.
Practic, prin surprinderea de ctre Along the line of P. Manent, it is worth
Tocqueville a faptului c distincia ntre noticing the compatibility of the two
societatea civil i instituia politic nu este o definitions of democracy which implicitly
distincie fundamental, acesta reconsider emerge in A. de Tocqueville: social definition
categoriile importante ale liberalismului. Din and political definition: Let us state that the
moment ce democraia n America transcende social condition is democratic, it means that
individul, rezult c apartenena democraiei no citizen should obey other citizen except
nu trebuie considerat a fi nici la ordinea for the cases when, of course, the latter is an
civil i nici la ordinea politic. n vest agent of <<peoples sovereignty>> and that
serie Tocqueville putem a observa no citizen is not <<dependent>> on any other
democraia ajuns la ultima sa limit. n citizen; to state that here the sovereignty rules
aceste state, create oarecum din ntmplare, means stating that everyone should obey but
locuitorii au pit ieri pe solul pe care-l to himself or his representative. Social
ocup. Abia de se cunosc ntre ei, i nimeni condition, therefore defines the negative
nu cunoate istoria celui mai apropiat vecin. moment of democracy, while the sovereignty
n aceast parte a continentului american, defines the positive moment.
populaia scap deci nu doar de influena In practice, that Tocqueville grasps the
marilor nume i a marilor averi, ci i acestei fact that the distinction between the civil
aristocraii naturale care deriv din society and political institution is not a
cunoatere i din virtute Noile state din fundamental distinction, he, in fact,
Vest au deja locuitori; dar societatea nc nu reconsiders the important categories of
exist acolo35. liberalism. Since democracy in USA
Analiza limitei extreme a democraiei transcends the individual, it follows that
conduce la unele concluzii privitoare la democracy affiliation should be considered
34
P. Manent, op. cit. p. 160
35
A. de Tocqueville, op. cit. Partea nti, Cap III, p. 50-51
31
momentul ei iniial: neither to civil order not to political order. In

democraia n America este, n Western world Tocqueville writes we can
primul rnd, la origini, dar i ulterior, un mod notice democracy at its bottom line. In these
de via, o expresie a spiritului american states, created somehow randomly, their
izvornd din crezul acestui popor: America inhabitants stepped on the land they occupy
este cultur i civilizaie, i societate de only yesterday. They barely know one
asemenea;36 another and nobody knows the history of the
starea de egalitate cu care americanii closest neighbour. In this part of the
se nasc, exclude influenele unora asupra American continent, so the population not
celorlali; orice influen este considerat o only get rid of the influence of great names
aciune prin care un individ poruncete and great wealth, but also of this natural
celorlali, nclcnd, astfel, egalitatea; aristocracy deriving from knowledge and
absena influenelor presupune i virtueThe newly born states in the West
absena relaiilor, aspect ce contravine have already inhabitants, yet there is no
spiritului liberal care promoveaz coerena society.
social prin statornicirea relaiilor de interese The analysis of bottom line of
i opinii, spirit asociat libertii persoanei; democracy leads to some conclusions
cele dou momente ale democraiei, concerning its starting moment:
momentul negativ (individul separat de Democracy in USA is in the first
cellalt individ) i momentul pozitiv place at the beginning, but lately, in a
(individul care hotrte liber asupra lifestyle, an expression of American spirit
legturilor cu ceilali indivizi), nu trebuie nici arising from the creed of this people: USA
confundate, nici absolutizate, ntruct, dei means culture and civilization and so is
oamenii care triesc ntr-o stare social society;
democratic sunt separai unii de alii, ei Equality condition with which the
triesc totui, n aceeai societate (ei sunt Americans are born excludes the influences
singulari, dar nu singuratici, izolai) i este of some upon the others; any influence is
necesar ca interesele lor comune s fie considered an action though which an
asumate; individual commands to the others, thus
asumarea intereselor comune poate infringing equality;
duce fie la un stat central, care are mandatul Lack of influences supposes the lack
cetenilor s administreze aceste interese i of relations, an aspect which infringe the
s menin ordinea civil (cazul Franei), fie liberal spirit, a spirit associated with the
la construcia unor instituii libere, compuse freedom of individual;
din oameni egali, obligai s-i administreze The two moments of democracy, the
ei nsii afacerile comune, ieind din viaa lor, negative moment (the individual is separated
exclusiv privat, tocmai n acest scop (cazul from the other individual) and the positive
Statelor Unite). moment (the individual that decides freely
Absena iniial a relaiilor, izvornd upon his relation with the others) should be
din faptul c omul singular i administreaz neither confused nor considered absolute,
viaa privat este, prin urmare, specific since people living in a democratic social
36
Vezi Andrei Marga, Exploatri n actualitate, Editura Biblioteca Apostroz, Cluj, 1944, p. 20
32
democraiei la limita ei extrem; n sfera condition are separated ones from the other,
privat sunt excluse influenele iar nevoia yet they live in this society (they are by
asumrii intereselor comune va conduce la themselves, not alone or isolated) and it is
relaii legate de viaa public. necessary for their common interest to be
Criticnd aparatul centralizat al statului, taken over;
Alexis de Tocqueville surprinde divizarea i Taking over the common interests
izolarea cetenilor caracteristici generate may lead to either a centralized state, having
de acest aparat n Frana, att n vechiul ct i the citizens mandate to manage these
n noul regim. Prin contrast, el identific rolul interests and to maintain civil order (the case
instituiilor politice democratice n of France) or to building some free
manifestarea relaiilor prin care sunt reunii institutions, consisting of free people,
cetenii egali i liberi n Statele Unite. Iat compelled to manage their common
ce precizeaz P. Manent privitor la aceste businesses, getting out of their private life,
aspecte: A vorbi despre absena de legturi, precisely for this purpose (the case of USA).
despre indiferen, indiferen sau singurtate The initial lack of relations, flowing
nu e suficient pentru a caracteriza viaa from the fact that the man by himself can
omului democratic. Asemenea expresii nu manage his private life, is, consequently,
sunt false, ci pur statice i negative. De fapt, specific to bottom line democracy; in
aceast absen de legturi alimenteaz o private area, influences are excluded and the
form inedit de relaii, aceast independen need to take over the common interests will
o form inedit de dependen, aceast lead to relations connected to public life.
singurtate una de gregaritate. Egalitatea Criticizing the centralized apparatus of
condiiilor l convinge pe fiecare, iar state, Alexis de Tocqueville grasps the
dogma suveranitii poporului l ndeamn division and isolation of citizens
s se considere drept propriul su suveran i characteristics generated by this apparatus in
prin urmare, judector, n ultima instan, al France both in the old and new regime. By
oamenilor, ideilor i lucrurilor. Fiecare este, contrast he identifies the role of political
desigur, prin natura sa, nclinat spontan la democratic institutions in manifesting the
aceasta. Dar legea, mpreun cu societatea pe relations which unite the equal and free
care o structureaz, adaug aici sugestiilor citizens in the United States. Here is what P.
autoritatea sa. Ea i spune lucru pe care el Manent makes clear with view to these
ezit totui uneori s-l cread pe de-a ntregul aspects: To speak about the absence of
c este la fel de bun ca oricare altul, i i-o connections, indifference, indifference or
demonstreaz dndu-i o parte egal cu a solitude is not enough to characterize the life
oricrui altcuiva n guvernarea statului. of democratic man. Such phrases are not
Or, societatea din jurul su nu nceteaz false, but they are static and negative. As a
s nege ceea ce-i optete inima i proclam matter of fact these connections nourish a
legea: unii sunt mai bogai, mai puternici novel form of relations, this independence a
dect el, alii au reputaia c sunt mai nelepi novel form of dependence, this solitude a
sau mai inteligeni. Contradicia dintre novel gregarious form. The equality of
realitatea social i dorina combinat a inimii conditions persuades each, whereas the
sale i a legii suscit i alimenteaz n fiecare <<dogma>> of peoples sovereignty urges to
o pasiune devorant: dorina de egalitate. El consider itself its master and consequently the
33
nu va avea linite dect cnd realitatea social judge of people, ideas and things in the last
se va pune de acord cu el nsui i cu instance. By nature each is, of course,
legea37. spontaneous inclined to it. Yet the law
Libertatea de a gndi i face pe together with the society it structures adds to
americani s refuze centralizarea n favoarea suggestions its authority. It says which
unor instituii apreciate ca cele mai liberale sometimes it fails to wholly believe that it
din lume, producndu-se un transfer al is as good as any and proves it, by giving an
ncrederii fiecrui individ nspre mulimea i equal share with any in governing the state.
publicul pe care le constituie mpreun cu ali Nothing of the kind; the society around him
indivizi, egalii si. Pe msur ce cetenii does not cease to deny what his heart tells
devin mai egali remarc Tocqueville him and the law proclaims: some are richer,
,tendina de a crede n mase sporete. n more powerful than him; others have the
timpurile de egalitate, oamenii nu mai au reputation to be wiser or more intelligent. The
nicio ncredere unii n alii, datorit i contradiction between the social reality and
similitudinii lor; dar tocmai aceast the mixed desire of his heart and law arouses
similitudine le d o ncredere aproape and nourish in each a devouring passion: the
nelimitat n judecata publicului: cci nu li se desire for equality. He will not find his peace
pare plauzibil ca avnd toi capaciti until the social reality until he reconciles with
intelectuale asemntoare, adevrul s nu fie himself and the law.
de partea celor muli38. Freedom of thinking makes the
America este ara n care domnete Americans refuse centralising in favour of
independena spiritului i libertatea de some institutions considered the most liberal
exprimare. Prin independena spiritului se in the world, a transfer of trust occurs
creeaz drum pentru dogma suveranitii pertaining to each individual towards the
poporului care cere ca fiecare om s nu crowd and audience he composes together
asculte dect de sine nsui sau de with other individuals, his equals. In
reprezentantul su. proportion as the citizens become more equal
A. Tocqueville a vzut democraia ca Tocqueville remarks the tendency to
mod de organizare social care elimin believe in masses enhances. In equality times,
rangurile i privilegiile aristocratice i ofer people do not trust one another anymore,
oamenilor simpli anse considerabile ns a precisely due to the similitude among them;
atras atenia asupra pericolului ce se creeaz yet it is this similitude that gives them
prin accentuarea egalitii de ctre unlimited trust in the public judgement: since
democraie: pericolul producerii mediocritii they fail to find plausible that, having similar
i despotismului. intellectual abilities, truth should not be on
Mediocritatea izvorte din presiunea the public side.
exercitat asupra fiecruia spre a se USA is the country where the spirits
conforma, fiecare evitnd, din teama de a fi independence and freedom of expression rule.
acuzat de izolare, s-i exprime opinia The independence of spirit creates the way
diferit de cea a celorlali. Prin conformare, for the <<dogma>> of peoples sovereignty
37
P. Manent, op. cit. pp. 164-165
38
A. de Tocqueville, op. cit. p. 18
34
libertatea de exprimare este diminuat sau which requires for everyone to obey but to
chiar anulat, iar spiritul independent poate fi himself or his representative.
redus la tcere prin tirania majoritii. A. de Tocqueville saw democracy as a
Apoi, democraia poate produce despotism modality for social organization that
prin aceea c asigur premisele manifestrii eliminates the aristocratic ranks and
demagogiei i minciunii n ascensiunea unora privileges and gives common people
la putere; flatrile i demagogia repudiate n considerable chances; yet he has drawn the
antichitate de Platon i Aristotel fac din attention upon the danger emergent through
oamenii simpli o mas credul, o mas uor emphasizing the equality in democracy: the
de manipulat. Vechiul Regim care conserva danger of mediocre and despotism.
privilegiile aristocrailor, asigura prin acetia Mediocre arouses from the pressure
care tiau s-i pstreze poziiile n faa exerted upon each to comply, each avoiding
demagogilor i mpotriva despoilor o expressing a different opinion from the others
barier n calea distrugerii libertii. for fear he should be isolated. By compliance,
Cu toate aceste remarci, A de freedom of expression is diminished or even
Tocqueville a vzut n democraie o form de annulled, and the independent spirit may be
guvernare dezirabil, una care ngemneaz passed over in silence by <<the majority
republicanismul cu idealul democratic. El tyranny>>. Then democracy may yield
crede c virtutea civic poate fi promovat despotism in that it ensures the premises of
prin participarea la afacerile publice. Oamenii demagogy and mendacious manifestation in
care se altur vecinilor pentru a rezolva some ascent to power; flattery and demagogy
problemele comune i disputele vor nva long repudiated by Plato and Aristotle
importana cooperrii, vor simi un puternic transforms the common people in a credulous
ataament fa de comunitatea lor i vor mass, a mass easy to manipulate. The old
dezvolta acele obinuine de suflet (habits regime that preserved the privileges of
of the heart), care le permit s identifice aristocrats ensured through them who knew
propria lor bunstare, cu bunstarea to keep their position in the face of demagogy
comunitii n ntregul ei. and against despots a barrier in the way of
Oferind tuturor cetenilor ansa de a freedom destruction.
participa, democraia promite s cultive un Despite all these remarks, A. de
devotament larg rspndit i adnc Tocqueville saw in the democracy a form of
nrdcinat pentru binele comun. Pentru acest desirable governing, one that combines
motiv Tocqueville a fost impresionat de dou republicanism and democratic ideal. He
instituii ale democraiei americane: believes that the civil virtue may be promoted
ntlnirile oreneti din New England, unde by participating to public business. The
toi cetenii puteau participa direct la people, who join their neighbours in order to
guvernarea local, i mprirea solve the common issues and disputes, will
responsabilitii jurailor i n ndeplinirea learn the importance of cooperation, will feel
sarcinilor lor39 a strong attachment for their community and
Cartea lui A. Tocqueville Despre will develop those <<habits of the heart>>
democraia n America este un studiu despre allowing to identify their wealth with the
39
Terence Ball, Richard Dagger, Ideologii politice i idealul democratic, Editura Polirom, Iai 2000, p. 50
35
societatea american, mai preocupat de wealth of the community as a whole.

egalitatea social i economic i de By giving every citizen the chance to
implicaiile sale politice dect de democraia participate, the democracy promises to
neleas strict ca un sistem politic40. cultivate a widely spread and deep-rooted
Observnd democraia american, devotement for the common right. For this
Tocqueville plaseaz afirmarea liberalismului reason, Tocqueville was impressed by two of
n interiorul istoriei, istorie conceput din the democratic American institutions: the city
perspectiva normativ a strii sociale41. meetings in New England where every citizen
Temeiul ordinii politice legitime nu este may take part in the local governing and the
un produs definitiv la care omul are acces, ci jurists shared responsibility in fulfilling their
se obine pe trmul istoriei: spectacolul tasks.
democraiei i dezvluie astfel lui Tocqueville Tocquevilles book On Democracy
c ceea ce liberalismul consider drept in USA is a study about the American
ipotez, dat sau ca presupoziie a society, more concerned with social and
ordinii politice legitime, trebuie s fie cutat, economic equality and its political
creat sau construit. Starea natural nu implications than democracy strictly
reprezint nceputul istoriei politice a omului, understood as a political system. Taking
ci este mai curnd, sfritul sau cel puin notice of American democracy, Tocqueville
orizontul ei. places the emergence of liberalism within
Proiectul liberal, dorind s se history, a history conceived as a normative
ntemeieze pe egalitatea natural, deschide perspective of social condition.
deci, esenialmente o istorie: istoria The ground of legitimate political
eforturilor i progreselor omului de a stabili order is not a definite outcome to which man
artificial, printr-o suveranitate care nu exist has free access, but it is obtained on history
n natura aceast egalitate natural, pornind realm: the show of democracy reveals to
de la care va putea construi ntr-o manier Tocqueville that what liberalism considers as
deplin raional sau contient ordinea an <<hypothesis>>, <<given>> or
politic legitim42. <<presupposition>> of legitimate political
Mai trebuie precizat c, n ciuda order has to be searched for, created or build.
semnalelor trase de Tocqueville asupra Natural condition does not represent the
pericolului ca democraiile s degenereze n beginning of the humans political history,
mediocritate i despotism, prin transformrile but it is rather the end or at least its horizon.
produse de revoluia industrial n viaa The liberal project, wishing to be
economic, dar i n sfera educaiei publice, founded upon the <<natural>> equality, thus
democraia devine tot mai popular la opens, in essence, a history: the history of
sfritul secolului al XVIII-lea i nceputul efforts and progress of human to artificially
secolului al XIX-lea, n Europa i America. establish, through a sovereignty which does
Iar n Anglia, argumentele n favoarea not exist in the nature of this <<natural
democraiei tind s se concentreze n dou equality>>, starting from which the
puncte: autoprotejare i autodezvoltare. legitimate political order may be built in a
40
Antony Arblaster, Democraia, Editura Du Style, Bucureti, 1998, p. 71
41
Andrei Marga, Filosofia unificrii europene, p. 347
42
P. Manent, op. cit. p. 171
36
completely reasonable manner or

BIBLIOGRAFIE: <<aware>>.
1. Antony Arblaster, Democraia, Editura Du Style, It is worth mentioning also that,
Bucureti, 1998
despite Tocquevilles signals upon the danger
2. Terence Ball, Richard Dagger, Ideologii politice i
idealul democratic, Editura Polirom, Iai 2000 of democracy to degenerate in mediocre and
3. Robert A. Dahl, Democraia i criticii ei, Iai, despotism, through the changes yielded by
Institutul European, 2002 the Industrial Revolution in economic life and
4. Andrei Marga, Exploatri n actualitate, Editura also in the area of public education,
Apostrof, Cluj, 1994
democracy becomes more and more popular
5. Andrei Marga, Filosofia unificrii europene,
Editura Apostrof, Cluj, 1995 late18th century and early 19th in Europe and
6. Pierre Manent, Istoria intelectual a USA; whereas in England the argument in
liberalismului, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1992 favour of democracy tend to focus on two
7. Lucian Dumitru Drdal, Postfa la cartea lui main points: self-protection and self-
R.A. Dahl, Democraia i criticii ei
development.
8. Gianfranco Pasquino, Curs de tiin politic,
Institutul European, 2002
9. Anonimo Ateniese: La democrazia come violenza BIBLIOGRAPHY:
10. Platon, Republica, Cartea a VIII-a, n Opere, V, 1. Antony Arblaster, Democraia, Editura Du Style,
Bucureti, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1986 Bucureti, 1998
11. John Gray, Liberalismul, Editura Du Style, 2. Terence Ball, Richard Dagger, Ideologii politice
Bucureti, 1998 i idealul democratic, Editura Polirom, Iai 2000
12. Pericles, Funerar Oration, n Tucidide, History of 3. Robert A. Dahl, Democraia i criticii ei, Iai,
the Peloponnesian War, vol.4 Institutul European, 2002
13. Aristotel, Politica, Editura Antet, Bucureti 4. Andrei Marga, Exploatri n actualitate, Editura
14. Fr. A. Hazek, The Constition of Liberty, The Apostrof, Cluj, 1994
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1978 5. Andrei Marga, Filosofia unificrii europene,
15. Alexis de Tocqville, Despre Democraie n Editura Apostrof, Cluj, 1995
America, vol I, Gallimard, 1961 6. Pierre Manent, Istoria intelectual a
liberalismului, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1992
7. Lucian Dumitru Drdal, Postfa la cartea lui
R.A. Dahl, Democraia i criticii ei
8. Gianfranco Pasquino, Curs de tiin politic,
Institutul European, 2002
9. Anonimo ateniese: La democrazia come violenza
10. Platon, Republica, Cartea a VIII-a, n Opere, V,
Bucureti, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1986
11. John Gray, Liberalismul, Editura Du Style,
Bucureti, 1998
12. Pericles, Funerar Oration, n Tucidide, History
of the Peloponnesian War, vol.4
13. Aristotel, Politica, Editura Antet, Bucureti
14. Fr. A. Hazek, The Constition of Liberty, The
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1978
15. Alexis de Tocqville, Despre Democraie n
America, vol I, Gallimard, 1961
37
DELINCVENA JUVENIL-UN THE JUVENILE DELINQUENCY-

FENOMEN SOCIAL TOT MAI DES AN INCREASINGLY COMMON
NTLNIT SOCIAL PHENOMENON
Andra DASCLU Andra DASCLU

Amelia SINGH Amelia SINGH
Universitatea din Piteti University of Piteti
Abstract: Fenomenul de delincven juvenil Abstract: The phenomenon of juvenile

este unul compex ce presupune analiza att a delinquency is a complex one which involves the
factorilor pshihologici ct i a celor sociali.n analysis of both psychological and social
ncercarea de a motiva acest fenomen s-a pornit de la factors.Attempting to motivate this phenomenon it was
analiza unei varieti de factori, inclusiv cei ce pot started by analyzing a variety of factors, including
aprea nc din timpul evoluiei ftului ct i a those that may occur as early as during fetal
factorilor familiali.Deasemenea foarte importani sunt development and those concerning the family.Also the
i factorii sociali. social factors are very important. Although there are a
Dei exist o multitudine de studii efectuate multitude of studies elaborated by the best specialists
de cei mai buni specialiti i se demareaz diverse and there are also initiated various programs to
programe de prevenire a delincvenei juvenile, suntem prevent juvenile delinquency, we are witnesses to
martorii unei creteri nedorite a acestui fenomen unwanted growth of this social phenomenon.
social.
1.Aspecte generale 1. General aspects

Actul delicvent, ca atare,reprezint The delinquent act, as such, represents
expresia unui ir de aciuni i conduite care the expression of a series of actions and
contrasteaz puternic cu normele de behaviours in strong contrast with the social
convieuire existente n cadrul familiei, rules within the familiy, institutions or the
instituiilor, societii43. society in general.
Prima problem care se ridic privind The first issue to consider when it
delincvena juvenil este legat de necesitatea comes to juvenile delinquency is related to
utilizrii acestui termen n loc de ali termeni the necessity to use this term instead of other
consacrai juridic i folosii pentru aduli care common juridical terms referring to adults
Asist. Univ. drd.; adresa: str. Dacia, bl. V1,sc. E, ap. 10, Mioveni, Arge; Facultatea de tiine Juridice i
Administrative, Universitatea din Piteti; nr. telefon: 0744107136; e-mail: andradascalu@yahoo.com.

Asist. Univ. drd.; adresa: Piteti, Arge; Facultatea de tiine Juridice i Administrative, Universitatea din
Piteti; nr. telefon: 0723734493; e-mail : singh.amelia@yahoo.com.
43
Sorin Rdulescu i Dan Banciu, Sociologia crimei i criminalitii, op.cit., p.77.
Assistant, Ph.D. Candidate; address: str. Dacia, bl. V1,sc. E, ap. 10, Mioveni, Arge; Faculty of Law and
Administrative Sciences, University of Pitesti; telephone number: 0744107136; e-mail address:
andradascalu@yahoo.com.

Assistant, Ph.D. Candidate; address: Piteti, Arge; Faculty of Law and Administrative Sciences, University
of Pitesti; telephone number: 0723734493; e-mail address: singh.amelia@yahoo.com.
38
ncalc normele juridico-penale. Acest which break the criminal laws. This term
termen provine de la cuvntul francez derives from the French phrase delinquance
delinquance juvenile care, la rndul lui, se juvenile which, in its turn, comes from the
origineaz n latinescul delinguere juvenis i Latin expression delinguere juvenis and
el desemneaz ansamblul abaterilor i defines the range of infringements and
nclcrilor de norme sociale, sancionate violations of the social rules, which are
juridic, svrite de minorii pn la 18 ani. punished by law, committed by minors under
Desigur, este absolut necesar s 18 years old.
difereniem n cadrul categoriei largi de It is of course necessary to distinguish
minori cteva subcategorii, distincie fcut between the various subcategories of minors.
clar de ctre sistemul nostru juridic. Astfel, This distinction is clear within our legal
minorii pn la vrsta de 14 ani nu rspund system. Therefore, minors under 14 years old
penal, chiar dac ei comit infraciuni. Cei cu are not legally responsible, even if they
vrsta ntre 14 i 16 ani rspund juridic committed crimes. Those between 14 and 16
limitat numai dac se stabilete existena years old have limited legal responsibility,
discernmntului la expertiza medico-legal only if the psychiatric and medico-legal
psihiatric - art.99 Codul penal. n sfrit, examination shows that the minor has the
minorii cu vrsta ntre 16 i 18 ani rspund n power of discernment art. 99 from the
faa legii, avnd discernmnt. Cu toate Romanian Criminal Law. Still, the types of
acestea, modul de sancionare i, mai ales, cel punishments and especially the way of
de executare a pedepselor se deosebesc de carrying punishments differ from those
cele folosite pentru infractorii aduli. applied to adult criminals.
Pentru a nelege mult mai bine For a better grasp on the phenomenon
fenomenul delincvenei juvenile este necesar of juvenile delinquency, we need to draw a
s se fac o caracterizare psihologic i psychological and behavioural
psihocomportamental a minorului. n cadrul characterization of minors. The Webster
Dicionarului Webster, copilul este definit a fi Dictionary defines the child as a young
persoana tnr ce aparine oricruia dintre person of either sex, especially one between
cele dou sexe, ce se afl ca vrst ntre infancy and youth. Starting from this
perioada prunciei i cea a tinereii. Plecnd definition, one can distinguish at least three
de la aceast definiie se pot departaja cel age spans involving a young person: 1.
puin trei perioade de vrst pe care le infancy (the first years of life); 2. childhood
parcurge persoana tnr: 1.perioada prunciei (between infancy and teen years); 3. youth
(primii ani de via); 2.perioada copilriei (the period between the late teen years and
(ntre perioada prunciei i adolescen); the beginning of the adult years).
3.tinereea(perioada dintre sfritul pubertii Like in the case of adult criminals,
i nceputul perioadei adulte). those who have studied the delinquent
La fel ca i n cazul infractorului adult, conduct of minors have drawn a
cei care s-au ocupat de studiul conduitei psychological profile for them, as it
delicvente a minorului, au ajuns la follows: a) the propension for aggressiveness,
evidenierea unui profil psihologic al either hidden, or manifest, based on a hostile
acestuia: a) nclinaia ctre agresivitate, fie background, involving the negation of widely
latent, fie manifest, ce este bazat pe un accepted social values; b) emotional
39
fond de ostilitate, de negare a valorilor instability, generated by poor education and,

socialmente acceptate; b) instabilitatea ultimately, by a fragile inner self; c) social
emoional, generat de carene educaionale maladjustement, derived from the
i, n ultim instan, de fragilitatea eului; c) exaggeration of insecurity feelings, which
inadaptarea social, provenit din individuals try to eliminate, for example by
exacerbarea sentimentului de insecuritate, pe frequently changing residence, by vagrancy
care individul caut s-l suprime, de exemplu or by avoiding any form of organized life and
prin schimbarea deas a domiciliului sau activity; d) the duplicity of the conduct,
vagabondaj ori prin evitarea formelor manifested in the gap between the hidden,
organizate de via i activitate; d) intimate behaviour, in which the crime is
duplicitatea conduitei, manifestat n prepared, and the social behaviour, by which
discordana dintre dou planuri: unul, cel al the crime is revealed most of the times,etc.
comportamentului tainic, intim n care se Sheldon i Eleanor Glueck, helped by
prepar infraciunea i cellalt, nivelul an interdisciplinary team, studied two groups
comportamental de relaie cu societatea, prin of 500 minors, one of them delinquent, the
care i trdeaz de cele mai multe ori other non-delinquent (formed of young
infraciunea; e)dezechilibru existenial, people comparable in terms of age, sex,
exprimat prin patimi, vicii, perversiuni,irosire social and economic status, ethnic group) and
absurd a banilor etc. they revealed the fact that delinquents differ
Soii Sheldon i Eleanor Glueck44, from non-delinquents in terms of the
studiind cu ajutorul unei echipe following important features:
interdisciplinare un lot de 500 de minori 1. From the physical point of view,
delincveni i un lot de 500 nedelincveni (lot delinquents often have a mesomorphic build
martor, care erau corespunztori ca vrst, (they are sturdy and have a high muscular
sex, statut socio-economic, apartenen etnic force);
etc.) au evideniat c delincvenii se 2. When it comes to temper, they are
deosebesc de nedelincveni prin urmtoarele energetic, restless, impulsive, forthcoming,
trsturi mai importante: aggressive, distructive (often sadist);
1. Din punct de vedere fizic, 3. They have a hostile, defying attitude,
delincvenii sunt cu precdere de constituie thet are full of resentment, suspicious,
mezomorfic (sunt solizi, au for muscular stubborn, assertive, adventurous,
mare etc.); unconventional, defiant towards authorities;
2. Ca temperament sunt: energici, 4. From a psychological perspective,
neastmprai, impulsivi, extravertii, they tend to express themselves openly; as to
agresivi, distructivi (adesea sadici); their social and cultural background,
3. Au atitudini ostile, sfidtoare, sunt delinquents come far more often than non-
plini de resentimente, de suspiciuni, sunt delinquents, from intolerant, cold, unstable,
ncpnai, dornici s se afirme n grup, cu immoral / ammoral families etc.(Glueck,
spirit de aventur, neconvenionali, nesupui 1950)
autoritilor; An interesting classification of juvenile
44
Glueck, S., Glueck, E., Unravelling Juvenile Delinquency, Harvard University Press, Cambrige, Mass, 1950,
apud Bogdan, T. i colab., Comportamentul uman n procesul judiciar, M.I., Serviciul editorial i
cinematografic, Bucureti, 1983, p.75.
40
4. Din punct de vedere psihologic, tind delinquency is provided by W.W.

spre exprimri directe; sociocultural provin, Wattenberg, who starts from the six
n proporie mult mai mare dect cei din structures of behavioural reactions, as
grupul de control, din familii nenelegtoare, described by the Statistic and Diagnose
neafective, instabile, lipsite de inut moral Manual of Mental Illnesses, issued by the
etc. American Psychologist Association:
Delincvenii juvenili, la fel ca i 1. the hiperkinetical reaction, specific to
infractorii adulii pot fi clasificai n funcie children with mild neurological issues;
de o serie de criterii: 2. the retreat reaction, which might
1. prezena sau absena inteniei: acte occur when the child gets too little
delincvente spontan-intenionate; acte satisfaction; this situation is specific to
premeditate; absena inteniei; children whose parents have an inappropriate
2. n funcie de numrul infraciunilor behaviour around them (they are detached,
comise: prima infraciune; mai multe excessively permissive or exaggerated in
infraciuni (recidivism); applying punishments;
3. n funcie de gradul de normalitate 3. the overanxious reaction, which
psihic: anormal (bolnav mintal); normal; tends to occur especially in the middle social
4. gradul de responsabilitate: perfect strata, in families which are overambitious in
responsabil, intelect redus, intoxicaie, terms of school performance and in which
dezorganizare psihic; children are urged to behave according to
5. n funcie de motivaia ce st la baza high standards imposed to them;
conduitei delincvente: predominant 4. the aggressive unsocialized reaction,
extrinsec (interesul principal orientat spre which tends to appear in case of parental
atingerea unor scopuri, cum ar fi intrarea n rejection coupled with parental
posesia unor bunuri); predominant intrinsec overprotection;
(interesul este orientat predominant spre 5. the escape reaction, which is likely to
aspectele de coninut ale activitii appear in case of full parental rejection;
antisociale). 6. the reaction of the delinquent group,
O interesant clasificare a delincvenei which might appear as a result of the group
juvenile o realizeaz W.W. Wattenberg45, rebellion during teen years in the absence of
care pleac de la cele ase structuri de reacie parental and especially of fatherly
comportamental aa cum sunt ele nscrise n supervision.
Manualul statistic i diagnostic al tulburrilor
mentale, elaborat de ctre Asociaia 2.Analysis of some factors involved in
psihologilor americani: determining minor misbehaviour
1. reacia hiperkinetic, specific The factors that lead to juvenile
copiilor ce prezint afeciuni neurologice delinquency fall into two broad categories: a)
minime; internal, individual factors and b) external,
2. reacia de retragere, ce poate s apar social factors. The first category include the
atunci cnd copilului i se ofer prea puin specific elements and the neurological and
45
Wattenberg , The juvenil Delinquent, n Toch, H., Psychology of Crime and Criminal Justice , Wavelan Press
Inc.,Prospect Heights, Illinois, 1986
41
satisfacie; aceast situaie este specific, psychological structure, the aspects of the
copilului ce adopt n raport cu ei o conduit forming personality, elements that formed
neadecvat (sunt detaai, excesiv de under external influence, especially families.
permisivi sau exagerai n aplicarea In the second category, more important are
sanciunilor); the social, cultural, economic, affective and
3. reacia superanxioas, tinde s apar educational factors within large or small
n mod particular n clasa de mijloc, n groups of people, starting with the family, in
familiile deosebit de ambiioase n plan which the child and the young person must
educaional n care copiii sunt solicitai s gradually integrate. Also in the category of
realizeze achiziii comportamentale n baza the internal factors, a significant role is
unor nalte standarde impuse; played, according to some authors, by
4. reacia agresiv nesocializat, tinde frustration.
s apar n cazul respingerii parentale,
cuplat cu superprotecia parental; 2.1.The neurological and
5. reacia de fug, de evadare, tinde s psychological factors
apar ca o reacie la respingerea parental In this category are included, according
integral; to some authors, the following factors:
6. reacia grupului delincvent, tinde s 1. Brain disfunctions, revealed by
apar ca rezultat al rebeliunii de grup din anii EEGs. Most researchers believe that there is
adolescenei n absena supravegherii no specific aspect of EEGs of delinquent
parentale i mai ales, a celei paterne. minors, although some anomalies of these
aspects prove the existence of a brain
2.Factori implicai n determinarea pathology for some of these subjects.
comportamentului deviant al minorilor 2. Intelectual disfunctions. Poor
Factorii care determin delincvena intelectual skills prevent them from
juvenil pot fi mprii n dou mari anticipating the consequences and
categorii: a) factori interni, individuali i b) implications of their actions.
factori externi, sociali. n prima categorie se Some authors insisted that the poor
include: particularitile i structura neuro- intelect represents a prerequisite for criminal
psihic, particulariti ale personalitii n conduct, especially when it is associated to
formare, particulariti care s-au format sub emmotional active personality disturbances
influena unor factori externi, mai ales a celor and with an unfavourable environment.
familiali. n a doua categorie, mai importani 3. Emotional disorders. Emotions play
sunt factorii socio-culturali, economici,socio- a major role in the life and activity of an
afectivi i educaionali din cadrul individual and any deviation from normal
microgrupurilor i macrogrupurilor umane n creates problems of adaptation, sometimes
care trebuie s se integreze, treptat, copilul i pretty serious. As for juvenile delinquents, as
tnrul, ncepnd cu familia. Tot n categoria most reserchers state, it seems that they
factorilor interni, un rol deosebit de important distinguish themselves either by a low level
l are, dup unii autori, frustraia. of affective maturation or by different
degrees of emotional disorders.
2.1.Factori neuro-psihici The insuficient affective maturation is
Din aceast categorie fac parte, dup cherecterized by:
42
cum afirm unii autori, urmtorii factori46: - lack of affective autonomy, which
1. Disfuncii cerebrale, relevate prin leads to an increase of the power of
EEG. Majoritatea cercettorilor arat c nu se suggestion;
poate vorbi de o specificitate a traseelor EEG - insuficient development of the
la delincvenii minori, dei unele anomalii ale affective self-control, including the
acestor trasee bioelectrice care apar la unii insuficient knowledge and capacity to control
delincveni demonstreaz existena unei the emotional reactions;
patologii cerebrale a acestor subieci. - poor development of superior
2. Deficiene intelectuale. Capacitile emotions and feelings, especially the moral
intelectuale reduse i mpiedic mai ales n feelings.
anticiparea consecinelor i implicaiilor In the category of emotional disorders
aciunilor ntreprinse. are included:
Unii autori au subliniat faptul c nivelul - feelings of frustration, emotional
mintal sczut reprezint o premis a conflicts; emotional instability; emotional
infracionalitii, mai ales dac este asociat cu ambivalence; emotional indifference; lack of
perturbri emotiv-active ale personalitii i emotions and of unselfish, simpathetic
cu condiii defavorabile de mediu. feelings. Because of the high levels of self-
3. Tulburri ale afectivitii. absorbtion and also the low levels of
Afectivitatea joac un rol important n viaa i tolerance to frustration, some actional
activitatea individului uman i orice abatere objectives are formulated and reached by
de la normal creeaz probleme, uneori destul illegal means.
de serioase, pe linie adaptativ. n ceea ce-i 4. Character disorders. The character,
privete pe delincvenii minori, dup cum as the central point of the personality, is
afirm majoritatea cercettorilor, se pare c formed and develops during the ontogenesis,
acetia se caracterizeaz fie printr-un nivel this is why it is highly dependent on the mix
insuficient de maturizare afectiv, fie prin of conditions in which the individual carries
diferite stri de dereglare a afectivitii. his/her life, as well as on the ensemble of
Insuficienta maturizare afectiv se social and cultural factors, in broad terms,
caracterizeaz prin: which influence and shape the process of
- lipsa unei autonomii afective, ceea ce ontogenesis.
duce la creterea sugestibilitii; The studies on juvenile delinquents
-insuficienta dezvoltare a showed that they had low levels of character
autocontrolului afectiv, legat de insuficienta maturation, manifested in: insuficient self-
cunoatere i capacitate de stpnire a control; impulsiveness and aggresiveness;
reactivitii emoionale; underestimation of errors and disocial /
- slaba dezvoltare a emoiilor i antisocial acts committed; pasivity,
sentimentelor superioare, ndeosebi a celor indifference and disregard for work; rejection
morale. of social, legal and moral rules; egocentric
n categoria strilor de dereglare a tendencies; - exaggeration of personal
afectivitii sunt incluse: egocentric motivations, of self-absorbed
46
Preda,V., Profilaxia delincvenei i reintegrarea social, Ed. tiinific i enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1981, p.31-
38.
43
- strile de frustraie afectiv i needs and tendencies; - the lack or insuficient

sentimentele de frustraie, conflicte afective; - development of superior motivations, of
instabilitatea (labilitatea) afectiv ; - ethical and moral feelings; - the desire to live
ambivalena afectiv ; - indiferena an easy life, without work.
afectiv ; - absena emoiilor i a nclinaiilor
altruiste i simpatetice. Datorit nivelului 2.2.Antenatal factors
crescut al egocentrismului i, totodat, It was proved that the children of
datorit existenei unui nivel sczut al teenage mothers are much more prone to
toleranei la frustraie, formularea i atingerea
delinquency that others. For example, Merry
unur obiective acionale se face prin apelul la
Morash and Lila Rucker analyzed the results
mijloace ilegale. obtained following four studies carried out in
4. Tulburri caracteriale. Caracterul, n
the US and the UK (including the Cambridge
calitatea lui de nucleu al personalitii, se
study) and discovered that young mothers are
formeaz i se dezvolt n ontogenez, fiindassociated with families in contradiction with
de aceea puternic dependent de ansamblul de the law, with lack of well-being and the
condiii i mprejurri n care triete absence of biological fathers. These mothers
individul uman n mod nemijlocit, precum i tend to use inadequate or insuficient methods
de ansamblul de factori de ordin socio- of education and their children often skip
cultural, luat ntr-un sens mai larg, care school for long periods and involve in
influeneaz i modeleaz procesul
criminal activity. Also, it seems that the
dezvoltrii ontogenetice. physical presence of the father generally has
Cercetrile efectuate asupra
an effect of protection and significantly
delincventului minor au scos n eviden reduces this kind of behaviour.(Amza, 2002)
faptul c acesta se caracterizeaz printr-un Israel Kalvin and his colleagues warn
nivel de imaturizare caracterologic, care se
us about the fact that the consumption of
manifest prin urmtoarele: - autocontrol drugs, alcohol and nicotine during pregnancy
insuficient; - impulsivitate i agresivitate; -
will have a negative influence on the further
subestimarea greelilor i a actelor disociale
development of the baby. For example, the
sau antisociale comise; - indolen, mother who smokes during the 9 months of
indiferen i dispre fa de munc; - opoziie
pregnancy risks giving birth cu children with
i respingere a normelor social-juridice i health issues and low school performances.
morale; - tendine egocentrice; - exacerbarea
Also, the excessive alcoohol consumption
unor motive personale egoiste, a unor will lead to children predisposed to
trebuine i tendine nguste, de nivel redus; -
hyperactivity, low intelect and deficient
absena sau insuficienta dezvoltare a unor manner of speech.The birth of underweight
motive superioare, de ordin social i a babies, in the above-mentioned
sentimentelor etico-morale; - dorina
circumstances, and who also present other
realizrii unei viei uoare, fr munc. perinatal complications (inadequate forceps
birth, suffocation) can later lead to
2.2.Factori prenatali misbehaviour.(Argeeanu, 1994)
S-a demonstrat c, copiii mamelor Still, the effects of prenatal
adolescente sunt mult mai dispui s devin complications must be also analyzed in the
delincveni. Aa de exemplu, Merry Morash context of other factors, such as the quality of
44
i Lila Rucker au analizat rezultatele obinute the family environment.

n urma a patru cercetri ntreprinse n
America i Anglia (incluznd studiul 2.3. Hyperactivity and impulsiveness
Cambridge) i au descoperit c mamele tinere Recent scientific research has
sunt asociate cu familii care se afl n progressively introduced the opinion that the
contradicie cu legile, cu lipsa unui suport al personality factors which can lead to
bunstrii i absena biologic a tailor. delinquency are hyperactivity and
Aceste mame au tendina de a folosi metode impulsiveness.
de educaie neadecvate i insuficiente, iar It has also been proved that
copiii lor, deseori, lipsesc perioade mari de hyperactivity usually starts before the age of
timp de la coal i comit fapte ce vizeaz 5, but some specialists argue that it can start
nclcarea legii. De asemenea, se pare c even before the age of 2, has periods of
prezena biologic a tatlui are, n general, un progress during childhood and tends to persist
efect de protecie i diminueaz mult faptele even to the teen years. It is associated to
copiilor. restlessness, impulsiveness and attention
Israel Kalvin i colegii si atrag atenia deficiencies, therefore the moment is known
asupra faptului c, consumul de droguri, as the hyperactivity impulsiveness
alcool i igri pe timpul sarcinii vor avea o difficult attention syndrome (HIA).
influen negativ asupra dezvoltrii
ulterioare a copilului. Aa de exemplu, mama 2.4. The influence of intelligence in
care fumeaz n perioada celor 9 luni este reaching performance
supus riscului de a da natere la copii cu Although the opinions are still
deficiene, performanele colare ale acestora divergent, it seems that tha theories according
fiind mult diminuate. Totodat, consumul to which low intelect is an important factor
excesiv de alcool va conduce la naterea unor that leads to criminal activity and can be
copii care vor fi predispui la hiperactivitate, identified very early in life are becoming
cu inteligen sczut i cu o vorbire more and more popular.
defectuoas47. Specialists believe that it is quite risky
Naterea de copii sub greutatea to take into account the low intelect
normal, n condiiile puse n discuie, i care separately, without considering poor school
mai au i alte complicaii, perinatale (forceps performances. The low verbal intelligence is
inadecvat, asfixie etc.), predispune mai trziu associated to lower school results and all of
la probleme de devian comportamental. them foretell the juvenile delinquency.
Efectele complicaiilor prenatale trebuie Also, it is estimated that delinquents
ns analizate i n contextul altor factori, ca tend to leave school at a tender age, around
de exemplu calitatea mediului familial. 15 years on average.
It is also stated that the low non-verbal
2.3.Hiperactivitatea i impulsivitatea intelligence is specific to juvenile seasoned
n cercetrile tiinifice s-a conturat tot offenders, who have been breaking the law
mai pregnant opinia potrivit creia, factorii de since the age of 10 to 13.
47
Ion Argeeanu i colaboratorii, Studiu criminologic, Buletin de Criminologie i Criminalistic, nr.1-2
(1994), p.36.
45
personalitate, care mai trziu pot duce la Other studies have proved that juvenile
delincven, sunt hiperactivitatea i delinquents often obtain better results in tests
impulsivitatea. concerning the non-verbal intelligence,
S-a mai demonstrat c hiperactivitatea compared to tests of verbal performances,
ncepe, de regul, nainte de mplinirea therefore they suggest that the juvenile
vrstei de 5 ani, iar unii specialiti apreciaz criminals find the sense of concrete notions
c ea debuteaz chiar naintea vrstei de 2 far easier than the abstract concepts.(
ani, apoi va marca momente de progres pe Murchison, 1982)
perioada copilriei, tinznd s persiste chiar The opinion of professor Tudor Amza
i n anii adolescenei. Aceasta este asociat is somewhat different from the presented
cu stri de nelinite, impulsivitate i atenie theories, as he considers that the lack of
dificil, de aceea, momentul este consemnat intelligence cannot justify all the juvenile
ca sindromul hiperactivitate-impulsivitate- crime and that, in many cases, it must be
atenie dificil (H.I.A.). analyzed in the context of other factors.
2.4.Influena inteligenei n obinerea 2.5. The role of parents in

performanelor developping discipline and juvenile
Dei opiniile sunt nc diferite, se pare attitude
c teoriile potrivit crora inteligena sczut Throughout time, there have been
este un important factor care duce la countless written materials on the role played
comiterea de delicte i poate fi identificat by the family in the youth education. The
foarte devreme n decursul vieii ctig tot first seven years spent at home has become
mai mult teren. a household phrase in the Romanian society
Se apreciaz c este destul de riscant s and a widely accepted criterium of judgement
te raportezi separat la o inteligen sczut when the behaviour of some individuals
fr a lua n calcul i performanele colare leaves much to be desire in terms of
destul de slabe. Inteligena verbal sczut education.
este asociat cu performane colare slabe, One of the most important functions of
toate prezicnd delincvena juvenil. the family is to educate and to form
De asemenea, se apreciaz c youngsters, so as they integrate in optimal
delincvenii tind s prseasc coala nc de conditions to the social life and activity.
la vrste fragede, media fiind la 15 ani. Here, within the family, the parents have a
Se opineaz c inteligena non-verbal direct or indirect influence over the education
sczut este caracteristic, nbeosebi, formation of their own children. The
recidivitilor minori, care comit delicte nc married couple, by means of its entire array
de la vrsta de 10-13 ani. of behavioural acts, represents a real social
Alte studii au demonstrat c model which, being the first of the existent
delincvenii obin rezultate mai bune la testele social models in terms of influence, has a
de performan non-verbal, dect la cele decisive impact over its childrens own
verbale, sugernd c ei gsesc mai uor perception of life, conduct and reference to
sensul obiectelor concrete dect cel al various social rules and values.(Amza,2002)
46
conceptelor abstracte48. The basic issue that must be understood

Opinia profesorului Tudor Amza difer by the Romanian authorities is that they
ntr-o oarecare msur de teoriile prezentate, should not wait until the community faces
considernd c lipsa inteligenei nu poate real problems and the children get on the
motiva toate delictele comise de tineri i c, streets, but they should make their best to
ntr-o proporie apreciabil, aceasta trebuie s encourage children to go to school.
fie corelat i cu ali factori. Romnia is nowadays confronted with a
difficult economic situation, especially in the
2.5.Rolul prinilor n dezvoltarea context of the present world economic crisis;
disciplinei i atitudinii juvenile as a consequence, as in many countries where
Despre rolul pe care familia l are n the economy is at its lowest, child protection
educarea tinerilor s-a spus i s-a scris destul is placed towards the end of the priority list.
de mult, iar n societatea romneasc cei Despite all these problems, it is absolutely
apte ani de acas a devenit un criteriu necessary to understand that, if we want less
unanim acceptat, atunci cnd n children involved in criminal acts, it is very
comportamentul unor indivizi se manifest important for children to stay with their
carene grave n ceea ce privete educaia. families, as long as the safety of their
Una dintre cele mai importante funcii education is guaranteed. This situation makes
ale familiei const n educarea i formarea us consider that the society should change not
tinerilor n vederea integrrii lor optime n only the child, but also it should work as
viaa i activitatea social. Aici, n cadrul much (if not more) with its family.
grupului familial, prinii exercit, direct sau The educational environment provided
indirect, influene educaional-formative by the family can be analyzed using several
asupra propriilor lor copii. Cuplul conjugal, indicators, the most important ones being:
prin ntreg sistemul su de acte 1. the way parents relate to each other
comportamentale, constituie un veritabil (the level of closeness and understanding, the
model social care, fiind de altfel primul n agreement or disagreement on various
ordinea influenelor din partea modelelor matters etc.);
sociale existente, are o influen hotrtoare 2. the system of parental attitudes to
asupra copiilor privind formarea concepie lor various social rules and values;
despre via, a modului de comportare i 3. the way the child is perceived and
relaionare n raport cu diferite norme i considered;
valori sociale. 4. the way of manifesting the parental
Problema de baz care trebuie neleas authority (unitarily or separately);
la nivelul autoritilor romneti este aceea de 5. the degree of acceptance of various
a nu atepta pn cnd comunitatea are child behaviours;
probleme reale i copiii ajung n strad, ci s 6. the dynamics of some tensional or
se fac tot posibilul ca acetia s fie ndrumai conflictual situations;
ctre coal. 7. the way of applying rewards or
Romnia are o situaie economic punishments;
dificil, mai ales n contextul crizei 8. the degree of openness and sincerity
48
Carl Murchison , Intellingence, Clark University Press, Wercester, Mass., 1982, cap.4
47
economice mondiale actuale, i, n of the child in relation with its

majoritatea rilor unde economia nu merge, parents.(Amza, 2002)
protecia copilului este lsat la urma listei de
prioriti. Cu toate aceste neajunsuri, este 2.6. The role played by broken
absolut necesar de neles c, dac dorim ct families and separated couples in the
mai puini copii implicai n acte criminale, increase of the juvenile delinquency
este foarte important pentru un copil ca el s Most of the research on the influence of
rmn n familie, mai ales ct sigurana broken families and separated couples over
educaiei lui este garantat acolo. Aceasta ne the juvenile delinquency were focused of the
determin s apreciem c societatea nu poate loss of the father, because the respective
schimba doar copilul, ci trebuie s se lucreze situation is simply more frequent.
la fel de mult (dac nu chiar mai mult) i cu Crime incidence s significantly lower in
familia. united families (22%) and an important fact
Climatul educaional familial poate fi almost as low as in the case of a missing
analizat dup mai muli indicatori,cei mai father compensated by a loving mother.
importani fiind urmtorii: These percentages suggest the fact that
1. modul de raportare interpersonal a a broken family where the mother displays a
prinilor (nivelul de apropiere i nelegere, loving attitude does not represent a crime-
acordul sau dezacordul n legtur cu diferite inducing factor more important than a
probleme etc.); conflictual family, where the disputes
2. sistemul de atitudini parentale n between the parents are frequent or very
raport cu diferite norme i valori sociale; frequent. Even more, a loving mother can be
3. modul n care este perceput i capable in a certain sense to compensate for
considerat copilul; the absence of the father.
4. modul de manifestare a autoritii It has been proved that the children
printeti (unitar sau difereniat); coming from families broken by divorce or
5. gradul de acceptare a unor separation present a higher potential of
comportamente variate ale copiilor; starting to commit crimes at the age of 21,
6. dinamica apariiei unor stri compared to those coming from united
tensionale i conflictuale; families.
7. modul de aplicare a recompenselor i Also, the specialists noticed that in the
sanciunilor; families broken when the children were 0 to 4
8. gradul de deschidere i sinceritate al years old, the children were much more
copilului n raport cu prinii. inclined to delinquency compared to children
who were 11 to 15 years old when their
2.6. Rolul familiilor dezmembrate i families broke.Remarriage (which happens
al separrii cuplurilor n creterea more often after divorce than after death) was
delincvenei juvenile also associated to a high risk of delinquency,
Majoritatea studiilor ntreprinse n a fact that might suggest of possible negative
legtur cu influena dezmembrrii familiilor effect of the step parent.
i separarea cuplurilor asupra delincvenei Marry Morash and Lila Rucher have
juvenile au fost focalizate mai mult pe come to a certain conclusion in a common
pierderea tatlui, fiindc, pur i simplu, research, that teenage moms which stand
48
pierderea acestuia se ntmpl mult mai des49. alone and live in poverty are the first exposed
Comiterea delictelor este ntr-un to the risk of having delinquent children.
procent semnificativ mai redus la familiile
unite (22%) i important - aproape la fel de 2.7. The social and economic
sczut n cazul lipsei tatlui, dar unde mama deprivation a cause of juvenile
are o atitudine afectuoas. delinquency
Aceste procente sugereaz c o familie Many criminology theories state that
dezmembrat dar unde mama este afectuoas delinquents derive from lower social classes
nu reprezint un factor criminologic mai and want to explain this phenomenon. Albert
important dect o familie cu conflicte ntre Cohen for example sustained that the
prini, dese sau foarte dese. Mai mult, o juvenile coming from lower (poor) classes
mam iubitoare poate fi capabil ntr-un barely succeeded in reaching the middle class
anumit sens de a compensa lipsa tatlui. standards, because their parents were inclined
S-a stabilit c, copiii din familiile not to teach them how to postpone immediate
dezmembrate prin divor sau separate au un satisfaction in favour of long term benefits.
risc potenial mult mai crescut s nceap s In many criminology research,
comit infraciuni la vrsta de 21 de ani, n delinquents and non-delinquents are equal in
comparaie cu cei din familiile unite. front of the SES (social and economic status).
De asemenea, s-a constatat c n The relation between SES and delinquency is
familiile care s-au destrmat n timp ce copiii approached in an impressive plethora of
aveau 0-4 ani, acetia erau mult mai written texts, which, in exchange, is full of
predispui la delincvene fa de copiii crora, contradictions, although there are many
de exemplu, li se dezmembrau familiile la specialized opinions according to which there
vrsta de 11-15 ani. is no relation at all between them.
Recstoria (care se ntmpl mai The parents deprivation of an adequate
adesea dup divor dect dup moarte) a fost, social and economic status is sometimes
de asemenea, asociat cu un risc crescut de associated to a higher possibility of children
delincven, fapt care ar putea sugera un involving in crimes.It is considered that, even
posibil efect negativ al printelui vitreg. after the child grows up and develops, one
Cu certitudine, subliniaz Marry can still notice in his/her usual conduct the
Morash i Lila Rucher ntr-o cercetare traces of the economic and social deprivation
comun, mamele adolescente care rmn suffered during their young years.
singure i triesc n srcie sunt primele In countries with a functioning market
expuse s aib copii delincveni50. economy, the social and economic
deprivation represents an important risk
2.7.Privarea socio-economic - cauz factor for delinquency, for breaking the law
a delincvenei juvenile in general, and the children coming form low
Multe teorii criminologice apreciaz c income families are more inclined to engage
delincvenii provin din clasele joase i vor s in criminal activities than children with a low
explice de ce se ntmpl astfel. Albert occupational status, but with higher financial
49
Tudor Amza, op.cit., pag.594
50
Marry Morash, Lila Rucker, Deviance.The Interactionis. Perspective, New York, Macmillan Company, 1989,
p.17.
49
Cohen - de exemplu - n urm cu peste 50 de resources.

ani, susinea c minorii din clasele de jos
(srace) reuesc cu greu s ajung la 2.8. The influence of the gang
standardele claselor de mijloc, fiindc prinii movements
lor tind s nu-i nvee s amne satisfaciile The research in this direction were
imediate n favoarea celor pe termen lung51. initiated by the University of the State of
n multe cercetri criminologice, Washington and by the European Council of
delincvenii i non-delincvenii sunt egali n Research on the Organized Crime, aiming at
faa SES (statutul socio-economic). De altfel, analyzing the roots of violence, as well as the
despre relaia dintre SES i comiterea de causes of the organized crime incidents
delicte exist un volum impresionant de among young people.A common feature of
literatur care, ns, este caracterizat de the American, European and also Romanian
contradicii, dei multe alte opinii nclin s youth, especially after 1990s is the gang
cread c ntre statutul socio-economic (SES) movement, a relatively new concept in
i comiterea de delicte nu exist o corelaie52. criminology studies.(Amza, 2002)
Privarea prinilor de un statut socio- In 1993, Walker, Schmidt i Lunghofer
economic adecvat este asociat deseori i cu defined a couple of reasons for which young
o posibilitate lrgit, oferit copiilor de a people adhere to gangs:
comite delicte. - looking for love;
Se apreciaz c, i dup ce copilul - integrating in a new street discipline;
crete i se dezvolt, se mai poate nc - the need to belong to a community;
observa n comportamentul su, care este - the need of recognition and power;
unul normal, obinuit, privarea socio- - the need of frienship, nervous and
economic pe care a avut-o n copilrie. sexual excitement;
n rile unde economia de pia - finding a place where they are
funcioneaz, privarea socio-economic accepted irrespective of race, origin, sex or
constituie un important factor de risc pentru sexual orientation.
producerea infraciunilor, n general pentru The American researchers Hagedorn
nclcarea legii, iar copiii din familiile cu un and Macon described in 1988 a couple of
venit sczut sunt mai expui la a comite gang typologies, depending on the
infraciuni, dect copiii celor cu un prestigiu dimensions of the city, of the community and
ocupaional sczut dar cu posibiliti of the neighbourhood. They highlighted the
financiare. fact that the gang movement often structures
on ethnic groups, on sex groups, on religious
2.8.Influena micrilor de beliefs or on political options.
gang(bieilor de cartier) Hagedorn and Macon recommended
Cercetrile n aceast direcie au fost three ways to prevent the effects of gang
inaugurate de Universitatea Statului movements :
Washington i de Consiliul European de 1. the gang members must participate to
Cercetare pentru Crima Organizat, cu scopul reducation programmes, organized by the
51
Tudor Amza , Criminologie, Ed. Lumuna Lex , Bucureti, 2002, p.225-227.
52
William C.Bailey, Poverty, Inequality and City Homicide Rates:Some Not So Unexpected Findings (Srcie,
inegalitate i ratele urbane ale omuciderilor, nite descoperiri neateptate), Criminologie 22(4),1984, p.531-580.
50
analizrii cauzelor violenei, precum i a communities of the respective hoods or cities;

crimei organizate n rndul tinerilor. 2. an important point would be the
Se pune firesc ntrebarea: de ce tinerii creation of new work places in the respective
se integreaz rapid n micrile de gang areas, the opening of educational centers,
(cartier)? others than the ones imposed by the legal
O trstur caracteristic tinerilor att system (reeducation schools or detention
din Statele Unite, din Europa ct i din centers for minors);
Romnia, mai ales dup 1990, este micarea 3. the members of the community, the
de gang, o noiune relativ nou aprut n parents, the relatives, the neighbours must
studiile criminologice. involve in knowing and understanding the
Walker, Schmidt i Lunghofer lifestyle of young gangsters.
defineau n 1993 cteva motive pentru care In 1993, Taylor described several
tinerii ader la micarea de gang: strategies to prevent gang movements the
- cutarea dragostei; family and the community being essential
- integrarea ntr-o nou disciplin de factors in the development of children and
strad (termenul gang este adaptat n teenagers, both emotionally and
tipologia romneasc sub forma cartier: psychologically.
biei de cartier); The family and the community must
- nevoia de a aparine unei comuniti; share the responsibility of teaching young
- nevoia de recunoatere i putere; people how to avoid drugs and any kind of
- nevoia de prietenie, de excitare criminal act in general.
nervoas i sexual; A solid education is directly linked to
- un loc unde sunt acceptai indiferent the positive development of young people;
de ras, origine, sex sau orientare sexual. when it is present, those who participate in
Cercettorii americani Hagedorn i such a programme have good chances to
Macon descriau n 1988 cteva tipologii de grow as reliable members of the community.
micri de gang, n funcie de mrimea The generation gap is another factor
oraului, de mrimea comunitii i de that makes young people get into gangs. A
mrimea cartierului. Ei scoteau n eviden good communication strategy and the
c, deseori, micarea de gang se stuctureaz elimination of conflicts between generations
pe grupuri etnice, n funcie de sex, de might calm down the tensions between the
apartenena religioas sau cea politic. community members.
Hagedorn i Macon recomandau trei The recreational programmes such as
modaliti de prevenire : sports, music, theater and community service
1. membrii micrii de gang trebuie s can help young people build and consolidate
participe la programele de reeducare, their personalities, as well as self-confidence
organizate de comunitile cartierelor sau and respect towards peers.
oraelor respective;
2. un punct important ar fi crearea de BIBLIOGRAPHY:
noi locuri de munc n zona respectiv, 1. Amza T., 2002, Criminologie-Tratat de
teorie i politic criminologic (Ed. Lumina Lex,
deschiderea unor centre de educaie, altele
Bucureti)
dect cele impuse de sistemul judiciar (coli 2. Banciu D., Rdulescu S., Voicu M., 1985,
de reeducare sau centre de detenie pentru Introducere n sociologia devianei (Ed. tiinific i
51
minori); Enciclopedic, Bucureti)

3. implicarea membrilor comunitii, 3. Mitrofan N., Zdrenghea V, Butoi T.,1994,
Psihologie judiciar (Ed Sansa, Bucureti)
prini, rude, vecini, pentru cunoaterea
4. Rdulescu S. M., Piticariu M., 1989,
modului de abordare a tinerilor care au aderat Devian comportamental i boal psihic(Ed
la micarea de gang. Academiei Romne, Bucureti)
n 1993, Taylor descria cteva strategii 5. Rdulescu S., Banciu D., 1996, Sociologia
de prevenire a micrii de gang - familia i crimei i criminalitii (Ed. ansa, Bucureti)
6. Roca Al., 1975, Psihologie general (Ed.
comunitatea fiind eseniale n dezvoltarea
Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti)
copilului i adolescentului, att din punct de 7. Stnior E., 2009, Delincvena juvenil
vedere emoional ct i psihic. (Ed Oscar Print, Bucureti)
Familia i comunitatea trebuie s-i
mpart responsabilitatea pentru nvarea
tinerilor n ceea ce privete riscurile
drogurilor i, n general, ale comiterii unui act
criminal.
O educaie bun este direct legat de
dezvoltarea pozitiv a tinerilor, iar acolo unde
exist, aceia care particip la un program de
educaie au mari anse s se dezvolte ca buni
membri ai comunitii.
Conflictul dintre generaii este un alt
factor care determin aderarea tinerilor la
micarea de gang. Comunicarea i eliminarea
conflictelor dintre generaii, eliminarea
opoziiei dintre concepii sau idei, pot aplana
divergenele dintre membrii aceleiai
comuniti.
Programele de recreare sportiv,
muzica, teatrul, precum i activitile din
comunitate pot ajuta la formarea
personalitii tinerilor, pot, de asemenea,
cristaliza personalitatea acestora, precum i
ncrederea n sine i respectul fa de ceilali
tineri.
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
1. Amza T., 2002, Criminologie-Tratat de teorie
i politic criminologic (Ed. Lumina Lex, Bucureti)
2. Banciu D., Rdulescu S., Voicu M., 1985,
Introducere n sociologia devianei (Ed. tiinific i
Enciclopedic, Bucureti)
3. Mitrofan N., Zdrenghea V, Butoi T.,1994,
Psihologie judiciar (Ed Sansa, Bucureti)
4. Rdulescu S. M., Piticariu M., 1989, Devian
52
comportamental i boal psihic(Ed Academiei

Romne, Bucureti)
5. Rdulescu S., Banciu D., 1996, Sociologia
crimei i criminalitii (Ed. ansa, Bucureti)
6. Roca Al., 1975, Psihologie general (Ed.
Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti)
7. Stnior E., 2009, Delincvena juvenil (Ed
Oscar Print, Bucureti)
53
GLOBALIZAREA, GLOBALIZATION, ISLAMIC

FUNDAMENTALISMUL ISLAMIC I FUNDAMENTALISM AND THE
DEZVOLTAREA REELELOR EVOLUTION OF TERRORIST
TERORISTE NETWORKS
Aitana Bogdan53 - Academia Naional de Aitana Bogdan - The Mihai Viteazul

InformaiiMihai Viteazul National Intelligence Academy
Oana Sprncenatu54 - Academia Naional de Oana Sprncenatu - The Mihai Viteazul
InformaiiMihai Viteazul National Intelligence Academy
Motto: Teroritii folosesc Internetul ca toi Motto: Terrorists use the Internet just like
ceilali everybody else
(Richard Clarke, 2004) (Richard Clarke, 2004)
Abstract: Adepii fundamentalismului islamic au Abstract: The promoters of Islamic

privit permanent globalizarea ntr-o manier critic, fundamentalism have continuously supported a critical
considernd-o drept una dintre ameninrile majore la approach of globalization, perceived as a major threat
adresa identitii religioase i culturale a lumii to the religious and cultural identity of the Muslim
musulmane, dar totodat utiliznd mijloacele generate world, while at the same time using the means
de ctre aceast nou realitate pentru a-i promova generated by this new reality to spread their beliefs.
credina. Prezentul articol dorete s exploreze acest The present article aims to explore this paradox in an
paradox, ncercnd s clarifice ntr-o oarecare attempt to shed some light on the ambiguous
msur relaia ambigu existent ntre globalizare i relationship established between globalization and
reelele teroriste islamice. Principala ipotez a acestei Islamic terrorist networks. The main argument of the
lucrri este aceea c fundementalitii islamici au paper is that Islamic fundamentalists have constantly
adoptat n mod constant mijloacele tehnice furnizate integrated the technological means provided by
de globalizare utilizndu-le pentru a-i extinde globalization in order to expand their influence to a
influena la nivel global. global level.
Aceast lucrare analizeaz provocrile The present paper explores the

generate de procesul globalizrii, punnd challenges posed by the process of
accent pe implicaiile acestuia asupra globalization, with a particular emphasis laid
resurgenei religioase n cadrul lumii on its relation with the religious resurgence in
musulmane. Scopul nostru este acela de a the Muslim world. Our aim is to shed some
clarifica paradoxul dintre critica puternic light on the paradox created between the
adus de fundamentalitii islamici valorilor strong Islamist critic of Western values and
occidentale i acceptarea selectiv de ctre their selective acceptance of Western modern
acetia a tehnologiei moderne vestice. technology.
Globalizarea reprezint unul dintre cele Globalization is one of the most strongly
53
Aitana Bogdan, Bucureti, str. Viorele, nr. 32, bl. 17, ap. 13, sect. 4, Academia National de Informaii Mihai
Viteazul, 0744591633, aitanaradu25@yahoo.com.
54
Oana Sprncenatu, Bucureti, str. Alexandru Obregia, bl. M1, ap. 29, sc. 1, sect. 4, Academia National de
Informaii Mihai Viteazul, 0766521457, oanasprincenatu@yahoo.com.
54
mai controversate subiecte ale momentului. A debated topics of the present era. It has been
fost att de intens dezbtut n mediile discussed so widely in scholarly and popular
academice, dar i n afara lor, nct a cptat circles that it has reached the ignoble status of
statutul infam de termen la mod, 'buzzword', familiarly used by many to refer
conceptul fiind folosit n mod frecvent pentru to some fuzzy phenomenon or trend in the
a face referire la un fenomen neclar sau la o world, but hardly understood by any (Cha,
tendin la scar mondial, fr ns a fi 2000).
neles cu adevrat de prea muli (Cha, 2000). Defined broadly, globalization is the
Definit la modul general, globalizarea process of growing international activity in
reprezint procesul de dezvoltare a many areas that is creating ever-closer ties,
interaciunilor la nivel internaional, n varii enhanced interdependence, and greater
domenii, care duce la crearea de legturi din opportunity and vulnerability for all. Events
ce n ce mai strnse, amplificarea relaiile de at the far corners of the earth are now
interdependen i genereaz noi oportuniti affecting each other, countries and regions
dar i vulnerabiliti. n prezent, evenimente are being drawn closer together, key trends
care se petrec n coluri ndeprtate ale are interacting as never before, and the pace
globului se influeneaz reciproc, rile i of change is accelerating. Because of it, the
regiunile se apropie din ce n ce mai mult, 21st century will be the first truly Global
tendinele majore interacioneaz mai mult ca Century (Flanagan, Frost and Kugler, 2001).
niciodat iar ritmul transformrilor se The central features of globalization are
accelereaz. Datorit globalizrii, secolul 21 the rapidly growing and uneven cross-border
va fi primul Secol Global n adevratul sens flows of goods, services, people, money,
al cuvntului (Flanagan, Frost and Kugler, technology, information, ideas, culture,
2001). crime, and weapons (Flanagan, Frost and
Principala caracteristic a globalizrii Kugler, 2001).
este reprezentat de fluxurile transnaionale While many envisage it as a cover
neuniforme i n rapid cretere, de bunuri, concept for global capitalism and imperialism
servicii, persoane, capital, tehnologie, condemning globalization as another form of
informaii, idei, valori culturale, criminalitate the imposition of the logic of capital and the
i arme (Flanagan, Frost and Kugler, 2001). market on ever more regions of the world and
n timp ce muli privesc globalizarea spheres of life, others, consider it as the
drept un concept ce definete capitalismul continuation of modernization and a force of
global i imperialismul, blamnd-o ca pe o progress, leading to increased wealth,
alt form de impunere a logicii capitalului i freedom, democracy, and happiness.
pieelor n tot mai multe regiuni ale lumii i Its defenders present globalization as
sfere ale vieii, alii, consider c aceasta beneficial, generating fresh economic
reprezint o continuare a modernitii i o opportunities, political democratization,
surs de progres, care duce la sporirea cultural diversity, and the opening to an
bogiilor, libertii, democraiei i fericirii. exciting new world. Its critics see
Partizanii globalizrii o prezint ca fiind globalization as harmful, bringing about
benefic, genernd noi oportuniti increased domination and control by the
economice, conducnd la democratizarea wealthier overdeveloped nations over the
vieii politice, diversitate cultural i poor underdeveloped countries, thus
55
deschiderea ctre o lume nou incitant. increasing the hegemony of the "haves" over
Criticii globalizrii o consider ca fiind the "have-nots." In addition, globalization
duntoare, amplificnd dominaia i critics assert that globalization produces an
controlul naiunilor dezvoltate i mai bogate undermining of democracy and cultural
asupra rilor srace i nedezvoltate, sporind homogenization (Flanagan, Frost and Kugler,
astfe hegemonia celor care au asupra celor 2001).
care nu au. Mai mult, criticii globalizrii The appearance of the nation-state as a
susin c aceasta conduce la o subminare a main actor on the international arena was
omogenizrii democratice i culturale. accompanied by an expansion of secularism
(Flanagan, Frost and Kugler, 2001). and the exile of religion to the private sphere.
Apariia statului naional ca principal Thus, secularism denounces religion as
actor al arenei internaionale a fost nsoit de irrational and traditional and consequently
expansiunea secularismului i exilarea religiei anti-modern, and the religious dimension is
n sfera privat. Astfel, secularismul excluded from the practice of government
proclam religia ca iraional i tradiional i (Barna, 2008).
n consecin contrar modernitii, However, recent events have
dimensiunea religioas fiind exclus din actul demonstrated that with the appearance of
de guvernare (Barna, 2008). globalization the nation-state gradually lost
Totui, evenimentele recente au its primacy on the international arena, being
demonstrat faptul c odat cu nceputul replaced by alternative entities:
procesului de globalizare, statul-naiune i a multinationals, NGOs, transnational crime
pierdut supremaia pe scena internaional, networks, international terrorist
fiind nlocuit de ctre diverse entiti: firme organizations. Therefore, the world is not
multinaionale, ONG-uri, reele going to become a homogeneous place as the
transnaionale de crim organizat, differences that exist among the many regions
organizaii teroriste internaionale, etc. De of the world continue to multiply and be
aceea, lumea nu se va transforma ntr-un loc enhanced.
omogen, diferenele existente ntre diversele The accentuation of globalization
regiuni ale lumii continund s se multiplice amplified the problems of secularism and on
i s se intensifice. the long run stimulated the appearance of the
Accentuarea globalizrii a amplificat religious resurgence phenomenon, as a
problemele generate de secularism i pe method of redefining politically autonomy
termen lung a stimulat apariia fenomenului and cultural identity. Moreover, the fact that
de resurgen religioas, ca mijloc de the religious resurgence manifests itself
redefinire a autonomiei politice i a identitii exactly in the period when globalization is
religioase. Mai mult, faptul c resurgena intensified constitutes an element of
religioas se manifest exact n perioada n significant importance (Barna, 2008).
care globalizarea se intensific constituie un Firstly, the religious resurgence is a
element deosebit de important (Barna, 2008). response to the cosmopolitanism promoted by
Astfel, resurgena religioas reprezint o globalization. The more the former-Western
replic dat cosmopolitanismului promovat colonies value the traditional practices and
de globalizare. Cu ct fostele colonii institutions as compared to the artificial and
occidentale apreciaz mai mult practicile i borrowed modern ones, the more different
56
instituiile tradiionale comparativ cu cele segments of the global population reconsider

moderne, mprumutate i artificiale, cu att religious as a primary source of community
mai multe segmente ale populaiei lumii vor identity (Barna, 2008).
reconsidera religia drept surs primar a As Huntington stated the processes of
identitii comunitare (Barna, 2008). economic modernization and social change
Dup cum susinea Huntington, throughout the world are separating people
procesele de modernizare economic i from longstanding local identities. In much of
schimbare social ce au loc peste tot n lume the world religion has moved in to fill this
i ndeprteaz pe oameni de identitile gap, often in the form of movements that are
locale ce au rezistat perioade ndelungate. n labeled as fundamentalist. But as people
cea mai mare parte a lumii religia a ncercat define their identity in religious terms it is
s umple acest gol, adeseori mbrcnd forma likely that they will see an us versus
unor micri catalogate ca fiind them relation existing between themselves
fundamentaliste. Dar pe msur ce oamenii and people of different religion (Huntington,
i definesc identitatea n termeni religioi 1993).
este foarte probabil ca acetia s perceap According to Michel Foucault, no matter
existena unei relaii de tipul noi versus if the perceived threats are true or imagined,
ei atunci cnd se raporteaz la persoanele religion constitutes a plurality of forces of
de alt religie (Huntington, 1993). resistance (Barna, 2008).
Potrivit lui Michel Foucault, nu conteaz From the need to compete with
dac ameninrile percepute sunt reale sau secularism, contemporary religions become
imaginare, religia constituie o pluralitate de increasingly more detached from traditional
fore de rezisten(Barna, 2008). civilization and society and tend to create
Din nevoia de a concura cu secularismul, religious communities, based on the
religiile contemporane devin tot mai detaate distinction between us and them or
de civilizaia i societatea tradiional i tind those who hold the truth and those who
s creeze comuniti religioase bazate pe are in darkness. Therefore, one of the most
distincia dintre noi i ei sau dintre cei important socio-religious transformations of
care dein adevrul i cei care rmn n the contemporary age was the appearance of
ntuneric. De aceea, una dintre cele mai fundamentalism, as a promoter of the return
importante transformri socio-religioase ale to the religious origins of the rebirth of
epocii contemporane a constituit-o apariia society (Barna, 2008).
fundamentalismului, ca promotor al Furthermore, globalization is facilitating
rentoarcerii la originile religioase ale the spread of religious ideas rather than
renaterii societii (Barna, 2008). destroying religion. The strength of religious
Mai mult, globalizarea faciliteaz values and institutions has helped people in
diseminarea ideilor religioase mai degrab many regions cope with alienation,
dect s distrug religia. Puterea valorilor i insecurity, and rapid economic change.
instituiilor religioase i-au ajutat pe oamenii Unfortunately there are people who use
din multe regiuni s fac fa alienrii, religion for their own ends and much of the
nencrederii i schimbrilor economice violence that is sometimes described as
rapide. Din pcate, exist persoane care religious actually stems from a political
folosesc religia pentru a-i atinge propriile backlash against globalization. Extremist
57
scopuri i adeseori, cea mai mare parte a movements can often attract those who are
actelor de violen descrise ca fiind de natur uprooted or fearful of globalization
religioas izvorsc de fapt dintr-o respingere (Flanagan, Frost and Kugler, 2001).
de natur politic a globalizrii. Micrile Although cultural wars are unlikely,
exteremiste pot atrage frecvent pe cei communal conflict is becoming a hallmark of
dezrdcinai sau pe cei nspimntai de globalization. The politicization of Islam
globalizare (Flanagan, Frost and Kugler, poses a particular challenge in this regard. A
2001). widespread backlash is building against
Dei rzboaiele ntre culturi sunt puin Western values and practices, which often are
probabile, conflictele interconfesionale devin perceived as demeaning, decadent, self-
o emblem a globalizrii. Politicizarea indulgent, and exploitative (Flanagan, Frost
Islamului reprezint o provocare din acest and Kugler, 2001).
punct de vedere. O reticen la scar larg se Across the Middle East, with its mostly
consolideaz fa de valorile i practicile poor economies and shaky governments,
occidentale, care sunt percepute adesea ca globalization is feared and distrusted.
fiind umilitoare, decadente, ngduitoare fa Political Islam and Arab nationalism are
de sine i opresive (Flanagan, Frost and partial backlashes to it. Although NGOs are
Kugler, 2001). becoming more active advocates of
n Orientul Mijlociu, caracterizat de democracy and the rule of law in the region,
economii majoritar subdezvoltate i guverne and Arab businessmen and modernizing
instabile, globalizarea este temut i privit political leaders realize that globalization can
cu suspiciune. Politizarea Islamului i be a source of economic and political gains,
naionalismul arab reprezint parial un recul the phenomenon is creating stress within the
al globalizrii. Dei ONG-urile devin domestic political system, feeding a
susintori mai activi ai democraiei i statului perception of globalization as an effort by the
de drept n aceast regiune, iar oamenii de West to impose its political values on
afaceri arabi i liderii politici reformatori traditional regimes (Flanagan, Frost and
contientizeaz faptul c globalizarea poate Kugler, 2001).
constitui o surs de avantaje economice i Radical Islamic thought is based on a
politice, fenomenul genereaz tensiuni la strong critic of modernity, as it can be
nivelul sistemului politic intern, meninnd observed from writings such as that of Sayyd
percepia globalizrii ca o ncercare a Qutb in his book entitled Maalim fi-l Tariq
Occidentului de a-i impune valorile politice (Milestones). Modernity is characterized by
asupra regimurilor tradiionale (Flanagan, Qutb as jahiliyya, a concept used to define a
Frost and Kugler, 2001). state of ignorance in a society that has
Curentul radical islamic se bazeaz pe o deviated from the true path of Islam. Thus, a
puternic critic a modernitii, dup cum jahili society is one that refuses to accept the
reiese din scrieri asemenea crii lui Sayyd sovereignty of Allah (Euben, 1997).
Qutb intitulat Maalim fi-l Tariq (Pietre de Because of the incapacity to promote
hotar). Modernitatea este caracterizat de real values (moral ones), societies are
ctre Qutb ca fiind jahiliyya, concept utilizat according to Qutb on the brink of the abyss.
pentru a defini o stare de ignoran la nivelul This danger does not only affect the Western
unei societi care s-a abtut de la calea cea world, but all societies that call themselves
58
dreapt a Islamului. Astfel, o societate jahili Islamic. Qutb considers that when Muslims
este una care refuz s accepte suveranitatea attempt to imitate foreign models, they
lui Allah (Euben, 1997). inevitable reproduce the deficiencies of
Datorit incapacitii de a promova Western societies in the Islamic world. That
valori reale (de natur moral), societile is why all Islamic societies will remain jahili
sunt potrivit lui Qutb pe marginea as long as their leaders will continue to
prpastiei. Acest pericol nu afecteaz numai import Western models and will not accept
lumea occidental, dar i toate societile care the primacy of religion (Islam) in all aspects
se consider islamice. Qutb consider c of society (Euben, 1997).
atunci cnd musulmanii ncearc s imite However, as is the case with all
modele strine, n mod inevitabil acestea vor fundamentalist ideologies, their discourse is
conduce la transpunerea deficienelor generally a selective one, meaning that in a
societilor occidentale la nivelul lumii subjective manner they select which aspects
islamice. De aceea toate societile islamice of modernity they want to accept or reject
vor rmne jahili att timp ct liderii acestora (Frey, 2007). Therefore, while
vor continua s importe modelele vestice i Westernization is rejected, selective
nu vor accepta supremaia religiei (Islamului) modernization is not. Science and technology
n toate domeniile vieii sociale (Euben, are appropriated and Islamized
1997). (subordinated to Islamic values and purposes)
Totui, ca n cazul tuturor ideologiilor (Esposito, 2005).
fundamentaliste, discursul este unul selectiv, Whereas in the past Islamic religious
cu alte cuvinte, ntr-o manier subiectiv, leaders rejected modern means of
acetia vor alege aspectele modernitii pe communication, such as radio and television,
care s le resping sau s le accepte (Frey, this no longer the case. Nowadays, sermons
2007). De aceea, n timp ce occidentalizarea and preaches of popular preachers are
este respins, modernizarea selectiv nu este. transmitted across the world via audio-video
Descoperirile tiinifice i tehnologice sunt cassettes as well as the Internet, so that there
adaptate i islamizate (subordinate valorilor is influence goes beyond national borders
i scopurilor Islamului) (Esposito, 2005). (Esposito, 2005).
n timp ce n trecut liderii religioi As Mark Sedgwick noted Ayatollah
islamici respingeau utilizarea mijloacelor Khomeini was a controversial figure as he
moderne de comunicare, precum radioul sau started the Iranian Revolution standing on a
televiziunea, n prezent nu mai este cazul. n praying mat and next to a telephone.
zilele noastre, discursurile predicatorilor Similarly, many of the photographs and
cunoscui sunt transmise n ntreaga lume prin videos released by the terrorist organization
intermediul casetelor audio-video i al Al-Qaeda depict Osama bin Laden standing
Internetului, astfel nct influena acestora in front of a cave (a traditional Muslim
transgreseaz graniele naionale (Esposito, religious symbol) and holding a mobile phone
2005). in his hand and having a high-tech watch on
Dup cum observa Mark Sedgwick, his wrist (Sedgwick, 2010).
Ayatollah-ul Khomeini a reprezentat o A possible explanation for this selective
personalitate controversat, pornind acceptance of modern technology by Islamist
Revoluia iranian aezat pe un covor de groups can be found in the fact that most
59
rugciune i avnd alturi un telefon. Similar, members of these groups are young people
multe dintre fotografiile i nregistrrile video educated in urban areas (generally in Western
publicate de ctre gruparea terorist Al- countries), whose increased alienation led
Qaeda l nfieaz pe Osama bin Laden them to a distorted perception on Islam.
stnd n faa unei peteri (un simbol religios However, their modern education led them to
tradiional musulman) i innd n mn un be more open towards the idea of using
telefon mobil i purtnd un ceas modern technological means, characteristic to
ultrasofisticat (Sedgwick, 2010). the West, in their fight against Western
O posibil explicaie pentru acceptarea culture and its influence on the Muslim world
selectiv a tehnologiei moderne de ctre (Esposito, 2005).
gruprile fundamentaliste islamice ar putea One fundamental element of
consta n faptul c majoritatea membrilor globalization is the emergence of the Internet,
acestor grupri sunt persoane tinere, educate which has the effect of disseminating
n mediul urban (n general n statele knowledge at world level. The Internet is
occidentale), a cror alienare i-a determinat both a product and instigator of globalization,
s perceap n mod distorsionat leading to the spread of information, the
Islamul.Totui, educaia lor de factur change of business and governmental
modern i-a fcut s fie mai deschii la ideea institutions, the creation of enormous new
utilizrii mijloacelor tehnologice moderne, wealth, and generally promoting openness
specifice Occidentului, n lupta lor mpotriva (Flanagan, Frost and Kugler, 2001).
culturii occidentale i a influenei pe care On the other hand the Internet cannot
aceasta o are asupra lumii musulmane itself eliminate security problems and dangers
(Esposito, 2005). associated with its development and may
O caracteristic fundamental a inflame them. In their quest for attaining their
globalizrii o reprezint apariia Internetului, goals, terrorists take advantage of all means
care a condus la diseminarea cunoaterii la available, including commercial networks for
nivel mondial. Internetul este att un produs communication, finance and transportation.
al globalizrii, ct i un factor potenator, These networks enable them to maintain a
genernd diseminarea informaiilor, presence and to coordinate operations that
schimbarea mediului de afaceri i would not have been possible in the past. The
instituional, crearea unor bogii uriae i Internet is such a commercial network, a vital
promovnd n general deschiderea (Flanagan, resource for global terrorism (Lewis, 2005).
Frost and Kugler, 2001). Although Islamic terrorist groups were
Pe de alt parte, Internetul nu poate not the first to turn to the Internet, they
elimina riscurile i problemele de securitate quickly learned its value (Lewis, 2005).
asociate dezvoltrii sale, ci dimpotriv le The relationship between terrorists and
poate acutiza. n ncercarea de a-i atinge Internet is bivalent. First, Internet has a
obiectivele, teroritii profit de toate multitude of uses for terrorist entities such as
mijloacele aflate la dispoziie, inclusiv de propaganda/publicity, psychological warfare,
reelele comerciale destinate comunicaiilor, fundraising, data mining, recruitment and
tranzaciilor financiare i transporturilor. mobilization, networking, information
Aceste reele le permit s coordoneze sharing and planning and coordination.
operaiuni de la distan, ntr-o manier n Secondly, individuals and groups have tried
60
care nu ar fi fost posibil n trecut. Internetul to attack computer networks, including those
este una dintre aceste reele i o resurs connected to the Internet, in what has become
esenial pentru dezvoltarea terorismului la known as cyber-terrorism (Lewis, 2005).
nivel global (Lewis, 2005). In the past years authors such as
Dei gruprile teroriste islamice nu au Timothy Thomas have attempted to develop
fost primele care au recurs la Internet, acestea broader concepts to encompass all of these
i-au contientizat rapid avantajele (Lewis, functions: cyberplanning the digital
2005). coordination of an integrated plan stressing
Relaia dintre terorism i Internet este across geographical boundaries that may or
una de factur bivalent. n primul rnd, may nor result in bloodshed (Conway,
Internetul poate fi folosit n multiple feluri de 2006).
ctre entitile teroriste : propagand/ The present paper deals only with the
publicitate, rzboi psihologic, strngere de first situations, focusing on the ways in which
fonduri, colectare de informaii, recrutare i terrorist networks benefit from the
mobilizare, crearea de reele (networking), advantages brought by globalizations and the
partajarea de informaii, planificare i new technological means and the manner in
coordonare. n al doilea rnd, att anumite which they manage to reconcile these
persoane, ct i grupri, au ncercat s atace interests with their broader critic of
reelele informatice, inclusiv pe cele modernity and Western innovation.
conectate la Internet, ajungndu-se la Among the uses of the Internet by
fenomenul cunoscut sub denumirea de cyber- terrorist organization we encounter the
terorism (Lewis, 2005). following:
n ultimii ani, autori precum Timothy
Thomas au ncercat s dezvolte concepte mai 1. Propaganda/publicity
ample care s nglobeze toate aceste funcii, Terrorist organizations use modern
cum ar fi acela de cyberplanning means of communication in order to spread
(cyberplanificare) coordonarea prin their propaganda messages worldwide. The
intermediul mijloacelor digitale a unui plan most effective of these is considered to be
integrat, care trece dincolo de graniele propaganda videos (displaying either footage
geografice i care poate avea sau nu ca of bombings and executions or recorded
rezultat vrsarea de snge (Conway, 2006). messages of different leaders), which are both
Lucrarea de fa trateaz doar prima posted on the Internet and sold behind the
situaie, concentrndu-se asupra modalitilor counter in video shops across the Middle
n care reelele teroriste profit de avantajele East. It is important to note, that these method
generate de globalizare i de noile mijloace is used not only by terrorist groups from the
tehnologice, dar i asupra manierei n care Middle East, but also by similar organizations
acetia reuesc s reconcilieze astfel de from Chechnya and Bosnia (Conway, 2006).
preocupri cu modul critic n care privesc Another form of propaganda is
modernitatea i inovaiile occidentale. conducted through jihadi forums, whose
Printre modurile de utilizare a numbers have increased significantly in
Internetului de ctre organizaiile teroriste recent years, as they constitute an efficient
regsim urmtoarele: way of spreading a certain message to an
elevated number of people. In addition to
61
1. Propaganda/publicitatea these there are the computer games created

Organizaiile teroriste utilizeaz by terrorist organizations (which are available
mijloacele moderne de comunicare pentru a on their websites), in which users can pretend
disemina mesajele de propagand la nivel to be holy warriors killing U.S. and Israeli
mondial. Printre cele mai eficiente metode se soldiers. This last method is especially
numr nregistrrile video (prezentnd effective in attracting very young people
atentate cu bomb, execuii sau mesaje ale (Wright, 2008).
diverilor lideri), care sunt postate att pe
Internet, ct i comercializate pe sub mn n 2. Psychological warfare
magazinele de nchiriat casete din Orientul Terrorists use the Internet as a means of
Mijlociu. De remarcat faptul c aceast psychological warfare by spreading
metod nu este utilizat numai de ctre disinformation, delivering threats and
gruprile teroriste din Orientul mijlociu, ci i disseminating horrific images (the video
de ctre organizaii similare din Cecenia i featuring the beheading of US journalist,
Bosnia (Conway, 2006). Daniel Pearl in Pakistan) (Conway, 2006).
O alt form de propagand are loc prin
intermediul forumurilor jihadiste, al cror 3. Fundraising
numr a crescut semnificativ n ultimii ani, Online terrorist fundraising has become
din moment ce constituie o manier eficient very popular in the recent years, as terrorist
de transmitere a unui anumit mesaj ctre un groups request funds from Internet users
numr mare de oameni. Mai mult, exist visiting their sites. These requests may take
jocuri pe computer create de organizaiile the form of general statements underlining
teroriste (disponibile pe website-urile the organizations need for money or direct
acestora) n care utilizatori se pot preface c requests for funds, which include bank
sunt rzboinici sacri care ucid soldai account details or mention online payment
americani i israelieni. Acest mijloc de services, such as PayPal (Conway, 2006).
propagand este foarte eficient mai ales n Another method employed by terrorist
cazul atragerii persoanelor foarte tinere entities is to profile site visitors by using user
(Wright, 2008). demographics and to contact those whose
profiles indicate may be potential financial
2. Rzboiul psihologic supporters (Conway, 2006).
Teroritii folosesc Internetul ca mijloc de Additionally, such organizations have
purtare a rzboiului psihologic, diseminnd also created online stores, which sell books,
dezinformare, rspndind ameninri i audio and video tapes, t-shirts and other
publicnd imagini ngrozitoare (ex. similar items (Conway, 2006).
nregistrarea decapitrii jurnalistului
american Daniel Pearl n Pakistan) (Conway, 4. Networking
2006). The structure of terrorist organizations
has undergone significant changes in the last
3. Finanare decades, by becoming ever more flexible and
Colectarea online de fonduri pentru a decentralized. The best example of this trend
sprijini gruprile teroriste a devenit foarte is the Al-Qaeda terrorist network, a highly
utilizat n ultimii ani, gruprile teroriste compartmentalized and decentralized entity.
62
solicitnd fonduri utilizatorilor care acceseaz Bailey and Grimaila have observed Internet is
paginile de Internet ale acestora. Aceste enabling terrorist groups to operate from
solicitri pot lua forma unor enunuri generale almost any country in the world, in dispersed
care s sublinieze nevoia organizaiei de yet networked organizational structures,
resurse financiare sau a unor cereri directe de largely free of state support (Gray and Head,
fonduri, menionndu-se detalii legate de 2009).
conturile bancare unde pot fi fcute Terrorist organizations are helped by the
viramentele sau de posibilitatea utilizrii Internet to act in a highly decentralized
serviciilor de plat online, cum ar fi PayPal manner, as different individuals located in
(Conway, 2006). various parts of the globe can, thus
O alt metod utilizat de ctre entitile communicate quickly and coordinate their
teroriste este aceea de a face un profil al actions efficiently at very-low costs. The
vizitatorilor siteurilor cu ajutorul unor Web facilitates not only intra-group
programe de monitorizarea a acestora i de a- communication but also inter-group
i contact apoi pe aceia din al cror profil connection, by providing an alternative space
rezult c pot fi poteniali finanatori for communication and discussions. This
(Conway, 2006). feature is also enhanced by the hypertext
n plus, astfel de organizaii au nfiinat nature of the Web, which allows for groups to
de asemenea magazine virtuale, care link to their internal subgroups and external
comercializeaz cri, casete audio i video, organizations around the globe from their
tricouri i alte articole similare (Conway, central Web site (Conway, 2006).
2006). As John Arquilla, David Ronfeldt, and
Michele Zanini contend Terrorists will
4. Networking continue to move from hierarchical toward
Structura reelelor teroriste s-a modificat information-age network designs. More effort
semnificativ n ultimele decenii, ele devenind will go into building arrays of transnationally
tot mai flexibile i descentalizate. Cel mai internetted groups than into building stand
bun exemplu al acestei tendine este acela al alone groups (Conway, 2006).
reelei teroriste Al-Qaeda, o entitate extreme
de compartimentat i descentralizat. Bailey 5. Data mining
i Grimaila au observat faptul c Internetul This refers to the capacity of terrorist
permite gruprilor teroriste s opereze din organizations to use the Internet as a means
aproape orice stat al lumii, n structuri of retrieving huge quantities of information,
organizaionale dispersate dar interconectate, which would not be otherwise available
fr a avea nevoie de sprijinul statului (Gray (Conway, 2006).
and Head, 2009). For example the Internet is used as a
Organizaiile teroriste pot aciona prin source of information in the process of
intermediul Internetului ntr-o manier planning attacks. Such a case was disclosed
extrem de descentralizat, diveri indivizi in 2007 by the British military intelligence,
localizai n pri diferite ale globului putnd who had evidence that terrorists were using
astfel comunica rapid i s i coordoneze aerial footage displayed by Google Earth to
aciunile ntr-un mod eficient i cu costuri plan their attacks against British bases in
foarte reduse. Internetul nu faciliteaz numai Basra, Iraq in 2007 (Wright, 2008).
63
comunicarea n interiorul grupului dar i pe

cea dintre grupuri, furniznd un spaiu 6. Training
alternative de discuii i dezbateri. Acest fapt Terrorist organizations may use the
este potenat de natura hypertext-ului Web- Internet as virtual training grounds offering
ului, care permite grupurilor s se conecteze tutorials on building bombs, firing surface-to-
de pe siteul central la subgruprile lor interne air missiles, shooting at U.S. and Israeli
i la organizaii externe de pe tot soldiers, and sneaking from and into
mapamondul (Conway, 2006). countries in conflict such as Afghanistan and
Aa cum John Arquilla, David Ronfeldt Iraq (Kaplan, 2009). Nevertheless, it is the
i Michele Zanini susineau Teroritii vor opinion of some scholars, such as Peter
continua s evolueze de la reelele de tip Bergen, that Internet training cannot replace
ierarhic la cele ale erei cunoaterii. Vor fi actual field experience - "We talk about the
depuse mai multe eforturi n vederea Internet being important for terrorism, which
constituirii unor grupri transnaionale I think is ridiculous. The people who did the
conectate prin intermediul Internetului, dect Mumbai attack didn't sit around reading
n crearea unor grupuri de sine about how to do attacks on the Internet. They
stttoare/solitare (Conway, 2006). actually went to a training camp in
Muzaffarabad for several months." (Kaplan,
1. Colectarea de informaii 2009).
Se refer la capacitatea organizaiilor
teroriste de a utilize Internetul ca mijloc de 7. Recruitment and mobilization
colectare a unor uriae cantiti de informaii, The Web offers a variety of methods of
care nu ar putea fi altfel obinute(Conway, recruitment for terrorist organizations: it
2006). makes information gathering easier for
De exemplu, Internetul este folosit ca potential recruits; it has global reach, which
surs de informaii n procesul de planificare allows the group to target people all over the
a unor atacuri. Un astfel de caz a fost world, increases the possibilities for
dezvluit n 2007 de ctre serviciile de interactive communication and the chances of
informaii ale armatei britanice, care au artat contacting the group directly (Conway,
c teroriti utilizau hrile aeriene prezentate 2006).
de ctre Google Earth, pentru a-i planifica Although, many authors include
atacurile asupra bazei britanice din Basra, recruitment as one of the many uses of
Irak n 2007 (Wright, 2008). Internet for terrorist organization this issue
2. Antrenament should remain under debate. In an epoch
Organizaiile teroriste pot folosi when terrorist organization are increasingly
Internetul drept teren virtual de pregtire, aware of counter-terrorist efforts conducted
oferind lecii despre construirea bombelor, in the virtual world, it is difficult to presume
utilizarea proiectilelor sol-aer, mpucarea they would be so careless as to grant
militarilor americani i israelieni i furiarea unknown individuals (met in the virtual
n i din ri aflate n conflict, asemenea space) access to the organizations, to its other
Afghanistanului i Irakului (Kaplan, 2009). members and plans. For anonymity, which is
Totui, conform anumitor specialiti, precum the main advantage provided by the Internet
Peter Bergen, pregtirea prin intermediul to terrorist organizations, can work both
64
Internetului nu poate lua locul experienei din ways, a fact of which we believe they are
teren - "Vorbim despre importana more than aware.
Internetului pentru terrorism, fapt ce mi se
pare ridicol. Persoanele care au efectuat 8. Information sharing and planning
atacul de la Mumbai nu au stat i au citit and coordination
despre cum se realizeaz un atac. Au mers de According to John Arquilla, professor of
fapt cteva luni ntr-o tabr de antrenament defense analysis at the Naval Postgraduate
n Muzaffarabad." (Kaplan, 2009) School stated "[Terrorists] swim in an ocean
of bits and bytes (Kaplan, 2009). Terrorists
3. Recrutarea i mobilizare have developed sophisticated encryption tools
Internetul furnizeaz o varietate de and creative techniques that allow them to
metode de recrutare organizaiilor teroriste: use the Internet as an efficient and relatively
faciliteaz colectarea de informaii referitoare secure means of correspondence. These
la viitorii recrui; are o ntindere global, include steganography, a technique used to
permind gruprilor s selecteze persoane hide messages in graphic files, and "dead
din toat lumea, sporete posibilitile de dropping": transmitting information through
comunicare interactiv i ansele de a saved email drafts in an online email account
contacta n mod direct gruparea (Conway, accessible to anyone with the password (Gray
2006). and Head, 2009). An example of such an
Dei muli autori includ recrutarea n encryption program is Mujahideen Secrets 1
categoria modurilor de utilizare a Internetului and Mujahideen Secrets 2, which was
de ctre organizaiile teroriste, acest aspect released on the Web site of Al-Ekhlaas, an
este controversat. ntr-o er n care Islamic forum. The program provided users
organizaiile teroriste sunt contiente de with the ability to encrypt files and e-mail
eforturile de contracarare a terorismului n messages using five different cryptographic
spaiul virtual, este greu de presupus c vor fi algorithms (Wright, 2008).
att de nepstori nct s ofere acces la Furthermore, Internet allows not only the
organizaie, la membrii si sau la planuri, connections among members of the same
unor persoane necunoscute (ntlnite strict n terrorist organization, but also facilitates the
spaiul virtual). Cci, anonimitatea, interactions among members of different
principalul avantaj oferit de Internet groups. Terrorists in places as far-flung as
organizaiilor teroriste poate funciona n Chechnya, Palestine, Iraq, Turkey and
ambele direcii, fapt de care credem c acetia Malaysia can exchange not only ideas on the
sunt la rndul lor contieni. Web, but also practical information on
building bombs, establishing terrorist cells
4. Schimb de informaii, planificare i and perpetuating attacks (Weimann, 2004).
coordonare The main advantage which the Internet
Potrivit lui John Arquilla, profesor de offers terrorist organizations is anonymity. As
analiza a informaiilor de securitate n cadrul one scholar stated information technology
colii Navale Postuniversitare "[Teroritii] gives terrorist organizations global reach and
noat ntr-un ocean de bii i bytes (Kaplan, power without necessarily compromising
2009). Teroritii au dezvoltat instrumente their invisibility (Conway, 2006).
sofisticate de criptare i tehnici creative ce le A study conducted by Gabriel Weimann
65
permit s utilizeze Internetul ca mijloc showed that between 1998 and 2005 there
eficient i relativ sigur de comunicare. Printre were active 4300 sites serving terrorists and
acestea se numr i steganografia, o tehnic their supporters. However, this type of
de ascundere a mesajelor n fiierele grafice approach can be somewhat misleading at
i tehnica "dead dropping": transmiterea de times, because although thousand of terrorist
informaii prin schie salvate ale unor mesaje sites are promulgated, only some of them are
ntr-un cont de email accesibil tuturor celor actually active. Nonetheless, analysts of the
care dein parola (Gray and Head, 2009). Un field have identified a clear proliferation
exemplu al unor astfel de programe de trend (Gray and Head, 2009).
criptare este Mujahideen Secrets 1 (Secretele A major problem in this field is
Mujahedinilor 1) i Mujahideen Secrets 2 represented by the obstacles in defining what
(Secretele Mujahedinilor 2), care a fost lansat constitutes a terrorist site. According to
pe Website-ul Al-Ekhlaas, un forum islamic. American officials in this category are
Programul oferea utilizatorilor capacitatea de included the official sites of designated
a cripta fiiere i mesaje email prin utilizarea terrorist organizations, as well as sites of
a cinci algoritmi diferii de criptare (Wright, supporters, sympathizers and fans. Still, it is
2008). difficult to draw a clear line, when it comes to
Mai mult, Internetul permite nu numai websites that display no distinct political
interconectarea membrilor aceleiai affiliation, albeit expressing sympathetic for
organizaii teroriste, ci faciliteaz totodat the political aims of a terrorist group (Kaplan,
interaciunile dintre membrii diferitelor 2009).
grupri. Teroriti din spaii ndeprtate An example of the excellent use of
precum Cecenia, Palestina, Irak, Turcia i Internet by terrorist organizations is
Malaiezia, pot face schimb nu numai de idei represented by the case of the Lebanese-
prin intermediul Internetului, dar i schimb de based terrorist organizations Hezbollah. After
informaii privind construirea de bombe, the second Lebanese war when many of
constituirea celulelor teroriste i organizarea Hezbollahs sites crashed or were closed
atentatelor (Weimann, 2004). down, the group rebuilt and even upgraded its
Principalul avantaj conferit de internet Internet structure, adding new websites which
organizaiilor teroriste este anonimatul. Dup showed a marked improvement both
cum evidenia un expert n domeniu technological and in what concerned the
tehnologia informaiilor ofer organizaiilor update rate. The main purpose these websites
teroriste acces la scar global i for fr a is to spread the organizations propaganda, its
le compromite anonimatul (Conway, 2006). anti-Jewish, anti-American and anti-Israeli
Un studio ntreprins de Gabriel Weimann messages. The major themes of the sites are
arat c ntre anii 1998 i 2005 au fost the personality cult of Hassan Nasrallah,
identificate 4300 de siteuri utilizate de ctre glorification of terrorist attacks and suicide
teroriti i susintori ai acestora. Totui, o bombers, blatant anti-Israeli incitement and
astfel de abordare poate fi uneori neltoare, calls for the destruction of Israel (Intelligence
cci dei mii de siteuri teroriste sunt and Terrorism Information Center).
declarate, numai cteva dintre acestea sunt The websites target not only individuals
realmente active. Cu toate acestea, analitii from Lebanon and the Middle East, but also
din domeniu au identificat o tendin clar de people from countries all over the world
66
proliferare (Gray and Head, 2009). (mostly Muslim people living in Western
O problem major o constituie definirea countries). Therefore, the websites are
exact a ceea ce este un site terrorist. Potrivit published in several languages: Arabic,
oficialilor americani, n aceast categorie English, French, Spanish and even Hebrew
intr siteurile oficiale ale organizaiilor (Intelligence and Terrorism Information
teroriste recunoscute, precum i siteurile Center).
suporterilor, simpatizanilor i fanilor. Totui,
este dificil de fcut diferena n cazul Conclusion:
siteurilor care nu afieaz o afiliere politic The purpose of this paper was to explore
distinct, ci doar afieaz o simpatie fa de the nature and complexity of the ambiguous
scopurile politice ale unei grupri teroriste relationship established between Islamic
(Kaplan, 2009). terrorist organizations and globalizations,
Un excelent exemplu al utilizrii mainly its most common product the
Internetului de ctre organizaiile teroriste Internet.
este acela al organizaiei teroriste Hezbollah, Although, renowned Islamists thinkers,
cu sediul n Liban. Dup cel de al doilea such as Sayyd Qutb have strongly criticized
rzboi libanez cnd multe dintre siteurile modernity and Western progress, perceived
Hezbollahului au picat sau au fost nchise, as an obstacle and enemy to Islamic
gruparea a reconstruit i chiar i-a mbuntit civilization and evolution, Islamist
structura existent de Internet, adugnd noi organizations have openly adopted and used
websiteuri care prezentau o mbuntire the modern innovations which offered them
seminficativ a tehnologiei i a ritmului de the opportunity to efficiently expand their
actualizare. Principalul scop al acestor siteuri activities to a global level.
este unul propagandistic, de rspndire a At the core of this attitude stands the
mesajelor sale anti-semite, anti-americane i need for information. In their efforts to fulfill
anti-israeliene. Principalele teme ale acestor their political aims terrorist organizations
siteuri sunt acelea ale cultului personalitii direct most of their efforts towards acquiring,
lui Hassan Nasrallah, preamrirea celor using and disseminating information, while
implicai n atacurile teroriste i ale globalization with all its by-products offers
sinucigailor din atacurile cu bomb, incitarea them the means to highly increase the
evident mpotriva israelienilor i chemarea efficiency of this cycle.
la distrugerea Israelului (Intelligence and Internet is clearly an enabler of global
Terrorism Information Center). terrorism and this cannot be undone.
Websiteurile nu se adreseaz numai However, we should keep in mind that this
persoanelor din Liban i Orientul Mijlociu, ci new technology is a product of Western
persoanelor din ntreaga lume (n spe civilization and this should offer us a
musulmanilor care triesc n rile competitive advantage in this on-going
occidentale). De aceea siteurile sunt publicate conflict. Therefore, an efficient
n mai multe limbi: arab, englez, francez, counterterrorist policy in connection with the
spaniol i chiar ebraic (Intelligence and virtual world should focus on two simple
Terrorism Information Center). goals: exploit the home field advantage and
win the debate rather than try to suppress it
Concluzii: (Lewis, 2005).
67
Aceast lucrare a avut drept scop

explorarea naturii i complexitii relaiei BIBLIOGRAPHY:
ambiguue existente ntre organizaiile 1. Barna Cristian, 2008, Jihad n Europa (Top
Form, Bucharest);
teroriste islamice i globalizare, n special
2. Cha, Victor D., 2000, Globalization and the
relaia acestora cu cel mai cunoscut produs al Study of International Security, Journal of Peace
globalizrii - Internetul. Research 37, 391-403;
Dei gnditori islamici recunoscui 3. Conway, Maura, 2006, Terrorists Use of the
precum Sayyd Qutb au adus puternice critici Internet and Fighting Back, Information and Security:
an International Journal 19, 9-30:
la adresa modernitii i progresului
4. Esposito, John L., 2005, Islam The Straight
occidental, percepute drept obstacole i Path (Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford);
adversari ai evoluiei i civilizaiei islamice, 5. Euben, Roxanne L., 1997, Comparative
organizaiile fundamentaliste islamice au Political Theory: An Islamic Fundamentalist Critique
adoptat i au utilizat inovaiile ce le-au of Rationalism, The Journal of Politics 59, 28-55;
6. Flanagan, Stephen J., Frost, Ellen L. and
permis s-i extind ntr-o manier eficient
Kugler, Richard, 2001, Challenges of the Global
activitatea la nivel global. Century. Report of the Project on Globalization and
Fundamentul acestei atitudini l National Security, (Institute for National Strategic
reprezint nevoia de informaii. n ncercarea Studies, Washington)
de a-i atinge elurile politice, organizaiile 7. Frey, Joyce, 2007, Global Issues:
Fundamentalism, (Infobase Publishing, New York)
teroriste i canalizeaz majoritatea eforturilor
8. Gray, David H. and Head, Albon, 2009, The
ctre obinerea, utilizarea i diseminarea Importance of the Internet to the Post-Modern
informaiilor, n timp ce globalizarea i Terrorist and its Role as a Form of Safe Haven,
produsele generate de aceasta le ofer European Journal of Scientific Research 25, 394-404;
mijloacele de eficientizare a acestui proces. ***Intelligence and Terrorism Information
Center at http://www.terrorism-info.org
Internetul este n mod clar un factor
***Kaplan, Eben, 2009, Terrorists and the
potenator al terorismului la scar global i Internet at http://www.cfr.org/terrorism-and-
acest fapt nu poate fi negat. Totui, trebuie s technology/terrorists-internet/p10005;
nu uitm c aceast nou tehnologie ***Lewis, James A., 2005, The Internet and
reprezint un produs al civilizaiei Terrorism at
csis.org/files/media/csis/pubs/050401_internetandterro
occidentale, fapt ce ar trebui s ne ofere un
rism.pdf.
avantaj competitiv n acest conflict ***Sedgwick, Mark, 2010, Islamul si
permanent. De aceea o politic eficient de musulmanii, (Niculescu, Bucharest);
lupt mpotriva terorismului n mediul virtual ***Weimann, Gabriel, 2004, How Modern
ar trebui s se axeze pe dou obiective Terrorism Uses the Internet at
http://www.usip.org/publications/wwwterrornet-how-
simple: utilizarea avantajului de a te afla pe
modern-terrorism-uses-internet.
teren propriu i ctigarea dezbaterii, mai ***Wright, Marie, 2008, Technology and
degrab dect ncercarea de a o suprima terrorism: how the Internet facilitates radicalization at
(Lewis, 2005). http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_go1613/is_4_17/ai
_n32099830/.
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
1. Barna Cristian, 2008, Jihad n Europa (Top
Form, Bucureti);
2. Cha, Victor D., 2000, Globalization and the
Study of International Security, Journal of Peace
Research 37, 391-403;
68
3. Conway, Maura, 2006, Terrorists Use of the

Internet and Fighting Back, Information and Security:
an International Journal 19, 9-30:
4. Esposito, John L., 2005, Islam The Straight
Path (Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford);
5. Euben, Roxanne L., 1997, Comparative
Political Theory: An Islamic Fundamentalist Critique
of Rationalism, The Journal of Politics 59, 28-55;
6. Flanagan, Stephen J., Frost, Ellen L. and
Kugler, Richard, 2001, Challenges of the Global
Century. Report of the Project on Globalization and
National Security, (Institute for National Strategic
Studies, Washington)
7. Frey, Joyce, 2007, Global Issues:
Fundamentalism, (Infobase Publishing, New York)
8. Gray, David H. and Head, Albon, 2009, The
Importance of the Internet to the Post-Modern
Terrorist and its Role as a Form of Safe Haven,
European Journal of Scientific Research 25, 394-404;
***Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center
at http://www.terrorism-info.org
***Kaplan, Eben, 2009, Terrorists and the
Internet at http://www.cfr.org/terrorism-and-
technology/terrorists-internet/p10005;
***Lewis, James A., 2005, The Internet and
Terrorism at
csis.org/files/media/csis/pubs/050401_internetandterro
rism.pdf.
***Sedgwick, Mark, 2010, Islamul si
musulmanii, (Niculescu, Bucureti);
***Weimann, Gabriel, 2004, How Modern
Terrorism Uses the Internet at
http://www.usip.org/publications/wwwterrornet-how-
modern-terrorism-uses-internet.
***Wright, Marie, 2008, Technology and
terrorism: how the Internet facilitates radicalization at
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_go1613/is_4_17/ai
_n32099830/.
69
INDIGENOUS POLITICAL ECOLOGY ABORDARE A ECOLOGIEI POLITICE

APPROACH TO SOCIAL INDIGENE ALE MICRILOR
MOVEMENTS IN MEXICO AND SOCIALE DIN MEXIC I AMERICA
LATIN AMERICA LATIN
M.B.A; Ph.D. Jos G. Vargas- M.B.A; Ph.D Jos G. Vargas -

Hernndez55 Hernndez,.56
Abstract: The struggle for the recognition of Abstract: Lupta pentru recunoaterea drepturilor
indigenous rights is one of the most important social populaiei indigene este una dintre cele mai
movements in Mexico. Before the 1970s, existing importante micri sociale din Mexic. nainte de
peasant organizations did not represent indigenous 1970, organizaiile de fermieri existente nu
concerns. Since 1975 there has been a resurgence of reprezentau preocupri ale populaiei indigene.
indigenous movements and have raised new demands ncepnd cu 1975 ns, a avut loc o renatere a
and defense of their cultural values. However, micrilor indigene care au nceput s emit cereri n
indigenous social mobilization had been laid in local legtur cu valorile lor culturale. Cu toate acestea s-
and regional peasant struggles across the 1970s and au localizat mobilizri sociale indigene n anii 70 i
1980s. Also the indigenous movement is not 80. i totui micrile indigene nu sunt omogene i nu
homogeneous and does not include all ethnic groups includ toate grupurile etnice din ar, dar a cptat
in the country, but it has many different expressions diferite expresii i cuprinde diverse entiti la nivel
and encompasses different entities at local, regional local, regional i naional. Scopul lucrrii de fa este
and national levels. This paper aims to analyze the de a analiza abordarea social istoric pe fundalul
historical social approach and under the frame of ecologiei politice indigene a micrilor sociale pentru
indigenous political ecology of social movements for recunoaterea drepturilor indigenilor n Mexicul
recognition of indigenous rights in contemporary contemporan.
Mexico.
Cuvinte-cheie: micri sociale, Mexic, drepturile
Keywords: Social movements, Mexico, indigenous indigenilor, recunoatere, contemporaneitate
right, recognition, contemporary
1. Introducction: Indigenous
movements
Social movements cut across social
class, ethnicity, levels of education, urban-
rural, etc., and across all levels, local, state,
national, regional, and international and
global, forming connections between
environment and development, health, civil
56
Profesor cercettor, membru al Sistemelor Naionale de
55 cercettori din Mexic, Departamentul de Administraie Universitar
Research Professor member of the National Systems of
pentru tiine Economice i Management, Universitatea din
Researchers of Mexico Departament of Administration University
Guadalajara Perifrico Norte 799 Edificio G-306 Zapopan, Jalisco
Center for Economic and Managerial Sciences, University of
C.P. 45100; Mxico Tel y fax: +52(33) 3770 3340 Ext
Guadalajara Perifrico Norte 799 Edificio G-306, Zapopan, Jalisco
25043josevargas@cucea.udg.mx,jgvh0811@yahoo.com,jvargas20
C.P. 45100; Mxico Tel y fax: +52(33) 3770 3340 Ext 25043
06@gmail.com
josevargas@cucea.udg.mx,jgvh0811@yahoo.com,jvargas2006@g
mail.com
70
rights, or indigenous rights (Keck and space for survival within the national
Sikkink, 1992; Brecher and Costello, 1994; political, economic and social environment.
Carruthers, 1995). Cultural theories about Indigenous social movements reflect
agency and subjectivity explain what social discontinuous social change in periods of
movements are doing. cultural and ideational crises. When
Evers (1985:43) lists new social ideational cycles overlap with waves of
movements that includes squatters groups, social protest movements, it is hard to
neighborhood councils, church-sponsored demonstrate that the ups and downs of
ecclesiastical base communities (CEBs), indigenous social movements coincide with
indigenous associations, womens an underlying ideational cycle and their
organizations, human rights committees, identity over history. Movements emerge
youth groups, popular cultural and artistic from the cycle of action reform -action
activities. Also Evers considers literacy more entrenched within the communities
groups, coalitions for tile defense of regional (Tarrow, 1996; Maguire, 1996).
traditions, environmental movements, a Whether the new social movements
patchwork of self-help groupings among construct new identities rooted in the past,
unemployed and poor people, workers is a dilemma that arises with respect to
associations organizing independently and indigenous movements that look to pre
even in opposition to traditional trade union colonial times to propose a new kind of
structures. community.
Class and ethnic conflicts are that at the There are complex difference and
base of the struggle for identity of the similarities between the North American
indigenous movements that has its roots indigenous movements and the Mexican
during the colonial period. The indigenous indigenous movements.
movement is not homogeneous and does not
include all ethnic groups in the country, but it 2. History of indigenous movements
has many different expressions and There were many rebellions and
encompasses different entities at local, movements by the indigenous populations in
regional and national levels. Movements at defense of their rights during the three
local levels are based on their ethnicity and centuries of colonial rule. Peru was the
community with limited mobilization. At epicenter of the struggle of native indigenous
regional level are integrated associations of communities against the Conquest that
ethnic groups. climaxed in the late 18th -century with the
Indigenous movements have similar Tpac Amaru rebellion. The indigenous
concerns like other social movements that social movements demand political, social
seek to change either society itself or the and economic rights rooted in the colonial
position of the group in society. Indigenous and post-colonial period facing a class
movements are characterized as process of struggle and ethnic conflict under an
national construction in search of collective identified political project within the national
identities looking at shared social identity political context and the fight of land.
based in cultural tradition. Over the last few decades indigenous
Indigenous movements are shaped by the movements are social movements and not
struggle for identity and the need to open a longer revolutionary movements, more
71
involved and organized in Latin America The contradiction between the growing
than during the periods of the 1950s and the pressures on international financial
1960s. The strategy of the indigenous and institutions and the state widened with the
peasant movement since the sixty is to consolidation in the 1990s of the
incorporate other components in the struggle, transnational environmentalist movement and
intercultural bilingual education, reflection the indigenous communities rights to sustain
against the structure of the state, the political their own life projects were legitimated and
system analysis, etc. The priority of the the international Indigenous movement and
indigenous movement is the bilingual environmentalism was consolidated.
educational programmes or recovery of Since the early 1990s, the indigenous
traditional cultures. movement had become the key to Ecuador's
Before the 1970s, existing peasant governance following the CONAIE's first
organizations did not represent indigenous large uprising. Indigenous resistance during
concerns. Since 1975 there has been a the 90s became the object of a political
resurgence of indigenous movements and intervention of cooperation projects that
have raised new demands and defense of transformed the indigenous people into the
their cultural values. At national the economically poor. Indigenous leaders have
indigenous movement began in 1975 with been co-opted by governments aimed to
indigenous organizations, such as the destroy the indigenous movements, such as
National Council of Indigenous Peoples the CONAIE in the Amazon. The State
(CNPI) and the National Association of apparatus are held by white politicians, and
Bilingual Teachers. However, indigenous public officials have continued to be
social mobilization had been laid in local and exclusively white and mestizo.
regional peasant struggles across the 1970s The new social indigenous movements
and 1980s. in Latin America and the Caribbean had an
Indigenous peoples create and impulse in 1992 until only had a national and
participated in unions, political parties or local scope. Several facts have rising
cooperatives that, until the 1980s, did not consciousness of the new indigenous
articulate their demands in terms of their movement. American indigenous movements
identity; rather they tended to identify started in 1992 with the legitimacy to the
themselves as peasant organizations (Yashar, heightened indigenous issues and
1998; Alb, 1999). After 1980, indigenous international awareness coming out from the
movements actively participated in the boost of the 500th Anniversary of
democratization process of Latin America Columbus's "discovery" of the Americas.
(Diaz Polanco, 1997; Van Cott, 1994; The year 1992 has been a time of
Ramos, 1998; Horst, 1998; Warren, 1998). renewal for indigenous movements when
The 1980s were a time of social mobilization Rigoberta Menchu, a Mayan Woman was
and expansion in Mexican social indigenous awarded the 1992 Nobel Peace Prize for her
and peasant movements. role as a symbol of the rising consciousness
The renewal for indigenous movements of the new indigenous movement. The
across Mexico begins with the 1987 celebrations reinvigorated organizations and
publication of Mxico Profundo (Deep Indian movement ties, creating new alliances
Mexico: A Civilization Denied). between indigenous groups, pan-Indian
72
movements, NGOs, environmental groups displacement of Mexican indigenous peoples

and others. from land holdings.
An indigenous, religious and social
movement, the Civil Society las Abejas, In 1994, diverse local civic movements that
emerged in 1992 as a coalition of local included human rights movements,
indigenous Maya-Tzotzil communities who cooperatives, and ethnic rights emerged
united to solve land conflicts. Las Abejas throughout the region in conflict in Chiapas,
movement is an expression of the "civil ejected most of the ruling party mayors of
society" movement comprising of several municipalities and installed instead
peasant, indigenous and local non- pluralistic town councils. The Zapatista
governmental organizations. guerrilla movement that emerged in Chiapas
Governor Madrazo in the State of in 1994 has triggered social movements in
Tabasco in 1994 faced demands from a Mexico and abroad, to emphasize the
popular movement made up of peasants and increasing levels of poverty under the
indigenous people who have were damaged neoliberal economic policy and. demanding a
by the petroleum industry. This and other more equitable income distribution (Carr,
events created an environment in Mexico for 1997).
the formation of new indigenous movement
organizations and new alliances between As a resistance movement, the Zapatista
indigenous movements. Resistance uprising in Chiapas have been successful
movements against globalized corporate using the slogan Basta ya! (Enough!) and
agriculture and biotechnology have emerged. presenting their 11-word program to the
From the authoritarian corporatist structure Mexican government: Trabajo, Tierra,
of the developmentalist years in Mexico, Techo, Pan, Salud, Educacin, Democracis,
emerged peasant and indigenous social Libertad, Paz, Independencia, y Justica
movements. (work, land, shelter, bread, health, education,
The neoliberal reform in Mexico has democracy, liberty, peace, independence, and
served as crucible for the emergence of new justice) (Rosaldo, 2000: 20). Chiapas revolt
actors such as the Zapatistas. Peasants and remains an indigenous revolt because it's
Indigenous peoples mobilized against the the EZLN revolt supported with the rest of
privatization of their lands and resources. In social movements in Mexico.
January of 1994, the Zapatista uprising of
Mayan indigenous communities in Chiapas The Zapatista movement represents
received solidarity from indigenous and grassroots organizations, which can broaden
peasant movement organizations, networks, and deepen without external alliances. The
alliances, and coalitions. Zapatismo manages Zapatista movement is larger than the EZLN
timing placing the communities first, (Ejercito Zapatista de Liberacion Nacional),
distancing the movement from national involving numerous indigenous, peasants and
events. The 1994's New Year's Day marked civil organization. As a social movement, the
the beginning of NAFTA and the arrival of a EZLN is distinguishable from other popular
new guerrilla movement identified with movements in Mexico having actively
Emiliano Zapata, the agrarian hero, symbol mobilized not only the indigenous groups but
of national liberation and of the resistance to also other large groups of economic, social
73
and political actors. Zapata has inspired movements since 1994, a decade of
movements in Mexico in their struggle to movements political practices, supports the
sustain and improve ways of livelihood. argument of the multi-dimensionality of
The Zapatista movement seems to fit the identity and experiences of oppression by the
definition of a new social movement because Mexican State at creating dichotomies
it concerns with ethnic identity underscores between womens rights and indigenous
its total autonomy from organizations and rights.
political parties call for cultural liberation Two years after the Zapatista attacks, the
and survival as indigenous people and movement Popular Revolutionary Army
peasants of Chiapas, collective consumption sprang from the poverty and oppression of
and demand public services. The Zapatista Southern Mexico and attacked several
movement seeks indigenous autonomy Mexican cities, demanding a revolution in
within the framework of the Mexican nation. the state of Guerrero.
The Zapatista movement is a way that is The National Indigenous Congress
easy to embrace: The Mayan peoples want (CNI) began in 1996 to bring together the
voice, when .movement between the villages indigenous movements aligned with the
is almost impossible at times.The Zapatistas Zapatistas under the assumption of creating
call their reform movement " the revolution an understanding of a collective sense of self.
before the revolution." The threat of a pan- This is in contrast to homogenizing mestizaje
Mayan movement is conjured embracing (mixed-race) and identity categories so as to
both Southern Mexico and much of Central gain recognition as citizens (Rosaldo, 2000).
American. Mexican social movements with Sustained indigenous social movements in
the overt appearances of gestures of revolt Mexico and Indigenous peoples have an
have raised the choice of Zapata as the important role to achieve resolutions and
revolutionary forebear of the movement that demands of the National Indigenous
also served the cause of revolution as theater. Congress and social movements in Mexico
The essence of grassroots organizing aimed to nurturing and conserving natural
movements grow outward and from the and cultural biodiversity.
bottom up. The Zapatista movement does Since 1997, when 45 members were
want to transform power relations through massacred in Acteal, human rights
the creation of democratic spaces for organizations support the use nonviolent
consultation and collective decisions and methods of conflict resolution. The
does not want to take over state power. The interactions among members, form a unique
process of the consultation implies "glocal syncretic identity" which inspires the
movement. The movement grew directly movement in its collective action of
from the alienation from the means of resistance against displacement and military
production. land invasion (Tavanti, 2000; Tavanti, 2003).
Large-scale, cross-movement gatherings The Shining Path movement fighted for
are embodied in the Zapatista-called land and territory in a dirty wars that caused
"encounters". The Zapatista communities are genocide against indigenous peoples between
islands of relative liberation for women and 1980 and 2000.
are one important source of the movement's After the Color of the Earth
appeal. Participation of indigenous women in mobilization in 2001, the EZLN mobilized
74
toward building autonomies. In August 2003 Indigenous ecology refers to alliances

created the Caracoles to unite and between environmental and indigenous social
consolidate local and regional self- movement organizations.
government. Bolivian social movements have Internationalization of the indigenous
managed to put an indigenous man in the ecology movement reveals ongoing tension
presidential office after the protests of between two contending social movement
Water Wars in 2000, and the Natural Gas visions, one of which is the own social
Wars of 2003-05. movement activity. Carruthers (1995) uses
The first large indigenous mobilization the term "indigenous political ecology" to
in March 2006, after a long and arduous refer to the consolidation of social movement
period of crisis in Ecuador, was against the alliances based in an effort to preserve,
free trade agreement with United States. defend, apply and integrate traditional
The struggle of indigenous peoples of ecological knowledge (TEK) embedded in
Chihuahua, the Taraumaras is articulated indigenous and peasant culture and practice
against illegal forestry practices, in into grassroots development efforts.
particular, water and biodiversity. The Land The struggle for the recognition of
Research Action Network was launched in indigenous rights is one of the most
Chiapas to mobilize people in support of important social movements in Mexico.
popular movements who are struggling for Among the indigenous leadership, the
access to land. Identity among communities cooperative work has sparked the emergence
provides emotional involvement in collective of a technobureaucry of human rights and
action. ethnodevelopment from government and
According to Estrada (2003) the international financial institutions programs.
indigenous organizations include several well Movement leaders in such positions may
organized and legal molvements, enhance prestige of his own movement, hold
confederations, unions, fronts, etc. at regional accountable to his supporters and maintain
and national levels, as shown in table 1 close ties with party leaders.
below. It is still early evaluate the extent to
The indigenous communities are which the EZLN movement is achieving
cohesively responding to the ethnic conflict change of cultural politics through elements
as one of the most significant social that are part of the movements history, such
movements in Mexico's history to the as radical democratic and autonomy
surprise of other social actors, such as practices, claims to indigenous identity,
government, politicians, analysts and traditions and dignity. The indigenous
academics. Regional indigenous movements movement maintains some levels of
in Mexico have been researched by Meja- autonomy and has increased their capacity to
Pineros and Sarmiento-Silva (1987), Moguel, bargain with the state. CONACAMI's
Botey, and Hernndez, eds. (1992), and presence in Ecuador is the only indigenous,
Warman and Argueta, eds. (1993), as well as autonomous, and independent organization.
the journals Ojarasca and Cuadernos
Agrarios.
3. Indigenous political ecology
75
Table 1 Indigenous Organizations Source: Estrada (2003).

National Indigenous Movement of the National Movimiento Nacional Indgena de la Confederacin
MINI-CNC
Peasant Confederation Nacional Campesina
National Confederation of Indigenous
Confederacin Nacional de Pueblos Indgenas CONAIN
Peoples
National Union of Autonomous Regional Peasant Unin Nacional de Organizaciones Regionales
UNORCA
Organizations Campesinas Autnomas
Indigenous Peoples Independent Front Frente Nacional de Pueblos Indgenas FIPI
National Indigenous Council Consejo Nacional Indigena CNI
Agrarian and ethnic movements are

Social movement analysts overlooked the conscious of the struggle for identity and
practice of indigenous political ecology and began to state their demands as rights; land
the social movement action that social rights, labour rights or educational rights.
movements crate for meaningful political Agroecological experimentation is fostered by
spaces as a component of negotiation between state agencies that maintain linkages to
social movements and the state to secure activists in the peasant or environmental
benefits and to enhance the capacity of social movements. Ecological social movements are
movement organizations vis-a-vis the state. intrinsically multi-sectoral, fostering linkages
There have been sharp debates within between indigenous, peasant, public health,
environmental movements over what should labor, student, and urban popular movements.
be understood for sustainable development and Ecological social movements articulate
a relative lack of research on contemporary concerns and issues of other social
movements to protect the environment movements.
initiated by non-indigenous actors (Silva, Carruthers (1996) analyses cross-
1994). movement alliance formation between
The Mexican environmental and contemporary environmental groups, formed
indigenous movements focused on agriculture by the urban, educated middle class, which
and the quest for sustainable alternatives, have found a convergence of interest with
struggle to revalidate, revitalize and integrate existing peasant and indigenous organizations
traditional ecological knowledge into of the most marginalized segment of Mexicos
grassroots development projects. The rural poor. Local indigenous and
preservation of species diversity is intrinsic to environmental movements are peaceful and
sustainable development and to environmental unarmed, and draw on legal instruments, build
movements and international indigenous rights ties with NGOs, churches and the scientific
movement. An environmental movement in community.
Southern Mexico and Central America The advocacy NGOs which are players on
pretends to preserve the wealth of biodiversity. the border in the areas of environmental
Social movements in Mexico and around the threats, the environmental justice movement,
world have raised the issues to control seeds human rights, indigenous rights, and so forth.
and medicinal plants at different international Alliances of environmental, agroecology and
conventions. indigenous social movements fosters and
strengthens linkages between grassroots
organizations (GROs) that represent existing
indigenous, peasant, and smallholders'
76
organizations, and grassroots support movements actively participated in the

organizations (GRSOs) which represent the democratization process of Latin America
applied face of the Mexican environmental and (Diaz Polanco, 1997; Van Cott, 1994; Ramos,
agroecology movements. 1998; Horst, 1998; Warren, 1998). The
NAFTA has created mechanisms to deal renewal for indigenous movements across
with environmental hazards in the form of Mexico began with the 1987 publication of
legal agreements and less formal non-binding Mxico Profundo (Deep Mexico: A
agreements such as grass -roots movements on Civilization Denied).
both sides of the border. NAFTA has Movements at local levels are based on
precipitated an indigenous environmental their ethnicity and community with limited
movement while raising the level of awareness mobilization. At regional level are integrated
of environmental problems. associations of ethnic groups and at national
The ideology of indigenous movements level the indigenous movement began in 1975
switch between Neoliberalism and the Left. with indigenous organizations, such as the
The Zapatistas have positioned themselves in National Council of Indigenous People (NCPI)
dialogue with anti-neoliberal social and the National Association of Bilingual
movements in Mexico and around the world. Teachers.
The EZLN offers a coherent alternative to Indigenous movements are shaped by the
social movements in Mexico. For the struggle for identity and the need to open a
Ecuadorian indigenous movement, social space for survival within the national political,
mobilizations achieved victories against the economic and social environment. Class and
international financial organizations and their ethnic conflicts are at the base of the struggle
local allies, forcing the continuation of for identity of the indigenous movements. This
neoliberal economic policies. struggle has its roots during the colonial
During the Second Andean-Mesoamerican period. Although indigenous movements have
Conference, The Indigenous Movement, an ethnic component, they share common
Resistance, and the Alternative Project, features with other social movements.
indigenous leaders and academics discussed Indigenous movements participation in
the problems that face indigenous movements the democratization movements adopts
in the political context. Indigenous movements organizational forms to establish relationships
like the Zapatistas have long rejected of control and input with the political and
subordination to political party, struggling for judicial processes. The organization affects
self-definition and cultural practices. them in such a way that they can further their
claims through political parties, NGOs, etc.
4. Social movements for recognition of with direct access to the decision-making
indigenous rights processes at different levels of government.
Indigenous people created and The inward strategic orientation of indigenous
participated in unions, political parties or movements towards the national context
cooperatives that, until the 1980s, did not depends on the level of control and input. The
articulate their demands in terms of their demographic weight of indigenous movements
identity; rather they tended to identify is nationally and regionally important.
themselves as peasant organizations (Yashar, Indigenous movements have recoursed to
1998; Alb, 1999). After 1980, indigenous ambiguous norms about human rights,
77
environmental sustainability and cultural A multi-pronged strategy includes

diversity. The Mexican environmental and alliances with other social movements is
indigenous movements focused on agriculture dependent on the existence of points of
and the quest for sustainable alternatives, common interest. Indigenous communities ally
struggle to revalidate, revitalize and integrate with environmental and human rights
traditional ecological knowledge into movements to lobby and exert pressures on
grassroots development projects. national governments. Alliance of Indigenous
The preservation of species diversity is movements and alliances may have some
intrinsic to sustainable development and to possibilities of reshaping of current structures
environmental movements and international of governance.
indigenous rights movement. Agrarian and Agroecology, as a social movement, seeks
ethnic movements are conscious of the to rescue traditional practices, and protect
struggle for identity and began to state their biological and cultural diversity to bring
demands as rights, land rights, labor rights or together First World and Third World forms of
educational rights. Indigenous movements environmentalism. The emergence of
need to follow more of a multi-pronged agroecology movement in Mexico is fuelled
strategy of lobbying, alliance making, by high ecological costs of industrial
appealing to courts, and public campaigns than agriculture. Agroecological experimentation is
a legal alternative which is besieged by traps fostered by state agencies that maintain
and counterproductive results. linkages to activists in the peasant or
Carruthers (1995) uses the term environmental movements.
"indigenous political ecology" to refer to the Alliances of environmental, agroecology
consolidation of social movement alliances and indigenous social movements fosters and
based in an effort to preserve, defend, apply strengthens linkages between Grassroots
and integrate Traditional Ecological Organizations (GROs) that represent existing
Knowledge (TEK) embedded in indigenous indigenous, peasant, and smallholders'
and peasant culture and practice into organizations, and Grassroots Support
grassroots development efforts. Indigenous Organizations (GRSOs) which represent the
ecology refers to alliances between applied face of the Mexican environmental and
environmental and indigenous social agroecology movements. A GRSO "is a
movement organizations. Internationalization developmental civic entity that provides
of the indigenous ecology movement reveals services for and channels resources to local
ongoing tension between two contending groups of disadvantaged rural or urban
social movement visions, one of which is the households and individuals" (Bendahmane,
individual's social movement activity. 1991, 31).
Carruthers (1996) analyses cross- The indigenous communities are
movement alliance formation between cohesively responding to the ethnic conflict as
contemporary environmental groups, formed one of the most significant social movements
by the urban, educated middle class, which in Mexico's history to the surprise of other
have found a convergence of interest with social actors, such as government, politicians,
existing peasant and indigenous organizations analysts and academics. Meja-Pineros and
of the most marginalized segment of Mexicos Sarmiento-Silva (1987), Moguel, Botey, and
rural poor. Hernndez, Eds (1992) and Warman and
78
Argueta, Eds. (1993) have researched regional and the indigenous communities rights to
indigenous movements in Mexico, as well as sustain their own life projects were legitimated
the journals Ojarasca and Cuadernos Agrarios. and the international indigenous movement
The priority of the indigenous movement is the and environmentalism was consolidated.
bilingual educational programs or recovery of Several facts have rising consciousness of
traditional cultures. the new indigenous movement. American
The 1980s was a time of social indigenous movements started in 1992 with
mobilization and expansion in Mexican social the legitimacy to the heightened indigenous
indigenous and peasant movements. issues and international awareness coming out
Indigenous civil society, in some regions from the boost of the 500th Anniversary of
richly textured and thin, heavily structured by Columbus's "discovery" of the Americas. The
clienteles in others, reflect the historical 1992 have been a time of renewal for
legacies of both past movements from below indigenous movements when Rigoberta
and openings from above (Fox, 1997). Some Mench, a Mayan Woman was awarded the
local movements are defections from the 1992 Nobel Peace Prize for her role as a
ruling corporatist party while others emerged symbol of the rising consciousness of the new
from an opening within the ruling political indigenous movement.
class in the early 1970s and have The celebrations reinvigorated
independently promoted bottom-up strong organizations and Indian movement ties,
ethnic identity-based mobilization, as in the creating new alliances between indigenous
case of the democratization of Oaxacas groups, pan-Indian movements, NGOs,
Zapotec market town of Juchitn. environmental groups and others. This and
The local movement development other events created an environment in Mexico
increased with mobilization from below, from for the formation of new indigenous
political alliances and from reform-oriented movement organizations and new alliances
elites controlled state politics. Social between indigenous movements
movements often attempt to occupy the cracks The indigenous social movements gain
in the system from below, demanding access access to the political sphere based on
to the state while articulating their own solidarity among members and the capacity to
interests. create new forms of social relations and
Different positions about the new relation practice, like shared antagonism towards
between developmental and environmental others. Power is not central, defined as a
concerns became more visible as different continuing overt relationship of conflict
organizations, institutions and movements between collective actors and authorities
established connections with each other. (Evers, 1985). However, collective actors are
Indigenous communities and their alliances prone to disperse, fragmented and atomized,
with non-Indigenous communities and wider into networks, which quickly disappear from
movements have transformative effects on the political relevance into sects, emotional
structures of governance. The contradiction support circles and therapy groups.
between the growing pressures on An indigenous, religious and social
international financial institutions and the state movement, the Civil Society Las Abejas,
widened with the consolidation in the 1990s of emerged in 1992 as a coalition of local
the transnational environmentalist movement indigenous Maya-Tzotzil communities who
79
united to solve land conflicts. The Land governmental organizations. Since 1997, when
Research Action Network was launched in 45 members were massacred in Acteal, human
Chiapas to mobilize people in support of rights organizations support the use of
popular movements who are struggling for nonviolent methods of conflict resolution. The
access to land. Identity among communities interactions among members form a unique
provides emotional involvement in collective "global syncretic identity," which inspires the
action. In January of 1994, the Zapatista movement in its collective action of resistance
uprising of Mayan indigenous communities in against displacement and military land
Chiapas received solidarity from indigenous invasion.
and peasant movement organizations, As a social movement, the EZLN is
networks, alliances, and coalitions. The distinguishable from other popular movements
Zapatista guerrilla movement that emerged in in Mexico having actively mobilized not only
Chiapas in 1994 has triggered social the indigenous groups but also other large
movements in Mexico and abroad, to groups of economic, social and political actors.
emphasize the increasing levels of poverty Indigenous communities re-focus on
under the neoliberal economic policy and. traditional values and transform old meanings
demanding a more equitable income in order to continue with their land struggle.
distribution. The EZLN can strategically develop either into
As a resistance movement, the Zapatista a new political movement or into an
uprising in Chiapas have been successful using indigenous autonomy movement.
the slogan Basta ya! (Enough!) and presenting The Zapatista movement is considered a
their 11-word program to the Mexican transnational rhizomes or social netwars
government: Trabajo, Tierra, Techo, Pan, weaving a global electronic fabric of struggle
Salud, Educacin, Democracia, Libertad, Paz, and mounting a social netwar against a state
Independencia, y Justica (work, land, shelter, lagging at democratization. The Zapatista
bread, health, education, democracy, liberty, Rebellion is a prototype for social netwar in
peace, independence, and justice). the 21st century, in which almost every aspect
Local indigenous and environmental of modern computer communications have
movements are peaceful and unarmed, and been used.
draw on legal instruments, build ties with There is new capacity for this and other
NGOs, churches and the scientific community. social movements to communicate across
The Zapatista movement represents grassroots borders and to operate at a transnational level.
organizations, which can broaden and deepen The analyses of this movement have
without external alliances. In 1994, diverse recognized how the content of the rhizomatic
local civic movements that included human or networking forms of social mobilization,
rights movements, cooperatives, and ethnic pulling together grassroots movements against
rights emerged throughout the region in the current political and economic order in
conflict in Chiapaz, ejected most of the ruling Mexico and the world and of facilitating
party mayors of municipalities and instead alternative approaches to social organization.
installed pluralistic town councils. Governments should learn to counter such
Las Abejas movement is an expression of social movements and have to improve its
the "civil society" movement comprising of ability to wage counter-netwar.
several peasant, indigenous and local non-
80
The unprecedented success of EZLN as a began in 1996 to bring the indigenous

new social movement has been attributed to its movements aligned with the Zapatistas
post modernity. The EZLN as a new social together under the assumption of creating an
movement has been characterized as the first understanding of a collective sense of self in
postmodern peasant rebellion because of the movement. This was in contrast to
sophisticated communication techniques. A homogenizing mestizaje (mixed-race) and
Mexican analyst, Gustavo Esteva, posed the identity categories so as to gain recognition as
question, Is ours the last Central American citizens (Rosaldo, 2000).
guerrilla war, or has the new postmodern Sustained indigenous social movements in
revolutionary era begun? (Cockburn, 1994: Mexico and Indigenous peoples have an
404). important role to achieve resolutions and
Through creative use of images and demands of the National Indigenous Congress
information, indigenous people have turned and social movements in Mexico aimed to
marginality and poverty into their greatest nurtur and conserve natural and cultural
strength on the emergence of biodiversity. An environmental movement in
internationalized, identity-based movements. Southern Mexico and Central America
Kelley (2002: 9) states that how oppressed pretends to preserve the wealth of biodiversity.
we are or that merely chronicles the [follies] of Social movements in Mexico and around the
radical movements doesnt seem very useful world have raised the issues to control seeds
Progressive social movements do not simply and medicinal plants at different international
produce statistics and narratives of oppression; conventions.
rather, the best ones do what great poetry Internationalization of the Mexican
always does: transport us to another place, indigenous social movement finds support in
compel us to relive horrors and, more around the world. The Binational Mixtec-
importantly, enable us to imagine a new Zapotec Front, (FM-ZB) based in California,
society organize migrant farmworkers of Oaxacan
Chiapas revolt remains an indigenous origin and promotes indigenous resistance and
revolt because it's the EZLN revolt supported worker and human rights and sustainable
with the rest of social movements in Mexico. agricultural development projects.
It is still early evaluate the extent to which the There are other binational movements,
EZLN movement is achieving change of such as the Frente Indigena Oaxaqueno
cultural politics through elements that are part Binacional, which is comprised, of Mexican
of the movements history, such as radical and U.S. based indigenous and migrant
democratic and autonomy practices, claims to workers' organizations. These migrant
indigenous identity, traditions and dignity. The organizations include the CCPM (Popular
indigenous movement maintains some levels Mixtec Civic Committee), the ORO (Oaxacan
of autonomy and has increased their capacity Regional Organization), the COTLA
to bargain with the state.The Zapatistas have (Tlacolulense Community in Los Angeles), the
positioned themselves in dialogue with anti- OPEO (Organization of Exploited and
neoliberal social movements in Mexico and Oppressed Peoples), etc.
around the world. The EZLN offers a coherent Some of these movements maintain
alternative to social movements in Mexico. affiliations with the Csar Chvez's United
The National Indigenous Congress (CNI) Farmworkers of America, and the San
81
Francisco based NGO AT-Work (The Ecuador, which allow making the transition
Appropriate Technology Working Group, of from a social movement to a political entity.
the Earth Island Institute). Neither the Political alliance forged behind the base
indigenous movement, nor other social communities was the beginning of the steady,
movements in Mexico, has an ideological progressive weakening of a indigenous
support for drug prohibition. movement in Ecuador that at its height was the
reference point for all Latin America (Zibechi,
5. Indigenous movements in Latin 2004).
America The Peruvian indigenous movement is
Indignous movements have recourse to represented by two organizations that group
ambiguous norms about human rights, together 42 ethnicities to negotiate with
environmental sustainability and cultural government under a low profile for self-
diversity. Popular movements of Latin affirmation due mainly to the diversity of
America and the developing world are defined dialects and the weak cultural ties among the
by new elements: The inclusion popular indigenous people, the absence of committed
sectors within civil society and their ability to intelectuals and liberation theology.
challenge the state, such as the case of Latin American indigenous movements
indigenous movements (Cardoso and Correa, are facing new challenges at state and
1987). institutional level. Indigenous movements
Tpac Amaru was the indigenous challenge to search equilibrium between
intellectual who inspired and organized the cultural identity and political, economic and
indigenous movement and developed a social achievement within capitalist society.
political project to rebuild the Inca Empire. The Zapatista movement in Mexico has
The rise of center-left governments in Latin challenged the status quo of international
America, supported by broad-based social and economic structures under the economic
indigenous movements, weakened or caused globalization process.
crises in the prevailing neoliberal model and Latinamerican governments considers
faced an array of new dilemmas and questions. indigenous peoples a threat to the governance,
The liberation theology movements in Latin as for example the powerful the Confederation
America have declined and do not recognize of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador
its new expression in the indigenous (CONAIE).
theologies. International financial organizations
Governments have not demobilized finance projects to prevent indigenous
popular movements, but caused new divisions movements resistance and revolt.
or co-opted social movements such as the 6.Transnational networks of indigenous
piqueteros in Argentina, the indigenous movements
movements in Bolivia y Ecuador. However the Struggles of traditional movements have
landless movement of Brazil is eluding both become blurred in the face of globalization
positions. (Zibechi, 2004). The indigenous intersecting with new demands and causes
movement is formed and directed by the poor revolving around globalization, such as
and marginalized people participating in a indigenous, women and human rights,
wide variety of political arenas with demands environment, etc.
for the Plurinational State as the case of
82
The internationalization of civil society Community in Los Angeles), the OPEO

refers to cross-border linkages established by (Organization of Exploited and Oppressed
social movement organizations in peace, Peoples), etc.
human rights, and environmental, gender, and The Frente Binacional Indgena
labor, indigenous and other social movements. Oaxaqueo maintains affiliations with the
The Zapatista movement offered civil society a Csar Chvez's United Farmworkers of
chance to mobilize and the Mexican America, and the San Francisco based NGO
government cannot figure out how to put an AT-Work (The Appropriate Technology
end to a movement, which still enjoys Working Group, of the Earth Island Institute).
considerable international support. Neither the indigenous movement, nor other
Internationalization of social movements social movements in Mexico, has an
is a spontaneous response to protect and ideological support for drug prohibition.
defend vulnerable people and a strategy to There is new capacity for this and other
enhance their capacity and to carve out social movements to communicate across
autonomous space independent of the state. borders and to operate at a transnational level.
The Mexican indigenous movement is taking The Zapatista movement is considered a
its case for a new indigenous law to the transnational rhizomes or social netwars
International Labor Organization (ILO). weaving a global electronic fabric of struggle
Internationalization of movement linkages and mounting a social netwar against a state
and cross-border solidarity are means to lagging at democratization. These networks
negotiate local changes with the state to secure have an active role in circulating information
benefits. Local activists of the Zapatista about the indigenous women enrolled in the
movement has pushed the conflict into the Zapatista Movement.
international arena mobilizing transnational Complex transnational networks across
movements against nation state policies and the boundaries between the state, the market
undermining local governments' efforts to and civil society carry on indigenous peoples,
obfuscate or hide the nature of the conflict. environmentalist and human rights
Internationalization of the Mexican movements. The network capacity movements
indigenous social movement finds support in has been studied in the indigenous
around the world. The Binational Mixtec- organizational strength (McAdam, 1982), in
Zapotec Front, (FM-ZB) based in California, the ability to create "weak ties" (Granovetter,
organize migrant farmworkers of Oaxacan 1973), creation of networks of communication
origin and promotes indigenous resistance and between the movements and communities at
worker and human rights and sustainable both the local and global level (Schulz, 1998).
agricultural development projects. However, collective actors are prone to
There are other binational movements, disperse, fragment and atomize, into networks,
such as the Frente Indigena Oaxaqueno which quickly disappear from political
Binacional. It is comprised of Mexican and relevance into sects, emotional support circles
U.S. based indigenous and migrant workers' and therapy groups.
organizations. Some of these organiozations There are emerging transnational
include the CCPM (Popular Mixtec Civic networks of "information age activism" based
Committee), the ORO (Oaxacan Regional on associations among non-governmental
Organization), the COTLA (Tlacolulense organizations (NGOs) concerned with modern
83
and postmodern issues such as the The inward strategic orientation of

environment, human rights, immigration, indigenous movements towards the national
indigenous peoples and freedom in cyberspace context depends of the level of control and
(Fukuyama, 1998). Women's rights social input. The EZLN can strategically develop
movements have carried out extensive either into a new political movement or into an
binational networking for mutual learning and indigenous autonomy movement. There is a
exchange to support the empowerment of larger movement opposing to a top-down Plan
women workers and indigenous women. Puebla-Panam that could lead to a more
A little known movement can project its inclusive strategy of alternative development.
claims by identifying itself as the anti Many indigenous communities, social
transnational corporations movement or movements and NGOs have condemned the
blaming a common villain forges links greenwash of the massive Plan Puebla
between distant social movements. In Peru, Panama. The strategy designed to pursue their
3,200 out of 5,600 municipalities have demands and management of relationship with
presented legal complaints against state institutions are two factors for indigenous
transnational mining corporations. movements to succeed.
Indigenous movements need to follow
7. Strategies more a multi-pronged strategy of lobbying,
The Zapatista Rebellion is a prototype for alliance making, appealing to courts, and
social netwar in the 21st century, in which public campaigns than a legal alternative
almost every aspect of modern computer which is besieged by traps and
communications have been used. The analyses counterproductive results. A multi-pronged
of this movement have recognizes how the strategy includes alliances with other social
content of the rhizomatic or networking forms movements is dependent on the existence of
of social mobilization, pulling together points of common interest. Indigenous
grassroots movements against the current communities ally with environmental and
political and economic order in Mexico and human rights movements to lobby and exert
the world and of facilitating alternative pressures on national governments. Alliance of
approaches to social organization. Indigenous movements and alliances may have
Governments should learn to counter such some possibilities of reshaping of current
social movements and have to improve its structures of governance.
ability to wage counter-netwar. Through creative use of images and
The unprecedented success of EZLN as a information, indigenous people have turned
new social movement has been attributed to its marginality and poverty into their greatest
post modernity. The EZLN as a new social strength on the emergence of
movement has been characterized as the first internationalized, identity-based movements.
postmodern peasant rebellion because the Kelley (2002: 9) states that how oppressed
sophisticated communication techniques. A we are or that merely chronicles the [follies] of
Mexican analyst, Gustavo Esteva, posed the radical movements doesnt seem very useful
question, Is ours the last Central American Progressive social movements do not simply
guerrilla war, or has the new postmodern produce statistics and narratives of oppression;
revolutionary era begun? (Cockburn, rather, the best ones do what great poetry
1994:404). always does: transport us to another place,
84
compel us to relive horrors and, more The demographic weight of indigenous

importantly, enable us to imagine a new movements is nationally and regionally
society. important.
Inspired by the Zapatista's Other The contemporary indigenous movements
Campaign in Mexico, the indigenous are focused on differences while the liberal
movement CONAIE is centered on creating discourse homogeneizes. However, the ethnic
another policy. component of indigenous movements leads to
the conclusion that they cannot be studied like
8. Discussion other social movements under the theoretical
Indigenous social movements are means approach of Social Movement Theory.
of developing social identity and democratic Although indigenous movements have an
recovery while organizing political ethnic component, they share common features
mobilization against dictatorship. Indigenous with other social movements.
movements participation in the 9. References
democratization movements adopt 1. Alb, X. (1999) Andean people in the twentieth
organizational forms to establish relationships century, in F. Salomon and Schwartz, S. (eds), The
Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the
of control and input with the political and
Americas, vol. 3: South AmericaPart 2, Cambridge:
judicial processes that affect them. Cambridge University Press, pp. 765869.
In this way, the indigenous movements 2. Bendahmane, D. B. (1991). Performance review
can further their claims through political for NGOs. Grassroots Development 15, no. 2: 31-37.
parties, NGOs, etc., with direct access to the AmericaPart 2, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, pp. 765869.
decision-making processes at the different
3. Brecher, J. and Costello, T. (1994). Global
levels of government. Village or Global Pillage? Economic Reconstruction
Indigenous communities and their from the Bottom Up. Boston: South End Press.
alliances with non-Indigenous communities 4. Cardoso, R. C. L. (1987) Movimentos sociais
and wider movements have transformative na Amrica Latina. Revista Brasileira de Cincias
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December 7, 2004. www.americaspolicy.org.
86
LIBERTATEA DE CIRCULAIE A LA LIBERT DE CIRCULATION

MUNCITORILOR DES TRAVAILLEURS
Profesor univ. dr. Belu Constantin,57 Belu Constantin, Professeur

Lect univ. dr. Belu Marina Loredana58 Belu Marina Loredana, Charg de cours
Abstract: La libre circulation des personnes est

Abstract: La libre circulation des personnes est
l'une des liberts fondamentales garanties par le droit
l'une des liberts fondamentales garanties par le droit
communautaire; elle suppose le droit de vivre et de
communautaire; elle suppose le droit de vivre et de
travailler dans un autre tat membre. l'origine, cette
travailler dans un autre tat membre. l'origine, cette
libert tait essentiellement reconnue aux personnes
libert tait essentiellement reconnue aux personnes
conomiquement actives et aux membres de leur
conomiquement actives et aux membres de leur famille.
famille. Aujourd'hui, la libert de circuler l'intrieur
Aujourd'hui, la libert de circuler l'intrieur de
de l'Union europenne est un droit dont bnficient
l'Union Europenne est un droit dont bnficient
galement d'autres catgories de personnes, comme les
galement d'autres catgories de personnes, comme les
tudiants, les titulaires de pensions et de rentes et tout
tudiants, les titulaires de pensions et de rentes et tout
citoyen de l'Union europenne en gnral. Il s'agit sans
citoyen de l'Union europenne en gnral. Il s'agit sans
doute du droit individuel le plus important reconnu
doute du droit individuel le plus important reconnu dans
dans le droit communautaire, et d'un lment essentiel
le droit communautaire, et d'un lment essentiel de
de citoyennet europenne.
citoyennet europenne.
1. Dreptul la liber circulaie 1. Le droit la libre circulation

Libera circulaie a persoanelor este una La libre circulation des personnes est l'une
dintre libertile fundamentale garantate de des liberts fondamentales garanties par le
dreptul comunitar; ea presupune dreptul de a droit communautaire; elle suppose le droit de
trai i de a munci ntr-un alt stat membru. La vivre et de travailler dans un autre tat
origine, aceast libertate a fost recunoscut membre. l'origine, cette libert tait
iniial persoanelor care desfurau activiti essentiellement reconnue aux personnes
economice i membrilor familiilor lor. Azi, conomiquement actives et aux membres de
libertatea de circulaie n interiorul Uniunii leur famille. Aujourd'hui, la libert de circuler
Europene este un drept de care beneficiaz n l'intrieur de l'Union europenne est un droit
mod egal i alte categorii de persoane, cum ar dont bnficient galement d'autres catgories
fi studenii, pensionarii i, n general, toi de personnes, comme les tudiants, les
cetenii Uniunii Europene. titulaires de pensions et de rentes et tout
Cetenia Uniunii confer fiecrui cetean citoyen de l'Union europenne en gnral. Il
al Uniunii un drept fundamental i individual la s'agit sans doute du droit individuel le plus
liber circulaie i edere pe teritoriul statelor important reconnu dans le droit
membre, sub rezerva limitrilor i condiiilor communautaire, et d'un lment essentiel de
citoyennet europenne.
57
Belu Constantin, Craiova, jud. Dolj, str.A.I. Cuza, bl. M18D, sc.1, et.1, ap.3, Facultatea de Drept i tiine
Administrative, Universitatea din Craiova, tel. 0723233786, e-mail: adyelenabelu@yahoo.com
58
Belu Marina Loredana, Craiova, jud.Dolj, str.Calea Bucureti, nr.66, bl.R1, sc.1, et.1, ap.5, Facultatea de Drept i
tiine Administrative, Universitatea din Craiova, tel. 0740300355, e-mail: loribelu@yahoo.com
87
prevazute de tratat i a msurilor adoptate n La libert de circulations constitue un droit

scopul aplicrii acestuia. fundamental pour les travailleurs et leurs
Libera circulaie a persoanelor constituie familles. Il ne s'agit toutefois pas d'un droit
una dintre libertile fundamentale ale pieei autonome mais d'un droit spcifique, accord
interne, care reprezint un spaiu fr frontiere dans le cadre des objectifs conomiques de la
interne, n care libertatea este asigurat n Communaut. Ce droit nest accord quen
conformitate cu dispoziiile tratatului. raison de lexcution dune activit
n scopul meninerii unitii familiei n conomique. Il sagit dune contribution aux
sens larg i fr a aduce atingere interzicerii besoins conomiques des Etats membres.
discriminrii pe criteriul ceteniei, situaia La libre circulation des travailleurs
persoanelor care nu sunt incluse n definiia comprendle droit de travailler dans un autre
membrilor de familie n conformitate cu Etat membre dans les mmes conditions que
prezenta directiv i care, prin urmare, nu se les travailleurs nationaux. Elle comprend le
bucur automat de dreptul de intrare i edere droit de se dplacer librement cet effet sur le
n statul membru gazd ar trebui s fie territoire de lEtat membre et le droit dy
examinat de statul membru gazd pe baza sjourner.
propriei legislaii interne, pentru a decide dac La libre circulation des travailleurs donne
se poate acorda intrarea i ederea unor aux citoyens europens le droit de chercher du
asemenea persoane, lund n considerare travail dans un autre pays, d'y travailler sans
relaia lor cu ceteanul Uniunii sau orice alte avoir besoin d'un permis de travail, d'y rsider
mprejurri, precum dependena lor financiar cette fin, d'y rester aprs avoir termin leur
sau fizic de ceteanul Uniunii. emploi et de bnficier de l'galit de
n sensul Directivei nr.2004 din 29 aprilie traitement en ce qui concerne l'accs
2004: l'emploi, les conditions de travail et tous les
1. prin cetean al Uniunii se nelege autres avantages pouvant contribuer faciliter
orice persoan avnd cetenia unui stat l'intgration du travailleur dans le pays
membru; d'accueil.
2. prin membru de familie se nelege: Le concept - y compris le concept de
(a) soul; travailleur lui-mme - et les implications de
(b) partenerul cu care ceteanul Uniunii a cette libert ont t interprts et dvelopps
contractat un parteneriat nregistrat, n temeiul par la Cour de justice europenne dans sa
legislaiei unui stat membru, dac, potrivit jurisprudence. Le droit la libre circulation
legislaiei statului membru gazd, dont bnficient les travailleurs est complt
parteneriatele nregistrate sunt considerate par des dispositions prvoyant la coordination
drept echivalente cstoriei i n conformitate des systmes de scurit sociale et la
cu condiiile prevzute de legislaia relevant a reconnaissance mutuelle des diplmes.
statului membru gazd; Les travailleurs jouissent de cette libert
(c) descendenii direci n vrst de cel depuis la fondation de la Communaut
mult 21 de ani sau care se afl n ntreinerea europenne en 1957. Aujourd'hui, ce droit fait
sa, precum i descendenii direci ai soului sau partie du droit plus gnral de la libre
ai partenerului, conform definiiei de la litera circulation des personnes, une des liberts
(b); fondamentales garanties par le droit
(d) ascendenii direci care se afl n communautaire qui donne aux ressortissants
88
ntreinere i cei ai soului sau ai partenerului, europens, sous certains conditions, le droit de
conform definiiei de la litera (b); se rendre dans un autre pays et d'y sjourner,
3. prin stat membru gazd se nelege le cas chant comme pensionn, pour tudier
statul membru n care se deplaseaz un ou d'y rsider sans exercer une activit
cetean al Uniunii n scopul de a-i exercita conomique .
dreptul la liber circulaie i edere. Il s'agit sans doute du droit le plus
Fr a aduce atingere vreunui drept important octroy aux personnes par la
individual de liber circulaie i edere pe lgislation communautaire et c'est un lment
care persoanele n cauz l pot avea n nume essentiel de la citoyennet europenne.
propriu, statul membru gazd faciliteaz, n La libre circulation des personnes est
conformitate cu legislaia sa intern, intrarea i inscrite l'article 39 du trait CE et a t
ederea urmtoarelor persoane: dveloppe par la lgislation secondaire,
(a) orice ali membri de familie, indiferent notamment le rglement 1612/68 relatif la
de cetenia lor, care, n ara din care au venit, libre circulation des travailleurs l'intrieur de
se afl n ntreinerea sau sunt membri ai la Communaut et la directive
gospodriei ceteanului Uniunii care 2004/38/CE relatif au droit de sjour.
beneficiaz de dreptul de edere cu titlu L'article 39 s'applique ceux que l'on
principal sau dac din motive grave de sntate appelle les travailleurs migrants, c'est--dire
este necesar n mod imperativ ngrijirea aux ressortissants europens qui quittent un
personal a membrului familiei de ctre pays pour aller travailler dans un autre pays
ceteanul Uniunii; europen. Il s'applique galement aux
(b) partenerul cu care ceteanul Uniunii ressortissants europens qui reviennent dans
are o relaie durabil, atestat corespunztor. leur pays d'origine aprs avoir exerc leur
Statul membru gazd ntreprinde o droit la libre circulation mais il ne s'applique
examinare amnunit a situaiei personale i pas aux personnes qui n'ont jamais quitt leur
justific refuzul acordrii dreptului de intrare pays d'origine.
sau edere acestor persoane.
Fr a aduce atingere dispoziiilor privind 2. Le droit de chercher un employ dans
documentele de cltorie aplicabile un autre tat membre
controalelor la frontierele naionale, toi Un travailleur est une personne qui:
cetenii Uniunii care dein cri de identitate a) entreprend un travail rel et effectif
valabile sau paapoarte valabile i membrii b) sous la direction d'une autre personne
familiei acestora care nu au cetenia unui stat c) pour lequel elle est rmunre.
membru i care dein paapoarte valabile au Cela inclut des sportifs professionnels.
dreptul de a prsi teritoriul unui stat membru Cet article s'applique aux travailleurs
pentru a se deplasa n alt stat membru. salaris uniquement. Les travailleurs
Acestor persoane nu le pot fi impuse vize indpendants, les tudiants, les retraits et les
de ieire i nici alte formaliti echivalente. personnes inactives ne sont pas couverts par
Hotrnd n conformitate cu legislaia l'article 39 CE mais par d'autres dispositions
proprie, statele membre elibereaz i du droit communautaire.
rennoiesc cetenilor lor crile de identitate Tout ressortissant d'un tat membre a le
sau paapoartele care le atest cetenia. droit de chercher un emploi dans un autre tat
Este necesar ca paaportul s fie valabil membre et de bnficier auprs des bureaux
89
cel puin pentru toate statele membre i pentru de placement nationaux des mmes services
rile prin care titularul unui astfel de que les ressortissants de l'tat membre
document trebuie s tranziteze direct atunci d'accueil.
cnd cltorete ntre statele membre. n cazul Selon la Cour de justice europenne, le
n care legislaia unui stat membru nu prevede demandeur d'emploi peut rester dans l'tat
eliberarea de cri de identitate, perioada de membre d'accueil pendant "un dlai
valabilitate a unui paaport eliberat sau rennoit raisonnable lui permettant de prendre
este de cel puin cinci ani. connaissance des offres d'emploi et de prendre
Totodat, statele membre permit intrarea les dispositions ncessaires pour tre engag".
pe teritoriul lor a cetenilor Uniunii care dein l'issue de cette priode, il ne peut tre
cri de identitate valabile sau paapoarte expuls s'il apporte la preuve qu'il continue
valabile, precum i a membrilor familiilor chercher un emploi et qu'il a des chances
acestora care nu au cetenia unui stat membru vritables d'tre engag.
i care dein paapoarte valabile. La mobilit de la main-doeuvre doit tre
Cetenilor Uniunii nu le pot fi impuse pour le travailleur un des moyens lui
vize de ieire i nici alte formaliti garantissant la possibilit damliorer ses
echivalente. conditions de vie et de travail et de faciliter sa
Membrilor de familie care nu au cetenia promotion sociale, tout en contribuant la
unui stat membru li se cere numai s posede o satisfaction des besoins des conomies des
viz de intrare n conformitate cu Etats membres.
Regulamentul (CE) nr. 539/2001 sau, dac este Les Etats membres ne peuvent pas, en
cazul, cu legislaia intern. n sensul Directivei particulier, imposer leurs ressortisants un
nr. 2004, deinerea permisului de edere visa de sortie ou un document quivalent. La
valabil menionat la articolul 10 scutete simple production dune carte didentit ou
membrii de familie de obligaia de a obine o dun passeport en cours de validit est
viz. suffisante pour la mise en oeuvre de ce droit.
Statele membre acord acestor persoane Les Etats membres sont tenus de dlivrer ou
toate facilitile pentru a obine vizele de renouveler la carte didentit ou le
necesare. Aceste vize se elibereaz gratuit, n passeport indiquant la nationalit du titulaire.
cel mai scurt termen i pe baza unei proceduri Le passeport doit tre valable pour tous les
accelerate. Etats membres et pour les pays de transit entre
Statul membru gazd nu aplic tampila les Etats membres. Lorsque le travailleur ne
de intrare sau de ieire n paaportul membrilor dispose que dun passeport pour quitter
de familie care nu au cetenia unui stat lgalement le pays, la dure de validit de
membru, dac acetia prezint permisul de celui-ci ne peut pas tre infrieure cinq
edere. annees.
n cazul n care un cetean al Uniunii sau Le droit de se dplacer librement ainsi que
un membru al familiei acestuia care nu are le droit dentrer et de rsider sont,
cetenia unui stat membru nu posed conformment larticle 48 du trait CE, lis
documentele de cltorie necesare sau, dup un "emploi effectivement offert".
caz, viza necesar, statul membru n cauz Conformment ce text, une condition
acord acestor persoane, nainte de a proceda pralable au droit du travailleur de se dplacer
la expulzarea acestora, toate mijloacele et de rsider est constitue par lexistence en
90
rezonabile pentru a le permite s obin, ntr-un sa personne dune offre concrte demploi.
termen rezonabil, documentele necesare sau Cependant la cour de Justice estime que la
pentru a confirma ori a dovedi prin alte libre circulation des travailleurs entrane
mijloace c beneficiaz de dreptul de liber galement le droit de rechercher du travail
circulaie i edere. lorsquon souhaite exercer une activit
Statul membru poate cere persoanei n effective et rele.
cauz s-i raporteze prezena pe teritoriul su Les Etats membres doivent laisser entrer
ntr-un termen rezonabil i nediscriminatoriu. sur leur territoire les personnes munies dune
Nerespectarea acestei cerine poate face carte didentit ou dun passeport en cours de
persoana respectiv pasibil de sanciuni. validit mme si celle-ci ne permet pas son
Cetenii Uniunii au dreptul de edere pe titulaire de quitter le territoire de lEtat
teritoriul altui stat membru pe o perioad de cel membre qui la dlivr. Le droit
mult trei luni fr nici o alt condiie sau communautaire ne peut pas, toutefois,
formalitate n afara cerinei de a deine o carte sopposer ce quun Etat membre (en lespce
de identitate valabil sau un paaport valabil. la Belgique), effectue des contrles sur son
Aceste dispoziii se aplic i membrilor de territoire leffet de savoir si les personnes
familie care dein un paaport valabil, care nu ayant le droit de rsider portent leur titre de
au cetenia unui stat membru i care l sjour sur elles-mmes, Etant observ que les
nsoesc pe ceteanul Uniunii ori se altur ressortissants belges doivent tre porteurs de
acestuia. leur carte didentit. Le contrle lentre
dans les le pays serait toutefois contraire la
2. Dreptul de edere politique de la Communaut sil savrait tre
Potrivit Directivei nr. 2004, toi cetenii systmatique, arbitraire et inutilement gnant.
Uniunii au dreptul de edere pe teritoriul altui Les Etats membre sont dailleurs autoriss
stat membru pentru o perioad mai mare de trei prendre les mesures ncessaires afin de
luni n cazurile n care: sassures quils disposent des informations
(a) sunt lucrtori care desfoar activiti suffisantes concernant les migrations sur leur
salariate sau activiti independente n statul territoire. Cest ainsi que les ressortissants des
membru gazd sau autres Etats membres peuvent tre tenus
(b) dispun de suficiente resurse pentru ei deffectuer une dclaration de sjour,
i pentru membrii familiilor lor, astfel nct s condition toutefois quun dlai de trois jours
nu devin o sarcin pentru sistemul de asisten accord depuis larrive sur le territoire de
social al statului membru gazd n cursul lEtat membre. Aucun visa dentre ou
ederii i dein asigurri medicale complete n document quivalent ne peut tre demand
statul membru gazd sau sauf aux membres de la famille du travailleur
(c) sunt nscrii ntr-o instituie privat qui nont pas la nationalit dun Etat membre.
sau public, acreditat sau finanat de ctre Les Etats membres doivent accorder ces
statul membru gazd pe baza legislaiei sau personnes toutes facilits afin dobtenir le visa
practicilor sale administrative, cu scopul ncessaire.
principal de a urma studii, inclusiv de formare Le droit de sjour va de pair avec le droit
profesional i de travailler dans un autre tat membre.
dein asigurri medicale complete n En vertu de la nouvelle directive relative
statul membru gazd i asigur autoritatea au droit de sjour des citoyens de l'Union
91
naional competent, printr-o declaraie sau o europenne (directive 2004/38/CE), les

alt procedur echivalent la propria alegere, travailleurs migrants ne devront plus obtenir
c posed suficiente resurse pentru ei nii i de permis de sjour dans l'tat membre
pentru membrii de familie, astfel nct s nu d'emploi: un simple enregistrement auprs des
devin o povar pentru sistemul de asisten autorits comptentes sera suffisant, et encore:
social al statului membru gazd n timpul il ne sera requis que s'il est jug ncessaire par
perioadei de edere; sau l'tat membre d'accueil.
(d) sunt membri de familie care nsoesc Les formalits que les travailleurs doivent
ori se altur unui cetean al Uniunii care accomplir dpendent de la dure de l'emploi:
ndeplinete el nsui condiiile menionate la - s'il doit durer moins de trois mois,
literele (a), (b) sau (c). aucune formalit de sjour n'est exige.
Cetenii Uniunii care i-au avut reedina nanmoins, les autorits nationales peuvent
legal pe teritoriul statului membru gazd n demander que vous signaliez votre prsence
cursul unei perioade nentrerupte de cinci ani sur leur territoire;
dobndesc dreptul de edere permanent pe - si l'emploi doit durer plus de trois mois,
teritoriul acestuia. Acest drept nu face obiectul l'tat membre daccueil peut exiger que vous
altor condiii. vous enregistriez auprs de l'autorit
Aceasta prevedere se aplic i n cazul comptente. Le dlai denregistrement ne peut
membrilor de familie care nu au cetenia unui pas tre infrieur trois mois compter de la
stat membru i care i-au avut reedina legal date d'arrive.
mpreun cu ceteanul Uniunii n statul Dans ce cas, une attestation
membru gazd n cursul unei perioade denregistrement doit tre dlivre
nentrerupte de cinci ani. immdiatement sur production d'une carte
Odat dobndit, dreptul de edere d'identit ou d'un passeport valable et d'une
permanent se pierde numai n cazul unei confirmation d'embauche de l'employeur ou
absene din statul membru gazd pe o perioad d'une attestation d'emploi. Aucun autre
care depete doi ani consecutivi. document (fiche de paie, facture d'lectricit,
Prin derogare de la dispoziiile menionate, dclaration d'impt, etc.) ne saurait tre exig
dreptul de edere permanent n statul membru cette fin.
gazd se acord naintea ncheierii unei Si vous nobservez pas ces formalits,
perioade nentrerupte de edere de cinci ani n vous pourriez encourir des sanctions
cazurile n care: proportionnes et non discriminatoires.
(a) lucrtorul care desfoar o activitate Il convient de noter que vous pouvez
salariat sau independent, n momentul n care commencer travailler avant dtre
i-a ncetat activitatea, a mplinit vrsta enregistr.
prevzut de legislaia statului membru
respectiv n vederea pensionrii pentru limit 3. Sjour permanent
de vrst, ori lucrtorul care a ncetat Si vous tes un travailleur qui a rsid
activitatea salariat ca urmare a pensionrii pendant une priode ininterrompue de cinq
anticipate a lucrat n statul membru respectiv ans dans l'tat membre daccueil, vous
cel puin n cursul ultimelor dousprezece luni acquerrez un droit de sjour permanent dans
precedente i i-a avut reedina pe teritoriul ce pays. Sur demande, les autorits nationales
acestuia pe o perioad nentrerupt mai mare doivent dlivrer un document attestant le
92
de trei ani. sjour permanent.

(b) lucrtorul care desfoar o activitate Une fois acquis, le droit de sjour
salariat sau independent care, avndu-i permanent peut tre perdu seulement si vous
reedina n statul membru gazd timp de cel quittez le pays pendant une priode de plus de
puin doi ani, nceteaz s-i desfoare deux annes conscutives.
activitatea din cauza unei incapaciti Dans certaines circonstances spcifiques,
permanente de munc. vous pouvez acqurir ce statut plus tt:
n cazul n care aceast incapacitate este - si vous avez cess de travailler parce que
rezultatul unui accident de munc sau al unei vous avez atteint l'ge de la retraite (ou vous
boli profesionale care ndreptete persoana tes parti en prretraite), condition que vous
respectiv la o prestaie pltit integral sau ayez travaill dans l'tat membre daccueil
parial de o instituie public a statului membru pendant au moins les douze derniers mois et
gazd, nu este necesar ndeplinirea nici unei que vous y ayez sjourn de faon
condiii privind durata ederii. ininterrompue pendant plus de trois ans;
(c) lucrtorul care desfoar o activitate - si vous avez cess de travailler en raison
salariat sau independent care, dup trei ani dune incapacit de travail permanente,
de munc i edere nentrerupt pe teritoriul condition que vous ayez sjourn dans l'tat
statului membru gazd, desfoar o activitate membre daccueil pendant plus de deux
salariat sau independent pe teritoriul unui alt annes. Si cette incapacit est le rsultat d'un
stat membru dar i pstreaz reedina pe accident de travail ou d'une maladie
teritoriul statului membru gazd pe care se professionnelle, aucune condition lie la
ntoarce, de obicei, n fiecare zi sau cel puin o dure du sjour ne s'applique;
dat pe sptmn. - si, aprs trois annes d'emploi
ininterrompu et de sjour dans l'tat membre
3. Excepii daccueil, vous travaillez dans un autre tat
Statele membre pot restrnge libertatea de membre, tout en conservant votre domicile
circulaie i de edere a cetenilor Uniunii i dans l'tat membre daccueil, dans lequel
a membrilor lor de familie, indiferent de vous retournez, en rgle gnrale, tous les
cetenie, pentru motive de ordine public, jours ou au moins une fois par semaine.
siguran public sau sntate public. Aceste
motive nu pot fi invocate n scopuri 4. Les exceptions
economice. tant donn que les fonctionnaires et les
Msurile luate din motive de ordine agents du secteur public sont des travailleurs
public sau siguran public respect au sens de l'article 39 CE, les rgles relatives
principiul proporionalitii i se ntemeiaz la libre circulation des travailleurs s'appliquent
exclusiv pe conduita persoanei n cauz. en principe eux. Toutefois, il y a une
Condamnrile penale anterioare nu pot justifica exception et quelques problmes spcifiques:
n sine luarea unor asemenea msuri. - Les autorits des tats membres sont
Conduita persoanei n cauz trebuie s autorises limiter leurs propres
constituie o ameninare real, prezent i ressortissants les postes impliquant l'exercice
suficient de grav la adresa unui interes de la puissance publique et la responsabilit de
fundamental al societii. Nu pot fi acceptate la sauvegarde des intrts gnraux de l'tat
motivri care nu sunt direct legate de caz sau (article 39, paragraphe 4 CE).
93
care sunt legate de consideraii de prevenie - Dans plusieurs tats membres, il existe
general. des dispositions rglementaires trs
Pentru a stabili dac persoana respectiv spcifiques relatives l'emploi dans le secteur
reprezint un pericol pentru ordinea public public (par exemple, concernant l'accs ces
sau sigurana public, la eliberarea emplois, la reconnaissance de l'exprience et
certificatului de nregistrare sau, n absena de l'anciennet professionnelles; la
unui sistem de nregistrare, n termen de cel reconnaissance des diplmes, etc.) et, par
mult trei luni de la intrarea persoanei consquent, cela pose des problmes
respective pe teritoriul su sau de la data la supplmentaires de discrimination qui ne se
care persoana i-a semnalat prezena pe prsentent pas de la mme manire dans le
teritoriul su n conformitate cu articolul 5 secteur priv.
alineatul (5) ori la eliberarea permisului de La Commission continue de recevoir de
edere, statul membru gazd poate, n cazul n nombreuses plaintes de citoyens ce sujet,
care consider indispensabil, s cear statului notamment concernant la prise en compte de
membru de origine sau, dac este necesar, altor l'exprience professionnelle acquise dans un
state membre s i furnizeze informaii privind autre tat membre pour autoriser l'accs la
antecedentele persoanei respective. Aceast fonction publique et dterminer le montant de
consultare nu poate avea un caracter sistematic. la rmunration, etc. C'est pourquoi la
Statul membru consultat rspunde n termen de Commission ouvre de nombreuses procdures
dou luni. d'infraction l'encontre des tats membres
concerns. la demande des tats membres,
4. Posibilitatea expulzrii la Commission conseille galement les
Statul membru care a eliberat paaportul autorits des tats membres dans le cadre d'un
sau cartea de identitate permite titularului groupe de travail intergouvernemental cr par
documentului care a fost expulzat din motive les directeurs gnraux de l'administration
de ordine public, siguran public sau publique des tats membres.
sntate public de pe teritoriul altui stat Accs l'emploi dans la fonction publique
membru s reintre pe teritoriul su fr nici o Pendant longtemps, les problmes lis la
formalitate, chiar dac documentul nu mai este libre circulation des travailleurs dans la
valabil sau dac cetenia titularului este fonction publique concernaient exclusivement
contestat. les conditions d'accs et de nationalit.
nainte de a lua o decizie de expulzare de L'article 39, paragraphe 4 du trait CE nonce
pe teritoriul su din motive de ordine public que la libre circulation des travailleurs ne
sau siguran public, statul membru gazd ia s'applique pas l'emploi dans la fonction
n considerare diveri factori precum durata publique. Mais la drogation cette
ederii individului respectiv pe teritoriul su, disposition a de tout temps t interprte de
vrsta acestuia, starea lui de sntate, situaia manire trs restrictive par la Cour et la
sa familial i economic, integrarea sa social Commission s'est employe promouvoir
i cultural n statul membru gazd i legturile activement l'accs la fonction publique, et
sale cu ara de origine. elle continue le faire.
Statul membru gazd nu poate lua o Dans plusieurs arrts antrieurs, la Cour a
decizie de expulzare mpotriva unui cetean al dvelopp son interprtation de l'article 39,
Uniunii sau a membrilor familiei sale, paragraphe 4 CE: les tats membres ne sont
94
indiferent de cetenie, care au dobndit autoriss rserver leurs emplois dans la

dreptul de edere permanent pe teritoriul su, fonction publique leurs ressortissants que si
cu excepia cazurilor n care exist motive ces emplois ont un rapport avec les activits
imperative de ordine public sau siguran spcifiques de l'administration publique, c'est
public. dire lorsque celle-ci est investie de l'exercice
Nu se poate lua o decizie de expulzare de la puissance publique et de la responsabilit
mpotriva cetenilor Uniunii, indiferent de de la sauvegarde des intrts gnraux de
cetenia acestora, cu excepia cazului n care l'tat, intrts gnraux auxquels doivent tre
decizia se bazeaz pe motive imperative de assimils ceux des collectivits publiques,
siguran public definite de statele membre, telles que les administrations municipales. Ces
dac acetia: critres doivent tre valus au cas par cas en
(a) i-au avut reedina n statul membru raison de la nature des tches et des
gazd n cei zece ani anteriori sau responsabilits impliques dans le poste
(b) sunt minori, cu excepia cazului n care concern. Dans ces arrts, la Cour a statu en
expulzarea este n interesul copilului, n disant que, par exemple, des emplois la
conformitate cu Convenia Organizaiei poste ou dans les chemins de fer, ou encore
Naiunilor Unite privind drepturile copilului, des emplois de plombier, de jardinier ou
ncheiat la 20 noiembrie 1989. d'lectricien, de professeur, de personnel
Singurele boli care justific msuri de soignant et de chercheur civil ne peuvent pas
restricionare a liberei circulaii sunt bolile cu tre limits des ressortissants nationaux.
potenial epidemic, astfel cum sunt acestea Afin de pouvoir contrler l'application de
definite de documentele relevante ale cette jurisprudence, la Commission a lanc, en
Organizaiei Mondiale a Sntii, precum i 1988, une action qui mettait l'accent sur
alte boli infecioase sau parazitare contagioase, l'accs l'emploi dans quatre secteurs (les
dac acestea fac obiectul unor dispoziii de organismes chargs de grer un service
protecie ce se aplic resortisanilor din statul commercial les services de sant publique,
membru gazd. l'enseignement, la recherche des fins
Bolile ce se declaneaz dup o perioad civiles).
de trei luni de la data sosirii nu pot motiva L'approche sectorielle constituait un
expulzarea de pe teritoriul respectiv. important point de dpart du contrle d'une
Dac exist indicii serioase c acest lucru application correcte de la lgislation
este necesar, ntr-un termen de trei luni de la communautaire; elle a t suivie de
data sosirii, statele membre pot supune nombreuses procdures d'infraction
beneficiarii dreptului de edere unui examen l'initiative de la Commission. L'action de 1988
medical gratuit, care s ateste c nu sufer de et les procdures d'infraction ont eu pour effet
nici una dintre bolile menionate. Aceste que les tats membres se sont engags dans de
examene medicale nu pot fi impuse n mod vastes rformes d'ouverture de leurs secteurs
sistematic. publics. En fin de compte, trois procdures
d'infraction seulement ont abouti devant la
BIBLIOGRAFIE: Cour, laquelle a pleinement confirm, en
1. Broussy, E., Donnat F., et Lambert C., 2009, " 1996, sa jurisprudence prcdente.
Cetenia european Libera circulaie a muncitorilor ",
Selon l'article 39 (ancien article 48) 3 du
Actualit juridique. Droit administratif, n 28,
Chronique de jurisprudence communautaire, p. 1538, Trait sur l'Union europenne, qui voque
95
(Paris); l'article 46 1 en matire de droit

2. Carlier, J.Y., Guild, E., " Viitorul liberei d'tablissement, la libre circulation des
circulaii a persoanelor in Uniunea European ", 2006,
travailleurs s'exerce sous rserve des
(Bruxelles, Bruylant)
3. Chaltiel, F., 2007, "Cetenia european", limitations justifies par des raisons d'ordre
in Les Cahiers du Conseil constitutionnel n23 (Paris, public, de scurit publique et de sant
Dalloz); publique . De mme, l'article 39 4 stipule
4. Moreau, M., 1996, "Detaarea muncitorilor ce que les dispositions de l'article 39 ne sont
presteaz servicii n Uniunea European", (Clunet);
pas applicables aux emplois dans
5. Pcoud, A. et De Guchteneire, P., 2009,
"Migraie fr frontiere, Eseu despre libera circulaie a l'administration publique , ou relatifs
persoanelor" (Paris, Editions UNESCO); l'exercice de l'autorit publique (renvoi
l'article 45 1). Faute d'une rglementation
communautaire homogne et gnrale, les
Etats membres disposent encore en effet de
comptences rsiduelles, et peuvent prendre
des mesures, que l'on nommera par la suite
mesures restrictives , qui viennent porter
atteinte ce principe de libre circulation, sous
rserve de la validit de leurs invocations.
Les exceptions
la libre circulation des personnes physiques
sont donc de deux ordres : elles peuvent tre
soit lies des raisons d'ordre public, de
scurit ou de sant publique, soit lies
l'exercice de certaines activits
professionnelles ou des impratifs d'intrt
gnral.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE
1. Broussy, E., Donnat F., et Lambert C., 2009, "
Citoyennet europenne - Libre circulation des
travailleurs ", Actualit juridique. Droit
administratif (Paris), n 28, chronique de jurisprudence
communautaire, p. 1538;
2. Carlier, J.Y., Guild, E., " L'avenir de la libre
circulation des personnes dans l'U.E ", 2006, (Bruxelles,
Bruylant)
3. Chaltiel, F., 2007, "La citoyennet europenne",
in Les Cahiers du Conseil constitutionnel n23 (Paris,
Dalloz);
4. Moreau, M., 1996, "Le dtachement des
travailleurs effectuant une prestation de services dans
lUnion europenne", (Clunet);
5. Pcoud, A. et De Guchteneire, P., 2009,
"Migrations sans frontires, Essais sur la libre-circulation
des personnes" (Paris, Editions UNESCO);
96
COMUNICARE PRIN PROTEST N COMMUNICATION THROUGH

VERONA UN STUDIU DE CAZ PROTEST IN VERONA A CASE STUDY
Mihai Sofonea59 - INSI Mihai Sofonea - ANI
Abstract: Acest articol dorete s combine Abstract:This article aims to combine field
observaia empiric i date despre naionalitate i observation and data on nationality and illegality in an
ilegalitate ntr-o ncercare de explicare a prezeniei attempt to explain the rising presence and social
crescnde ct i a relaiilor sociale ale imigranilor relations of irregular (Roma) migrants in Verona, Italy.
rromi nereglementai n Verona, Italia. Propun un We propose a case study on the means of communication
studiu de caz asupra mijloacelor de comunicare n through protest used in the church of San Tomaso -
cadrul protestului folosit n biserica San Tomaso - Verona. Secondly, we focus on some unintended
Verona. De asemenea, voi ncerca s analizez anumite consequences of the restrictive policies in this field.
consecine nedorite rezultate din politicile restrictive The purpose of this paper is to analyze how
implementate n acest domeniu. globalizing methods might enable social scientists to
Scopul acestui articol este de a analiza modul n better comprehend the complexity of the problems faced
care metodele de globalizare pot permite cercettorilor by institutions in finding the political will to develop
din domeniul social s neleag mai bine complexitatea non-emergency intervention strategies.
problemelor cu care se confrut instituiile n gsirea
voinei politice pentru a dezvolta strategii de intervenie
non-urgente.
Globalizarea are implicaii pentru Globalization has implications for

stabilirea relaiilor de putere dintre statele established relations of power between rich
bogate i statele srace i populaia acestora i states and poor states and people and their
cei care guverneaz, i pentru grupurile governments, and for minority groups and
minoritare i majoritare. n esen, drepturile majority populations. Essentially, human rights
omului sunt unelte pentru ntrirea i are tools for empowering and providing
asigurarea securitii indiviziilor. Acestea security to individuals. They serve these goals
servesc acestor eluri prin stabilirea unor by setting minimal standards on how
standarde minimale despre cum ar trebui s fie individuals may rightfully be treated (Gibney
tratai cu demnitate indivizii (Gibney M.J. M.J. 2003), as part of the Article 25 of the
2003), aa cum reiese dintr-o parte a Universal Declaration of Human Rights says:
Articolului 25 din Declaraia Universal a Everyone has the right to a standard of
Drepturilor Omului: Toat lumea are dreptul living adequate for the health and well-being of
la un standard de via adecvat n ceea ce himself and his family, including food, clothing,
privete sntatea, bunstarea fiecruia i a housing and medical care and necessary social
familiei sale, incluznd hran, mbrcminte, service and the right to security in the event of
asisten domestic i medical ct i asisten unemployment, sickness, disability,
social i dreptul la securitate n caz de omaj, widowhood, old age or other lack of
boal, vduvie, btrnee sau alte lipsuri de livelihood.
trai.60 Rights should be seen as tools for
59
Mihai Sofonea, Bd. Aviatorilor nr 18, apt. 7, 011861, Bucureti , Institutul Naional de Studii de Intelligence, tel.
0740084914, sofoneamihai@yahoo.com.
60
http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml#a25
97
Drepturile, ar trebui s fie interpretate ca individual self-creation; Appiah (Appiah, 2006)

unelte pentru auto-dezvoltarea individual; offers a picture of rights that attempts to do
Appiah (Appiah, 2006) ofer o viziune a justice to both our commonality and our
drepturilor care ncearc s fac dreptate att diversity. In this view, social and cultural
dintr-o perspectiv holistic fr a neglija ns variety becomes an essential precondition for
diversitatea noastr. Potrivit acestei viziuni, a meaningful human life.
varietatea social i cultural devine o Some studies in sociolinguistics examine
precondiie esenial pentru o via uman class differences in how people use language in
plin de sens. given situations. The theory here is usually that
Anumite studii sociolingvistice individuals from lower social status groups
examineaz difrenele de clas n modul n care (and Roma people have a lower social status
oamenii folosesc limbajul n anumite situaii. and society perceives them as such), have less
Aceast teorie susine c indivizii provenii din flexibility in using different language styles.
grupuri sociale cu un status sczut (i Theory in this area consistently shows that
majoritatea rromilor au ntr-adevr un status certain linguistic characteristics are inevitably
social sczut, iar societatea i percepe ca atare), tied with social stereotypes.
au mai puin flexibilitate n a folosi diferite The problem that follows stereotype
stiluri de limbaj. Teoriile din aceast arie formation refers to the manner in which
exemplific n mod consecvent c anumite stereotype knowledge, once established,
caracteristici lingvistice sunt legate n mod influence peoples judgment. Therefore,
inevitabil de stereotipurile sociale. stereotype influence both the manner in which
Problema care urmeaz formrii we assimilate information, but also the manner
stereotipurilor se refer la modul n care in which we make reference to them. Observers
cunotintele stereotipe, odat constituite, can focus their attention selectively to what
intervin n judecile asupra celuilalt. Astfel, comes against their stereotype convictions.
stereotipurile influeneaz att modul n care In the case of the Roma population we
asimilm informaiile noi ct i modul n care can observe a certain image they transmit to the
ne amintim de ele. Observatorii pot s-i Italian society, and in this case we can appeal
ndrepte atenia n mod selectiv spre ceea ce to what Tajfel (Tajfel&Wilkes, 1963) said that
contravine concepiilor lor stereotipizate. inside a sensorial model homogeneity within
Se poate observa n cazul populaiei rrome categories is associate to the contrasts among
o anumit imagine pe care acetia o transmit categories. In fact, we have something like
societii italiene, n acest caz, putem apela la they resemble everybody, but we, all are
ceea ce Tajfel (Tajfel&Wilkes, 1963), n cadrul different
unui model de origine perceptiv, relev faptul The homogenous effect of the out-group
c omogenitatea din interiorul categoriilor este represents a tendency to perceive and judge the
asociat cu contrastele dintre categorii. n fapt, members of an out-group in a less varied and
este un fel de ei se aseamn toi, dar noi heterogeneous manner than do the members of
suntem toi diferii.... that group. This effect forces recognition of the
Efectul de omogenitate a out-grup-ului limitations of current models of social identity
reprezint tendina de a percepe i de a judeca and stimulates the elaboration of new solutions.
membrii unui out-grup n mod mai puin The increasing number of conflicts among
diversificat i eterogen dect o fac membrii ethnic and cultural groups in the modern world
98
acelui grup. Acest efect oblig la o constitutes a clear clue of the fact that ethno-
recunoatere a insuficienei modelelor actuale cultural belonging and identification have not
ale identitii sociale i incit la elaborarea been eradicated through the formation of
unor noi soluii. inclusive socio-political units (the nation-state).
Numrul crescnd al conflictelor ntre In social psychology there are two
grupurile etnice i cele culturale din lumea theoretical approaches that start from relatively
modern, reprezint un indiciu incontestabil al different hypotheses regarding the mechanisms
faptului c apartenenele i identificrile etno- that stand at the basis of inter-group conflict.
culturale nu au fost eradicate prin formarea de According to the first approach, group behavior
uniti socio-politice inclusive (statul-naiune). and conflict (protest), in particular are
n psihologia social exist dou abordri determined by rational motives, mainly
teoretice care pornesc de la postulate relativ material interests. (Campbell, 1965 ;
diferite n privina mecanismelor care stau la LeVine&Campbell, 1972 ; Sherif, 1966). The
baza conflictului intergrupuri. Conform primei second approach lays emphasis on the priority
abordri, comportamentul de grup, n general, of emotional or symbolic needs manifested
i conflictul (protestul), n particular, sunt through the feeling of attachment and
determinate de motive raionale i n primul identification. (Tajfel, 1974, 1981 ; Tajfel &
rnd de urmrirea intereselor materiale Turner, 1986).
(Campbell, 1965 ; LeVine&Campbell, 1972 ; According to the theory of real conflicts,
Sherif, 1966). Cea de a doua abordare pune individuals act in conformity to the objective
accentul pe prioritatea nevoilor afective, interdependence structure between the in-group
emoionale sau simbolice manifestate prin and the out-group. The conflict appears when
sentimentul de ataament i de identificare the interests of the two groups prove to be
(Tajfel, 1974, 1981 ; Tajfel & Turner, 1986). incompatible, meaning when the objectives of
Potrivit teoriei conflictelor reale, indivizii the in-group can be attained only in the
acioneaz n funcie de structura obiectiv de detriment of the out-group. According to this
interdependen dintre in-group i out-group. hypothesis, the inter-group conflict is generated
Conflictul apare atunci cnd interesele by the rigidity and ignorance resulted from
grupurilor sunt incompatibile, adic atunci social stereotypes and social and economic
cnd interesele in-group-ului nu pot fi atinse segregation among groups (Allport, 1954 ;
dect n detrimentul out-grup-ului. Conform Cook, 1979).
acestei ipoteze, conflictul intergrupuri este n The main social actors of this study-case
parte generat de rigiditatea i ignorana are the Nomads and the action component is
datorate stereotipurilor sociale i de segregarea represented by the protest.
social i economic dintre grupuri (Allport, But who are the Nomads?
1954 ; Cook, 1979). Nomads are Romanian citizens that do not
Actorii sociali de prim rang al acestui benefit from the attention of the Italian Foreign
studiu de caz sunt nomazii, iar aciunea este Ministry or any other public authority that has
reprezentat de protest. responsibilities related to Romanian citizens
Dar cine sunt nomazii? Nomazii sunt but on the contrary they are the target group of
ceteni romni, care nu sunt n vizorul those who deal with social integration and
Ministerului de Afaceri Externe Italian sau al social protection.
vreunui alt minister care ar avea de-a face cu The facts (as presented by the media)
99
cetenii romni, din contr, sunt grupul int al Arrived some time after the 1989
celor care se ocup de integrare social i Revolution, their number has increased slowly
protecie social. but constantly. These social actors can be found
Faptele (aa cum au fost prezentate n especially in uninhabited spaces, frequently in
mass-media)61 urban peripheries, but contrary to all
Sosii undeva n anii ce-au urmat expectations they are quite visible.
Revoluiei din 1989, numrul lor a crescut They are Romanian citizens, Roma coming
ncet, dar constant. Aceti actori sociali se from villages in Oltenia, from the
gsesc mai ales n spaii nelocuite, adesea n neighborhoods of Turnu Severin, frequently
zona periferic, dar contrar ateptrilor sunt called gypsies, but for those with more
destul de vizibili. knowledge they are actually atypical Roma,
Sunt ceteni romni, rromi provenii din who with the support of some anti-racist groups
satele Olteniei, din cartierele Turnului Severin, lived in an abandoned wing of the seminar in
numii cel mai adesea igani, dar pentru cei Verona.
cu ochiul format sunt de fapt rromi atipici, care These actors find themselves forced to
cu sprijinul unor structuri de susinere anti- move (because of a decision of the Department
rasist, locuiau ntr-o arip dezafectat a of Social Services) in a Nomad camp in order
seminarului diocezian din Verona. to be able to prolong their stay in Verona. They
Aceai actori se vd nevoii, ndeprtai have children who attend secondary school and
fiind de ctre o decizie a Deparamentului de in the past months they have respected the
Servicii Sociale, s se mute ntr-o tabr de agreement to collaborate in an integration
nomazi, pentru a putea rmne n Verona. Au project that should follow its natural course
copii care urmeaz gimnaziul, i-n lunile However, there are about 70 people who either
anterioare au respectat acordurile de-a have not respected the agreements or do not
colabora ntr-un proiect de integrare, care wish to integrate, and who leave before they
trebuie s-i urmeze cursul firesc... Exist ns are cast away, and other 70 people who do not
vreo aptezeci de persoane care fie nu au fulfill the criteria imposed, as they have no
respectat acordurile fie nu doresc s se children enrolled in schools, thus being not
integreze i care pleac nainte de-a fi eligible for the project, but who wish to stay
ndeprtai, iar alte aptezeci de persoane care anyway. A decision of the Town hall states that
nu ndeplinesc condiiile impuse, nu au copii the rebels should be left without electricity
colari, fiinde deci ne-eligibili n proiect, dar and water. Among them there are 27 children
doresc oricum s rmn. O ordonan a and 9 pregnant women, who are finally housed
Primriei prevede s se taie curentul i apa in an abandoned school, maybe too close to the
rebelilor printre care se afl 27 de copii i 9 town centre.
femei nsrcinate, care n cele din urm sunt The neighborhood burst into hatred, with
gzduii ntr-o scoal dezafectat, poate prea the support of the Neo-Nazi but the Roma resist
aproape de centrul oraului. barricaded inside and supported by
Cartierul izbucnete n ur, cu susinerea representatives of the anti-racist movement. A
neo-nazitilor dar rromi rezist baricadai decision is taken to relocate them, and in the
nuntru sprijinii de exponeni ai micrii anti- entire period between 2004 and the end of
61
www.achabrivista.it; www. larena.it; textul este combinat cu date obinute prin observaie personal, empiric.
100
rasiste. Se decide o relocare a acestora, iar pe August 2005, the Roma remain divided in two
intreaga perioad cuprins ntre 2004 i pn la groups, who pass under the tutelage of the
sfritul lui august 2005, rromi rmn divizai Service for Equality of Chances and Cultural
n dou grupuri, care trec sub tutela Serviciului Diversity, thus the two camps are coordinated
de anse Egale i Cultur a Diferenelor, deci by two different organizations, one specialized
n dou tabere gestionate de dou organizaii in integration in the work field of people with
diferite, una specializat n integrarea n handicap, who has a founder sanctified by Pope
cmpul muncii a persoanelor cu handicap, care John Paul II and a second association founded
are un fondator beatificat de Papa Ioan Paul al by a priest who mainly deals with the recovery
II-lea, a doua o asociaie fondat de ctre un of drug addicts.
preot i care se ocup n special de recuperarea Over all this comes a decision of the Penal
toxicomanilor. Section of the Verona Court who on December,
Peste toate acestea se adaug o hotrre a 2nd 2004 condemns 6 advocates of the Northern
Seciei Penale a Tribunalului din Verona care League to 6 months of imprisonment on the
pe 2 decembrie 2004 condamn ase partizani basis of law no. 205/ 1993 against racism
ai Ligii Nordului la ase luni de nchisoare, n because they have promoted in 2001 a petition
baza legii 205/ 1993 contra rasismului, to send home the gypsies of Verona. The
deoarece au promovat n 2001 o strngere de Northern League is part of a center-right
semnturi pentru a trimite acas iganiidin coalition who governed the town up to 2002
Verona. Liga Nordului era parte a coaliiei de and the condemnation of their representatives is
centru-dreapta care a condus oraul pn n regarded as an action of the center-left
2002, iar condamnarea exponenilor acesteia government. The Roma camps prove to be an
este perceput ca o aciune a conducerii element of conflict in what regards an example
succesive de centru-stnga. Taberele se rromi of latent political discrimination between the
se dovedesc a fi marul discordiei n ceea ce expulsion of the Roma by the Right and their
privete un exemplu de relativ discriminare integration by the Left.
politic latent ntre expulzarea rromilor din After a relatively short time span the
partea Dreptei i integrarea acestora din partea situation changes and sometime in June 2005
Stngii. law-enforcement officials proceed to arrest
Dup relativ puin timp situaia se some Roma and Italians accused of prostitution
schimb, iar undeva spre iunie 2005 forele de and sexual child-molestation.
ordine trec la ridicarea unor exponeni rromi i The prosecution speaks of Roma children
italieni acuzai de favorizarea prostituiei i a from the integration camps that have fallen
pedofiliei. prey to pedophiles with the approval of some
Acuzarea vorbeste de copii rromi din Roma in the camp, and one of the consultants
taberele programului de integrare czui of the Social Services Advisor, with penal
prad pedofiliei cu consensul unor rromi din antecedents, is accused of being a pedophile.
tabr, fiind acuzat de pedofilie i un In addition, representatives of the two
consultant al Consilierului pe Servicii Sociale, association involved in the integration
cu o condamnare precedent asupra aceleiai processes are put under house arrest under the
infraciuni. charge of complicity: there is the suspicion that
Totodat, responsabilii celor dou asociaii they received money from some Roma who
al proiectului de integrare sunt trimii n wanted to take part in the integration process.
101
arest la domiciliu sub acuzarea de At the end of August, enters in debate the
complicitate : exist suspiciunea c ar fi primit news according to which a new camp has been
bani din partea unor rromi care dorea s fac built that would allow the reunion of the two
parte din programul de integrare. groups, but in which only those persons who
Spre sfritul lunii august se dezbate have all legal documents will have access, and
vestea conform creia s-a construit o nou thus their future becomes unknown (Piasere,
tabr care s reuneasc cele dou grupuri, dar 2006). This is the last straw!
n care vor avea acces doar persoanele care au Roma family, supported by representatives
documentele n regul, astfel destinul multora of the anti-racist movement occupies a church
devine incert. Este pictura care a umplut in the centre of Verona San Tomaso. The
paharul! result? Much is written in the press...
Familii de rromi, sprijinite de exponeni ai The protesters, without documents appear
micrii anti-rasiste, ocup o biseric n centrul to win the battle: they receive the necessary
Veronei San Tomaso. Rezultatul? n pres documents from local police offices and they
curge cerneal... can prolong their stay. There are, of course
Protestatarii, fr documente par a ctiga some political implications, at least at local
btlia : primesc documente din partea level. In September a part of the Roma move to
birourilor locale de poliie i pot rmne. the new camp.
Exist, desigur, i implicaii politice, cel puin We observe that our reality is always under
la nievel local. n septembrie o parte dintre construction in a period when the concept of
rromi se instaleaz n noua tabr. inter-cultural policies is coming into fashion
Observm ns c realitatea este mereu and the slogan Unity in Diversity reminds of
ntr-o faz de construcie, ntr-o perioad n the European Union, and thus the Roma
care conceptul de politici interculturale este din community has become the target of some
ce n ce mai la mod, iar sloganul Unitate n practices that regarded from the inside appear
diversitate face trimitere clar la Uniunea just unbalanced intercultural policies, which
European, comunitatea rrom devine astfel fade when concrete demands are presented
inta unor practici care privite din interior par a from the part of some persons, apparently
fi doar politici interculturale dezechilibrate, without any power, perceived as
care plesc atunci cnd sunt prezentate cereri unapproachable.
concrete, ale unor persoane, aparent fr The Roma migrants, in comparison to
putere, percepute ca neabordabile. many others have proven capable of, we could
Aceti migrani de origine rrom, spre say, resounding political actions of protest. It
deosebire de muli alii s-au dovedit a fi in can be observed that in time the idea that Roma
stare de aciuni politice de protest, am putea are not capable of political actions of protest
spune de-a dreptul rasuntoare. Se poate has taken roots, but from the moment this
observa c de-a lungul timpului s-a social actors prove the contrary we observe that
mpmntnit ideea c rromi nu ar fi n stare de the accent falls on those in the background,
aciuni politice de protest, dar din moment ce mainly the activists from the anti-racist centers,
aceti actori sociali demonstreaz contrariul who have proven to be true political allies in
observm c accentul cade pe cei aflai n this fight.
culise, n spe activitii centrelor anti-rasiste, We can say that the camps have a certain
care s-au dovedit a fi nite adevrai aliai logic, namely that of raising barriers between
102
politici n cadrul acestei ,,lupte. those who live inside and the surrounding
Taberele, putem spune, au o singur logic society, by emphasizing a discontinuity inside
i anume de-a ridica o barier ntre cei care the nation-state. Furthermore, by observing the
locuiesc nuntru i societatea nvecinat, distinction between those who organize the
marcheaz o discontinuitate n interiorul camps and those who are coordinated we can
Statului- naiune. Totodat, observnd see the birth of a significant power cleavage.
distincia dintre cine gestioneaz i cine este A local solution to global problems is put
gestionat, se relev naterea unui clivaj de forth starting from the good faith of cultural
putere semnificativ. mediators the idea of project. As Bauman
Se propune ca o soluie local la probleme states (2005), the principle is the project itself:
globale plecnd de la buna credin a the modern belief is that humanity, as it is does
mediatorilor culturali - ideea de proiect. no longer function accordingly, especially the
Cum spune Bauman (2005), principiul este humanity of others and to this can be added the
nsi proiectul : convingerea modern este c fact that them are always more(2005 : 45),
umanitatea, aa cum se prezint ea nu mai because everyone of them occupies too much
funcioneaz corespunztor, mai ales space, as Horkeheimer and Adorno once said
umanitatea celorlali, i se mai poate aduga (1966), and this explains also the existent
aici i faptul c ei sunt ntotdeauna prea competition of projects (on others), and of
muli(2005 : 45), deoarece fiecare dintre course of funds...
ceilali ocup prea mult spaiu, dup cum Globalization is a process that allows the
spuneau candva Horkeheimer i Adorno world market economy to take the best and
(1966 : 197), de unde i competiia pe leave the rest as Susan George says. But what
proiecte (pe seama altora), i desigur pe can we say when the rest is about humans?
fonduri... When it comes to the forms of human
Globalizarea este un proces care permite communities, as Bauman himself
economiei de pia mondiale s ia caimacul i acknowledges, the rest are human beings
s lase rmiele n urm aa cum spune (2005:39). To be considered a rest in a project
Susan George (Gybney 2003). Dar cum se that already deals with the rest can generate an
pune problema cnd rmielesunt oameni? unforeseeable reaction among the Roma, who,
Cnd este vorba de formele comunitii although hate the camp and the project itself,
umane, dup cum spune nsui Bauman, either remain indifferent to it, demand the right
rmiele sunt fiine umane (2005 :39). A fi to live in the camp and be part of the project, at
considerat rmi ntr-un proiect care deja se the same time using the power they have,
ocup de rmie, poate s declaneze reacia resistance power, irony, the ability to make
imprevizibil a rromilor, care, dei ursc tabra themselves notices and to protest in general.
sau proiectul n sine, ori rmn indifereni la We can of course accept as immediate their
acesta, revendic dreptul de-a locui n tabr i position to be present in the camp and this fact
de-a face parte din proiect, aplicnd totodat may coincide with their own perception of the
unica putere de care dispun, puterea de camp as a self-assumed destiny, as a place that
rezisten, de ironie, de-a se face remarcai, de- begins to make itself notices and this fact is
a protesta, n general. Putem desigur admite ca perceived as a difference, but in this case all we
imediat poziia acestora de-a fi prezeni n can do is put forth some suppositions.
tabr iar acest fapt s coincid cu popria lor Certain Roma must leave while others
103
percepie despre tabr ca un destin auto- remain and are sent to the camp, this we
asumat, ca un loc care ncepe s se afirme i already known but from the point of view of
acest lucru s fie perceput ca o diferen, dar the power balance this fact appears to hold no
putem doar presupune, n acest caz. significance. Therefore, the idea of a split
Anumii rromi trebuie s plece iar alii s becomes more and more clear: if you manifest
rmn i s fie trimii n tabar, acest lucru l your sympathy for the expulsion of the Roma
tim deja, dar din punct de vedere al raportului you belong to the right-wing, if you prefer the
de putere acest lucru pare nesemnificativ. camp solution, you are a leftist.
Astfel, se contureaz din ce n ce mai mult For a better understanding of the
ideea de partaj : dac i manifeti simpatia phenomenon at hand we must understand one
pentru expulzarea rromilor eti de dreapta, main fact: among the informal actors taking
dac preferi soluia taberei, eti de stnga . part in the decision-making process concerning
Pentru o mai bun nelegere a immigration and immigrants rights, a crucial
fenomenului trebuie s distingem un lucru : role was and is played by an advocacy coalition
printre actorii informali care particip n in favor of immigrants (Zincone 1999). As
procesul de luare al deciziilor n ceea ce Zincone says, the coalition is made up of
privete imigraia i drepturile imigranilor, un various associations, Catholic organizations
rol crucial este jucat de ctre o coaliie de being prominent. The attention of this strong
susinere n favoarea imigranilor (Zincone lobby for the weaker strata was mainly
1999). Coaliia este compus din diverse focused on the sectors of immigrants in the
asociaii, remarcndu-se organizaile catolice. most disadvantaged conditions, i.e.
Aa cum subliniaz Zincone, atenia acestui undocumented immigrants, on claiming basic
puternic lobby pentru cei din ptura de jos s-a rights for these people like amnesties and
concentrate mai ales pe sectoarele cele mai access to the national health service and public
dezavantajate ale imigraiei, a celor mai education. We can therefore answer the
dezavantajai, de exemplu asupra imigranilor question: Why did the Roma occupy a church?
fr documente, n a cere drepturi In reality they are not either citizens or
fundamentale pentru aceti oameni precum ar non-citizens (foreigners): denationalization and
fi diferite amnistii i accesul la serviciul more recently hyper-culturalization have made
naional de sntate i educaie public. Putem them a special case. By using a slightly
s ne rspundem astfel la ntrebarea: De ce au anatomic approach I can say they are regarded
ocupat rromi o biseric? as an appendix of a transition (or transit) in
Concret, nu sunt nici ceteni, nici ne- which the digestion process is played by
ceteni (strini) : deznaionalizarea i mai nou globalization itself. They are like people in a
mai moderna hiper-culturalizare au fcut ca melting pot that wont melt. I could dare say
acetia s fie un caz aparte. Printr-o abordare that Roma have always known what Bauman
uor anatomic a spune c sunt vzui ca un calls the bluff of inclusive model of the
apendice a unei tranziii (sau tranzit) n care nation-states, who lasts until the functions of
procesul de digestie este jucat de the categories on which the State is based are
globalizarea nsi. Sunt nite oameni ntr-o not revealed.
oal, supui unui proces de omogenizare dar The epilogue of this event was somehow
care nu se omogenizeaz. A putea ndrzni s predictable and unspectacular The Roma
spun c rromi cunosc dintotdeauna ceea ce were transferred to the new camp and after all
104
Bauman numete cacealmaua modelului that the journal LArena from Verona said:
incluziv a statelor-naiune, care dureaz pn The window-washers return without fear of
cnd nu sunt demascate funciile categoriilor receiving fines. Gypsies provide general date
pe care Statul se bazeaz. and invented addresses.
Epilogul acestui eveniment a fost
oarecum previzibil i puin spectaculos... BIBLIOGRAPHY:
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Ethnocentrism : Theories of conflict, ethnic attitudes
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106
SCURTE CONSIDERAII PRIVIND BRIEF CONSIDERATIONS

INFLUENA CONCERNING THE INFLUENCE OF
MEDIULUI SOCIAL-POLITIC NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL
NAIONAL I INTERNAIONAL SOCIO-POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT ON
ASUPRA ACTULUI DE LEGIFERARE THE ACT OF LAWMAKING
Ramona DUMINIC Ramona DUMINIC

Andreea DRGHICI Carmina ALECA
Abstract: Mediul social-politic naional constituie Abstract: National socio-political environment is an

o for activ n elaborarea i modificarea dreptului active force concerning the development and
pozitiv ntruct normele juridice sunt, n principiu, un modification of positive law because legal regulations
produs al societii. n acelai timp, este de necontestat are, in principle, a product of society. At the same time,
c n societatea contemporan arhitectura sistemelor de it is indisputable that in contemporary society the
drept naionale este influenat de mediul socio-politic architecture of national legal systems is influenced by
european i internaional. European and international socio-political environment.
Modul n care aceti factori exercit influene How these factors influence the activity of
asupra activitii de legiferare constituie o problem lawmaking is an old issue, but just as urgent and present
veche, ns la fel de stringent i actual i astzi. nowadays. Thus, the question is whether law is or not an
Astfel, se pune ntrebarea dac dreptul este sau nu un instrument of political power, to which we tried to find a
instrument al puterii politice, ntrebare la care am response in the present study.
ncercat s gsim un rspuns n prezentul studiu.
1. Aprecieri introductive 1. Introductory remarks

Elaborarea dreptului constituie o aciune The creation of law must be visualized as
condiionat de realiti complexe - sociale, an action conditioned by complex realities of a
economice, politice, spirituale, interne sau social, economic, political, spiritual, domestic
internaionale. Toate aceste realiti alctuiesc or international nature that constitute the so-
sursele reale ale dreptului care determin called given, which determines the
obiectul, subiectele, coninutul, finalitile i constructing.
ntr-o anumit msur chiar forma acestuia. n All of these realities constitute the real
considerarea acestor aspecte, rolul lor nu sources of law, which determine the object, the
trebuie exagerat, ns nici lsat n derizoriu subjects, the content, the ends and to some
cci, aa cum afirma M. Djuvara, ntreaga extent even the form of the law. Considering
istorie, ntregul trecut, toate forele sociale, these aspects, their role must not be
limba, economia rii respective, industria, exaggerated, nor overlooked because, as M.
comerul, agricultura, politica, concepiile Djuvara stated the entire history, the entire
morale i tiinifice, concur spre a exercita o past, all social forces, language, the economy
influen puternic asupra evoluiei juridice, of the respective country, industry, commerce,
ntocmai cum i dreptul exercit o influen agriculture, politics, moral and scientific
Asistent univ. drd.; adresa: str. C-tin Sttescu, bl. B5, ap. 28, Piteti, Arge; Facultatea de tiine Juridice i
Administrative, Universitatea din Piteti; telefon: 0744922368; e-mail: duminica.ramona@yahoo.com.

Lector univ. dr.; adresa: Piteti, Arge; Facultatea de tiine Juridice i Administrative, Universitatea din Piteti;
telefon: 0723619812; e-mail: andidraghici@yahoo.com.
107
puternic asupra evoluiilor lor (Djuvara, concepts, compete to exert a strong influence
1999, p. 300). over the evolution of law, just as the law exerts
Plecnd de la aceste aprecieri, n cele ce a strong influence over their own evolution
urmeaz vom pune n discuie modul n care, n (Djuvara, 1999, p. 300).
societatea contemporan, realitile social- Beginning with these remarks, in what
politice determin apariia i evoluia dreptului. follows we will discuss the way wherein, the
Realitatea socio - politic se refer la la social-political relations lead to the apparition
complexitatea vieii n comunitate, la and evolution of the law in contemporary
componentele concrete ale societii: mediul society.
economic, mediul politic, ideologic, cultural i The social-reality refers to the complexity
chiar religios. Reprezentnd un produs al of community life, to the concrete components
societii, dreptul se afl ntr-o relaie of society: the economic environment, the
permanent i constructiv cu aceste realiti. political environment, the ideological, cultural
and even religious environment. By
2. Influena mediului economic asupra representing a product of reality, the law is in a
elaborrii dreptului permanent and constructive relation with these
O for activ n elaborarea i modificarea realities.
oricrui drept obiectiv o reprezint componenta
economic a mediului social. 2. The influence of the economic
Mediul economic ofer dreptului anumite environment in the development of the law
condiii ale vieii materiale, dimensiuni care The economic component of the social
asigur, n final, esena sa normativ. Factorii environment is an active force in the
economici influeneaz sau determin development and modification of any objective
elaborarea anumitor norme juridice, right.
exercitndu-i autoritatea asupra tuturor The law is imposed by the economic
componentelor sistemului social. Aceti factori environment with certain conditions of the
permit dreptului s se adapteze la cerinele material life, dimensions that finally ensure its
economice, n funcie de scopurile i interesele normative essence. The economic factors
sociale. Fenomene economice, precum: influence or determine the elaboration of
producia, repartiia circulaia i consumul, certain legal norms, by exerting their authority
reformele economice, trecerea la economia on every component of the social system.
pia prind via prin drept care, prin legile These factors allow the law to adapt to
adoptate, creaz cadrul de dezvoltare al economic requirements, depending on the
economiei. social ends and interests. Economic phenomena
n acest sens, W. Lippman spunea c such as: production, reparation, circulation and
niciun om nu poate s posede bunuri, nici s consumption, economic reforms, the change to
se bucure deschis i n siguran de ele, dac the market economy take shape through the
acest lucru are loc n virtutea faptului c statul law, through adopted laws, and create the
este dispus s-i fie respectat dreptul su legal. framework of development of the economy. In
Fr titlu legal el nu are proprietate, el nu this sense, W. Lippman said that no man can
este dect un posesor lipsit de own property, nor openly and securely enjoy its
posibiliti mpotriva acelora care sunt destul benefits, if it is not by virtue of the fact that the
de puternici pentru a pune stpnire pe state is disposed to have his legal right
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bunurile lui (Lippmann , 1943, p. 278). respected. Without a legal title man has no
n cadrul oricrui tip de societate property, he is nothing but a possessor deprived
componenta economic este determinant, of possibilities to fight against those powerful
poart amprenta ideologiei specifice societii enough to appropriate what is his (Lippmann ,
n perioada respectiv. De exemplu, ideologia 1943, p. 278).
marxist de esen materialist-dialectic Within any type of society the economic
ntlnit n societile socialiste i comuniste component is decisive and it bears the mark of
de tip totalitar, considera c dreptul trebuie s the ideologies typical of the respective period.
corespund situaiei economice generale i For example, Marxist ideology, materialist-
tipului de economie impus de aceast ideologie dialectic in essence, as exemplified by
precum i c economia este cea care constituie totalitarian socialist and communist societies,
factorul determinant al dreptului. Pe de alt considers that the law should correspond to the
parte, ideologia liberal i neoliberal consacr general economic situation and the economic
teza conform creia dreptul trebuie s model imposed by this ideology and also that
recunoasc libertile i drepturile economice the economy constitutes the decisive factor of
(dreptul de a acumula bogii i capital, the law.
libertatea de a produce, de a comercializa On the other hand, liberal and neo-liberal
producia etc.), s garanteze economia ideologies sanction the thesis according to
contractual, s creeze un cadru adecvat which the law must acknowledge the economic
desfurrii acesteia. rights and liberties (the right to accumulate
Revoluia romn din 1989 a generat riches and capital, the freedom to produce and
schimbri radicale n societatea romneasc. to commercialise what is produced etc.), it
De la vechea economie, caracterizat de o must guarantee contractual economy and create
centralizare excesiv s-a trecut la o economie an adequate framework for this type of
de pia al crui principal factor propulsator a development.
devenit libera iniiativ a productorilor i The Romanian revolution of 1989 has
autonomia agenilor economici. Toate aceste generated radical changes in Romanian society.
principii au fost consacrate n Constituia rii The economy has shifted from the old,
i n legi speciale. excessively centralized economy to the market
Aceste transformri intervenite n aceti economy, whose main driving force is the free
ani au generat apariia unor norme initiative of manufacturers and the autonomy of
fundamentale menite s reglementeze relaiile economic agents. All these principles have
comerciale i s garanteze: libertatea been sanctioned by the countrys Constitution
comerului; concurena loial; stimularea and special laws.
investiiilor strine. The transformations that have occurred in
De asemenea, un alt exemplu l reprezint these last years have led to the advent of certain
actuala criz economic prin care trece Europa fundamental laws meant to regulate
i nu numai, i care, exercit o influen commercial relations and to guarantee: freedom
deosebit asupra elaborrii dreptului intern, dar of trade, loyal competition and the stimulation
i asupra dreptului comunitar i internaional, of foreign investments.
adoptndu-se norme prin care s se limiteze The current economic crisis plaguing
efectele acestei crize: de pild, n Spania a fost Europe and the rest of the world is also an
adoptat Legea economiei sustenibile sau n example of how the economy exerts
109
Romnia, Legea 118/2010 privind unele considerable influence over the development of
msuri necesare n vederea restabilirii not only domestic but also community and
echilibrului bugetar. Aadar, toate aceste international law: laws have been passed to
eforturi pentru crearea i perfecionarea limit the effect of this crisis. For example, the
cadrului legislativ al reformei economice Law for a Sustainable Economy has been
constituie o evident dovad a racordrii passed in Spain, while in Romania there is Law
dreptului la cerinele transformrilor 118/2010 concerning certain measures, which
economice. are necessary for reestablishing the budgetary
Nu n ultimul rnd, nu trebuie neglijat nici balance. Therefore, all these efforts made to
rolul mediilor financiar-bancare n constituirea create and perfect the legal framework of the
i funcionarea dreptului obiectiv n vigoare. economic reform constitute clear evidence of
Nicio societate nu are anse de reuit dac nu the connection between the law and the
mbin interesele i creditul de care se bucur requirements of the economic transformations.
cei bogai cu cele ale statului. O datorie Last but not least, we must not neglect the
naional, dac nu este excesiv de mare, va fi role of the financial and banking environment
pentru naiune o adevrat binecuvntare. Ca in the development and functioning of the
atare, plecnd de la aceste afirmaii, este clar objective law currently in force. No society
c nu doar orice drept pozitiv, dar i dreptul has any chance of success if it does not
internaional public i privat depind ntr-o combine the interests and the credit enjoyed by
msur subtil evaluabil de jocul de interese the wealthy with those of the state. A national
ale grupurilor interne i internaionale debt, if not an excessively large one, will be a
financiar-bancare (Marrs, 2000, p. 49). true blessing for the nation. As such, starting
from these statements, it is clear that not any
3. Conexiunea politic - drept positive law, but also public and private
O alt component care exercit influen international law depend to a subtly assessable
asupra dreptului, i asupra creia ne vom opri extent on the interests of internal and
n continuare, este mediul politic. Legtura international financial and banking groups
dreptului cu politica poate fi caracterizat ca (Marrs, 2000, p. 49).
fiind una complex.
Dreptul constituie un ansamblu de norme 3. The connection between politics and
care reglementeaz conduita unui grup social, the law
n timp ce politica apare ca o expresie a The political environment is another
aciunii puterii de stat. Dac n cazul dreptului component that exerts influence over the law,
suntem n prezena unor reguli prestabilite, on which we shall focus our discussions
mediul politic se particularizeaz prin libertate further.
de aciune. ns, ntre drept i politic apar The connection of the law with politics may
importante conexiuni. be characterised as a complexe one.
Relaia dintre acest factor i drept este The law constitutes an ensemble of norms
remarcabil relevat de profesorul Gheorghe C. that regulate the conduct of a social group,
Mihai care afirm: Limbajul juridic e ntr-o while the politics appears as an expression of
relaie ciudat cu limbajul politic; astfel, att the action of the state power. If in the case of
pentru unul, ct i pentru cellalt nu exist the law we are in presence of certain pre-
adevr, ci adevruri, ntre care se poate alege i established rules, the political environment
110
decide cu majoritatea celor ce decid prin distinguishes itself by its freedom of action.
vot.(...) Pentru politic nu exist iubire, iar However, between law and politics there are
pentru dreptul pozitiv ea nseamn cu totul important connections.
altceva (loialitate n relaii sexuale oficializate, The relation between this factor and the
solidaritate n relaiile dintre ceteni, ntre law is remarkably emphasized by Professor
sindicaliti) dect depire pe sine. Pentru Gheorghe C. Mihai who states: The legal
dreptul pozitiv, biserica (credin religioas language is in a particular relation with the
instituionalizat) este aceea recunoscut s political language; thus, there is no one single
funcioneze, chiar dac, pe de alt parte, el truth for one or the other but many truths, from
recunoate dreptul la opiune religioas. Pentru which one can choose and decide by majority
politic, biserica nu are nicio relevan dac nu-i of the vote. () There is no love in the
slujete scopurile. Pentru dreptul pozitiv political language and in the case of positive
cstoria e familia instituionalizat, n care law it means something completely different
partenerii pot fi: persoane majore de sex (loyalty in legitimate sexual relationships,
diferit. Pentru politic familia, chiar i solidarity between citizens, between members
instituionalizat, e o entitate depit (Mihai, of a syndicate) to surpassing oneself. In the
2009, pp. 283-284). case of positive law, the church
Problema influenei factorului politic (institutionalized religious faith) is the one
asupra activitii de creare a dreptului este acknowledged to work, even though, on the
veche, dar la fel de stringent i actual i other hand, it acknowledges the right to choose
astzi. ones religion. In the case of politics, the
Jean Carbonier fcea cu ceva timp n urm church has no relevance if it does not serve its
o observaie pertinent, ncercnd s denune ends. In the case of positive law, marriage
tendina politicului de a-i subordona dreptul: represents the institutionalized family, in which
evoluia structurilor sociale produce o the partners can be: mature persons of different
ncercare de subordonare dreptului de ctre sexes. In the case of politics, the family, even
politic, care n final conduce la degradarea an institutionalized one, is an outdated entity
relaiei dreptului cu societatea, legea nu mai (Mihai, 2009, pp. 283-284).
are n zilele noastre semnificaia pe care o avea The problem posed by the influence of the
odat. Ea nu este, n multe cazuri, acea maxim political factor over the creation of law is an
de conduit care era proclamat solemn cu old one, but it is just as pressing and current
intenia validitii ei pentru generaiile viitoare, today as ever.
ci o modalitate pentru stat de a da ordine unui Some time before, Jean Carbonier made a
grup mai mare sau mai mic de supui pertinent observation, trying to denounce the
(Carbonier, 1976, p. 115) sau ntr-o formulare tendency of politics to subordinate the law:
mai dur, juristul Rudolf von Ihering aprecia: the evolution of social structures leads to
Dreptul nu este principiul superior care politics subordinating the law, which finally
guverneaz lumea; el nu este un scop n sine, ci leads to the degradation of the relation between
mijlocul de a realiza un scop, care este the law and society, nowadays the law no
conservarea societii. Dac societatea nu se longer has the same significance it once had. It
poate menine n starea juridic actual, dac n is not, as in many cases an adage of conduct
privina aceasta dreptul nu poate s o ajute, solemnly proclaimed with the intention of
fora intervine i remediaz situaia. Stpnii validating it for future generations, rather a way
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neomenoi care i-au persecutat propriile for the state to establish order within a larger or
popoare, crmuindu-le cu scutul, au fcut smaller group of subjects (Carbonier, 1976,
pentru educaia juridic a omenirii tot att de p. 115) or in the rougher words of jurist
mult ct cei mai nelepi legiuitori ce au scris Rudolf von Ihering who ascertainted that: The
tablele legii (Von Ihering, 1877, p. 233). law is not a superior principle that governs the
Practic, din afirmaiile de mai de sus world; it is not an end in itself, rather the means
deducem c dreptul s-ar reduce la un simplu of achieving an end, meaning the preservation
mijloc de manipulare utilizat de puterea of society. If society cannot maintain the
politic, ceea ce n parte este adevrat. O current juridical conditions, if concerning this
analiz simpl a ctorva momente din istorie law the law cannot help society, force is used to
este suficient pentru a ne determina s aderm remedy the situation. The inhuman masters
la susinerile doctrinarilor citai mai sus, nsi who have persecuted their own people, leading
societatea romneasc actual, confruntndu-se them with the shield in hand, have done as
cu o asemenea adevrat criz a dreptului much for the juridical education of humanity as
obiectiv, iar una dintre cauzele acesteia este any of the wise legislators who have etched the
chiar aceast utilizare a dreptului ca o tiin a law in stone (Von Ihering, 1877, p. 233).
mijloacelor. Practically, from the statements above we
Este evident c toate regimurile politice, deduced that the law is reduced to a simple
fie totalitare, fie democratice au creat i au method of manipulation used by the political
utilizat dreptul obiectiv ca form de powers, which is partly true. A simple analysis
reglemetare normativ n propriile scopuri, iar of certain historic moments is sufficient to
pe de alt parte legea a servit la promovarea make us adhere to the statements of the
unor valori de natur a manipula populaia. doctrinaires previously quoted, contemporary
Comentnd aprecierile lui Rudolf von Romanian society itself is confrunted with a
Ihering, G. Ripert arta c de fapt, Ihering similar crisis of objective law, and one of the
nltur vemntul sacru i misterios al puterii causes of these crises is the use of the law as a
politice, care ar putea mpiedica punerea n science of means.
discuie a legilor pe care le dicteaz. Nu trebuie It is obvious that all political regimes,
confundat violena nedreapt cu fora social either totalitarian or democratic have created
care lupt pentru crearea dreptului, and used objective law as a form of normating
accentund c individul e mai presus de stat, regulation in the pursuit of their own goals, and
ns trebuie s respecte disciplina etatic, on the other side the law severd to promote
singura ordine care asigur pacea social. certain values that can manipulate the people.
n ce ne privete, orice norm juridic va fi By commenting Rudolf von Iherings
ferit de supremaia politicului atta timp ct se statements, G. Ripert shows us that actually,
va raporta la propriile sale criterii de valoare, Ihering draws away the sacred and mysterious
care o fac mai stabil i credibil n ceea ce veil from the face of the political powers,
privete reflectarea realitii sociale, ns fr a which can impede the discussion on laws that
nelege prin asta o izolare a dreptului de they dictate. We must not mistake unlawful
politicul, de la care i revendic paternitatea i violence for the social force that fights for the
cu care se afl interdependen, ci doar c creation of the law, and underline the fact that
dreptul trebuie s-i pstreze propria esen. the individual is above the state, however he
n doctrin, (Roubier, 1961, p. 277) n must abide by the state discipline, the only
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mod corect se susine c ntr-un stat order that can ensure peace in society.
democratic, dreptul ar trebuie s constituie o Speaking for ourselves, any legal norm
garanie a vieii politico sociale, o garanie a shall be protected from the supremacy of the
organizrii i funcionrii statului. Dreptul political as long as it relates to its own criteria
trebuie s se supun unei cenzuri proprii, chiar of value that make it more stable and credible
valorile societii contribuind la definirea as a reflection of the social reality, however
idealurilor acesteia. Dac dreptul nu are n without understanding thereby an isolation of
vedere acest scop, el se transform ntr-o the law from the political, wherefrom it claims
tiin a mijloacelor. its paternity and with which it exists in a inter-
Conceptul de putere politic, ntr-o dependence, but only that the law must keep its
exprimare simplist, dar relevant ar desemna own essence.
puterea polisului, n sensul de putere a Doctrine correctly upholds that in a
comunitii membrilor comunitii, care au democratic state, the law should constitute a
contiina apartenenei la ea. guarantee of the social-political life, a
Lato sensu, puterea politic presupune pe guarantee of the organisation and functioning
lng puterea exercitat de stat, deci partea of the state. The law must submit to its own
instituionalizat, i trsturile puterii politice. censure, to the values of society even, by
Este clar c exercitarea puterii politice nu contributing to the definition of societys
este posibil dect prin adoptarea unor acte ideals. If the law does not maintain this goal, it
normative care s reglementeze organizarea i becomes a science of means (Roubier, 1961, p.
funcionarea autoritilor. 277).
n acelai timp, elaborarea dreptului etatic The concept of political power, simply but
revine unui organ de stat, ca o component a relevantly put, designates the power of the
prii instituionalizate din puterea politic din polis, in the sense of power of the community
societate, i se datoreaz iniiativelor cu of members of the community that are
substrat politic din partea partidelor politice conscious of belonging to it.
existente. Limitarea restituirii proprietilor Lato sensu, political power implies besides
agricole la zece hectare, prin Legea nr. the power exercise by the state, i.e. the
18/1991, reglementrile actuale privind institutionalized part, the characteristics of the
obinerea ceteniei romne sau legea political power.
electoral n vigoare n Romnia, It is clear that exercising political power is
dezincriminarea homosexualitii etc, toate au not possible without passing certain laws to
un substrat politic, dat de coloratura politic a regulate the organization and functioning of the
majoritii parlamentare la momentul istoric authorities.
respectiv. Totui, forma reglementrii juridice At the same time, the development of state
i aplicarea ei se degreveaz n bun msur de law is the responsibility of a national body, as a
interesul politic partizan, cci altfel nu s-ar component of the institutionalized part of the
putea impune ca ndatorire general. n acelai political power in society, and it is owed to the
timp, fora dreptului pozitiv asigur dreptul initiatives with a political under-layer of the
forei politice care, valorificndu-1, i existent political parties. The limitation of
ajusteaz legitimitatea (Mihai, 2009, pp. 277- restituted agricultural properties to ten hectares,
278). through Law 18/1991, the current regulations
Asupra dreptului pozitiv i exercit concerning the acquisition of Romanian
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influena i grupurile de interese, adic acele citizenship or the electoral law in force in
structuri grupale, care n baza unei atitudini Romania, the decriminalization of
comune pot transmite celorlalte structuri homosexuality etc., all of these have a political
sociale intenia realizrii anumitor scopuri ce side, given by the political variety of the
vizeaz stabilirea, meninerea sau parliamentary majority at a certain moment in
intensificarea formelor de comportament n history. However, the form of the regulation
care sunt implicate atitudini comune. and its application is greatly relieved by the
Asemenea grupuri, bazate pe un sistem de partisan political interest, because thus it
interaciuni stabile, care respect distribuia cannot impose itself as a general obligation. At
general a intereselor n echilibru (pentru o the same time, the authority of the positive law
reacie organizat la presiunile externe asupra ensures the law of the political force, which
acestor interese), acioneaz pentru values it and adjusts its legitimacy (Mihai,
maximalizarea intereselor membrilor si. Ele 2009, pp. 277-278).
fac publice cauzele pe care le apr, sprijin The positive law is also influenced by
sau resping candidaturi la alegeri, dezbat interest groups, meaning those group
proiecte de legi, influeneaz legislativul prin structures that on the basis of a common
tacticile lobbby-ului etc. (Popa, 2007, p. 12). attitude can transmit to other social structures
Un rol din ce n ce mai mare n jocul the intention to reach certain ends that aim to
politic l au alturi de partidele politice, stabilize, maintain or intensify the forms of
grupurile de presiune. n funcie de statutul lor behaviour that involve common attitudes. Such
juridic, pot fi grupri cu caracter obligatoriu groups, based on a system of stable
(de exemplu: consiliile de administraie a interactions, which respect the general and
comunitilor teritoriale la nivelul comun, balanced distribution of interests (for an
ora, jude) sau cu caracter voluntar, care in de organized reaction to the external pressures on
dreptul privat (de exemplu: societile these interests), and act for a maximization of
industriale i comerciale, sindicatele .a.). De the interests of its members. They make the
regul, cile de aciune ale acestor grupuri causes that they defend, public and they
sunt: propaganda, jocul de influen (corupia support or reject the candidacies in elections,
este limita acestui tip de intervenie) precum i debate law projects, influence the legislative
prin aciuni directe: greva, blocarea strzilor through lobbying etc. (Popa, 2007, p. 12).
.a. The pressure groups play an ever more
Nu trebuie neglijat nici puterea important role in the political game besides the
minoritilor, definite ca un grup numeric political parties. Depending on their legal
inferior restului populaiei unui stat, posednd, status, there are compulsory groups (e.g.
din punct de vedere etnic, religios sau administrative councils of territorial
lingvistic, caractere care l difereniaz de cele communities in districts, cities, counties) or
ale restului populaiei i manifest, chiar de voluntary groups, pertaining to the private law
manier implicit, un sentiment de solidaritate, (e.g. industrial and commercial societies,
cu scopul de a-i prezerva cultura, tradiiile, syndicates and others). As a rule, the practices
religia i limba (Lajoie, 2002, p. 23). of these groups are: propaganda, influence
n unele state, asemenea grupuri sunt games (corruption is the limit of this practice)
organizate n partide politice, uniuni sau as well as through direct actions: strikes, street
asociaii legal nregistrate i recunoscute de blockades and so on.
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autoritile statale i lupt, printr-o mare One must not neglect the power of the
varietate de mijloace i metode, pentru ca minorities, defined as a group inferior in
puterea de stat s adopte reglementrile legale number to the rest of the population of a state,
solicitate (folosirea limbii materne n coli, which possesses certain ethnic, religious or
administraie i justiie, creterea gradului de linguistic characteristics that set it apart from
autonomie a localitilor n care acetia sunt the rest of the population and which manifests,
majoritari etc). in an implicit manner, a feeling of solidarity, in
order to preserve its culture, traditions, religion
4. Rolul societii civile n activitatea de and language (Lajoie, 2002, p. 23).
elaborare a dreptului In some states, such groups are organized
Societatea civil trebuie amintit i ea n in political parties, unions or associations
rndul factorilor de configurare a dreptului legally registered and recognized by the state
ntruct prin funciile pe care le exercit: authorities and fight through a great diversity
funcia de supraveghere a puterii publice, of means and methods to force the state to
funcia sancionatorie i cea educativ poate adopt the requested legal regulations (the use of
exercita o influen asupra elaborrii dreptului. the mother tongue in schools, the
De pild, prin intermediul funciei de administration and in justice, the increase of
supraveghere, societatea civil ine sub autonomy of settlements where they form a
presiune puterea public pentru ca aceasta s majority etc.).
reglementeze n manier corespunztoare
instituii fundamentale precum: proprietatea, 4. The role of the Civil Society in the
familia, dreptul la munc, dreptul la educaie Activities of Developing the law
.a. sau prin funcia sancionatorie Civil society must be mentioned among the
materializat n moiuni de cenzur, forme factors that configure the law through the
specifice de grev, dezbateri pe probleme de functions exercised: the function of supervising
interes pentru societate n general. the public powers, the function of sanctioning
Definit ca ansamblul formelor and educating can exercise an influence on the
organizatorice nestatale, apolitice, development of law. For example, by means of
fundamentate pe dreptul de liber asociere the supervising function, civil society keeps the
consfinit de Constituie, prin intermediul public power under pressure in order to
crora sunt exprimate public interesele regulate the fundamental institutions
specifice (economice, sociale, spirituale, accordingly: property, family, the right to
profesionale etc.) ale opiniei publice, constituie work, the right to an education etc. or by means
ansa pe care o au cei fr putere de a se of the sanctioning function which takes the
exprima, de a judeca puterea; ea poate i shape of censure motions, specific forms of
trebuie s fie o contra pondere n raport cu striking, debates on the matters of interest for
fora statului i a structurilor politice. Trebuie society in general.
s fie cea care promoveaz adevrata esen a Civil society is defined as an ensemble of
solidaritii umane, cea care determin apolitical and non-governmental forms of
implicarea cetenilor n treburile cetii organization, founded on the right to free
ncepnd cu respectarea drepturilor i association as sanctioned by the Constitution,
libertilor fundamentale individuale i through which specific public interests
colective, lupta mpotriva corupiei i (economic, social, spiritual, professional etc.)
115
criminalitii, a ignoranei i birocraiei, of the public opinion are expressed, it

asigurarea traiului decent, ocrotirea mediului, constitutes the opportnity of those without
modernizarea nvmntului, culturii i artei power to express themselves; it can and must
etc. (Voicu, 2006, pp. 53-54). act as a counterweight in relation to the force ot
n ara noastr, chiar dac n prezent, rolul the state and the political strutures. It must
societii civile este unul destul de ambiguu, promote the true essence of human solidarity,
marcat de multe ori de partizanate politice, which determines the citizens to become
totui aceasta a obinut un succes notabil care involved in the business of the city-state,
ne permite s susinem c este nevoie s-i beginning with respect for the fundamental
asume calitatea de factor de configurare a individual and collective rights and liberties,
dreptului. Este vorba de rolul marcant pe care the fight against corruption and criminality,
1-a avut n influenarea puterii legislative de a ignorance and bureaucracy, ensuring a decent
reglementa organizarea i funcionarea celor living, protecting the environment,
mai importante elemente ale sale: sindicatele modernizing teaching, culture and art etc.
(Legea nr. 54/1991), patronatele (Legea nr. (Voicu, 2006, pp. 53-54).
356/2001 i H.G. 503/1991), asociaiile i In our country, even at present, the role of
fundaiile respectiv organizaiile the civil society is sufficiently ambiguous,
neguvernamentale (O.G. 26/2000, Legea nr. marked frequently by political parties, and yet it
34/1998) .a. experienced a notable success, which allows us
to state that it is necessary to assume its role in
5. Influena mediului socio-politic configurating the law. This has to do with the
internaional asupra elaborrii dreptului noteworthy role that it has had in influencing
intern the legislative power, in regulating the
Existena oamenilor se desfor nu numai organization and functioning of the most
n cadrul socio-politic naional, ci existena lor important of its elements: syndicates (Law
presupune i calitatea de membrii ai 54/1991), patronages (Law 356/2001 and H.G.
comunitii regionale i internaionale. 503/1991), asociations, foundations and non-
Raporturile care apar la nivelul comunitii governmental organizations (O.G. 26/2000,
internaionale care, n mare parte sunt relaii Law 34/1998) and others.
interstatale, creeaz un anumit climat
internaional ce se concretizeaz n diferite 5. The influence of the international
categorii de norme i principii, care formeaz social-political environment on the
ordinea juridic internaional. Un exemplu development of internal law
care reflect fora de influenare a dreptului Peoples lives take place not only within the
intern de ctre particularitile existenei national socio-political framework, their
umane la nivelul structurilor internaionale, de existence involves their belonging to the
formele de organizare a relaiilor la acest nivel, members of a regional and international
precum i de specificul ideologiei sociale, l communities.
constituie principiile ce stau la baza dreptului The relations formed at the level of the
internaional contemporan: principiul international community, consisting mostly of
cooperrii ntre state, principiul soluionrii relations between states, create a certain
panice a diferendelor internaionale; international climate, which materializes in
nerecurgerea la for sau la ameninarea cu different categories of laws and principles,
116
fora; neamestecul n treburile interne; dreptul which form the international legal system. The
popoarelor de a dispune de ele nsele; principles at the foundation of the
egalitatea suveran a statelor; inviolabilitatea contemporary international law are a relevant
frontierelor; integritatea teritorial; respectarea example of the power to influence the domestic
drepturilor i libertilor fundamentale ale law by the existing human particularities at the
omului i nu n ultimul rnd respectarea cu level of the international structures, by the
bun credin a obligaiilor asumate n forms of organization of the relations at this
conformitate cu dreptul internaional. level as well as the specific characteristic of the
Este de necontestat c n societatea social ideology. These principles include the
contemporan arhitectura sistemelor de drept principle of cooperation between states, the
naionale este influenat de mediul socio- principle of a peaceful solution of international
politic internaional i european. differences; not resorting to force or threats to
Astfel, calitatea Romniei de stat membru use force; noninvolvement in the domestic
al Uniunii Europene i apartenena la marea matters of other countries; the right of the
familie a statelor lumii (Organizaia Naiunilor peoples to lead themselves; the equal
Unite) genereaz printre altele i obligaia sovereignty of all nations; the inviolability of
principal a armonizrii dreptului romnesc cu national boarders; territorial integrity; the
dreptul internaional i cel unional. respect for basic human rights and liberties and
n prezent, crearea unei legislaiei la nivel last but not least the respect in good faith for
intern implic nu doar un efort de organizare the obligations assumed in accordance with
tehnic, de corelare naional, ci i unul de international law.
corelare comunitar i internaional. n acest It is indisputable that in contemporary
sens, art. 12 din Legea nr. 24/2000 privind society the structure of the national legal
normele de tehnic legislativ pentru systems is influenced by the international and
elaborarea actelor normative, republicat n European socio-political environment.
2004 stabilete c actul normativ trebuie s se Thus, the status of Romania as a member
integreze organic n sistemul legislaiei, scop n state of the European Union and as a part of the
care: a) proiectul de act normativ trebuie great family of the states of the world (the
corelat cu prevederile actelor normative de United Nations) generates the obligation to
nivel superior sau de acelai nivel, cu care se harmonize Romanian law with the international
afl n conexiune; b) proiectul de act normativ, and UN law.
ntocmit pe baza unui act de nivel superior, nu At present, the creation of domestic
poate depai limitele competenei instituite prin legislation involves not only an effort to
acel act i nici nu poate contraveni principiilor achieve technical organization, national
i dispoziiilor acestuia; c) proiectul de act correlation, but also one to achieve community
normativ trebuie s fie corelat cu and international correlation. In this sense,
reglementarile comunitare i cu tratatele article 12 from Law 24/2000 concerning the
internaionale la care Romnia este parte. norms of legislative technique for the
Prin urmare, elaborarea unui proiect de act development of normative acts, republished in
normativ implic armonizarea cu prevederile 2004, established that the normative act must
tratatelor internaionale la care ara noastr este be organically integrated into the legislative
parte i intervine n baza principiului system, for which purpose: a) the bill must be
respectrii tratatelor internaionale. ntre legea correlated with the stipulations of laws of the
117
intern i un tratat international nu pot aprea same or a higher level, with which it is
discrepane, ntruct ntr-un asemenea caz connected; b) the bill, drawn up on the basis of
legea naional ar face inoperabile dispoziiile a higher level act, cannot surpass the limits of
din tratate, ceea ce ar genera nerespectarea competence instituted through this act and
obligaiilor asumate i a principiului pacta sunt cannot contravene its principles and
servanda prevzut n Constituia Romniei. De stipulations; c) the bill must be correlated with
asemenea, corelarea unui proiect de act the community regulations and the
normativ cu tratatele internaionale intervine i international treaties, of which Romania is a
n baza principiului prioritii tratatelor signatory.
internaionale n materia drepturilor omului, Therefore, the development of a legal
consacrat de art. 20 din Constituia Romniei project involves the harmonization of the
(Grigore, 2009, p. 286). stipulations from international treaties, of
Mai mult, ca urmare a aderrii i n final a which our country is a signatory and intervenes
integrrii Romniei n Uniunea European, din on the basis of the principle of respecting
punct de vedere juridic, s-a nscut i o nou in- international treaties. There can be no
terferen, ntre dreptul naional i cel al discrepancies between a domestic law and an
Uniunii Europene. Ca orice alt stat membru, international treaty, because in such a case the
Romnia i-a asumat obligaia corelrii domestic law would render the stipulations of
legislaiei interne cu legislaia comunitar prin the treaty inoperable, which would lead to
transpunerea i implementarea n ordinea breaking the obligations assumed and of the
juridica intern a acquis-ului comunitar, mai principle pacta sunt servanda stipulated in the
exact actele normative interne trebuie s fie Romanian Constitution. Also, the correlation of
conforme cu reglementrile dreptului a law project with the international treaties
comunitar. intervenes on the basis of the principle of
Prin urmare, este de necontestat priority of international treaties concerning
constatarea potrivit creia mediul social-politic human rights, as sanctioned by article 20 from
naional i internaional exercit influene the Romanian Constitution (Grigore, 2009, p.
marcante asupra elaborrii dreptului, 286).
constituind o veritabil surs real a acestuia. More than that, as a consequence of the
adherence and finally of the integration of
BIBLIOGRAFIE: Romania in the European Union, from a legal
1. Carbonier, J., 1976, Flexible droit (LGDJ, point of view, a new interference was created
Paris).
between the national and community law. As
2. Djuvara, M., 1999, Teoria general a
dreptului. Drept raional, izvoare i drept pozitiv (Ed. any other member of the European Union,
All Beck, Bucureti). Romania has assumed the obligation to
3. Grigore, Mihai, 2009, Tehnica normativ correlate the national legislation with the
(Ed. C.H. Beck, Bucureti). community legislation through the translation
4. Lajoie, A., 2002, Quand les minorites font la
and implementation of the community acquis
loi (P.U.F., Paris).
5. Lippmann, W., 1943, The Good Society into the domestic legal system. This acquis
(Grossef s Universal Library, New York). consists of domestic laws that must be in
6. Marrs, J., 2000, Rule by Secrecy, accordance with the regulations of community
(Bucureti). law.
7. Mihai, Gheorghe C., 2009, Fundamentele
Dreptului. tiina dreptului i ordinea juridic, vol. I
118
(Editura C.H. Beck, Bucureti). BIBLIOGRAPHY:

8. Popa, N., 2007, Consideraii privind 1. Carbonier, J., 1976, Flexible droit (LGDJ,
dimensiunea social a dreptului i factorii de configurare Paris).
a acestuia, Revista de tiine Juridice nr. 2/2007, 12. 2. Djuvara, M., 1999, Teoria general a dreptului.
9. Roubier, Paul, 1961, Theorie generale du Drept raional, izvoare i drept pozitiv (Ed. All Beck,
droit (Paris). Bucureti).
10. Voicu, Costic, 2006, Teoria general a 3. Grigore, Mihai, 2009, Tehnica normativ (Ed.
dreptului (Bucureti). C.H. Beck, Bucureti).
11. Von Ihering, Rudolf, 1877, Der Zwegh in 4. Lajoie, A., 2002, Quand les minorites font la
Recht (Berlin). loi (P.U.F., Paris).
5. Lippmann, W., 1943, The Good Society
(Grossef s Universal Library, New York).
6. Marrs, J., 2000, Rule by Secrecy (Bucureti).
7. Mihai, Gheorghe C., 2009, Fundamentele
Dreptului. tiina dreptului i ordinea juridic, vol. I
(Ed. C.H. Beck, Bucureti).
8. Popa, N., 2007, Consideraii privind
dimensiunea social a dreptului i factorii de configurare
a acestuia, Revista de tiine Juridice nr. 2/2007, 12.
9. Roubier, Paul, 1961, Theorie generale du droit
(Paris).
10. Voicu, Costic, 2006, Teoria general a
dreptului (Bucureti).
11. Von Ihering, Rudolf, 1877, Der Zwegh in Recht
(Berlin).
119
LUMEA N TIMPUL EI. THE WORLD IN ITS TIMES.

STUDIU ASUPRA DISCURSULUI A STUDY OF YEATSS POETIC
POETIC DISCOURSE VS THE CONCEPT OF
AL LUI YEATS VS CONCEPTUL DE HISTORY
ISTORIE
Maria Camelia Dicu, University Assistant
62
Asist. univ. Maria Camelia Dicu
Abstract: Had not Yeats made all the changes in style,
Abstract: Dac Yeats nu ar fi fcut toate schimbrile n method and personality, his prestige would not have
ceea ce privete stilul, metoda i personalitatea, been of a writer of remarkable consistency and power.
prestigiul su nu ar fi fost cel al unui scriitor de o The boy who dreamed to conquer the world with a
remarcabil consisten i putere. Biatul care visa s magician wand, the man who during a lifetime did
cucereasc lumea cu bagheta magic a unui magician, everything in his power to revive the old Irish culture,
mai apoi brbatul care n timpul vieii a fcut tot ce i-a the author who reinvented the Irish literature and
stat n putere pentru a renvia vechea cultur irlandez, contributed to shaping Irelands national identity, did
autorul care a reniventat literatura irlandez i a succeed in having his name inscribed among the most
contribuit la modelarea identitii irlandeze a reuit s- valuable world-class writers. The most beloved among
i nscrie numele printre cei mai valoroi scriitori din the Irish writers, the old man who expressed his desire
literatura universal. Cel mai iubit dintre scriitorii not to be buried in a place where nobody knew him and
irlandezi, btrnul care i-a exprimat dorina de a nu fi the artist who wanted to take the shape of a golden bird
nmormntat ntr-un loc unde nimeni nu-l cunoate, to sing to lords and ladies of Byzantium of what is past
artistul care a dorit s se rencarneze ntr-o pasre de and present or to come, Yeats and some of the finest
aur care s cnte doamnelor i domnilor din Bizan writers that Ireland produced, managed to put their
despre trecut, prezent i viitor, Yeats mpreun cu ali homeland on the literary map. In the present article we
scriitori de prim clas pe care i-a produs Irlanda au will deal with the most important of Yeatss endeavours,
reuit s pun Irlanda pe hart. making use of Paul Ricoeurs study and also of other
n articolul de fa ne vom ocupa de o trecere scholars articles which are meant to enlighten our
succint n revist a celor mai importante realizri ale research.
scriitorului irlandez prin prisma studiului lui Paul
Ricoeur, dar i ali teoreticieni, care au dat o Key-words: poetry, history, time, critical approach,
interpretare proprie, strduinelor literare ale lui Yeats artist, Irish literature
cu scopul de a pune n lumin cercetarea noastr.
Cuvinte cheie: poezie, istorie, timp, abordare critic,

artist, literatur irlandez
W.B.Yeats himself stated in the draft of

Dup cum Yeats nsui afirma ntr-o
his lecture Friends of My Youth, it is necessary
ciorn a cursului su Prieteni ai tinereii mele,
to know a poets life in order to understand his
este necesar s cunoti viaa unui poet pentru
poetry, since art and an artists personal life
a-i nelege poezia, ntruct arta i viaa
cannot exist separately. Consequently, in order
personal a unui scriitor nu pot exista separat.
to have a good grasp of Yeatss entire work it is
Prin urmare pentru a nelege mai bine ntreaga
advisable to take a look at his biography and,
oper a scriitorului irlandez, am ntreprins o
above all, at his Autobiographies, all of these
cercetare asupra biografiilor sale, dar i asupra
interpreted in the context of a nightmarish
operei sale memorialistice Autobiografii, toate
history, as well as in the whirl of time passing,
62
Universitatea Constantin Brancusi din Tg-Jiu, cami_dicu@yahoo.com
120
interpretate n contextul unei istorii de comar, both of them so well represented in Yeatss
dar i n vortexul timpului, ambele coordonate oeuvre.
de baz n opera lui Yeats. After doing research on the biographies
Dup cercetarea minuioas ntreprins written by noteworthy writers such as Richard
asupra operei aparinnd unor biografi de Ellmann, Terence Brown or Roy Foster, it is of
seam, precum Richard Ellmann, Terence utterly importance to say that the marriage
Brown sau Roy Foster este important de between John Butler Yeats and Susan Mary
menionat c Yeats este produsul uniunii a Pollexfen brought together two clans of Irish
dou clanuri care ntruchipeaz esena clase de Protestants belonging to the middle class. Both
mijloc aparinnd Protestanilor irlandezi: of them were part of the structure of Protestant
familiile Yeats i Pollexfen. Ambele familii Ascendancy in Ireland, and yet they pertained
fceau parte din protipendada irlandezilor to different and even contrasting individual
protestani, dar la o cercetare mai atent cultures. Nevertheless, it is precisely this
descoperim c existau caracteristici diferite la combination which should be considered
origini, trecut, mentalitate i starea material. responsible for the creation of a poet who
n ciuda acestor diferene se poate sublinia c would manage to awaken the senses of an
tocmai aceste diferene au constituit entire nation, as John Butler Yeats once stated.
ingredientele care au contribuit la naterea unui Despite the fact that his parents were different
poet care a reuit s trezeasc simurile unei as cultural background, origin, mentality and
naiuni ntregi, dup cum afirma John Butler wealth it is to be emphasized that the clans to
Yeats, tatl poetului. which they belonged were both Irish, as Susan
William Butler Yeats era cel mai mare Mary, Yeatss sister, puts it in a letter to a
dintre cei patru copii ai familiei care au friend: We are far more Irish than all the
supravieuit. Copiii Yeats au crescu n general Saints and Martyrs.
la Londra, dar datorit greutilor financiare, William Butler Yeats was the eldest of the
familia trebuia s fac naveta ntre Londra i four surviving children of the young Anglo-
Sligo. n contextul drumurilor ntre micul Irish family. The children grew up in Sligo, but
orel de pe coasta estic a Irlandei i oraul due to financial difficulties the Yeatses had to
capital a Londrei, amintirile micului Will sunt commute between Sligo and London. In the
ambigui. Prin urmare el a nceput de timpuriu context of travelling between the small coast
s-i pun ntrebri cu privire la identitatea lui, Irish town and the capital-city of England,
care pare s oscileze ntre a fi englez sau London, the memories of the young William
irlandez ctva timp, dup care, n cele din became ambiguous. Subsequently, he started to
urm a fost clar recunoscut ca fiind irlandez. question his identity and he seemed to vacillate
Cum i petrecea cea mare parte a timpului la between being English or Irish for a long time,
Sligo, amintirile poetului sunt bntuite de until his Englishness was eventually replaced
figura bunicului din partea mamei, care n by Irish-ness. As he spent most of his
mintea bieelului s-a identificat cu figura childhood in Sligo, Yeatss memories are
mitic a unui erou irlandez. Lipsit de dragostea haunted by the figures of his grandparents, by
matern, din cauza problemelor de sntate ale his grandfathers especially, who embodies the
mamei, micul Will i-a canalizat dragostea i figure of a mythical hero in the little boys
afeciunea n alt direcie: Sligo. Sligo, ora i mind. Lacking maternal affection because of
regiune, cu navele sale, marinarii i povetile his mothers psychological illness, little Willie
121
lor, dar i istoria i filonul mitologic al looked for something else to stream his flow of
locurilor l-au ajutat pe copilul Yeats s-i feelings. And his feelings streamed over a
definitiveze prerea despre identitatea lui, place. Sligo, town and county with its ships,
despre naiunea creia i aparinea. Sligo a sailing, sailors stories and sea, as well as its
rmas n sufletul i n mintea poetului pn n rich mythology and history is the place that
clipa cea de urm i probabil umbra lui este tot helped the boyish imagination restore the first
acolo, din moment ce a lsat cu limb de stage of his self. Sligo remained in the poets
moarte s fie nmormntat acolo, sub Ben mind and soul until the day he died, and his
Bulben. soul is probably still there since his will was to
Studiul lui Paul Ricoeur, Istoria, memoria, be buried under Ben Bulben.
uitarea a nlesnit cercetarea asupra vieii i This research was accomplished through
operei lui Yeats, deoarece asigur cadrul critic the critical and philosophical approach of Paul
i filozofic potrivit pentru ideea de amintire i Ricoeurs study, History, Memory, Forgetting.
constituie suportul cercetrii prezente. n The study provides and appropriate framework
lumina studiului lui Ricoeur, n special n on the idea of memory, which is necessary to
prima parte dedicat fenomenologiei amintirii/ support the viewpoints stated in the present
memoriei, poate fi stabilit o legtur ntre endeavour. In the light of Paul Ricoeurs study,
fenomenologia amintirii i Autobiografii a lui especially the first part devoted to the
Yeats. Teoreticianul afirm c grecii au dou phenomenology of memory, a connection can
cuvinte pentru amintire, unul care se refer la be established between the phenomenology of
ceva care apare n stare pasiv, mneme, pe remembrance and Yeatss Autobiographies.
cnd cellalt reprezint obiectul unei cutri, The theoretician states that the Greeks have
anamnesis. n limba englez, exist dou two words for recalling, one to designate
cuvinte care se refer la aceeai semnificaie; something which emerges in a passive way,
unul este memory, care se refer la procesul and that is mneme, and one which is the object
de a reproduce sau a-i aminti ceva ce s-a of a search, and that is anamnesis. In the
nvat fcnd asociaii i remembrance, care English language there are two words to refer
se refer la ceva ce servete pentru a ine to pretty much the same thing. One of them is
minte63. memory referring to the process of
Prin cele spuse mai sus, se poate face reproducing or recalling what has been learned
legtura cu ziua de Crciun, 1914, cnd Yeats through associative mechanisms, and the
ncepe s-i aminteasc de fapte din trecut i second is remembrance, which among other
astfel se nasc Autobiografiile, ca rezultat al meanings refers to something that serves to
cutrii voluntare (anamensis, folosind keep in or bring to mind.
cuvntul grecesc sau remembrance, folosind Hence, when on Christmas Day, 1914,
cuvntul englezesc). Pe cnd se afla la Londra, Yeats starts to recollect things from his past in
n tinereea lui, trecnd pe lng o fntn din order to write Autobiographies, the result is the
Hollander Street, i amintete de insula object of a search (an anamnesis, using the
Innisfree, ceea ce Platon64 numete Greek word, or remembrance, using the
reprezentarea prezent a unui lucru absent sau English word). When in his youth in London,
imagine absent (cvasi-vizibil sau auditiv). he sees a drinking fountain on Hollander Street
63
Definiii din Merriam Webster Collegiate Dictionary
64
Paul Ricoeur, Memory, History, Forgetting, trad.Kathleen Blamey i David Pellauer, Chicago, London, University Chicago Press, 2004, p.22
122
Aceast opinie este ntrit i de ceea ce afirm which reminds him of the Innisfree Island, this
Spinoza n Etica. Astfel, el spune c atunci is what Plato (Ricoeur: 22) called the present
cnd o persoan este impresionat de unul sau representation of an absent thing or image,
mai multe obiecte n acelai timp, n timp ce i image that can be either quasi-visual or audible.
amintete de unul, i celelate vor nsoi This opinion is strengthened by what Spinoza
imaginea auditiv sau cvasi-vizual creat. says in his Ethics (Ricoeur: 19). According to
Spinoza numete aceasta scurt-circuit ntre him, when a person is impressed by two or
memorie, imaginaie i o asociaie de idei more objects at the same time, while recalling
ntruct susine el, exist o strns legtur one of them, the other objects will be
ntre memorie i imaginaie. Pornind de la remembered as well. Spinoza calls this a short
teoria lui Spinoza, Ricoeur gsete o diferen circuit between memory, imagination and an
ntre fantezie, pe de-o parte i memorie, ce se association of ideas, since there is a close
adreseaz unei realiti anterioare, care connection between memory and imagination.
marcheaz obiectul amintirii, pe de alta. Starting from Spinozas theory, Paul Ricoeur
Tot legat de memorie, motenim din finds a difference between fantastic comprising
filozofia greac dou teze. Dac Aristotel fictions, unreal, possible, utopia on the one
susine c obiectul memoriei este strict legat de hand, and memory addressing to a previous
trecut, Platon sugereaz c memoria poate scrie reality, which marks the object to be
cuvinte n sufletul nostru, atunci cnd remembered, on the other hand.
ntlnete senzaii i impresii puternice. Also connected to memory, Greek
Combinnd cele dou ipoteze, Ricoeur ajunge philosophy left us two theses. The first of them
la o alt opinie, potrivit creia memoria poate pertains to Plato. In his Dialogues, he begins
fi influenat de afeciune, i n acest caz, ceea his demonstration with the metaphor of the wax
ce i amintete cineva trebuie vzut ca o imprint, the error being a wiping of tracks.
imagine de altcineva, care dorete s-i Socrates frames the phenomenology of error,
aminteasc (Ricoeur o numete amintire). Din according to which the soul is a mould in
acest punct de vedere, Ricoeur afirm c which impressions are sealed. The way in
memoria este corelat cu ambiia de a which these sensations are sealed depends on
reproduce n mod fidel trecutul, care pentru the wax, soft-tough or pure-impure. Then Plato
Yeats devine o condiie: se teme c cineva l-ar passes to analyze the metaphor of the portrait,
putea acuza c nu spune adevrul.65 beginning with graphical art and language art,
La un moment dat, Ricoeur face referire la called spoken fictions by Dies (Ricoeur: 26)
privirea interioar i privirea exterioar and spoken images by Noica (Ricoeur: 26),
folosind opinii ale Sfntului Augustine, John at the same time stating that imitation and
Locke i Huserl i ajunge la concluzia c magic are not separate. The art of rendering
memoria individual este stpna ei. i ncepe images may be read as the art to imitate (Dies)
demonstaia cu o analiz subtil a experienei or as the art of conceiving phantasma - as
personale a unui individ ce aparine unui grup Plato calls it. If in the course of his Dialogues,
i trage concluzia c memoria unui individ este Socrates suggests that when memory
irelevant n comparaie cu memoria colectiv, encounters sensations and affections, these may
care poate sta n faa istoriei i evenimentelor write words in our souls, Aristotle asserts that
65
William Butler Yeats, Autobiographies, William H. ODonnell i Douglas N. Archibald editori, New York, Scribner, p.3
123
istorice. Cu toate acestea, ele nu sunt singurele the object of memory is strictly related to the
caracteristice concluzive ale memoriei. ntre past. A combination of the two hypotheses
cei doi poli, memoria colectiv i memoria would suggest that memory can be influenced
individual, Ricoeur gsete o a treia, care by affection and, in this case, what one
const n amintirile individului nsui i cele remembers needs to be thought of as a picture
ale comunitii din care face parte/ i aparine. of what one wants to remember (Ricoeur calls
n contextul celor afirmate de Ricoeur, it remembrance). In this respect, Ricoeur
Autobiografiile lui Yeats stau mrturie pentru states that memory is connected with the
sinele primar i cel literar. n acest sens, Felicia ambition of being faithful to the past, which for
Burdescu66 afirm c dintotdeauna a existat o Yeats was more like a condition, because he
cunotin a contiinei creatoare, chiar feared that somebody might accuse him of not
ncepnd cu Clasicismul, pe cnd la Romantici telling the truth (Autobiographies: 3).
se punea accent pe contiina de sine. Mai At a certain point of his philosophical
trziu, n Modernism, contiina de sine a endeavour, Ricoeur approaches inwardness and
devenit o obsesie. Punctul de vedere de mai sus outward view, using opinions of Augustine,
poate constitui o explicaie edificatoare pentru John Locke and Husserl, and reaches the idea
notele autobiografice ale lui Yeats, care declar that individual memory becomes the master of
c multe din amintirile legate de copilria sa itself. He begins his demonstration with a
erau dureroase, dup care spune c amintirile subtle analysis of the personal experience of an
durerose sunt legate de descoperirea sinelui i individual belonging to a group, and reaches
c de fapt, cu ct cretea, devenea mai fericit. the conclusion that an individuals memory is
Pe msur ce-i descoper privire interioar, irrelevant if compared with collective memory,
poate afirma c durerea nu era provocat de which is the only one, entitled to stand before
ceilali, ci de rezultatul firesc al anxietii pe history and historical events. Nevertheless
care o simea, pe msur ce i dezvolta these are not the sole conclusive characteristics
coniina de sine. Descoperindu-i vocea of memory. Between the two poles, individual
contiinei67, se confrunt cu probleme cum ar and collective memory, Ricoeur finds a third
fi identitatea (chiar dac era contient c memory (Ricoeur: 161), an intermediate one,
bunicul Pollexfen era legat de Irlanda de mai which consists of an interchangeable dimension
multe generai), dezvoltarea brbiei sau between an individuals memories of himself,
chestiuni legate de ndeletnicirile literare. Mai and the memories of the community to which
trziu gsete prieteni, prietene mai ales, ca de he belongs. In order to emphasize this, Paul
exemplu Katharine Tynan, cu care dezbate Ricoeur quotes Augustine (Ricoeur: 162) in
probleme diverse familiarul Sligo68 i saying that he only awaits approval or
Londra murdar i plictisitoare69, inteniile disapproval from those who love him and care
sale privind o coal de poezie, Irlanda i about him, and that he would unveil himself
calitatea de a fi irlandez. Tot Katharine Tynan only to those next to him who may not approve
este cea creia Yeats i mprtete ambiia sa his activities, but who are unlikely to
de a deveni romancier, dorina sa de a scrie i disapprove his existence.
66
Felicia Burdescu Focseneanu, Sinele si cellalt. probleme ale dedublri n poezia lui Lucian Blaga i William Butler Yeats, Editura Universal
Dalsi, 1999, p.70
67
W.B. Yeats, Reveries over Childhood and Youth in Autobiographies, William H. ODonnell, Douglas N. Archibald editors, New York, 1999,
p. 13
68
W. B. Yeats, Letters to Katharine Tynan, Ed. Roger McHugh, New York, McMullen Books, 1953, p.36
69
Idem, p. 26
124
totodat de a rescrie poezie, cri de folclor i In the context of Paul Ricoeurs study,
teatru, precum i despre visul su de a-i gsi W.B.Yeatss Autobiographies are nothing else
un nou stil literar. than a matter of probing for both his primary
Cu scopul de a nelege dorina lui Yeats self and the literary self. At this point, Felicia
de a-i gsi un nou stil literar, am gsit c Burdescu (Burdescu: 70) states that there has
studiul lui Margaret Fogarty, It is myself that been an awareness of the creative
I remake: The Shaping Self of W.B. Yeatss consciousness beginning with Classicism,
Autobiographies, este deosebit de util. n whereas in Romanticism emphasis is laid on
interpretarea Autobiografiilor, Margaret self-consciousness. Later on, self-
Fogarty suine c pentru Yeats arta este un consciousness has become an obsession in
infinit acces la stri revelatoare ale minii.70n Modernism. The above opinion may be an
opinia ei, ocultismul poetului este de fapt o appropriate explanation for Yeatss
ncercare de a-i uura sufletul de pre-plinul autobiographical notes. He declares that much
tririlor interioare pentru a obine un misterios of the memories of his childhood were painful
altul, pe care l considera arhitectul operei (Autobiographies: 12), and yet he soon draws
nsi, gata s ndeplineasc misiunea vieii lui: the conclusion that he has grown happier with
dac norocul sau ghinionul mi va face viaa every year. As he gradually begins to discover
interesant, voi fi un mare poet, pentru c himself, he realises that his pain was not caused
aceasta nu va mai ine de literatur.71 by others, and instead it was the natural
Despre, strile de spirit lui Yeats nu aflm outcome of the anxiety he felt while he was
numai din Autobiografii sau Scrisori, ci i din developing his self-consciousness.
opera nsi a scriitorului. Poezia lui Yeats Discovering the voice of his conscience
poate fi considerat autobiografic, dup cum (Autobiographies: 13), he is confronted with
poetul nsui scrie ntr-o scrisoare adresat matters like his identity (even if he has always
Katharinei Tynan: viaa mea este n poezii; known that his grandfather Pollexfen was
pentru a le scrie, mi-am pisat viaa ntr-un linked with Ireland for generations), matters
mojar.72O examinare a articolului lui Joseph concerning his manhood, and finally matters
Ronsley, Yeats as an Autobiographical Poet, regarding his literary endeavours. Later on he
are rolul de a sublinia cele spuse mai sus. finds friends, women friends particularly, like
Astfel Ronsley noteaz c poezia lui Yeats este for instance Katharine Tynan, with whom he
fr ndoial autobiografic, deoarece poeziile debated on almost all these matters - the
exprim tririle interioare fa de evenimente familiar Sligo ( Yeats 1953: 36) and the
din istoria rii lui i oglindesc experiene de dull, dirty London (Yeats 1953: 26), as well
via. Poezia scris nainte de sfritul as his intentions regarding a school of Irish
secolului, Rtcirile lui Oisin, reprezint o poetry, Ireland and Irish-ness. Katharine was
alegorie a crei simboluri ascund elemente also the one to whom he had entrusted his
autobiografice; poeziile din volumul ambition to become a novelist, his wish to
Crossways exprim mrturii ale trecerii sale la write and re-write poetry, books of folklore,
vrsta maturitii, dei poetul nsui afirm c and theatre, and his intention to find a new
70
Margaret Fogarty, It is myself that I remake: The Shaping Self of W.B.Yeatss Autobiographies in Critical Approaches to Anglo-Irish
Literature, Eds. Michael Allen, Angela Wilcox, Barnes and Noble Books, 1998, p.76
71
W.B. Yeats, Autobiographies, William H. ODonnell, Douglas N. Archibald editors, New York, 1999, p. 127
72
William Butler Yeats, Letters to Katharine Tynan, Ed. Roger McHugh, New York, McMullen Books, 1953, p.64
125
volumul reprezint o evadare pe trmul literary style.

znelor din realitate i nicidecum tipul de In order to understand Yeatss desire to
poezie la care visase, o poezie care s exprime create a new literary style in his writing, we
triri interioare i cunoatere.73 Alte poezii need to consider Margaret Fogartys essay It
imortalizeaz ipostaze ale inutului Sligo, n is myself that I remake: The Shaping Self of
timp ce altele reflect dragostea lui pentru W.B.Yeatss Autobiographies. In her reading
Maud Gonne, care se gsesc ntr-o form of Yeatss Autobiographies she argues that for
ascuns i n volumul The Rose. Poeziile de Yeats art is an endless access to revelatory
dragoste din The Wind Among the Reeds l states of mind (Fogarty: 76). In her opinion,
dezvluie pe Yeats purtnd masca iubitului his occultism is actually an attempt to alleviate
universal. Dragostea lui nu se adreseaz unei his soul from the surplus of inward feelings and
singure femei, ci ea exist de dragul thoughts, in order to obtain a purer mysterious
experienei. n volumul The Seven Woods Other, which he considered to be the
cunoatem stradania lui de a nfiina Teatrul architect of the work itself (Fogarty: 76),
Naional Irlandez, Abbey Theatre, ostilitate ready to accomplish the mission of his life: I
claselor de mijloc pentru piesele de teatru i shall, if good luck or bad luck make my life
recunotina fa de mentorul lui, Lady interesting, be a great poet; for it will be no
Augusta Gregory. n volumul The Green longer a matter of literature at all
Helmet and Other Poems, cititorul gsete noi (Autobiographies: 127).
dovezi ale dragostei poetului pentru Maud It is not only from biographers works,
Gonne, divorat acum. Volumul from Autobiographies or Letters that the reader
Responsabilities introduce o art mai finds out about Yeatss states of mind and life
agresiv, un triumf al afirmrii de sine.74 experience. Yeatss poetry itself is
Iniiaz un portret al lui ca descinznd din autobiographical as the writer himself states in
strmoi viteji, distini prin fapte deosebite, dar a letter to Katharine Tynan: my life has been
n acelai timp cere iertare de a nu avea copii, in my poems; to make them I have broken my
ci doar o carte. Alte poezii sunt pline de life in a mortar (Letters: 64). In order to
amrciune i ilustreaz dezamgirea poetului reinforce my statement, an examination of
fa de poporul irlandez, n timp ce altele sunt Joseph Ronsleys essay Yeats as an
aluzii la oamenii care i-au fost alturi de-a Autobiographical Poet is undoubtedly useful.
lungul vieii. Faptul c Yeats dorete s arate Ronsley asserts that Yeatss poetry is
mai multe lucruri despre viaa lui se observ i completely autobiographical, because all his
din urmtoarele volume The Wilde Swans at poems expresses the authors feelings and
Coole i Michael Robartes and the Dancer dei thoughts and mirror his life experience. The
nu afieaz o ncredere n sine agresiv ca poetry written before the turn of the century,
volumul anterior.75 namely The Wanderings of Oisin, is an allegory
Criticii, de asemenea, declar c proza sa whose symbolism conceals autobiographical
autobiografic a fost o modalitate de a-i elements; the poems in Crossways bears
depi inhibiiile. Proprietatea Lady Gregory, testimony on him growing into adulthood,
unde Yeats a petrecut mult timp i despre care although Yeats states in letter that it is a flight
73
William Butler Yeats, Letters of W.B.Yeats, Allan Wade editor, New York, 1955, p.47
74
Joseph Ronsley, Yeats as an Autobiographical Poet in Myth and Reality in Irish Literature, Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfried Laurier University
Press, 1977, p.134
75
Idem, p.138
126
vorbete cu drag n Autobiografii, devine into fairyland from the real world (Letters:
pentru el un simbol al idealului cultural 47), and not exactly the type of poetry he
irlandez. Poeziile despre Easter Rising incluse dreamed of, a poetry of insight and
n volumul Michael Robartes and the Dancer knowledge (Letters: 47). Some of the poems
conin versuri aluzive la prietenii i immortalize landmarks of County Sligo, while
cunotinele direct implicate n evenimente. some mirror Yeatss love for Maud Gonne,
Volumul se ncheie cu poemul To be Carved which is to be found in a disguised shape in the
on a Stone at Thor Ballylee, ale crui versuri poems in The Rose. The love poems in The
au fost ncrustate pe turnul lui Yeats, vorbesc Wind among the Reeds reveal a Yeats wearing
despre eternitatea artei. n poeziile din The the mask of universal lover. His love no longer
Tower, Yeats simte profund anii btrneii, dar addresses to a particular woman, but it is
paradoxal tot aici descoper acea unity of depicted only for the sake of experience. The
being, unitate a fiinei, pe care a cutat-o volume The Seven Woods carries forth his
ntreaga sa via. Turnul roman pe care l-a preoccupations to found a National Irish
achiziionat pentru el i familia sa devine theatre, Abbey Theatre, his anger against the
acas, dar i simbolul artei, locul unde hostility of middle class to the plays performed
transcedentalul i imanentul, material i in the theatre, and his intense recognition to his
imaterial coexist. Urmtorul volum, The mentor, Lady Augusta Gregory. In The Green
Winding Stairs and Other Poems, care Helmet and Other Poems the reader begins to
completeaz modelul introdus n anteriorul discover new proofs of his love for Maud
volum, este autobiografic prin simbolurile pe Gonne, now separated from her husband. The
care le propune scara din turnul su , acum volume Responsibilities introduces a more
devenit o spiral (gyre) simboliznd aggressive art, a triumph of self-assertion
caracterul distrugtor al timpului76, pe cnd (Eliot qtd. in Ronsley: 134). He initiates a
celelate volume iau natere din experiena de portrayal of himself as a descendant of
via a poetului alturi de cei care contribuie la distinguished, heroic ancestors, but at the same
misiunea vieii lui. Prin aceast colecie time he asks for forgiveness for not having
personal transformat n poezie, cititorul are children, but a book. Other poems are bitter and
ocazia de a reconstitui viaa lui William Butler they illustrate the poets disillusionment for the
Yeats, care poate fi considerat un capitol Irish people, while others are clear allusions to
important n istoria rii. people next to him along his life. That Yeats
Scriitori aparinnd Renaterii Irlandeze arrived at a desire to display more facts of his
i identific copilria cu copilria naiunii77, life is also revealed in the poems The Wilde
afirm Declan Kiberd n studiul su, referindu- Swans at Coole and Michael Robartes and the
se la o perioad de cretere plin de speran Dancer, although they are not so aggressively
nainte de prbuirea n violen i rzboi civil. self-assertive as some poems in the preceding
Oamenii din Irlanda din perioada n care a trit volume (Ronsley: 138).
Yeats, erau fcui nu nscui, ntrind Critics argue that Yeatss autobiographical
incertitudinile lui cu privire la identitate. n prose was his way to overcome inhibition. Thus
acest context, copilria trebuia re-inventat78 Lady Gregorys estate becomes the symbol of
76
Idem, p. 145
77
Declan Kiberd, Yeats, Hyland Paul, Neil Sammelis, ed, Irish Writing: Exile and Submersion, New York, St. Martins Press, 1991, pp.126-145
78
Idem, p.127
127
pentru un nou nscut ntr-o colonie irlandez. an ideal culture uniting the best qualities
Lipsit de idealuri naionale, Yeats s-a agat de drawn from all elements of Irish life (Ronsley:
un loc Sligo care pentru el a devenit un 139. The poems on Easter Rising contain
simbol al rasei lui irlandeze i a nevoii de a allusive verses to friends and acquaintances
crede n insula vestic. Poetul percepea Sligo directly involved in the event and the volume
ca microcosm al Irlandei, un loc legendar unde ends with the poem To be Carved on a Stone at
putea evada. Thoor Ballylee whose last two lines contain a
De-a lungul vieii, W.B.Yeats a conceput statement on the permanence of art (Ronsley.
un sistem complicat de simboluri pe care mai 142). In the volume The Tower the poet feels
apoi l-a folosit n poezii. A Vision ofer chei profoundly the old age but at the same time
pentru a le descifra, dei nu foarte explicit. Yeats draws his life and art together[] into
Numit mitografie ocult, comedie, tragedie the unity he sought (Ronsley. 143), the tower
n acelai timp, serioas i jucu, poetic i symbolizing home and art (Ronsley:14:). The
geometric. concret i abstract, fi i following volume, The Winding Stairs and
alunecoas, A Vision este produsul celor doi other Poems is autobiographical through the
Yeats, poetul i tnra lui soie i tinde s symbols it proposes the winding stair of his
reprezinte o oper de istorie teoretic, o Thoor Ballylee, now turned into a gyre to
filozofie esoteric, o carte de simboluri, o suggest the destructiveness of time (Ronsley:
schem psihologic i o carte sacr. A Vision 145), while the next volumes are born from
ilustreaz cel mai bine faptul c poetul a personal experience with those who had a
nscocit propriul sistem simbolic, ca aplicaie a contribution to the mission of his life. Through
preocuprilor lui oculte, credinelor, scrisului this personal collection of pictures turned into
automat al soiei lui, iar rezultatul relev o poetry, the reader has the opportunity to re-
carte n care modalitatea nsi de a percepe create W.B.Yeatss life, a life that can be
lucrurile este foarte complicat. Prin urmare, A considered an important chapter in the history
Vision poate constitui rspunsul la ntrebarea: of his country.
care este ideea lui Yeats despre istorie? Daniel Writers of Irish Revival identify their
Albright n seciunea XI a introducerii sale childhood with the childhood of their nation,
afirm despre A Vison a lui Yeats c ntreaga Declan Kiberd asserts in his study referring to
participare la lumea imaginilor lumea ocult the period of hopeful growth before falling into
reprezentat de mumii care umbl, psri de violence and civil war. The Irish people of the
metal care dispreuiesc carnea, flcri care dau period in which Yeats lived, were made, not
natere la flcri, ntreaga colecie de poezii ca born, attesting the poets uncertainties
Sailing to Byzantium sau Byzantium au concerning his identity. In this context,
fost create prin scrierea i vorbirea automat a childhood had to be reinvented (Kiberd: 127)
soiei lui. Principiul fundamental este acela al for a new Irish person born in an Irish colony.
dublei spirale, un model de interpretare a Lacking national ideals, Yeats clung to a place
diverse relaii, cum ar fi dinamica personalitii - Sligo, a dream landscape, a never-never
umane. Inspirat de Phaedrus al lui Platon, land (Kiberd: 128), which became at once the
Yeats d propria explicaie n aceea c, symbol of his Irish-ness and of his need to
conflictul este reprezentat de principiile believe in the Western island. He perceived his
subiectiv (sau antitetic) i obiectiv (sau primar) familiar Sligo as a microcosm of an Ireland, a
care aproape c ne sfie n dou. Echilibrul place where he could escape and a place of
128
dintre ele d identitatea fiecruia. which he had known from legends.

n studiul su ocult, Yeats descoper 26 de The history of Ireland begins in Boyne
tipuri de personaliti, ce corespund Valley where there are the passage graves of
calendarului lunar, de 28 de zile. Explicaia Knowth and Dowth, the hill of Tara where St.
pentru absena celor dou zile se af n cea de- Patrick preached Christianity to the political
a 15a noapte faza 15, care corespunde lunii and religious centre of the pagan system, and
pline, n timp ce luna neagr, faza 1 nu exist. above all, the site of the Battle of 1690, when
Yeats susine c sufletul de rencarneaz de 28 Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland won over the
de ori, moare i se nate de 28 de ori, iar catholic Gaelic civilisation. Ever since in the
fiecare dintre noi experimenteaz absolut tot: country there has been the belief that once a
politician, erou, poet, preot; dup care sufletul traditional society was destroyed by foreign
se ntoarce la punctul de nceput pe Marea interferences, though it has to be stated that
Roat a personalitii umane. ntr-o alt Ireland had never been a political unity. In the
seciune din A Vision, Yeats descrie istoria 19th century the desire to become a political
guvernat de o schem asemntoare cu cea unit awakened, establishing a connection
precedent. Astfel, din punct de vedere istoric, between the Celtic tradition and the idea of a
erele subiectiv i obiectiv se succed. Fiecare United Ireland. It was then that a new theory of
er dureaz 2000 de ani i este inaugurat de continuity arose. According to this theory, the
naterea unui zeu (Dumnezeu). Era cretin a ancient German tribes, the Etruscan and the
nsemnat pentru omenire 2000 de ani de virtui Celtic, preserved under foreign civilization
obiective: supunere, mil, castitate, devoiune their people, their land and language, becoming
n faa unui zeu rigid i abstract. O civilizaie the keepers of tradition.
reprezint lupta de a deine controlul, pierderea In the same context the first Irish Revival
controlului asupra gndului survine la final. occurred in the late 18th century, even if it was
nainte de naterea lui Christos a fost o er a confusion of Teutonic Celtic and old British
subiectiv antichitatea greac, care preuia elements. The appearance of Paul Henri
virtui opuse: frumuseea, aristocraia, Mallets Introduction a lHistoire du
pricepere sexual, mreia eroismului. n Danemark, translated in 1770 by Percy as
contrast, era cretin a nceput cu naterea Northern Antiquities advanced the idea that
fecioarei (Mama Domnului), dar era clasic a Norse, Scottish and Welsh landscapes were
nceput cu violarea Ledei de ctre o lebd synonymous with wilderness, loneliness and
(Leda i Lebda); n 2000, era subiectiv va spontaneity, (Deane: 20). Macpherson
anihila virtutea cretin i o bestie grbovit se increased popularity with Oisin forgeries in
va tr spre Bethlehem pentru a renate (The 1760. Unfortunately famine, the death of
Second Coming - A doua Sosire). La OConnell and the extinction of 1847 brought
nceputul erei, noua for este intens. Cum s-a the first Irish revival to an end. At that time, the
ntmplat i cu era cretin, a cucerit lumea, second Irish Revival had already begun, with
dar acum cretintii i lipsete vigoarea, the writings of Sir Samuel Ferguson, William
pentru c fiecare civilizaie se consum prin Carlton and James Clarence Mangan, the
epuizarea capitalului de fantazie i for care a essays of Davis, the balladry of the Nation and,
inspirat-o cndva. above all, the appearance of Standish James
Yeats descrie istoria literar ca model OGradys Bardic History of Ireland in the
ciclic: energia creatoare a artitilor subiectivi front lines. It was different from the first time,
129
sub form de concepte prestabilite. Spiralele because it brought scholars and literature
lui Yeats reprezint idei despre valurile istorice together to revive the civilization of a
de creativitate ale secolului XIX, dar dincolo generation that witnessed its destruction.
de sistemul poetului se gsete Vorticismul Meeting John OLeary, the Irish patriot
lui Pound. Pound descrie vortexul o imagine recently returned from a forced exile and
reprezint pigmentul poetului [] din care i imprisonment in 1885, and influenced by his
prin care i n care ideile roiesc mereu.79 statement that there is no great literature
Atunci nu-i de mirare de ce poezia lui Yeats a without nationality, no great nationality without
ncercat s exprime procesul prin care literature (Marcus: 1), W.B.Yeats made the
imaginaia primete imagini ca simboluri de la decision to become an Irish writer. This
Anima Mundi (Sufletul Lumii). Yeats a decision was enabled by the premise of 1840s
ncercat, dup cum ne asigur Albright, s-i writers of the Young Ireland who created a
transforme poeziile n spirale. De exemplu n national image for their country. However,
poemul A Dialogue of Self and Soul (Dialog Yeats confronted with two questions, namely to
ntre sine i suflet), antiteticul ctig teren n what extent the national literature had to be
faa primarului care pierde din putere. Poetul politically nationalistic and which were the
i-a stabilit casa ntr-o spiral (turnul roman boundaries of Irish National literature. The
avea o scar n spiral), micare de spiral answers were provided by Samuel Ferguson
guvernnd totul. who believed that a non-Nationalist, somebody
Structura volumului The Tower este n with no connections with the Nationalist
armonie cu A Vision. Poeziile din acest volum movement, could write national poetry bearing
sunt mprite n 3 categorii: rzboiul civil the true Celtic note in mind and being lofty
(Meditation in Time of Civil War), regretul and moral and distinctively Irish. He stated
fa de btrnee (Sailing to Byzantium, that it was the poets who will save the people
The Tower) i prbuirea unei civilizaii i (Marcus: 5). Yeats agreed with the statement
nceputul unei noi ere (Two Songs from a which is to be found in the poem The Statues:
Play, Leda and the Swan). Aceste poezii artists embodying desired ideals in their work
reprezint efortul unui poet matur ce vorbete can shape the nature of their society. According
din punctul de vedere al creatorului. to him, a true national literature would grow
Dac poeziile din volumul The Tower au the sensibilities of Irishmen, strengthen their
fost scrise la apogeul carierei politice a lui love for and loyalty to their country and make
Yeats, cnd a primit premiul Nobel, a scris them wish its growth. Consequently Yeats
majoritatea operei sale autobiografice, poeziile became the most prolific of the Irish writers in
din The Winding Stairs and Other Poems au the years 1886-1892. His ideals towards Irish
fost scrise cnd poetul avea 68 de ani. Pe literature concerned form, subject-matters and
msur ce sntatea lui se deteriora, probabil style. Therefore he urged his fellow-writers to
i-a simit sfritul aproape, cu alte cuvinte ele strive to become masters of their craft (Marcus:
reflect starea lui sufleteasc i se concentreaz 12), to be careful with their rhetoric, and to
pe probleme luntrice. n ciuda celor spuse think of audience, disregarding the political
despre perioadele cnd ele au fost scrise, cele matters. He was assertive in that a great
dou volume se completeaz, sunt volume literature must be a national literature and the
79
Daniel Albright, Quantum Poetics: Yeats, Pound, Eliot and the Science of Modernism, Cambridge University Press, 1997, p.167
130
gemene (Daniel Albright). Este i cazul writers should be loyal to his country, because
poeziilor Sailing to Byzantium i the cradles of the greatest writers are rocked
Byzantium, The Tower i Blood and the among the scenes they are to celebrate (Yeats
Moon, My Table i A Dialogue of Self and qtd. in Marcus: 14). Concerning the Irish
Soul, A Woman Young and Old i A Man problem whether Irish literature should be in
Young and Old. Ceea ce trebuie ns subliniat Irish or English, he supported a national
este c n ambele volume vorbete despre literature in English, considering that a national
istorie. Ambele conin poezii care transmit n literature could not be less Irish if it were in
versuri sistemul lui complicat de simboluri, English, and claiming that Gaelic could be
prezint imagini att de istorie personal, ct i preserved among them as a fountain of
de istorie naional, pentru c poetul nu este nationality (Marcus. 17), but under no
niciodat izolat de istoria rii sale, ci este parte circumstance they should base their hopes of
integrant a acesteia. nationhood on it.
n ciuda opiniilor criticilor privind Another literary point in Yeatss agenda
modernitatea lui Yeats, el nu se considera un was that the writers should study writers of any
poet modern, mai ales c ntotdeauna refuzase country in order to learn from them the secret
s accepte lumea modern cldit pe of their greatness (Marcus: 18).And yet they
tehnologie. Sub influena Romanticilor, Yeats should not imitate those great writers, and they
poate fi considerat un poet Romantic, viaa i should not use foreign literatures with the aim
opera sa cuprinznd atribute ale acestui curent of developing the literature of Ireland. In
literar: atitudinea sa fa de natur aa cum se response to OLeary criticism of his
desprinde din The Lake of Innisfree involvement with occult philosophies and
(familiarul Sligo n contradicie cu Londra Oriental systems of belief, Yeats said that
oribil), dezamgire fa de prezent i un mystical life is in the centre of all that I do and
interes deosebit ntr-n trecut idealizat, aa cum all that I think and all that I write (Marcus:
se poate vedea din The Madness of King 21), considering himself a voice of the soul that
Goll, Cuchulains Fight with the Sea, The rebels against the intellect. As to his subject-
Old Age of Queen Maeve, Baile and matters, when asked why he did not write a
Aillinn etc toate referindu-se la personaje truly national poem or romance, he answered
care au existat n mitologia i legendele that poetry and romance could not be made by
irlandeze. Alte atribute ale Romantismului ce studying famous moments but by giving
se desprind din unele poezii sunt atitudinea importance to what was called ones self and
anti-intelectual reflectat n popularitatea that the Celtic spirit was endowed with a gift of
supranaturalului provenit din folclor, basme i vision. In a more or less direct manner, it was
mitologie (The Wanderings of Oisin este Yeats who encouraged his contemporary
prima dintr-o serie mai lung) sau evadarea fellow-writers to make use of the spiritual, the
ntr-un timp i spaiu paralele (Sailing to visionary and the occult as subjects of concern
Byzantium este un bun exemplu, unde Yeats for Irish writers, these subjects being related to
visa la o lume lipsit de tristeea vieii the true Celtic nature (Marcus. 25).
obinuite). Totui, modernismul lui Yeats In an article in 1895, Yeats dealt with the
deriv din conflictul modern ntre el nsui i quest for subject-matters suggesting an
sine, care mai apoi se transform ntr-o disput experimental literature, a literature preoccupied
ntre individualism i naionalism, drept i with hitherto un-worked material (Marcus:
131
datorie, libertate i istorie. Burdescu80 pune 27). Through this he referred primarily to Irish
accent pe dualitatea ce poate fi demonstrat myth, legend and folklore and he declared that
pornind de la mitul lui Orfeu. n abisul operei he was not the first to use it, but he surely was
de art, schimbarea punctului de vedere, the first who saw the potential of it, both for
dinspre exterior spre exterior duce la un clivaj subject-matters and serving as correction to
n personalitatea autorului. Btliile lui Yeats the modern condition (Marcus: 28). Speaking
se petrec ntre ego-ul lui i anti-sine. Btliile of style, his standpoint was towards a non-
se duc pentru identitate naional, pentru o English style, but all the more musical and full
dragoste neneleas, pentru a ajunge la un of colour. He worked at adapting to Irish needs,
consens n ceea ce privete creaia poetic, to the modes of expression that were not
chiar dac modernitatea nu se afla printre intrinsically the property of any nation
scopurile lui, n ncercarea sa de a rezolva (Marcus: 33). Last, but not least, Yeats had an
conflicte care se petreceau n fiina lui, poetul important role in founding the Irish literary
este un modernist get-beget. Modernitatea lui theatre, both The Countess Cathleen and The
Yeats const n primul rnd n contextul n care Land of Hearts Desire being important
acesta a nceput s se implice n viaa literar; contributions to the development of the drama
Irlanda ncepea s se orienteze spre o alt written in the period of Irish Revival.
cotaie n literatur Yeats a fost unul dintre Along his life time W.B.Yeats conceived
iniiatorii micrii de renatere a literaturii an intricate symbolic system and he used it in
irlandeze. Renaterea a mpins nainte statul his poems. A Vision offers some keys for
modern, Irlanda modifica concepia potrivit decoding them, though not very explicit. Called
creia era o ar primitiv. Mai mult Irlanda se occult mythography a comedy and a tragedy
afla n poziia de a pretinde din partea Angliei at the same time, serious and playful, poetic
egalitate economic i politic precum i and geometric, concrete and abstract, earnest
recunoaterea naionalitii; ambele cerine and slippery, A Vision is the product of two
erau posible doar printr-o detaare complet de Yeatses, the poet and his young wife, and aims
Imperiu. Cu toate acestea, n interiorul statului at representing a work of theoretical history, an
se duceau lupte privind existena unui stat esoteric philosophy, an aesthetic book of
liberal cu ceteni irlandezi prin drept natural i symbols, a psychological schema and a sacred
o ar cu ceteni avnd un trecut istoric i book. A Vision best illustrates the fact that the
cultural i prin aceasta o identitate distinct. poet has forged his own symbolical system as
The Troubles (necazurile) se bazau n part of the occult enterprises, part of his own
principal pe acest conflict. beliefs, part of his wife automatic writing, and
n acest context politica lui Yeats nu putea the result is a book revealing the intricate way
fi cu mult diferit de politica rii sale naturale. of seeing things. Consequently A Vision may be
Michael North declar Yeats urma s the answer for the question: what is Yeatss
mbrieze att fascismul, ct i comunismul, idea on history? Daniel Albright in the
influenat de ncercrile lui Hegel de a rezolva sequence XI of his Introduction states on
contradicia liberal ntre drept i datorie, Yeatss A Vision that the entire participation to
individ i comunitate81. Cu toate acestea, the world of images - the occult world
80
Felicia Burdescu Focseneanu, Sinele si cellalt. probleme ale dedublri n poezia lui Lucian Blaga i William Butler Yeats, Editura Universal
Dalsi, 1999, p.186
81
Michael North, The Political Aesthetics of Yeats, Eliot and Pound, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1991, p.22
132
poziia poetului ctre o doctrin sau cealalt represented by walking mummies, metal birds
era nesigur. El nu poate fi considerat ca that scorn flesh, flames begotten of flame, the
adernd la una sau la alta, din moment ce tot entire retinue of such poems like Sailing to
ceea ce el i dorea era s neleag foarte bine Byzantium or Byzantium - came from the
propriul loc n comunitatea irlandez, s trances of his wife or her automatic writing and
neleag legtura dintre poezie i politic, ca o speech. The fundamental principle is that of the
serie de acte pragmatice. Elisabeth Cullingford double gyre, a model for interpreting various
pretinde c Yeats tindea s ating mult dorita relationships, like for instance the dynamic of
unitate a fiinei nu prin ngustarea viziunii ci human personality. Inspired by Platos
prin acceptarea diversitii82. ntrebarea care Phaedrus, Yeats gives his own explanation in
se redic n mod natural este: Cum putea Yeats that the conflict is represented by subjective (or
s rezolve aceast disput, chiar la nivel poetic, antithetical) and the objective (or primary)
dac propria lui ar nu a reuit s gseasc o principles which almost tear us in two. The
cale de ieire din acest puzzle. Reconcilierea equilibrium between them gives the identity of
ntre dreptul individual i datoria public, each of us.
idealul ctre care nzuia statul modern, dup In his occult study, Yeats discovers 26
cum i imagina Hegel, a rmas greu de atins, basic personality types, corresponding to the
dar Yeats a fost unul dintre scriitorii care s-au calendar of the lunar month, 28 days long. The
strduit s gseasc o soluie pentru acest explanation for the missing two days stands for
conflict i poate a i reuit la nivel ipotetic. n the 15th night Phase15, which corresponds to
concepia lui Yeats despre istorie observm o the full moon, while the dark of the moon,
implicare emoional deosebit, nu numai Phase 1, does not exist. Yeats states that the
pentru c necazurile Irlandei erau i necazurile soul reincarnates 28 times dies and is born 28
lui, ci pentru c poetul William Butler Yeats a times, and each of us experiences everything: a
simit c este datoria lui de om i de poet politician, a hero, a poet, a preacher, a pedant;
irlandez s gseasc soluii la problemele after which the soul returns to the starting-point
politice i filosofice ale Irlandei i omenirii n on the Great Wheel of human personality. In
general. another part of A Vision, Yeats described
history governed by a scheme resembling the
Bibliografie: previous. Thus in point of history, subjective
1. Brown, Terence, Ireland - A Social and and objective eras occur in turn. Each era lasts
Cultural History 1922-1979, Douglas, Isle of Man,
2000 years and is inaugurated by the birth of a
British Isles: Fontana Original, 1980
2. Brown, Terence, The Life of W.B. Yeats, God. The Christian era has provided the
Blackwell Publishers, 2001 mankind with 2000 years of objective virtues:
3. Brady, Margery, The Love of W.B. Yeats and obedience, pity, chastity, self-abnegation
Maud Gonne, Mercier Press, 1990 before an abstract and rigid God. A civilization
4. Burdescu Focseneanu, Felicia , Sinele i
is a struggle to keep self-control, the loss of
Cellat: Probleme ale dedublarii n poezia lui Lucian
Blaga i William Butler Yeats, Editura Universal Dalsi, control over thought coming towards the end.
1999 Yet before the birth of Christ, there was a
5. Deane, Seamus, Celtic Revivals, Wake Forest subjective the Greek antiquity, which
University Press, Winston-Salem, 1985 cherished the opposing virtues: beauty,
6. Ellmann, Richard, Yeats: The Man and The
82
Citat de Michael North, The Political Aesthetics of Yeats, Eliot and Pound, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1991, p.22
133
Masks, Macmillan, New York, 1948 aristocracy, sexual expertise, heroic splendour
7. Ellmann, Richard, The Identity of Yeats, of conduct. By contrast the Christian era begun
Oxford, University Press, 1954
by a virgin birth (Mother of God); but the
8. Fogarty, E. Margaret, It is Myself that I
Remake, The Shaping Self of W.B.Yeatss classical era begun by a swans rape of a girl
Autobiographies in The Irish Literature Studies, ed. by (Leda and the Swan); in 2000 the subjective
M. Allen and A. Wilcox, Barnes and Noble Books, New age will annihilate Christian virtue, and a rough
Jersey, 1989 beast will slouch towards Bethlehem to be born
9. Foster, R.F. W.B. Yeats A Life, I. The
(The Second Coming). At the beginning of the
Apprentice Mage, Oxford University Press, Oxford,
New York, 1998 era the new force is intense. As it happened
10. Jeffares, A. Norman, Macmillan History of with Christian age, it conquered the world, but
Anglo-Irish Literature, Published in Ireland, by, Gill and now Christianity lacks strength, because every
Macmillan LTD, Golden Bridge, Dublin, 1982, II. civilization consumes itself by reducing the
William Butler Yeats, pp. 148-161
capital of fantasy and force that inspired it.
11. Jeffares, Norman, A Commentary on The
Selected Poems of W.B.Yeats, MacMillan, 1968 Yeats describes literary history as a cyclical
12. Kiberd, Declan, Yeats, Childhood and Exile in pattern: the creative energy of subjective artists
Hyland Paul, Neil Sammellis, ed., Irish Writing: Exile in the form of established concepts. Yeatss
and Submersion, New York, St. Martins Press, 1991, gyres represent ideas about historical surges of
pp. 126-145
creativity of the nineteenth century, but behind
13. Marcus, Philip L., Old Irish Myth and Modern
Irish Literature in Yeats and the Beginning of the Irish the poets system, the Vorticism of Pound is
Revival, Syracuse University Press, New York, 1987 to be found. Pound described the vortex as the
14. North, Michael, The Political Aesthetic of image is the poets pigment; [] from which,
Yeats, Eliot and Pound, Cambridge University Press, and through which, and into which, ideas are
New York, 1991
constantly rushing. (Ezra Pound qtd in
15. Ricoeur, Paul, La memoire, Lhistoire, Loubli,
traducere din lb. francez, Ilie i Margareta Gyuresik, Albright: 203-207). No wonder then why
Amarcord, Timioara, 2001 Yeatss poetry strived to embody the process
16. Ronsley Joseph, Yeats as an Autobiographical through which imagination receives images as
Poet in Myth and Realty in Irish Literature, J. Ronsley, symbols from Anima Mundi. Yeats tried, as
ed., Wilfrid Laurier University Press Waterloo, Ontario,
Albright assures us, to transform the poems
Canada, 1977
17. Yeats ,W.B., Autobiographies: Reveries over into gyres. In A Dialogue to Self and Soul the
Childhood and Youth, Macmillan, 1927 antithetical gains strength as the primary grows
18. Yeats, W. B., Letters to Katharine Tynan, weak. The poet even established his home into
Roger McHugh ed., McMuller Books Inc., New York, gyre (the tower where he lived has a winding
1953
stair), the spiral motion that governs all things.
19. Yeats, W.B., A Vision, MacMillan Press,
London, 1981 The structure of the volume The Tower is
20. Yeats, W. B., Four Years 1887-1891, Project in harmony with the structure of A Vision. The
Gutenberg EBook poems analyzed in this study were divided
21. Yeats, W. B., The Symbolism of Poetry in according to the themes dealt with into three
Prose in The Major Works, Oxford University Press,
categories: civil war (Meditation in Time of
1997
22. W.B.Yeats, Selected Poetry edited by Timothy Civil War), the regret for his old age (Sailing to
Webb, Penguin Books, 1991 Byzantium; The Tower and Among the School
23. W.B.Yeats, The Poems, Edited by Daniel Children), and the decay of the world and
Albright, Orion Publishing Book, London, beginning of a new era (Two Songs from a Play
24. W.B.Yeats, Writing on Irish Folklore, Legend
and Leda and the Swan). They represent the
and Myth, Penguin Books, 1993
134
poems which convey in verse his symbolical work of a mature poet speaking from a
system. They present images of both personal creators point of view.
and national history, because the poet is never If the poems in The Tower were written at
isolated of his nation, and instead he is part of the zenith of Yeatss political career, when he
an imaginative and psychological history. won the Nobel Prize and wrote much of his
Despite the scholars opinion concerning autobiography, the poems in The Winding
Yeatss modernity, he did not think of himself Stairs and Other Poems (1933) were written
as a modern poet, as he had always refused to when he was 68. As his health was
accept the modern world built on technology. deteriorating, he must have felt that his end was
Under the influence of Romanticism, he may close, therefore they are a reflection of his state
be considered a romantic poet, in his life and of mind and they focus more on the authors
creation encompassing some of the attributes inner problems. Nevertheless, the two volumes
of this period: his attitude to nature as it is accompany each other. In The Winding Stairs
depicted in The Lake Isle of Innisfree (his and Other Poems, some of the poems are twins
familiar Sligo in sharp contradiction with the of the some of the poems in The Tower as it is
horrid London), disappointment with the the case of Sailing to Byzantium and
present and a renewed interest in an idealized Byzantium; The Tower and Blood and the
past, as can be seen in The Madness of King Moon; My Table and A Dialogue of Self and
Goll, Cuchulains Fight with the Sea, The Old Soul; A Woman Young and Old (which can be
Age of Queen Maeve, Baile and Aillin, etc. - found in the first publication of the volume The
all of them referring to characters which Winding Stairs) and A Man Young and Old (at
existed in Irish mythology and legendry. Other the end of The Tower). Yet what needs to be
Romantic features are the anti-intellectual emphasized is that in both volumes Yeats
attitude reflected in the popularity of the speaks about history. They both comprise
supernatural derived from folklore, fairy tales European Romantic Revival) was
and mythology ( The Wanderings of Oisin becoming modern and Yeats was one of the
being the first of a long series), or the escape in heads of the movement. The Revival pushed
a time parallel and space (for instance Sailing forward the modern state - Ireland on the one
to Byzantium where Yeats dreamed of a world hand and on the other withdrew the image of a
discharged from the usual sadness of life). primitive Ireland. Ireland was in the position to
Nevertheless, Yeatss modernism emerges ask from England equality both economically
from the modern quarrel between him and his and politically and recognition of the countrys
Self, which eventually turn into a quarrel of nationality and both of them could only be
individualism and nationalism, right and duty, achieved through a complete detachment from
freedom and history. Burdescu (186) the Empire. However inside the state the
emphasizes that duality can be demonstrated struggle was between the existence of a liberal
starting from Orpheus myth. Within the abyss state with citizens by natural right and a
of the work by turning the sight from the country with citizens having a distinct
outward to the inward, a split in the poets historical and cultural background, and through
personality occurs. Yeatss battles take place it, a distinct identity. The troubles were mainly
between his ego and his anti-self. The battles based on this conflict.
are for national identity, for his misunderstood Within this context, Yeatss politics could
love, for reaching a consensus regarding his not be different from the politics of his natural
135
poetical creation, and even though modernity country, given his permanent presence in the
was not his target, in trying to solve the middle of events. As Michael North denounces
conflicts lying deep down in his soul, he is a (p. 22), Yeats was to trace both fascism and
genuine modernist. Yeatss modernity is based communism, back to Hegels attempts to
mainly on the fact that Ireland (through the resolve the liberal contradiction between right
Irish Literary Revival, included into the larger and duty, individual and community.
Nevertheless, the poets position toward
fascism and communism was uncertain. He
cannot be considered a supporter of any of
these regimes, because all he wanted was to
understand his own place in the community
(the place of Anglo-Irish) and to grasp the
connection between poetry, as an artistic
manifestation, and politics, as a series of
pragmatic acts. Elizabeth Cullingford, (qtd. in
Michael North: 22) claims that Yeats aimed to
achieve his much-desired unity not by a
narrowing of vision but through acceptance of
diversity. The question which emerges
naturally is how Yeats was supposed to achieve
that, even at a poetical level, if his own country
was not able to find a way out of its puzzle.
The work of the modern state, as Hegel
imagined, namely the reconciliation between
individual right and public duty, remained an
ideal hard to touch even at a hypothetical level,
and yet, William Butler Yeats was one of those
artists who tried and actually succeeded in
achieving this goal.
136
CERCETAREA-ACIUNE ACTION RESEARCH- METHOD

METOD FOLOSIT N DIFERITE USED IN DIFFERENT AREAS OF
DOMENII DE ACTIVITATE ACTIVITY
Andreea-Mihaela Vduva83 Andreea-Mihaela Vduva
Abstract: Cercetarea-aciune a devenit un termen Abstract: Action research has become a well
de notorietate astzi, ntr-o societate centrat pe known term today in a changing and knowledge-centered
cunoatere i schimbare, reprezentnd o form de society, representing a form of research that is based on
cercetare care se bazeaz pe efectele produse de the effects of direct participation of researchers with a
participarea direct a cercettorilor mpreun cu o participative society in order to improve the quality of
societate participativ, n vederea mbuntirii calitii the studied community.
comunitii studiate. Many action researchers are optimistic about the
Muli cercettori-aciune sunt optimiti n ceea ce action research, since it is used today more than it was
privete cercetarea-aciune, dat fiind faptul c aceasta used a few generations ago, and the areas in which it
este utilizat astzi mult mai mult dect a fost n urm has begun to have an increasingly higher influence are
cu cteva generaii, iar domeniile n care acesta a more and more diverse, its ultimate goal remaining the
nceput s aib o din ce n ce mai mare influena sunt tot improving of social life.
mai diversificate, scopul suprem al utilizrii acesteia
rmnnd mbuntirea vieii sociale.
1. Introducere 1. Introduction
Cercetarea-aciune a devenit un termen de Action research has become a well known
notorietate astzi, ntr-o societate centrat pe term today in a changing and knowledge-
cunoatere i schimbare. centered society. It represents a form of
Reprezint o form de cercetare care se research that is based on the effects of direct
bazeaz pe efectele produse de participarea participation of researchers with a participative
direct a cercettorilor mpreun cu o societate society in order to improve the quality of the
participativ, n vederea mbuntirii calitii studied community. Therefore, the main
comunitii studiate. Aadar, obiectivul objective of the action research is positive
principal al cercetrii-aciune este schimbarea social change, being one of the few methods
social pozitiv, fiind una dintre puinele that is based on participation, reflection and
metode care are la baz participarea, reflecia empowerment of the groups which are seeking
i emanciparea grupurilor care caut s-i to improve their social situation.
mbunteasc situaia social. The father of this method is considered
Printele acestei metode este considerat to be Kurt Lewin, in the 40s, the term action
Kurt Lewin, n anii 40, termenul de cercetare- research appearing in his study: Action
aciune aprnd n studiul su Action Research Research and Minority Problems (1946),
and Minority Problems (1946), dei unii although some scholars consider that its origin
teoreticieni consider c originea acestuia este is still unclear (Masters, J., 1995).
nc neclar (Masters, J.,1995). n acest sens, In this direction, James McKernan in
James McKernan n Curriculum Action Curriculum Action Research. A Handbook of
Research. A Handbook of Methods and Methods and Resources for the Reflective
83
Andreea Mihaela Vduva, Universitatea Constantin Brncui din Trgu-Jiu, domiciliu: Str. 1 Decembrie 1918, bl 108, sc.3,ap1,Trgu-Jiu,
Tel: 0040767771140, andreeamihaela.vaduva@yahoo.com.
137
Resources for the Reflective Practitioner Practitioner supports the existence of evidence
susine existena unor dovezi cu privire la regarding the use of action research before
folosirea cercetrii-aciune naintea lui Lewin, Lewin, by reformists such as Collier (1945),
de ctre reformiti precum Collier (1945), Lippitt and Radke (1946) or Corey (1953)
Lippitt i Radke (1946) sau Corey (1953) (McKernan, J. , 1991). Also, McTaggert
(McKernan,J., 1991). De asemenea, (McTaggert, R., 1992) recalls the name of a
McTaggert (McTaggert, R., 1992) amintete physicist Moreno who used the group
numele unui fizician Moreno care a utilizat participation within a community development
participarea n grup n cadrul unei iniiative de initiative in 1913 (citing Gstettner and
dezvoltare comunitar, n 1913 (citndu-i pe Altricher), and Freideres (Freideres, JS 1992)
Gstettner i Altricher), iar Freideres argues that the concept of participatory
(Freideres,J.S.,1992) susine c noiunea de research emerged in 1970 as a result of
cercetare participativ a aprut n 1970 ca development work in low-income countries and
urmare a muncii de dezvoltare a rilor cu brings into discussion names like False-Borda
venituri mici i aduce n discuie nume precum (as cited in Masters, J., 1995).
Fals-Borda (apud Masters, J.,1995). However, Kurt Lewin is the one who set
Totui, Kurt Lewin este cel care a pus up an action research theory, turning the action
bazele unei teorii a cercetrii-aciune, fcnd research method into an acceptable research
din metoda cercetrii-aciune o metod de method, based on the premise that in order to
cercetare acceptabil, pornind de la premisa c "understand and change social practices, social
pentru a nelege i schimba anumite practici scientists must include practitioners from real
sociale, oamenii de tiin social trebuie s social world in all phases of investigation"
includ practicieni din lumea social real n (McKernan, J., 1991, p.10). According to
toate fazele de anchet. (McKernan,J., 1991, Kemmis and McTaggert's, he described action
p.10). n opinia lui Kemmis i McTaggert, research as "proceeding in a spiral of steps,
acesta descria cercetarea-aciune ca procedur each consisting of planning, action and
ntr-o spiral de etape, fiecare dintre acestea evaluation of the outcome of the action"
constnd n planificare, aciune i evaluare a (Kemmis, S., McTaggert, R., 1990, p 8).
rezultatului aciunii (Kemmis,S., McTaggert,
R., 1990, p.8) .
2. Conceptul de cercetare-aciune 2. The concept of action research

O definiie destul de cuprinztoare a A fairly comprehensive definition of the
conceptului de cercetare-aciune aparine lui concept of action research belongs to Kemmis
Kemmis i McTaggert care o considerau a fi and McTaggert who considered it to be
cercetarea colectiv, autoreflexiv, ntreprins "collective, self-reflexive, undertaken by
de ctre participanii ntr-o situaie social, n participants in a social situation, in order to
vederea mbuntirii raionalitii i justiiei improve the rationality and justice of their own
propriilor practici sociale. (Kemmis,S., social practices." (Kemmis , S., McTaggert, R.,
McTaggert, R., 1988). Pornind de la ideea 1988). Starting from the idea initiated by
iniiat de Lewin, acetia vorbeau de existena Lewin, they spoke about the existence of four
a patru momente ale cercetrii-aciune, aflate action research moments, interdependent
n interdependen, momente care se succed moments which succeed as a spiral (Fig. No.
138
sub forma unei spirale (Fig. nr.1): reflecia, 1): reflection, planning, action and observation.
planificarea, aciunea i observaia.
Fig.no.1Action research as a spiral

Fig.nr.1Cercetarea-aciune ca spiral Source: Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian Hughes, Participatory
Sursa: Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian Hughes, Action Research : Getting the Job Done, Action Research Electronic
Participatory Action Research : Getting the Job Done,Action Research Reader, 1995;
Electronic Reader, 1995;
Reflection in action research refers to that
Reflecia n cercetarea-aciune se refer la
moment when the research participants
acel moment n care participanii la cercetare
examine and construct, then evaluate and
examineaz i construiesc, apoi evalueaz i
reconstruct their concerns (Grundy, S., 1986),
reconstruiesc preocuprile lor (Grundy,
starting with the identification of common
S.,1986), pornind de la identificarea unei
concerns or problems.
preocupri sau probleme comune.
Planning is that constructive moment
Planificarea este acel moment constructiv
which appears during the discussions between
care apare n timpul discuiilor ntre
the research participants (Kemmis, S.,
participanii la cercetare (Kemmis,S.,
McTaggert, R., 1988), when the action plan is
McTaggert, R., 1988), n care planul de aciune
critically examined by each participant and
este analizat critic de fiecare participant i care
includes an assessment of change which is to
cuprinde o evaluare a schimbrii ce urmeaz a
be produced (Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian
fi produs (Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian
Hughes, 1995).
Hughes,1995).
Action involves implementation of the
Aciunea presupune punerea n aplicare a
action plan, that moment when the desire to
planului de aciune, moment n care se
improve the social analyzed situation infiltrates
infiltreaz i dorina mbuntirii situaiei
(Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian Hughes, 1995).
sociale analizate (Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian
Action will be deliberate and strategic (Grundy,
Hughes,1995). Aciunea va fi deliberat i
S., 1986). Through this moment, action
strategic (Grundy, S.,1986). Prin acest
research is fundamentally different from other
moment al cercetrii-aciune, aceasta apare
research methods because "action or change is
fundamental diferit de alte metode de
happening in reality and does not appear as an
cercetare, ntruct aciunea sau schimbarea se
experiment like: "just to see if it works" (Kaye
ntmpl n realitate i nu apare ca un
Seymour-Rolls & Ian Hughes, 1995).
experiment de genul: doar s vedem dac
Observation is in fact the "research" part
funcioneaz [just to see if it works] (Kaye
139
Seymour-Rolls & Ian Hughes,1995). of action research when the changes which
Observaia este de fapt partea de were outlined in the action plan are observed in
cercetare a cercetrii-aciune cnd schimbrile terms of their effects and the context of the
aa cum erau subliniate i n planul de aciune analyzed situation (Kemmis, S., McTaggert, R.,
sunt observate din punctul de vedere al 1988).
efectelor lor i al contextului situaiei analizate This is the moment of research tools
(Kemmis,S., McTaggert, R., 1988). Acesta este application such as questionnaires, to ensure
momentul aplicrii instrumentelor de cercetare the appropriate scientific framework.
cum ar fi chestionarele, pentru a asigura cadrul Observation and action often occur
tiinific adecvat. Observarea i aciunea simultaneously (Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian
adesea au loc simultan (Kaye Seymour-Rolls Hughes, 1995).
& Ian Hughes,1995). Besides these action research moments,
Pe lng aceste momente ale cercetrii- there are so-called principles, principles that
aciune, mai exist i aa-numitele principii ale differentiate between action research and other
acesteia, principii care fac diferene ntre traditional research methods.
cercetarea-aciune i alte metode de cercetare These principles are: participation and
tradiionale. Acestea sunt: participare i collaboration, empowerment, knowledge and
colaborare, responsabilizare, cunotine i social change (Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian
schimbare social (Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian Hughes, 1995).
Hughes,1995).
3. Cercetarea-aciune vs. Metoda 3. Action research vs. Scientific method

tiinific
Privind dintr-o alt perspectiv, se poate Looking from another perspective, one can
spune c cercetarea-aciune nu este o metod say that action research is not a method often
destul de des utilizat, ntruct nu este pe used because it is not fully understood.
deplin neleas. Two of the reasons why we can affirm
Dou dintre motivele pentru care se poate this are, on the one hand, that action research
afirma acest lucru este, pe de o parte, faptul c "is very different from scientific method, with
cercetarea-aciune este o metod diferit de which it is inevitably compared", and, on the
metoda tiinific cu care este n mod inevitabil other hand, some practitioners consider that
comparat, iar, pe de alt parte, faptul c unii they are doing action research, when they
practicieni consider c fac cercetare-aciune, actually take simple unevaluated actions
cnd ei de fapt ntreprind simple aciuni (Swepson, Pam, 1995).
neevaluate (Swepson, Pam,1995). In this respect, "approach is action
n acest sens, abordarea este cercetare- research only when it is based on collaboration,
aciune numai cnd se bazeaz pe colaborare, although it is important to realize that action
dei este important s realizm c cercetarea- research undertaken by a group is carried out
aciune ntreprins de un grup este dus la bun through the critical examination action by each
sfrit prin aciunea de examinare critic de member of the group" (Kemmis, S .,
fiecare membru al grupului (Kemmis,S., McTaggert, R., 1990, p.5).
McTaggert, R., 1990,p.5). McKernan considers that action research
McKernan considera c cercetarea-aciune as a method of research is "clearly and
140
ca metod de cercetare are n mod clar i convincingly" originated in the scientific

convingtor originea n metoda tiinific method (McKernan, J., 1991).
(McKernan,J., 1991). Through action research, but also through
Prin cercetare-aciunea, dar i prin metoda the scientific method, similar and real problems
tiinific se abordeaz probleme similare, are approached in order to improve the human
reale, n scopul mbuntirii condiiei umane, condition, but the approaches start from
dar se pornete de la premise diferite despre different assumptions about the nature of these
natura acestor probleme, ceea ce conduce la problems, which lead to the necessity of using
utilizarea unor metode diferite de cercetare different research methods (Swepson, P.,
(Swepson, P.,1995). 1995).
O mai bun nelegere a metodei A better understanding of action research
cercetrii-aciune se poate realiza dac se method can be achieved if one starts with a
pornete de la o comparaie din punct de comparison between the scientific method and
vedere filosofic i conceptual ntre metoda action research from philosophical and
tiinific i cercetarea-aciune (Vezi tabelul de conceptual point of view (See table below)
mai jos) (Swepson, P.,1995). (Swepson, P., 1995).
Tabelul nr. 1. Table no. 1.

Cercetarea-aciune vs Metoda tiinific Action research vs. scientific method
Cercetarea-aciune Metoda tiinific Action Research Scientific Method
Problema nr. 1: Cine decide dac sau care este Problem 1. Who decides if or what is the problem?
problema? A community The research
O comunitate Colectivul de identifies that it has a community identifies a
identific faptul c are o cercetare identific o problem, a "want". community "need" that
problem, o dorin/ nevoie a comunitii de The logical the community is
cerere. care aceasta nu este consequences for action unaware of.
Consecinele logice contient. research method of this Research driven by
pentru cercetarea-aciune Cercetarea se produce assumptions are: the research
n cadrul acestei ipoteze ca urmare a curiozitii i - Consult and follow the community's curiosity
sunt: nevoii de cunoatere a standards set by the and need to know.
- se consult i se respect colectivului de cercetare. research community. The logical
standardele stabilite de Consecinele logice - Consult and follow consequences for
colectivul de cercetare; pentru metoda tiinific n community standards. The scientific method of
- se consult i se respect cadrul acestei ipoteze sunt: community is integral in these assumptions are:
standardele comunitii. - se consult i se respect planning, implementing - Consult and follow the
Comunitatea este parte standardele stabilite de and evaluating. standards set by the
integrant n planificare, colectivul de cercetare. research community.
implementare i evaluare. Problem 2. What is the aim of the inquiry?
Problema nr. 2: Care este scopul anchetei? To improve the human To improve the
mbuntirea condiiei mbuntirea condition by changing the human condition by
umane prin schimbarea condiiei umane prin situation. This is further adding to the body of
situaiei. adugarea la totalitatea under pinned by the knowledge. This is
Aceasta este susinut de cunotinelor. assumption that truth is underpinned by the
premisa: adevrul este tot ceea Aceasta este what works. further assumption that
ce funcioneaz. susinut de premisa: Logical consequences knowledge is truth.
Consecinele logice cunoaterea este for action research Logical
pentru cercetarea-aciune n adevrul. methods of this consequences for
cadrul acestei ipoteze sunt: Consecinele assumption: scientific method of this
- testarea continu a situaiei- logice pentru metoda - Continual testing in the assumption:
problem pentru a afla ceea ce tiinific n cadrul problem situation to find - Gain a thorough
poate fi transpus n practic; acestei ipoteze sunt: what works in practice. understanding of the
- implementarea este parte -nelegerea - Implementation is an body on knowledge
integrant a proiectului de aprofundat a tuturor integral part of the research before starting further
cercetare. cunotinelor nainte de design. research.
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a continua cercetarea; - Separate research

- separarea cercetrii from implementation.
de implementare.
Problema nr. 3: Care este natura situaiei-problem?
Situaia este parte a Situaia este parte Problem 3. What is the nature of the problem
lumii ideilor i convingerilor a lumii fizice cu situation?
umane. proprietile sale The situation is part The situation is
Aceasta include caracteristice: material, of the human world of part of the physical
comportamentul uman determinat i cu ideas and beliefs. This world with the assumed
contient, reflexiv. mecanisme cauz-efect. includes conscious, properties of being
Consecinele logice Aceasta include reflective human material, determined,
pentru cercetarea-aciune n comportamentul uman behaviour. and with cause and effect
cadrul acestei ipoteze sunt: incontient i reactiv. Logical mechanisms. This
- cercettorul este Consecinele consequences for action includes unconscious,
parte a lumii; logice pentru metoda research methods to this reactive human
- toi oamenii din acea tiinific n cadrul assumption: behaviour.
situaie sunt subiecte, acestei ipoteze sunt: - The researcher is part of Logical
determinani, co-cercettori - se trateaz the world. All humans in consequences for
ai cercetrii; lumea ca fiind separat the situation are subjects, scientific method of this
- comportamentul de cercettor, adic determiners, co-researchers assumption:
uman orientat spre devine un obiect de of the research. - Treat the world as
schimbarea situaiei este anchet i include - Purposeful human separate to the
scopul anchetei, aadar oamenii care pot fi behaviour to change the researcher, i.e. it
determinarea obiectivului numii n mod eronat situation is the aim of the becomes an OBJECT of
prin multiple strategii; subiecte; inquiry so overdetermine inquiry and includes
- indicatorii calitativi - se determin this outcome with multiple humans who may be
sunt cei valabili pentru datele mecanismele cauz-efect strategies. erroneously called
referitoare la convingeri i prin controlul - Qualitative indicators "subjects".
idei. variabilelor externe; most valid for data on - Determine the cause
- msurtorile beliefs and ideas. and effect mechanisms
cantitative indic cel mai by controlling for
bine cauza-efect. extraneous variables.
Problema nr. 4: Care este relaia cercettorului cu - Quantitative
lumea? measurements best
Nu avem acces Lumea real indicate cause and effect.
direct la lumea real, ci este aa cum o percepem Problem 4. What is the relationship of the researcher
numai la percepiile noastre Sau to the world?
asupra ei, aadar se urmrete Nu avem acces We do not have The "real" world
atingerea obiectivitii prin direct la lumea real, direct access to the "real" is as we perceive it.
includerea percepiilor ci numai la percepiile world, only our or
tuturor cercettorilor. noastre asupra ei, aadar perceptions of it, therefore We do not have
Consecinele logice se urmrete atingerea aim to achieve objectivity direct access to the "real"
pentru cercetarea-aciune n obiectivitii prin by including the world, only our
cadrul acestei ipoteze sunt: excluderea percepiilor perceptions of all perceptions of it,
- sunt incluse toate cercettorului. researchers. therefore aim to achieve
percepiile relevante ale Consecinele Logical objectivity by excluding
tuturor co-cercettorilor logice pentru metoda consequences for action the perceptions of the
importani; tiinific n cadrul research methods of this researcher.
- se utilizeaz acestei ipoteze sunt: assumption. Logical
tehnici pentru a gsi percepii - cercettorul - Include ALL relevant consequences for
comune i ideosincratice. reduce propriile percepii perceptions of ALL scientific method of
exterioare prin asumarea relevant co-researchers. these assumptions:
unei poziii dezinteresate - Use techniques to find - The researcher reduces
i folosind statistici common and idiosyncratic their own extraneous
pentru analiz perceptions. perceptions by assuming
- controlul a disinterested position
percepiilor irelevante and using statistics for
ale obiectelor umane. analysis.
Sursa: Swepson, Pam (1995), Action research: understanding - Control for the
its philosophy can improve your practice [On line]. irrelevant perceptions of
http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arp/philos.html; human "objects".
Observm, aadar, din tabelul de mai sus, Source: Swepson, Pam (1995), Action research:
understanding its philosophy can improve your practice [On line].
n cazul cercetrii-aciune, o implicare direct a http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arp/philos.html;
142
comunitii parte integrant n planificarea, Therefore, regarding action research,

implementarea i evaluarea proiectului de we can observe from the table above a direct
cercetare n rezolvarea problemei involvement of the community an integral
identificate, bazndu-se pe un comportament part in planning, implementation and
contient, reflexiv, scopul final fiind ncercarea evaluation of research in solving the
de mbuntire a condiiei umane printr-o identified problem, based on a conscious
atitudine activ schimbarea orientat spre reflective behavior, the ultimate goal being an
aciune. attempt to improve the human condition
through a proactive approach: action-oriented
4. Cercetarea-aciune metod folosit change.
n diferite domenii de activitate
n acest sens, cercetarea-aciune ar putea fi 4. Action research - a method used in
definit ca un proces participativ, democratic, different areas of activity
preocupat de dezvoltarea cunoaterii practice In this respect, action research could be
n cutarea atingerii scopurilor umane defined as "() a participatory, democratic
valoroase, fundamentat ntr-o viziune process concerned with developing practical
participativ. Acest proces caut s aduc knowing in the pursuit of worthwhile human
laolalt aciunea i reflecia, teoria i practica, purposes, grounded in a participatory
n colaborare cu alii, n urmrirea soluiilor worldview ()." This process "seeks to bring
practice la problemele presante de interes together action and reflection, theory and
pentru oameni, iar la modul general practice, in participation with others, in the
prosperitatea individual a persoanelor i a pursuit of practical solutions to issues of
comunitii lor (Reason, P., & Bradbury, H. pressing concern to people, and more generally
(Eds.), 2001,p.1). the flourishing of individual persons and their
Cercetarea-aciune reprezint o abordare a communities" (Reason, P. , & Bradbury, H.
cercetrii utilizat de-a lungul timpului n (Eds.), 2001, p.1).
foarte multe domenii. Action research represents a research
Astfel, nc de la sfritul secolului XIX i approach used over time in many areas.
nceputul secolului XX, are loc momentul Therefore, since the late nineteenth and
numit tiina n Micarea Educaional, early twentieth century, the moment called The
moment care influeneaz n mod decisiv Science in Education Movement takes place, a
evoluia cercetrii-aciune. Metoda tiinific moment that decisively influence the
era aplicat n educaie, remarcndu-se development of action research. The scientific
ndeosebi lucrrile lui Bain (1979), Boone method was applied in educational field,
(1904) i Buckingham (1926) (McKernan,J., excelling in the works of Bain (1979), Boone
1991,p.8). (1904) and Buckingham (1926) (McKernan, J.,
John Dewey a aplicat metoda inductiv 1991, p.8).
tiinific de rezolvare a problemelor ca o John Dewey " applied the inductive
logic pentru rezolvarea problemelor n scientific method of problem solving as a logic
domenii precum estetic, filosofie, psihologie for the solution of problems is such fields as
i educaie (McKernan,J., 1991,p.8). aesthetics, philosophy, psychology and
Aspecte ale cercetrii-aciune pot fi education " (McKernan, J., 1991, p.8).
identificate i n tradiiile timpurii de Aspects of action research can be
143
organizare a muncii n Statele Unite i Europa identified in early labor-organizing traditions in

(Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, the United States and Europe (Mary Brydon-
Patricia Maguire,2003). Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire,
n domeniul social, o viziune asupra 2003).
cercetrii-aciune a fost introdus de Kurt In the social field, a vision of action
Lewin. El a vzut cercetarea-aciune ca o research was introduced by Kurt Lewin. He
form de cercetare experimental avnd la saw action research as a form of experimental
baz grupurile care se confrunt cu probleme, research based on groups facing problems
ntruct, n opinia acestuia, cercetarea n tiina because, in his opinion, social science research
social trebuie s aib ca punct de pornire must have as its starting point the existing
problemele sociale existente. Modelul de social problems. Lewins model is based on an
Lewin are la baz o abordare a cercetrii approach consisting of action cycles, including
format din cicluri de aciune, incluznd analysis, fact finding, conceptualization,
analiza, constatarea faptelor, conceptualizarea, planning, implementation and evaluation of
planificarea, implementarea i evaluarea action (McKernan, J., 1991, p.9).
aciunii (McKernan,J., 1991,p.9). Sol Tax has developed the term "action
Sol Tax a conceput termenul de anthropology" to promote collaboration
antropologia-aciune pentru a promova between local stakeholders, but also the
colaborarea dintre prile locale interesate, dar phenomenon of democratization (Mary
i fenomenul democratizrii (Mary Brydon- Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.11).
Maguire,2003, p.11). In the 50's and early 60's, action research
n anii 50 i nceputul anilor 60, was used in the study of industry in institutes
cercetarea-aciune a fost folosit n studiul such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology
industriei n institute precum Institutul (U.S.) and Tavistock Institute (UK)
Tehnologic din Massachusetts (n SUA) i (McKernan, J., 1991, p.10). Tavistock Institute
Institutul Tavistock (n Marea Britanie) has conducted action research combining the
(McKernan,J., 1991,p.10). Institutul Tavistock work of British, Norwegians and Australians in
a ntreprins cercetri-aciune, combinnd the UK and Scandinavia, then extending in
munca britanicilor, norvegienilor i Sweden, Denmark and Germany (Mary
australienilor n Marea Britanie i Scandinavia, Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
apoi extinzndu-se n Suedia, Danemarca i Maguire, 2003, p.11).
Germania (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Corey (1953), Taba (1949), Brady and
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire,2003, p.11). Robinson (1952) used action research in
Corey (1953), Taba (1949), Brady i education. This took the form of a "general
Robinson (1952) au utilizat cercetarea-aciune strategy for designing curricula, attacking
n domeniul educaiei. Aceasta a luat forma complex issues such as intergroup relations and
unei strategii generale pentru proiectarea the damage created by large development
programelor de studii, atacnd probleme projects of the curriculum." In general, action
complexe cum ar fi relaiile intergrup i research was conducted by researchers from
prejudiciul creat de proiectele de mare outside the area, but it relied on the
dezvoltare a curriculum-ului. n general, collaboration of schools and teachers too
cercetarea-aciune a fost realizat de cercettori (McKernan, J., 1991, p.9).
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din afara domeniului, dar s-a bazat i pe Also, Myles Horton and his collaborators
colaborarea colilor i a profesorilor founded Highlander in Tennessee to promote
(McKernan,J., 1991,p.9). social justice, civil rights and democracy, while
De asemenea, Myles Horton i Paulo Freire, Budd Hall, Marja-Liisa Swantz,
colaboratorii si au fondat Highlander n Orlando Fals-Borda and others have developed
Tennesse n scopul promovrii justiiei sociale, action research regarding oppression and
drepturilor civile i democraiei, n timp ce institutional development (Mary Brydon-
Paulo Freire, Budd Hall, Marja-Liisa Swantz, Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire,
Orlando Fals-Borda i alii au ntreprins 2003, p.11).
cercetri-aciune abordnd opresiunea i On the other hand, action research method
dezvoltarea instituional (Mary Brydon- was used by Chris Argyris, Donald Schn, Reg
Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Revans, William Torbert, Peter Reason and
Maguire,2003, p.11). John Heron in a wide variety of organizations,
Pe de alt parte, metoda cercetrii-aciune from private sector companies to public
a fost utilizat de Chris Argyris, Donald Schn, authorities (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd
Reg Revans, William Torbert, Peter Reason i Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.11).
John Heron n cadrul unor largi varieti de Nowadays, action research has begun to
organizaii, de la companii din sectorul privat have an increasing influence in areas such as
pn la autoriti publice (Mary Brydon-Miller, psychology, sociology, economics,
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire,2003, anthropology, education, management,
p.11). organizational development.
i astzi, cercetarea-aciune a nceput s Therefore, we can observe the wide range
aib influen din ce n ce mai mare n domenii of activity fields where the action research was
precum psihologia, sociologia, economia, or is used, a method that was based on the key
antropologia, educaia, managementul, problem common to all fields: "generating
dezvoltare organizaional. knowledge is both valid and vital to the
Observm, aadar, paleta larg de domenii wellbeing of individuals, communities, and for
de activitate n care a fost i este utilizat the promotion of larger-scale democratic social
cercetarea-aciune, metod ce s-a fundamentat change" (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd
pe problema-cheie comun tuturor domeniilor: Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.11).
furnizarea cunoaterii este att valabil, ct i Today, researchers believe that the whole
vital pentru bunstarea indivizilor, research is included in a system of values and
comunitilor, precum i pentru promovarea la promotes a model of human interaction,
scar larg a schimbrii sociale democratice challenging unjust and undemocratic economic,
(Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, social, political systems and practices (Mary
Patricia Maguire,2003, p.11). Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
Astzi, cercettorii sunt de prere c Maguire, 2003, p.11).
ntreaga cercetare este inclus ntr-un sistem de Action research rejects the notion of
valori i promoveaz un model de interaciune objective and valueless approach of knowledge
uman, contestnd practicile i sistemele in favour of an explicitly political, socially
economice, sociale, politice injuste i engaged and democratic practice, because "
nedemocratice (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd research into our ways of life cannot be
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire,2003, p.11). conducted in the same, value-free way as in the
145
Aceasta respinge noiunea de abordare natural sciences" (John Shotter apud Mary
obiectiv, lipsit de valoare a cunotinelor n Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
favoarea unei practici explicit politic, social Maguire, 2003, p. 13).
implicat i democratic, ntruct cercetarea A basic principle of action research is
asupra modurilor noastre de via nu poate fi described by David Coghlan who emphasized
ntreprins n acelai fel lipsit de valoare ca n that "human systems could only be understood
cazul tiinelor naturale (John Shotter apud and changed if one involved the members of
Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, the system in the inquiry process itself" (as
Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 13). cited in David Coghlan Mary Brydon-Miller,
Un principiu de baz al cercetrii-aciune Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.
este descris de David Coghlan care sublinia 13-14).
faptul c sistemele sociale ar putea fi nelese Action research, according to Werner
i schimbate numai prin implicarea membrilor Fricke, means "empathy and listening while
sistemului n nsui procesul de anchet meeting the other, it is a commitment to basic
(David Coghlan apud Mary Brydon-Miller, values like human creativity and democratic
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. participation, it is based on the perception of
13-14). social reality as a continuing process with
Cercetarea-aciune, n opinia lui Werner individuals being subjects of their history and
Fricke, nseamn empatie i ascultare n the social contexts they are dependent on".
timpul ntlnirii cu alii, este un angajament [We] "cannot (and must not) avoid values and
asupra valorilor de baz precum creativitatea personal commitment" (Werner Fricke apud
uman i participarea democratic, se bazeaz Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood,
pe percepia realitii sociale ca pe un proces Patricia Maguire, 2003., P. 14).
continuu cu indivizii devenii subiecte ale Starting from the assumption that knowing
propriilor istorii i ale contextelor sociale de through doing [knowledge through action], is
care acetia depind. Nu putem (i nu trebuie) s more gratifying than knowing through
evitm valorile i angajamentele personale conceptualization [knowledge through theory]
(Werner Fricke apud Mary Brydon-Miller, (Hilary Bradbury apud Mary Brydon-Miller,
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003., Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.
p. 14). 14), Robin McTaggart accentuates this
Pornind de la premisa c a ti prin commitment to action in describing the
intermediul lui a face [cunoaterea prin differences between action research and other
aciune] este mai mbucurtor dect a ti prin a forms of inquiry: "the crucial difference lies in
conceptualiza [cunoaterea prin teorie] (Hilary the commitment of action researchers to bring
Bradbury apud Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd about change as part of the research act.
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 14), Fundamental to action research is the idea that
Robin McTaggart subliniaz acest angajament the social world can only be understood by
ctre aciune n descrierea diferenelor dintre trying to change it" (Robin McTaggart apud
cercetare-aciune i alte forme de anchet: Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood,
diferena crucial st n angajamentul Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 15).
cercettorilor-aciune de a aduce schimbarea ca The values that underlie the common
parte a actului de cercetare. Fundamental n practice of action researchers could be
cercetarea-aciune st ideea c lumea social summarized in few words: respect for people
146
poate fi neleas numai prin ncercarea de a o and for the knowledge and experience they
schimba (Robin McTaggart apud Mary bring to the research process, a confidence in
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia democratic phenomenon and its ability to bring
Maguire, 2003, p. 15). positive social change and a commitment to
Valorile care stau la baza practicii comune action (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd
a cercettorilor-aciune ar putea fi rezumate n Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 15).
cteva cuvinte: respect pentru oamenii i Thus, we conclude that "theory should be
pentru cunoaterea i experiena pe care le determined by practice and it becomes really
aduc n procesul de cercetare, ncrederea n useful when it is put in the service of a practice
abilitatea fenomenului democratic de a aduce focused on achieving positive social change."
schimbare social pozitiv i angajamentul de But, theory, in action researchers opinion, is a
a aciona (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd way operated by the action researcher in order
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 15). to justify the correctness of the knowledge
Astfel, ajungem la concluzia c teoria ar which started his research, but also to
trebui determinat prin practic i devine ntr- legitimize knowledge acquired through
adevr folositoare n momentul n care este experience (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd
pus n serviciul unei practici axate pe Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 15).
realizarea schimbrii sociale pozitive. Dar Today, the context of using action research
teoria, n concepia cercettorilor-aciune, este is similar to the one that Marja-Liisa Swantz
i o modalitate la care recurge cercettorul- reminded when she was talking about a
aciune cu scopul de a justifica corectitudinea Tanzanian project conducted many years ago:
cunotinelor sale de la care a pornit n "Ministries and the district offices were not
cercetarea sa, dar i n vederea legitimrii ready to make use of the benefits of the study.
cunotinelor dobndite prin experien (Mary It became clear to me that there must be
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia institutional preparedness to act on the basis of
Maguire, 2003, p. 15). the results gained at the community level. I am
Astzi, contextul utilizrii cercetrii- perplexed that after all the work done with
aciune este similar cu cel despre care amintea PAR [participatory action research] and the
Marja-Liisa Swantz cnd vorbea despre un evident successes in using it, the main-line
proiect tanzanian desfurat cu muli ani n social scientists still largely ignore it" (Marja-
urm: Ministerele i departamentele zonale nu Liisa Swantz apud Mary Brydon-Miller,
au fost pregtite s se foloseasc de beneficiile Davydd Greenwood Patricia Maguire, op., p.
studiului. A devenit clar pentru mine c trebuie 19).
s existe o pregtire instituional pentru a se Moreover, Werner Fricke, trying to
aciona n baza rezultatelor obinute la nivelul promote action research among German trade
comunitii. Sunt surprins c, dup toat unions, found himself on the verge of isolation.
munca ntreprins prin intermediul cercetrii- In this regard, he observed: "We all know the
aciune participative i succesul evident obinut great difficulties action researchers face to
prin utilizarea acesteia, principalii oameni de bridge the two worlds of theory and praxis, but
tiin sociali nc o ignor ntr-o mare if they try to avoid these difficulties, they will
msur (Marja-Liisa Swantz apud Mary be reduced to either consultants or academic
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia scientists. In both roles they are missing the
Maguire, op.cit., p. 19). social function of action research: to enhance
147
Mai mult, Werner Fricke, ncercnd s democratic participation and to create public
promoveze cercetarea-aciune n rndul spaces in [the] economy" (Werner Fricke apud
sindicatelor germane, s-a trezit n pragul Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood,
izolrii. n acest sens, acesta observa: tim cu Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 19).
toii marile dificulti pe care trebuie s le On the other hand, action research is a
nfrunte cercettorii-aciune, acelea de a long term project whereas "building trust in
construi o punte peste cele dou lumi ale communities that have every reason to be wary
teoriei i practicii, dar dac ncearc s evite of outsiders and especially of academic
aceste dificulti, acetia vor fi redui la simpli outsiders doing research" requires time and
consultani sau oameni de tiin academici. n patience. For example, the researcher Jim Kelly
ambele roluri, ei pierd din vedere funcia and his students (Kelly, Azelton, Lardon, Mock
social a cercetrii-aciune: intensificarea and Tandon) have dedicated 10 years of life,
participrii democratice i crearea de spaii working with African-American community
publice n economie (Werner Fricke apud leaders in Chicago on the Developing
Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Communities Project and "the impact of the
Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 19). project on the community and the richness of
Pe de alt parte, cercetarea-aciune the insights generated in their work together are
reprezint un proiect pe termen lung, ntruct testament to the value of such patience"
consolidarea ncrederii n comuniti care au (Marja-Liisa Swantz apud Mary Brydon-
toate motivele s fie precaute cu strinii i n Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire,
special cu teoreticieni care desfoar munc 2003, p. 20).
de cercetare necesit timp i rbdare. Spre Robin McTaggart's answer to the question
exemplu, cercettorul Jim Kelly i studenii si - "What really is the purpose of social
(Kelly, Azelton, Lardon, Mock i Tandon) i- research?" - is, from his point of view, very
au dedicat 10 ani din via, colabornd cu simply: "the improvement of a social practice"
liderii comunitii afro-americane din Chicago, (Robin McTaggart apud Mary Brydon-Miller,
n Proiectul Comuniti n curs de dezvoltare Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003 p.
(Developing Communities Project), iar 22). Action researchers are always looking to
impactul pe care acesta l-a avut asupra optimize their action research practice, aiming
comunitii i bogia intuiiilor desprinse din at the end to "modify the near environment"
munca acestora mpreun stau mrturie a where they are undertaking action research,
rbdrii de care au dat dovad (Marja-Liisa teach, train and assess their efforts (Jill
Swantz apud Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Morawski apud M. Brydon-Miller, Davydd
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 20). Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 22).
Rspunsul la ntrebarea lui Robin Some action researchers are not affiliated
McTaggart Care este de fapt scopul to any university, but many of them join
cercetrii sociale? este, n opinia acestuia, universities or research institutes. "There can
foarte simplu: mbuntirea unei practici be no question that universities are a key
sociale (Robin McTaggart apud Mary institution for teaching about, conducting, and
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia publishing action research." (Mary Brydon-
Maguire, 2003, p. 22). Cercettorii-aciune Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire,
caut mereu s-i optimizeze practicile de 2003, p. 22). But the fact that inside them
cercetare-aciune, avnd drept scop final action research has difficulties in the way of its
148
modificarea mediului nconjurtor apropiat progress is a worrying fact. In this regard,

n care ntreprindem cercetarea-aciune, action researchers should "take up the
nvm, instruim sau ne evalum eforturile challenge to develop and articulate an analysis
(Jill Morawski apud M. Brydon-Miller, of the dynamics that make universities as
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. institutions behave as they do. Only then can
22). we develop practical strategies and
Unii cercettori-aciune nu sunt afiliai mechanisms for transforming universities into
vreunei universiti, dar muli dintre acetia se real learning institutions at the service of the
altur acestora sau institutelor de cercetare. communities in which they are situated" (Mary
Nu ncape ndoial c universitile sunt Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
instituii-cheie pentru predarea, realizarea sau Maguire, 2003, p. 23).
publicarea cercetrii-aciune(Mary Brydon- Action research because of its
Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, multidisciplinarity may provide today the
2003, p. 22). Dar faptul c n interiorul opportunity to restore and strengthen the
acestora, cercetarea-aciune ntmpin relationship between university and society.
dificulti n calea progresului ei este un fapt There are close relations between action
ngrijortor. n acest sens, cercettorii-aciune researchers work within universities and the
ar trebui s accepte provocarea de a dezvolta work within development agencies and non-
i contura o analiz asupra dinamicii governmental organizations at local, national or
universitilor care le face pe acestea s se international levels. As an example in this
comporte n felul n care o fac. Abia apoi, direction, there are partnerships between
putem dezvolta strategii practice i mecanisme universities and various local and global
pentru transformarea universitilor n development agencies, in which the former
adevrate instituii de nvare, aflate n slujba provides expertise in addressing issues such as
comunitilor n care acestea sunt situate capacity building for sustainable development
(Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, and poverty reduction (Mary Brydon-Miller,
Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 23). Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire 2003, p.
Cercetarea-aciune, datorit 24).
multidisciplinaritii sale, poate oferi astzi Action research is now recognized as a
posibilitatea restabilirii i consolidrii relaiei useful strategic tool to involve community
dintre universitate i societate. members in critical aspects of their lives.
Exist legturi strnse ntre munca "From the World Bank to United Nations
cercettorilor-aciune din cadrul universitilor agencies to a range of NGOs, increasingly,
i cea prestat n cadrul ageniilor de participation has become a required
dezvoltare i organizaiilor non- component of evaluation, assessment,
guvernamentale la nivel local, naional sau appraisals, training, and research projects."
internaional. Ca exemplu n acest sens stau (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood,
parteneriatele ncheiate ntre universiti i Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 24).
diferite agenii de dezvoltare locale sau Action researchers argue that - if we
mondiale, n care cele dinti ofer expertiz n consider the challenges of increased
abordarea unor probleme precum consolidarea participation - action-oriented methods for
capacitii pentru dezvoltarea durabil i social justice and meaningful change are the
reducerea srciei (Mary Brydon-Miller, same, whether working through development
149
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. agencies or universities. However, it appears

24). that promoting participation and action
Cercetarea-aciune este astzi recunoscut research within development agencies have
ca instrument strategic util de implicare a been more successful. But on the other hand,
membrilor comunitii n aspectele critice ale the need for intervention and change the
vieii lor. De la Banca Mondial la agenii ale environment of these agencies and NGOs is as
Naiunilor Unite i pn la un numr din ce n acute as in the universities (power relations and
ce mai mare de ONG-uri, <<participarea>> a interests that oppose democratization) (Mary
devenit o component indispensabil a Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia
proiectelor de evaluare, estimare, apreciere, Maguire, 2003, p. 24). These institutions in
pregtire i de cercetare (Mary Brydon- Geoff Meads opinion have specialized in
Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, "activating their immune responses" to the
2003, p. 24). values and practices of action research (Geoff
Cercettorii-aciune susin c dac lum Mead (2002) apud Mary Brydon-Miller,
n considerare provocrile participrii sporite Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.
, metodele orientate spre aciune pentru justiie 24).
social i schimbare semnificativ sunt In most cases, action research has positive
aceleai, indiferent dac lucreaz prin effects visible at the local level, but fails to
intermediul universitilor sau prin agenii de exceed those boundaries. This is one of the
dezvoltare. Se pare, totui, c promovarea weaknesses identified by the action researchers.
participrii i a cercetrii-aciune n cadrul "Absent such broader social change strategies
ageniilor de dezvoltare a avut mai mult and commitments, action research is likely to
succes. Dar, pe de alt parte, nevoia de win local skirmishes but not the bigger social
intervenie i de modificare a mediului battles that face us all." (Mary Brydon-Miller,
nconjurtor al acestor agenii i al ONG-urilor Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.
este la fel de acut ca i n cazul universitilor 25).
(relaii de putere i de interese care se opun 5. Conclusions
democratizrii) (Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Action research is more likely to lead to
Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 24). valid results than other conventional research
Aceste instituii s-au specializat, n concepia methods, since it involves local stakeholders,
lui Geoff Mead, n activarea rspunsurilor so combining knowledge resulted from
imune la valorile i practicile cercetrii- research with knowledge of the directly
aciune (Geoff Mead (2002) apud Mary involved parties.
Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Thus, if "conventional researchers are
Maguire, 2003, p. 24). concerned with objectivity, distance and
De cele mai multe ori, cercetarea-aciune control", "action researchers worry about
are efecte pozitive vizibile la nivel local, dar nu relevance, social change and validity tested in
reuete s depeasc aceste granie. Acesta action by the most at-risk stakeholders" (Mary
este unul dintre punctele slabe identificate de Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood Patricia
cercettorii-aciune. n lipsa unor strategii i Maguire, 2003, p. 25).
angajamente de schimbare social mai Many action researchers are optimistic
cuprinztoare, cercetarea-aciune este about the action research, since it is used today
susceptibil de a ctiga ciocniri locale, i nu more than it was used a few generations ago,
150
marile btlii sociale cu care ne confruntm and the areas in which it has begun to have an
(Mary Brydon-Miller, Davydd Greenwood, increasingly higher influence are more and
Patricia Maguire, 2003, p. 25). more diverse, its ultimate goal remaining the
improving of social life.
5. Concluzii
Cercetarea-aciune este mai n msur s REFERENCES
conduc la rezultate valide dect alte metode 1. Brydon-Miller, Mary; Greenwood, Davydd;
Maguire, Patricia, Why Action Research?, Action
convenionale de cercetare, ntruct aceasta
Research, Volume 1(1), SAGE Publications London,
implic prile locale interesate, astfel 2003; http://arj.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/1/1/9;
mbinarea cunotinelor rezultate din cercetare 2. Frideres, J.S., (1992). Participatory Research:
cu cunotinele prilor direct implicate. An Illusionary Perspective in Frideres, J.S., (ed) (1992).
Astfel, dac cercettorii convenionali se A World of Communities: Participatory Research
Perspectives, York, Ontario: Caputus University
preocup de obiectivitate, distan i control,
Publications;
cercettorii-aciune se preocup de relevan, 3. Grundy, S. (1986), Action Research and
schimbare social i validitate testat prin Human Interests, apud Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian
aciunea prilor interesate care sunt cele mai Hughes (1995);
supuse riscurilor (Mary Brydon-Miller, 4. Kemmis,S., McTaggert, R., (1988), The Action
Research Planner, p.5 apud Kaye Seymour-Rolls & Ian
Davydd Greenwood, Patricia Maguire, 2003, p.
Hughes (1995), Participatory Action Research : Getting
25). the Job Done, Action Research Electronic Reader,
Muli cercettori-aciune sunt optimiti n 5. Kemmis,S., McTaggert, R., (1990), The Action
ceea ce privete cercetarea-aciune, dat fiind Research Planner, Geelong: Deakin University Press;
faptul c aceasta este utilizat astzi mult mai 6. Masters, Janet (1995) 'The History of Action
Research' in I. Hughes (ed) Action Research Electronic
mult dect a fost n urm cu cteva generaii,
Reader, The University of Sydney, on-line
iar domeniile n care acesta a nceput s aib o http://www.behs.cchs.usyd.edu.au/arow/Reader/rmasters
din ce n ce mai mare influena sunt tot mai .htm;
diversificate, scopul suprem al utilizrii 7. McKernan,J., (1991). Curriculum Action
acesteia rmnnd mbuntirea vieii sociale. Research. A Handbook of Methods and Resources for
the Reflective Practitioner London: Kogan Page
8. McTaggert,R., (1992). Action Research: Issues
in Theory and Practice Keynote address to the
Methodological Issues in Qualitative Health Research
Conference, Friday November 27th, 1992, Geelong:
Deakin University
9. Reason, P., & Bradbury, H. (Eds.). (2001).
Handbook of action research: Participative inquiry and
practice. London: Sage Publications
10. Seymour-Rolls, Kaye; Hughes, Ian (1995),
Participatory Action Research : Getting the Job Done,
Action Research Electronic Reader;
11. Swepson, Pam (1995), Action research:
understanding its philosophy can improve your practice
http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/arp/philos.html.
151
POLITICA PENAL EUROPEAN I EUROPEAN CRIMINAL POLICY

MODALITI DE RECEPTARE A AND MEANS OF ITS RECEPTION IN
ACESTEIA N ORDINEA JURIDIC THE ROMANIAN DOMESTIC
INTERN ROMN LEGAL ORDER
Lect.univ.dr. Ina Raluca TOMESCU84 University Lecturer Ph D,

Ina Raluca Tomescu
Abstract. One of the objectives of the European

Abstract. Unul din obiectivele Uniunii Europene
Union is to provide citizens with a high level of safety
este acela de a oferi cetenilor un nivel ridicat de
within an area of freedom, security and justice.
protecie ntr-un spaiu de libertate, securitate i
Although, mainly, the criminal law is not subject to
justiie. Dei, principial, domeniul penal nu face obiectul
European legislative unification, since criminal law is
unificrii legislative la nivel european, ntruct legea
still seen as an expression of national sovereignty of
penal este considerat n continuare o expresie a
each Member State, bringing national criminal laws
suveranitii naionale a fiecrui stat membru,
closer together is part of the objective requirements of
apropierea legislaiilor penale naionale face parte
an effective retaliation of Member States, organized and
dintre cerinele obiective ale unei riposte eficiente,
organizate i unificate a statelor mpotriva unified against crime.
criminalitii.
Keywords: criminal policy, European Union, area

Cuvinte cheie: politic penal, Uniune European,
of freedom, security and justice, European criminal law,
spaiu de libertate, securitate i justiie, drept penal
legislative harmonization.
european, armonizare legislativ.
Integrarea penal european nu este Integration of European criminal law is

formula magic care va rezolva toate not the magic formula that will solve all
problemele care decurg din deschiderea problems arising from open borders. Some
granielor. Unii chiar consider c vor aprea even consider that there will be new problems:
noi probleme: concentrarea asupra represiunii the focus on repression of fundamental rights
de protecie a drepturilor fundamentale va protection will encourage a repressive criminal
favoriza o politic penal represiv i, prin policy and imposing common rules would
impunerea unor reguli comune, ar perturba disrupt national legislation which risks losing
legislaiile naionale care risc s-i piard din its own coherence. However, the phenomenon
propria coeren. Cu toate acestea, fenomenul continues to grow, helped by new instruments
continu s se dezvolte, ajutat i de noile which are configured in the field.
instrumente ce se configureaz n domeniu.
1. Consideraii generale privind dreptul 1. Overview of the European criminal

penal european law
Dac vorbim de un drept penal european, If we speak of a European criminal law,
o facem n sensul ansamblului de reglementri we refer to all the regulations for the purposes
cu implicaii penale susceptibile s introduc n of criminal involvement likely to bring in legal
84
Universitatea Constantin Brncui din Trgu-Jiu, Facultatea de RelaiiInternaionale, Drept i tiine Administrative
152
viaa juridic european unele principii noi i European life some new common principles to
comune pe care s le respecte statele europene be respected by European countries in their
n legislaia lor penal naional. national criminal legislation.
Asemenea reguli au fost adoptate, de Such rules have been adopted, for
pild, prin Convenia European a Drepturilor example, by the European Convention on
Omului. Sub aceast form, dreptul penal Human Rights. As such, European criminal law
european este rezultatul activitii Consiliului is the result of the activity of the Council of
Europei, dar reguli similare au fost introduse i Europe, but similar rules have been introduced
prin activitatea Uniunii Europene. Ar intra n by the European Union's activities. Numerous
sfera dreptului penal european i numeroasele Conventions of cooperation and mutual support
Convenii de cooperare i ntrajutorare also fall in the sphere of European criminal
reciproc, coninnd reguli de drept penal law, containing rules of criminal law designed
menite s reglementeze activitatea statelor to regulate the activity of the Member States of
membre ale Consiliului Europei i ale Uniunii the Council of Europe and the European Union,
Europene n direcia combaterii mai eficiente a so as to be more effective in fighting crimes
infraciunilor care aduc atingere intereselor affecting the common interests of states
comune ale statelor fcnd parte din aceste belonging to these organizations.
organizaii. Thus, we can speak of a European
n felul acesta, am putea vorbi de un drept criminal law provisions covering three broad
penal european cuprinznd trei mari categorii categories: those resulting from the work of the
de dispoziii: cele rezultate din activitatea Council of Europe, those concerning the
Consiliului Europei, cele privitoare la activity of the European Union and those
activitatea Uniunii Europene i cele care resulting from cooperation agreements
rezult din Conveniile de cooperare ncheiate concluded within the two organizations.
n cadrul celor dou organizaii. Leaving aside the fact that the basic EU
Lsnd la o parte faptul c tratatele de treaties do not include any provision for the
baz ale UE nu conin nici o norm de powers to establish an "authentic system of
competen care s permit instituirea unui European supranational criminal law 107, the
sistem autentic de drept penal european attempts to develop a Community criminal law
supranaional85, ncercrile de a se realiza un have been hampered by some obstacles, such
drept penal comunitar au fost ngreunate i de as:
unele obstacole, cum ar fi: - it is deemed that the exercise of justice,
- se consider c exercitarea justiiei, mai especially criminal one, is an attribute of
85
H. Satzger, Internationales und Europisches Strafrecht, Ed. Nomos, Baden-Baden, 2009, cap. 7, parag. 7 i urm. Din acest
considerent, activitatea n materie penal a CE/UE poate consta doar n armonizarea normelor de drept intern ale statelor membre,
prin impunerea unor standarde, de care statele membre trebuie s in seama la configurarea dreptului penal intern pentru atingerea
unor deziderate precum: protejarea intereselor originale - n mod deosebit a celor de natur financiar - ale Comunitii, respectiv
ale Uniunii, , transpunerea politicilor comunitare, deci atingerii scopurilor cerute de doctrina effet utile ", specific dreptului CE,
dar i combaterea criminalitii transfrontaliere, ca un interes comun al tuturor statelor membre (F. Zimmermann, Probleme de
aplicare a cerinelor comunitare n sistemul naional de drept penal, CDP nr. 2/2009, p. 118).
107
H. Satzger, Internationales und Europisches Strafrecht, Nomos Publishing House, Baden-Baden, 2009, ch. 7, para. 7 and
following. For this reason, criminal activity of EC / EU can only consist in harmonizing national rules of the Member States, by
imposing standards that Member States should take into account when configuring national criminal law to achieve goals such as :
safeguarding original interests - particularly those of a financial nature - of the Community, namely the Union, transporting EU
policies, so the achievement of the goals required by the doctrine of "effet utile" specific to EC law, and combating cross-border
crime, as common interest to all Member States (F. Zimmermann, Probleme de aplicare a cerinelor comunitare n sistemul
naional de drept penal (Problems Implementing EU Requirements in National Criminal Law), CDP no. 2/2009, p. 118).
153
ales a celei penale, constituie un atribut al sovereignty of each Member State, as well as
suveranitii fiecrui stat membru, ca i politica foreign policy and minting money;
extern i baterea monedei; - criminal law is a manifestation of
- legea penal este o manifestare a culturii national culture, an expression of the
naionale, expresie a particularitilor modului particularities of existence and behavior of each
de a fi i de a se comporta a fiecrui popor, iar nation, and unifying efforts could be
eforturile de unificare ar putea fi considerate o considered a breach of their culture;
atingere adus propriei culturi; - criminal codes in EU countries contain
- codurile penale din rile Uniunii conin different provisions due to the national
reglementri diferite datorit particularitilor peculiarities of criminal law.
naionale ale dreptului penal86. However, the criminal law of each
Cu toate acestea, dreptul penal al fiecrei member country must play an important role in
ri membre trebuie s joace un rol important the functioning of the European Union, so
n funcionarea Uniunii Europene, astfel c national criminal law must adapt to EU
legislaiile penale naionale trebuie s se requirements, by receiving Community
adapteze cerinelor Uniunii, receptnd legis- legislation in the field.
laia comunitar din domeniu. European criminal law has gradually
Dreptul penal european s-a dezvoltat developed, both within the Council of Europe
treptat, att sub egida Consiliului Europei, ct and especially in the European Union. The
i, mai ales, n cadrul Uniunii Europene. fundamental elements underlying EU criminal
Elementele fundamentale, ce stau la baza law are the strengthening of judicial
dreptului european penal, sunt ntrirea cooperation between States and harmonization
cooperrii judiciare ntre state i apropierea of national laws. Thus, three aspects of
legislaiilor naionale. Astfel, sunt recunoscute European criminal law are recognized:
trei aspecte ale dreptului penal european87: - Cooperation between police and judicial
- cooperarea ntre Autoritile judiciare i authorities;
de poliie; - Human rights, an area in which criminal
- drepturile omului, un domeniu n care law plays a paramount role;
dreptul penal ocup un loc primordial; - European Union law, which, though it is
- dreptul Uniunii Europene, care, dei nu not, in principle, a criminal law, involves many
este, n principiu, un drept penal, implic aspects of criminal law.
numeroase aspecte de drept penal. In fact, European criminal law stricto
De fapt, dreptul european penal stricto sensu currently has its matter headquarters in
sensu i are n prezent sediul materiei n Titlul Title VI of the Treaty on European Union
VI din Tratatul privind instituirea Uniunii "Police and judicial cooperation in criminal
Europene Cooperarea poliieneasc i matters" (art. 29-42), which is the third Pillar of
judiciar n materie penal" (art. 29-42), care the Union Thus, art. 29 par. 1 of TEU states
constituie cel de-al treilea Pilon al Uniunii that one of the fundamental objectives of the
Astfel, art. 29 parag. 1 din TUE statueaz c European Union is "to provide its citizens with
unul din obiectivele fundamentale ale Uniunii a high level of safety within an area of
Europene este s asigure cetenilor si un freedom, security and justice, by developing
86
M. Basarab, Partea general a Codului penal romn ntr-o perspectiv european, RDP nr. 1/2004, p. 25.
87
Jean Pradel, Geert Corstens, Droit pnal europen, Dalloz, Paris, 1999, p. 6-8.
154
nivel ridicat de protecie ntr-un spaiu de common action in the field of police
libertate, securitate i justiie, elabornd o cooperation and criminal justice, preventing
aciune n comun n domeniul cooperrii racism and xenophobia and fighting these
poliieneti i judiciare n materie penal, phenomena ". In accordance with the
prevenind rasismul i xenofobia i luptnd cu provisions of the second paragraph of Art. 29
aceste fenomene". n conformitate cu of the TEU, this objective is achieved by
prevederile celui de-al doilea paragraf al art. 29 preventing crime, organized, but not only, and
din TUE, acest obiectiv este atins prin the fight against this phenomenon, mainly
prevenirea criminalitii, organizate, dar nu terrorism, trafficking in persons and offenses
numai, i lupta mpotriva acestui fenomen, n against children, drug trafficking, arms
principal a terorismului, traficului de fiine trafficking, corruption and fraud by the
umane i a infraciunilor mpotriva copiilor, following means:
traficului de droguri, traficului de arme, closer cooperation between police
corupiei i fraudei, prin urmtoarele forces, customs authorities and other competent
mijloace88: authorities of the Member States, both directly
cooperare mai strns ntre forele de and through the European Police Office
poliie, Autoritile vamale i celelalte (Europol);
autoriti competente din statele membre, closer cooperation between judicial and
deopotriv direct i prin intermediul Oficiului other competent authorities of the Member
European de Poliie (Europol); States, including the European Judicial
o cooperare mai strns ntre Cooperation Unit (Eurojust);
Autoritile judiciare i celelalte autoriti harmonization, as much as needed, of
competente din statele membre, inclusiv rules on criminal matters in the Member States.
Unitatea european de cooperare judiciar
(Eurojust);
apropierea, att ct este nevoie, a
normelor de drept penal ale statelor membre.
Characteristics of European criminal
Caracterele dreptului penal european law
1 ) Dreptul penal european este un drept 4 ) European Criminal Law is a
penal convenional, adic rezultat al voinei conventional criminal law, meaning it is a
suverane a statelor de a stabili reguli represive result of the sovereign will of states to establish
comune. ntre state se ncheie convenii legi, i common repressive rule. Agreements laws are
nu convenii contracte; ca urmare, nu concluded between states, not conventions
funcioneaz principiul reciprocitii, statele contracts; as a result, the principle of
fiind obligate s respecte convenia, chiar dac reciprocity does not work, states are required to
unele nu o respect. comply with the Convention, even if some do
2) Dreptul penal european ocup un loc not.
primordial n ierarhia naional a surselor de 5) European criminal law plays a
drept. Aa, de pild, n unele state, dispoziiile primordial role in the national hierarchy of
Conveniei Europene a Drepturilor Omului nu sources of law. So, for example, in some states,
88
Florin Rzvan Radu, Cooperarea judiciar internaional i european n materie penal ndrumar pentru practicieni,
Wolters Kluwer, Bucureti, 2009, p. 112.
155
sunt ncorporate n ordinea juridic intern, the provisions of the European Convention on
ns, n practic, au o mare importan (Marea Human Rights are not incorporated into
Britanie, Irlanda), judectorii interpretnd domestic law, but in practice, the are highly
legislaia naional n lumina acestei Convenii. significant (UK, Ireland), the courts
Alte state au ncorporat Convenia European a interpreting national law in the light of this
Drepturilor Omului n legislaia naional, Convention. Other states have incorporated the
individul putnd s o invoce direct n faa European Convention on Human Rights into
instanei. national law, and individuals may invoke it
Legislaia comunitar are prioritate fa de directly to the court.
dreptul naional; ea se aplic imediat i este Community law takes precedence over
obligatorie pentru statele membre. Ca urmare, national law, it is applied immediately and it is
dreptul comunitar paralizeaz norma naional mandatory for Member States. Therefore,
contrar, judectorul naional fiind obligat s Community law paralyzes contrary national
aplice norma comunitar89. norm, the national court is bound to apply
3) Dreptul penal european are la baz Community standards.
Convenia European a Drepturilor Omului, 6) European criminal law is based on the
dispoziiile acesteia se reflect n ntreaga European Convention on Human Rights, its
activitate normativ a Consiliului Europei i a provisions are reflected throughout the
Uniunii Europene. legislative activity of the Council of Europe
Dei, principial, domeniul penal nu face and the European Union.
obiectul unificrii legislative la nivel european, Although, in principle, the criminal law is
ntruct legea penal este considerat n not subject to European legislative unification,
continuare o expresie a suveranitii naionale since criminal law is still seen as an expression
a fiecrui stat membru, apropierea legislaiilor of national sovereignty of each Member State,
penale naionale face parte dintre cerinele the harmonization of the national criminal laws
obiective ale unei riposte eficiente, organizate is part of the objective requirements of an
i unificate a statelor mpotriva criminalitii90. effective, organized and unified retaliation of
Pentru funcionarea i realizarea obiectivelor Member States against crime. For the operation
Uniunii Europene, ct i pentru aprarea and achievement of the objectives of the
valorilor comune, este necesar meninerea European Union and to safeguard the common
unei ordini juridice n spaiul format de statele values, it is necessary to maintain a legal order
Uniunii. Aceast ordine este guvernat, n in the space formed by the EU states. This
prezent, cu preponderen, de reglementri order is now predominantly governed by the
penale ale statelor membre, ct i de Criminal regulations of Member States and EU
reglementri ale Uniunii, care sunt n continu regulations, which are constantly growing, both
ascensiune, att din punct de vedere al in terms of volume and importance of the fight
volumului, ct i al importanei n lupta cu against crime.
infracionalitatea. EU Member States have therefore their
Statele membre ale Uniunii Europene own criminal legislation, which would form the
posed, n consecin, reglementri proprii cu so-called criminal Community law, and by
89
George Antoniu, Drept penal european note de curs, Ed. Academica Brncui, Tg-Jiu, 2005, p. 4-5.
90
George Antoniu, ACTIVITATEA NORMATIV PENAL A UNIUNII EUROPENE (I), N RDP NR. 1/2007, P. 9.
156
caracter penal, care ar forma aa-numitul drept including in national law regulations of
comunitar penal, iar prin includerea n common interest, it can be said to create the so-
legislaia intern a unor reglementri de interes called criminal Community Law, all these
comun se poate spune c s-a creat aa-numitul regulations applying in principle within each
drept penal comunitar, toate aceste State that has adopted them. There are also
reglementri aplicndu-se, n principiu, pe criminal regulations of the EU institutions,
teritoriul fiecrui stat care le-a adoptat. Exist which are directly applicable, which are the
ns i reglementri cu caracter penal ale foundation for the creation of Community
instituiilor Uniunii Europene, care au criminal law.
aplicabilitate direct, acestea fiind la baza All these criminal regulations adopted by
formrii dreptului comunitar penal. the Member States and the Community
Toate aceste reglementri cu caracter institutions, although they still do not have a
penal adoptate de statele membre i de unitary character, could be ascribed to the
instituiile comunitare, dei nc nu au un notion of criminal law of the European Union,
caracter unitar, ar putea fi subsumate noiunii which is currently the instrument by which we
de drept penal al Uniunii Europene, acesta act to prevent and combat crime across the
fiind momentan instrumentul cu ajutorul cruia Union.
se acioneaz pentru prevenirea i combaterea Criminal law of the European Union is a
fenomenului infracional n spaiul Uniunii. branch of the Union law which is governed by
Dreptul penal al Uniunii Europene este o the same general principles that result both
ramur a dreptului Uniunii care este guvernat from constitutive treaties and other
de aceleai principii generale ce se desprind fundamental acts, as well as from the most
din tratatele constitutive i din celelalte acte advanced regulations of the Member States.
fundamentale, ct i din cele mai avansate This is to protect the legal order of the
reglementri ale statelor membre. Acesta are European Union, in conjunction with national
rolul de a apra ordinea juridic a Uniunii criminal law of the Member States, which it
Europene, n strns legtur cu dreptul penal influences in the sense that it improves an
naional al statelor membre, pe care l harmonizes domestic criminal procedures, to
influeneaz n sensul perfecionrii i unifor- facilitate collaboration between states in the
mizrii normelor penale interne, spre a facilita fight against crime affecting the interests of the
colaborarea statelor n lupta contra Union, of member countries and their citizens.
criminalitii care afecteaz interesele Uniunii,
ale rilor membre i ale cetenilor acestora. 2. Harmonization of Romanian
Criminal Law with EU legislation
2. Armonizarea legislaiei penale Romanias joining the European Union
romne cu legislaia comunitar requires, among other crucial conditions, the
Aderarea Romniei la Uniunea European need to harmonize the Romanian legislation
presupune, printre alte condiii hotrtoare, i with Community law in all spheres of
pe aceea a punerii de acord a legislaiei romne economic, political and social life.
cu legislaia comunitar, n toate domeniile One such requirement is imposed by
vieii economice, politice i sociale. current realities. It is known that in the EU,
O atare cerin este obiectiv impus de based on the constitutive treaties (original
realitile actuale. Se tie c n cadrul Uniunii Community law) and other regulations
157
Europene, pe baza tratatelor constitutive (regulation, directive, etc..) emanating from EU

(dreptul comunitar originar), ct i a celorlalte decision-making bodies (secondary
acte normative (regulament, directiv etc.), Community law), there was already a specific
emannd de la organele de decizie ale Uniunii regulatory framework designed to help the
(dreptul comunitar derivat), s-a creat deja un fulfillment of the aims of the Union. This
cadru normativ specific, menit s contribuie la acquis communautaire, which is part of the
aducerea la ndeplinire a scopurilor Uniunii. legal heritage of the Union, should be taken
Acest aquis comunitar, care face parte din and appropriated by states that seek to join the
patrimoniul legislativ al Uniunii, trebuie Union, otherwise integration among Member
preluat i nsuit de statele care i propun s States is not possible.
adere la Uniune, n alt mod neputnd fi The European Union is not a group of
posibila integrarea lor printre statele membre. states that would be limited only to cooperate,
Uniunea European nu reprezint o as sovereign states, in order to achieve common
grupare de state care s-ar limita numai s goals, but it was established as a unit of States
coopereze, ca state suverane, n vederea which have certain purposes, and they are
realizrii unor obiective comune, ci ea s-a willing to give up some attributes of national
constituit ca o unitate de state care i propun sovereignty, to make possible the achievement
anumite scopuri, pentru a cror realizare of such objectives, as: creating a common
accept s renune la unele atribute ale market, an economic monetary union to
suveranitii naionale, spre a face posibil stimulate the harmonious and balanced
nfptuirea unor asemenea obiective, cum ar fi: development of economic activities, their
realizarea unei piee comune, o uniune sustainable and non-inflationary growth, to
economic i monetar n vederea stimulrii, achieve a high level of employment and social
dezvoltrii armonioase i echilibrate a protection, all in order to increase the standard
activitilor economice, a creterii lor durabile of living and quality of life, economic and
i neinflaioniste, a realizrii unui nivel nalt al social cohesion and solidarity of European
ocuprii forei de munc i al proteciei sociale, countries.
toate acestea n scopul creterii nivelului de trai As a result, countries that wish to join this
i al calitii vieii, a coeziunii economice i group must, necessarily, acquire not only the
sociale, precum i a solidaritii statelor goals, but also the means to achieve them.
europene91. However, one of these ways is just linking
Ca urmare, statele care doresc s adere la national legislation to already established
aceast grupare trebuie, n mod obligatoriu, s- normative instruments in the EU, the only one
i nsueasc nu numai obiectivele, dar i able to facilitate their proximity to such a
mijloacele pentru atingerea lor. Or, una din degree that they can achieve their objectives.
aceste ci este tocmai corelarea legislaiei The mainly economic objectives of the
naionale cu instrumentele normative deja European Union would seem to preclude
create n cadrul Uniunii, singurele n msur s extending the obligations of Member States, to
nlesneasc apropierea lor ntr-un asemenea harmonize national legislation with the
grad, nct s poat realiza obiectivele propuse. European one in the field of criminal
Obiectivele preponderent economice ale repression.
91
George Antoniu, Armonizarea legislaiei penale romne cu legislaia comunitar, n SDR, nr. 3-4/2003, p. 237.
158
Uniunii Europene ar prea c exclud Such a conclusion emerged from the

extinderea obligaiilor statelor membre, de a-i content of the constituent treaties of the
pune de acord legislaia naional cu cea European Union (the Treaties of Maastricht,
comunitar i n domeniul represiunii penale. Amsterdam, Nice), and the decisions of the
O atare concluzie s-a desprins din Court of Justice, which stresses that, in
coninutul tratatelor constitutive ale Uniunii principle, criminal law and criminal procedure
Europene (Tratatele de la Maastricht, remains of the Member States, which means
Amsterdam, Nisa), dar i din deciziile Curii de that such tasks, such as incrimination,
Justiie a Comunitilor Europene, n care se punishment and execution of punishments for
subliniaz c, n principiu, legislaia penal i criminal acts that would undermine the
procesual-penal rmne de competena interests of the Union, would remain the
statelor membre, ceea ce ar nsemna c competence of the Member States. Thus it
asemenea atribuii, cum ar fi: incriminarea, would seem that a solution of principle was
sancionarea i executarea pedepselor, pentru given if national criminal law must or not to
fapte care ar aduce atingere intereselor Uniunii, follow the process of harmonization in relation
ar rmne n sarcina statelor membre. n felul to Community law, just like other types of
acesta, s-ar prea c s-a dat o soluie de legislation..
principiu problemei dac legea penal Future developments of the European
naional trebuie sau nu s urmeze procesul de Union showed that it is not possible for
armonizare n raport cu legislaia comunitar, criminal law to remain outside the European
ntocmai ca i celelalte tipuri de legislaii92. integration process as an expression of the
Evoluiile ulterioare ale Uniunii Europene sovereignty of Member States, and developed
au artat c nu este posibil, practic, ca exclusively only in relation to their national
legislaia penal s rmn n afara proceselor interests. For instance, freedom of movement
de integrare european, ca expresie a of goods, persons, services, a fundamental
suveranitii statelor membre, urmnd a fi objective of the European Union, could not be
elaborat, exclusiv, numai n raport cu achieved without the use of criminal regulatory
interesele lor naionale. Aa de pild, framework, even if we only refer to the need to
asigurarea libertii circulaiei mrfurilor, a incriminate and punish acts of discrimination
persoanelor, a serviciilor, obiectiv fundamental based on nationality, sex, religion, race,
al Uniunii Europene, nu ar putea fi realizat fr economic relations, or in employment.
a folosi i cadrul normativ penal, chiar dac ne- Similarly, criminal norm is inevitably involved
am referi numai la necesitatea incriminrii i in repressing acts of preventing the movement
sancionrii faptelor de discriminare bazate pe of goods through customs, fiscal,
naionalitate, sex, religie, ras, n relaiile administrative barriers etc. impediments which
economice, sau n raporturile de munc. La fel, in some cases are required to be suppressed by
norma penal este inevitabil implicat n means of criminal law. Practice has shown that
reprimarea faptelor de mpiedicare a circulaiei Member States, taking the obligation to execute
mrfurilor, prin obstacole vamale, fiscale, unconditionally the purposes of the Union,
administrative etc, impedimente care, n should use all means available, including
anumite cazuri, se impun a fi reprimate i prin criminal tools, where they would be more
92
Petre Buneci, Constantin Duvac, Ovidiu Dobleag, Ocrotirea prin mijloace penale i procesual penale a intereselor financiare ale
Uniunii Europene, Ed. Pro Universitaria, Bucureti, 2008, p. 54-55.
159
mijlocirea legii penale. Practica a artat c effective in achieving its objectives.

statele membre, lundu-i obligaia s aduc la Equally, criminal law is called upon to
ndeplinire, necondiionat, scopurile Uniunii, intervene and to suppress serious acts of
trebuie s foloseasc toate mijloacele de care aggression against the Union's financial
dispun, inclusiv instrumentele penale, acolo interests. Considering the large-scale fraud,
unde acestea s-ar dovedi mai eficiente n both on the spending of EU funds and of
realizarea obiectivelor Uniunii. raising revenue, the union bodies have urged
n egal msur, legea penal este chemat Member States to take effective measures to
s intervin i pentru reprimarea faptelor grave incriminate and sanction, according to national
de agresiune la adresa intereselor financiare ale law, the offenses. But criminal law
Uniunii. Constatndu-se existena de fraude de involvement is required also by the increase, in
mari proporii, att n privina modului de alarming proportions, of European crime. If
cheltuire a fondurilor comunitare, ct i al achieving Union goals of liberalization of the
strngerii veniturilor, uniunea, organele movement of goods, persons and services, has
comunitare, au cerut statelor membre s ia proven beneficial for the economic
msuri eficiente de incriminare i sancionare, development of Member States, criminals have
potrivit legii naionale, a unor asemenea fapte. taken full advantage of these freedoms and
Dar, implicarea legii penale este cerut i de using these conditions, managed to intensify
creterea, n proporii ngrijortoare, a their actions, to easily conceal their identity and
criminalitii europene. Dac realizarea the products of their illicit activity.
scopurilor Uniunii, de liberalizare a circulaiei EU institutional treaties (Treaties of
mrfurilor, persoanelor i serviciilor, s-a Maastricht, Amsterdam, Nice) suggested the
dovedit benefic pentru dezvoltarea economic Member States to enhance cooperation against
a statelor membre, de aceste liberti au more serious forms of crime, such as organized
profitat din plin i infractorii care, folosind crime, trafficking of drugs, organs, people,
aceste condiii, au reuit s-i intensifice corruption, etc.. They even suggest to take
aciunile, s-i ascund mai uor identitatea i measures nationally and to harmonize criminal
produsele activitii lor ilicite93. laws in order to achieve efficient repression of
Tratatele instituionale ale Uniunii certain categories of offenses. For instance, art.
(Tratatele de la Maastricht, Amsterdam, Nisa) 29 of the Maastricht Treaty states that the
au sugerat statelor membre s intensifice matters of common interest to the Member
cooperarea mpotriva formelor mai grave de States of the European Union, the fight against
criminalitate, cum ar fi: crima organizat, addiction, against fraud of international
traficul de droguri, de organe, de persoane, dimension, judicial and police cooperation in
corupia etc. Se sugera chiar statelor s ia the fight against terrorism, organ trafficking
msuri pe plan naional, de a-i pune de acord and other crimes . These provisions are set out
legislaiile penale, pentru a realiza o represiune in the Treaty of Amsterdam and the Treaty of
mai eficient a unor categorii de infraciuni. Nice (February 2002), providing for, among
Aa de pild, art. 29 din Tratatul de la other things, the obligation of Member States to
Maastricht prevede c reprezint chestiuni de adopt progressive measures, establishing
interes comun pentru statele membre ale minimum rules regarding the constitutive
93
George Antoniu, op.cit, n SDR, nr. 3-4/2003, p. 238.
160
Uniunii Europene, lupta contra toxicomaniei, clemencies of the criminal offenses, in the filed
contra fraudei de dimensiuni internaionale, of organized crime, terrorism and drug
cooperarea judiciar i poliieneasc n lupta trafficking.
contra terorismului, a traficului ilegal de In this way, the cooperation of Member
organe i a altor forme de criminalitate. Aceste States is designed to gradually lead to the
prevederi sunt reluate n Tratatul de la removal, as far as possible, of the major
Amsterdam i n Tratatul de la Nisa (februarie differences in the treatment of these criminal
2002), prevzndu-se, printre altele, i acts and to unified efforts to establish joint
obligaia statelor membre s adopte msuri measures to suppress serious forms of
progresive, stabilind reguli minimale privind international crime.
clementele constitutive ale infraciunilor, n European integration processes related to
domeniul crimei organizate, a terorismului i a legal and criminal matters, are realities for our
traficului de droguri94. country, which has chosen to join the European
In felul acesta, cooperarea statelor membre Union.
este conceput s conduc treptat la Although criminal law is of the
nlturarea, pe ct posibil, a deosebirilor competence of the Member States, the Court of
majore n privina tratamentului penal al Justice of the European Union provides that
acestor fapte i la unirea eforturilor pentru national regulations do not indirectly constitute
stabilirea unor msuri comune de reprimare a an obstacle to the objectives of the Community
formelor grave ale criminalitii internaionale. Treaties. The review by the Court of Justice
Procesele integrrii europene, legate de corrects the excesses of states and harmonizes
materia juridico-penal, reprezint realiti i national regulations.
pentru ara noastr, care i-a formulat opiunea National criminal legislation of member
de a adera la Uniunea European. countries suffers from strong influence of the
Dei dreptul penal este de competena community legislation in the efforts to achieve
statelor, Curtea de Justiie a Uniunii Europene the aims of the European Union. Also
asigur ca reglementrile naionale s nu community legislation resorts to rules of
constituie un obstacol indirect la realizarea criminal laws of the member countries for the
obiectivelor tratatelor comunitare. Prin enforcement of the measures ordered by the
controlul efectuat, Curtea de Justiie corecteaz European Union, as EU law is currently lacking
excesele statelor i contribuie la armonizarea a full enforcement mechanism. This task, with
reglementrilor naionale. some exceptions regarding competition, is
Legislaia penal naional a rilor entrusted to Member States, to ensure that
membre sufer influene puternice din partea Community law is complied with and executed,
legislaiei comunitare n demersurile de the EU being considered in this area, more than
realizare a scopurilor Uniunii Europene. De body of conception than one of execution.
asemenea, legislaia comunitar apeleaz la The positive influence of Community rules
reglementrile penale ale rilor membre n on national criminal law can be achieved in 3
vederea executrii msurilor dispuse de ways. .
organele Uniunii Europene, n prezent dreptul The first method, called the national
comunitar fiind lipsit de un mecanism integral method is that in which the Member State of
94
Petre Buneci, Constantin Duvac, Ovidiu Dobleag, op. cit., p. 57.
161
de executare. Aceast ndatorire, cu unele the European Union, when finding a violation
excepii n materie de concuren, este of the Community rule, assimilates such
ncredinat statelor membre, astfel c dreptul offense with an offense existent in national law
comunitar se servete de legislaiile naionale and applies the penalty provided in the text
pentru a asigura respectarea regulilor sale i de respectively, ensuring execution of the sentence
a garanta executarea, Uniunea European fiind by the convicted person. Thus, EU institutions
considerat, n acest domeniu, mai mult organ do not prescribe, nor impose and ensure the
de concepie, dect de executare95. execution of criminal sanctions, these tasks are
Influena pozitiv a regulilor comunitare left to Member States. In this case, the rule of
asupra legii penale naionale se poate realiza conduct, the precept belongs to community
prin 3 metode96. law, while the prescription, imposition and
O prim metod, denumit i metoda enforcement of the criminal sanction belongs to
naional, este aceea n care statul membru al national law.
Uniunii Europene, constatnd o violare a unei Another method in which national
reguli comunitare, procedeaz la asimilarea legislation is influenced by the Community
faptei respective cu una dintre infraciunile rules is that Community law requires Member
existente n legea naional i aplic pedeapsa States to penalize an infringement of
prevzut n textul respectiv, asigurnd i Community law which it defines itself. The
executarea pedepsei de ctre persoana Member Stat must apply the sanction, as
condamnat. Astfel, instituiile Uniunii required by Community law. Unlike the first
Europene nu prescriu, nu impun i nu asigur method, where the sanction was different from
executarea sanciunilor penale, aceste ndatoriri state to state according to existing national
fiind lsate la latitudinea statelor membre. In legislation or legislation adopted for applying
aceast situaie, regula de conduit, preceptul Community law, in this method the penalty is
face parte din dreptul comunitar, n timp ce the same in all Member States for a given
prescrierea, impunerea i executarea sanciunii violation. This method provides not only a
penale aparin legii naionale. uniform sanctioning of violations, but it also
O alt metod prin care este influenat realizes a unified description of infringements,
legislaia naional de regulile comunitare este which are provided in the very Community law
cea potrivit creia legislaia comunitar impune (Directive or Regulation), achieving a stronger
statelor membre obligaia de a sanciona o involvement of Community law in national
nclcare a dreptului comunitar pe care ea criminal law. Sanctions are applied by national
nsi o definete. Statul membru aplic courts and are nationally executed.
obligatoriu sanciunea, aa cum a fost cerut de A third way to manifest positive influence
legea comunitar. Spre deosebire de prima of Community rules on national criminal law
modalitate, unde sanciunea era diferit de la involves the application of sanctions (penalties)
un stat la altul n funcie de legislaia naional by the very Community institutions for the
existent sau adoptat special pentru aplicarea infringed of Community rules. Thus, the three
dispoziiei comunitare, n aceast modalitate constitutive treaties provide that the executive
sanciunea este aceeai n toate statele membre body of the European Communities, European
pentru o anumit nclcare. Aceast metod Commission, apply fines in case of
95
Jean Pradel, Geert Corstens, op. cit., p. 407.
96
Gavril Paraschiv, Drept penal al Uniunii Europene, Ed. CH Beck, Bucureti, 2008, p. 5.
162
asigur nu numai o sancionare unitar a infringements of Community rules on

nclcrilor, dar se realizeaz i o descriere competition. Examined in light of the European
unitar a faptelor ilicite, care sunt prevzute Court of Human Rights, the fine is criminal,
chiar n legea comunitar (directiv sau because it is repressive, even though the
regulament), realizndu-se o implicare mai regulation states that it does not have this
puternic a dreptului comunitar n dreptul character. Constituent treaties provide that
penal naional. Sanciunile sunt aplicate de institutions will translate into practice the
instanele naionale i executate tot pe plan principle of influencing the criminal laws of the
naional. Member States by imposing criminal sanctions
O a treia cale prin care se manifest directly, without resorting to national
influena pozitiv a regulilor comunitare asupra legislation (Community method).
legii penale naionale presupune aplicarea de
sanciuni (amenzi) chiar de ctre instituiile 3. Ways of perceiving the Community
comunitare pentru nclcarea normelor rules in Romanian domestic law
comunitare. Astfel, cele 3 tratate constitutive As noted above, the Community rules
prevd posibilitatea ca organul executiv al have a positive influence on national criminal
Comunitilor, Comisia European, s aplice law, and this can be done in several ways /
amenda n cazul unor nclcri ale regulilor methods.
comunitare privitoare la concuren. Examinat
n lumina criteriilor Curii Europene a A. National Method
Drepturilor Omului, aceast amend este de This method is that the institutions of the
natur penal, ntruct are caracter represiv, European Communities do not incriminate
chiar dac prin regulament se arat c nu are facts, do not impose criminal sanctions and do
acest caracter. Tratatele constitutive prevd c not execute them themselves. These tasks are
instituiile comunitare vor traduce n practic left to Member States. In this case, the rules of
acest principiu de influenare a legislaiilor conduct are part of Community law, while the
penale ale statelor membre prin impunerea de sanction and how to execute it belong to
sanciuni penale n mod direct, fr a face apel national law.
la legislaiile naionale (metoda comunitar). This obligation of states, ie to use national
law to penalize infringements of Community
3. Modaliti de receptare a regulilor law results not only from secondary
comunitare n ordinea juridic intern Community law (regulations and directives of
romn the Community institutions), but also from the
Aa cum am precizat anterior, regulilor original Community law (the rules laid down in
comunitare au o influen pozitiv asupra legii the Treaties establishing the European
penale naionale, iar acest lucru se poate Communities) because each Member State is
realiza prin mai multe modaliti/metode. required to accomplish the objectives of the
European Communities, using for this purpose,
A. Metoda naional national legislation (if not using a different
Aceast metod const n aceea c translation into legislation of the provisions of
instituiile Comunitilor Europene nu Community law).
incrimineaz fapte, nu impun i nu execut ele So, for example, incriminations of forgery,
nsele sanciunile penale. Aceste ndatoriri sunt fraud in national law are used if one has
163
lsate la latitudinea statelor membre. n acest obtained by false certain community facilities;
caz, regulile de conduit fac parte din dreptul in these cases, national authorities do not need
comunitar, n timp ce sanciunea i modul de a specific incrimination rule of Community
executare a acesteia aparin legii naionale. law. Likewise, fraud committed against the
Aceast obligaie a statelor, i anume de a financial interests of the European
folosi legea naional pentru sancionarea Communities is punished as if it were a
nclcrilor de drept comunitar nu rezult national tax offense. It is known that the
numai din dreptul comunitar derivat Member States of the European Communities
(regulamente i directive ale instituiilor are required to give a percentage of VAT to
comunitare), dar i din dreptul comunitar European Communities. Therefore, a fraud on
originar (regulile prevzute n Tratatele VAT penalizes both the respective states and
constitutive ale Comunitilor Europene), the European Communities.
deoarece fiecare stat membru are obligaia s Member States may also use another
aduc la ndeplinire obiectivele Comunitilor technique to meet the national requirement. For
Europene, folosind, n acest scop, legislaia sa example, the national legislature may provide,
naional (dac nu se folosete de o alt in a special text, that violation of certain rules
metod de traducere n legislaie a prevederilor of the EC Treaty attract criminal liability and
dreptului comunitar). sentencing (integration by reference).
Aa, de pild, se folosesc incriminrile de Likewise, the national legislature could make
fals, nelciune din legea naional dac o community provisions into national ones and to
ntreprindere a obinut prin fals anumite provide a sanction (direct integration or
nlesniri comunitare; n aceste cazuri incorporation).
autoritile naionale nu au nevoie de o norm But the national legislature may sanction
de incriminare specific dreptului comunitar. the infringement of the Community rules and
Tot astfel, fraudele comise mpotriva standards by means of a general reference; in
intereselor financiare ale Comunitilor this case integration by general reference is
Europene sunt sancionate ca i cum ar fi vorba achieved.
de o infraciune fiscal naional. Se tie c If the Rules (adopted by the Council or the
statele membre al Comunitilor Europene sunt Commission) is mandatory for Member States
obligate s cedeze un procent din TVA in all respects, it leaves little much room for
Comunitilor Europene. De aceea, o fraud cu expression of the national initiative, directives
privire la plata TVA dezavantajeaz att statele adopted by the same national institutions leave
respective, ct i Comunitile Europene. the same initiative regarding the forms and
Statele membre pot folosi i o alt tehnic means of applying the provisions of the
de satisfacere a obligaiei naionale. De pild, Directive.
legiuitorul naional poate s prevad, ntr-un This means that, compared to the
text special, c nclcarea unei anumite reguli directives, the national method of meeting the
din Tratatul Comunitii Europene atrage EU requirements is the preferred method par
rspunderea penal i aplicarea unei pedepse excellence. A final clause, which can be found
(integrare prin referire). Tot astfel, legiuitorul since 1990 in all Council Directives requires
naional ar putea s transforme dispoziiile Member States to make explicit reference to
comunitare ntr-o dispoziie naional i s o Directive rules adopted nationally in order to
prevad sub sanciune (integrare direct sau bring out a directive; in this case, the
164
incorporare)97. legislature introduces Community standards in

Dar legiuitorul naional poate s national law, complements it, if necessary, and
sancioneze nclcarea dispoziiilor determines the penalty. This action by the
regulamentului comunitar i pe calea unei national legislature is required also because the
norme de trimitere general; n acest caz se directive could not be invoked to the detriment
realizeaz o integrare prin trimitere general. of an individual. A directive obliges the
Dac regulamentul (adoptat de Consiliul Member States, it shall not create, by itself, the
sau Comisia European), fiind obligatoriu obligation on an individual and, as such, could
pentru statele membre sub toate aspectele, nu not be invoked against such person without a
las prea mult loc de manifestare a iniiativei particular provision in national law.
naionale, directivele pe care le adopt aceleai Therefore, the directives require a national
instituii las autoritilor naionale iniiativa n law to produce their effects in the Member
ceea ce privete formele i mijloacele de States.
aducere la ndeplinire a dispoziiilor din
directive. B. Stronger involvement of EU law into
Aceasta nseamn c, n raport cu national law. In this case, EU regulation or
directivele, metoda naional de satisfacere a
directive stipulates, describes the act in a more
cerinelor comunitare este metoda prin accurate fashion, but sanctions are imposed by
excelen preferat. O clauz final, care poate
the national court and are nationally executed.
fi regsit din anul 1990 n toate directivele
Thus, art. 194 of the EC Treaty on Atomic
Consiliului, impune statelor membre obligaia
Energy states that each Member State should
de a face n mod explicit referire la directive n
regard any breach of the duty of secrecy as a
regulile adoptate pe plan naional n scopul de
infringement of its protected secrets, both in
a aduce la ndeplinire o directiv; n acest caz,
terms of substance and competence of national
legiuitorul naional introduce norma
legislation in the matter of harm to state
comunitar n dreptul intern, o completeaz,
security or disclosure of professional secrecy.
dac este cazul, i determin sanciunea. |The Member State will prosecute the author of
Aceast intervenie a legiuitorului naional este
such breach within its jurisdiction, at the
necesar i pentru c directiva n-ar putea fi
request of any interested State or the
invocat n detrimentul unui particular. O Commission. Another example is Art. 27 of the
directiv oblig statele membre, ea nu creeaz,
Statute of the European Court of Justice which
prin ea nsi, obligaia n sarcina unui provides that each state will regard any
particular i, ca atare, nu ar putea fi invocat
violation of the oath of a witness or expert as
contra unei asemenea persoane fr o an offense committed before a national court;
dispoziie anume n legea naional. at the Court's request, the state will prosecute
Prin urmare, directivele au nevoie de o
all perpetrators of such breach before the
lege naional pentru a produce efecte pe competent national courts .
teritoriul statelor membre. These techniques of assimilation of a
violation of original Community law with a
B. Implicarea mai puternic a dreptului violation of national criminal law (through a
comunitar n dreptul naional. n aceast legal fiction) guarantees, of course, equal
97
George Antoniu, Drept penal european note de curs, Ed. Academica Brncui, Tg-Jiu, 2005, p. 49.
165
situaie, regulamentul sau directiva comunitar repression of that crime among all Member
prevede, descrie fapta susceptibil de sanciuni States (just as the national method). The
ntr-un mod mult mai precis, ns sanciunile advantage for Community institutions is that
sunt pronunate de instana naional i the prosecution is mandatory. But an
executate tot pe plan naional. Astfel, art. 194 unification in terms of the constituent elements
al Tratatului Comunitii Europene pentru of the offense is not achieved, ithe intervention
Energia Atomic prevede c fiecare stat of supporting causes, of the nature of duration
membru trebuie s priveasc orice nclcare a of penalties etc. which may differ in each
obligaiei de pstrare a secretului ca o atingere national legislation, even if it is the same
adus secretelor sale protejate, att sub offense.
aspectul fondului, ct i asupra competenei But this matter raises a question of
legislaiei naionale n materia atingerilor aduse principle. Theoretically, a Community
securitii statului sau divulgrii secretului regulation may contain a provision requiring
profesional. Statul membru va urmri pe states to punish criminally a violation of the
autorul unei asemenea nclcri innd de regulation. At most, the Regulation could
jurisdicia sa, la cererea oricrui stat interesat provide that a violation has to be regarded by
sau a Comisiei. Un alt exemplu l constituie Member States as a violation of national
art. 27 din Statutul Curii Europene de Justiie criminal law wherever the Community interest
care prevede c fiecare stat va privi orice would correspond to an interest protected by
nclcare a jurmntului martorului sau a national criminal law. But what if the
expertului ca o infraciune comis n faa unei Community interest is not protected by national
instane naionale; la cererea Curii, statul va criminal law? The question is to know if and
urmri pe toi autorii unei asemenea nclcri how European Communities could require
n faa instanelor naionale competente. Member States to use criminal sanctions even
Aceste tehnici de asimilare a unei violri a where national law sanctions otherwise
dreptului comunitar originar cu nclcarea legii interests similar to community ones.
penale naionale (printr-o ficiune juridic) It was argued that the constituent treaties,
garanteaz, firete, represiunea egal a providing for the obligation of Member States
aceluiai fapt ntre toate statele membre to take appropriate action to achieve the goals
(ntocmai ca i metoda naional). Avantajul of such treaties would allow, by default that in
pentru instituiile comunitare este i acela c a regulation the state obligation to criminally
urmrirea penal devine obligatorie. Nu se punish those who do not comply with
realizeaz ns o unificare n ceea ce privete Community Rule be provided. A second
elementele constitutive ale infraciunii, a opinion claims that as criminal justice is part of
interveniei cauzelor justificative, a naturii the national culture of each member state, the
duratei sanciunilor etc, care pot s difere n decision to criminally punish the violation of
fiecare legislaie naional, chiar dac este Community law is part of this culture.
vorba de aceeai fapt. Therefore, it would not be possible to oblige
Dar, n aceast materie se ridic o Member States of the European Communities,
problem de principiu. Teoretic, un regulament by means of secondary Community law, to
comunitar poate conine o dispoziie care s follow the path of the criminal sanction.
oblige statele s sancioneze penal nclcarea Moreover, states that have adopted the
regulamentului. Cel mult, regulamentul ar principle of opportunity of criminal
166
putea prevedea ca o nclcare a sa s fie privit prosecution should abandon it. On the other
de statele membre ca o nclcare a legii penale hand, there are large differences between
naionale ori de cte ori un interes comunitar ar countries in terms of criminal policy,
corespunde cu un interes ocrotit penal n sanctioning systems, suspension of sentence,
dreptul naional98. Dar dac interesul parole etc.; removing these differences within
comunitar nu este ocrotit penal n legea the process of harmonization of national laws
naional? Problema care se pune este aceea de in order to avoid uneven repression would
a ti dac i n ce mod Comunitile Europene attract the suppression of an important part of
ar putea s oblige statele membre la folosirea the specific character of national criminal law.
sanciunii penale chiar acolo unde dreptul
naional sancioneaz n alt mod interese C. Community Method .
similare cu cele comunitare. The third method of influencing the
ntr-o opinie s-a susinut c tratatele criminal laws of the Member States of the
constitutive, prevznd obligaia statelor European Union is to impose criminal
membre de a lua msurile corespunztoare spre sanctions by the Community institutions
a realiza scopurile tratatelor, ar permite, directly, without having to recourse to national
implicit, ca printr-un regulament s fie laws. In this respect there are the provisions of
prevzut obligaia statelor de a sanciona the Treaties of the European Community in the
penal pe cei care nu respect norma matter of competition (art. 87). In the bodies of
comunitar99. A doua tez susine c justiia the treaties are indicated the facts which are
penal, fcnd parte din cultura naional a incompatible with the Common Market, and
fiecrei ri membre, hotrrea de a reprima, pe therefore are prohibited (ie agreements between
cale penal, violarea dreptului comunitar face enterprises, associations of enterprises and any
parte din aceast cultur. De aceea, n-ar fi practice liable to affect trade between Member
posibil obligarea statelor membre de ctre States, to prevent, restrict or distort the free
Comunitile Europene, prin mijlocirea competition, exploiting a dominant position in
dreptului comunitar derivat, de a urma calea the common market, etc.), Treaties provide that
sanciunii penale. Altfel, statele care au adoptat Community bodies (the Council, the
principiul oportunitii urmririi penale ar Commission) will take any measures, by
trebui s renune la acesta. Pe de alt parte, regulations and directives, useful for the
exist mari deosebiri ntre state n ceea ce practical implementation of these principles,
privete politica penal, sistemele de including the imposition of fines and
sancionare, de suspendare a executrii restrictions.
pedepsei, a liberrii condiionate etc; By virtue of those provisions, the Council
nlturarea acestor diferene n cadrul adopted Regulation no. 17/62 of February 6
procesului de apropiere a legislaiilor 1962, attributing the Commission, among other
naionale, spre a evita o represiune inegal, ar things, with the power to impose sanctions
atrage suprimarea unei pri importante din (fines). Against this measure, the person
specificul dreptului penal naional100. sanctioned can appeal to the Court of First
98
K.Tiederman, Europisches Gemeinschaftstrecht und Strafrecht, Neue Juristiche Wochenschrift, 1993, p.23-51.
99
H. Johannes, Das Strafrecht im Bereich der Europischen Gemeinschaften, Europarecht, 1968, p. 63-126.
100
C.A.Huet, Droit penal, Paris, Dalloz, 1987, p. 1-15; R. Fornasier, Le pouvoir rpressif des Communauts Europennes et la
protection de leurs intrets financiers, n Revue du March Commun, 1982, p. 398-413.
167
Instance and recourse to the Court of Justice of

C. Metoda comunitar. the European Communities. Other regulations
Cea de-a treia metod de influenare a (of 1968, 1986 and 1987) give the Commission
legislaiilor penale ale statelor membre ale the power to impose fines for the punishment
Uniunii Europene const n impunerea de of false competition in the fields of transport by
sanciuni penale chiar de ctre instituiile rail, road, air and sea. Fines vary between a
comunitare, n mod direct, fr a face apel la well-defined minimum and maximum limit and
legislaiile naionale. n acest sens sunt can reach up to 10% of turnover for intentional
dispoziiile din Tratatele Comunitii Europene acts.
n materie de concuren (art. 87). Dup ce n The most common community penalties
cuprinsul tratatelor se arat ce fapte sunt are, as noted, the fines. Although all treaties
incompatibile cu Piaa Comun i, ca atare, provide, in their contents, that these fines have
interzise (ex: acordurile ntre ntreprinderi, no criminal character, the overall
asociaii de ntreprinderi i orice practic de characterization is questionable because, in
natur s afecteze comerul ntre statele fact, these fines are not intended to repair the
membre, s mpiedice, s restrng sau s damage completely (remedial sanctions), but in
denatureze jocul concurenei; exploatarea nature, they are at least partly punitive,
poziiei dominante asupra pieei comune etc.), retributive because they express disapproval of
Tratatele prevd c organele comunitare community bodies of unlawful conduct. As
(Consiliul, Comisia) vor putea lua orice such, these fines, despite their designation as
msuri, prin regulamente i directive, utile, administrative sanctions, are criminal.
pentru transpunerea n practic a acestor This conclusion is all the more justified
principii, inclusiv prin instituirea de amenzi i because fines can reach very high amounts; as a
restricii. result, they perform the functions of
n virtutea acestor dispoziii, Consiliul a punishment, and not those of remedial
adoptat Regulamentul nr. 17/62 din 6 februarie sanctions.
1962, atribuind Comisiei, printre altele, Recognition of the criminal character of
competena de a aplica sanciuni (amend). these sanctions would attract, logically, the
mpotriva acestei msuri, cel sancionat are compliance with the basic principles of
calea apelului n faa Tribunalului de Prim criminal repression, namely the legality of
Instan i recurs n faa Curii de Justiie a criminal incrimination and punishment, the
Comunitilor Europene. Alte regulamente (din non-retroactivity of criminal law, guilt and the
1968, 1986 i 1987) atribuie Comisiei compliance with the principle of non bis in
competena de a aplica amenzi pentru idem. These principles are not always
sancionarea faptelor de concuren fals n consistently adhered to in the matter of the
sectoarele de transport feroviar, rutier, aerian i sanctions imposed by community bodies. So,
maritim. Amenzile variaz ntre o limit i o for example, the European Community Court,
maxim bine precizate i pot s ajung pn la admitted, by a decision of February 16 1982
10% din cifra de afaceri pentru fapte that, exceptionally, there can be Community
intenionate101. acts which take effect immediately, applying to
Toate aceste dispoziii i gsesc facts that were committed before that date (the
101
George Antoniu, Drept penal european..., op. cit., p. 56.
168
confirmarea i n prevederile Tratatului de la Rumi case). As a general rule, the Court of

Amsterdam. Justice of European Communities has
Cele mai frecvente sanciuni comunitare, recognized, however, the need to respect the
aa cum se observ, sunt amenzile. Dei toate legality and non-retroactivity of the law which
Tratatele menionate prevd, n cuprinsul lor, provides community sanctions.
c aceste amenzi nu au un caracter penal, As for guilt, there are many regulations
aceast caracterizare global este discutabil, based on ECSC and Euratom Treaties which do
deoarece, n fapt, aceste amenzi nu sunt menite not claim the existence of intention or
s repare prejudiciul complet (sanciuni negligence for the application of sanctions in
reparatorii), ci au un caracter, cel puin parial, case of violation of these regulations, leaving to
represiv, retributiv, deoarece exprim believe that criminal liability is objective.
dezaprobarea de ctre organele comunitare a Some critical observations were made with
unui comportament ilicit. Ca atare, aceste respect to the principle of non bis in idem and
amenzi, n ciuda denumirii lor drept sanciuni proportionality of punishment.
administrative, au un caracter penal102. The conclusion in the literature is the
Aceast concluzie este cu att mai meaning of the need for clarity, in perspective,
justificat cu ct amenzile pot atinge of the criminal or non penal character of the
cuantumuri foarte mari; ca urmare, ele sanctions applied by European bodies, with all
realizeaz funciile pedepsei, i nu pe cele ale the consequences that would come off of it
sanciunilor reparatorii. regarding the fundamental principles of
Recunoaterea caracterului penal al criminal law.
acestor sanciuni ar atrage, n mod logic,
respectarea principiilor de baz ale represiunii 4. Criminal law regulations contained
penale, i anume legalitatea incriminrii i in the Treaty of Lisbon
pedepsei, neretroactivitatea legii penale, The Treaty of Lisbon 108, signed on
vinovia i respectarea principiului non bis in December 13 2007 by representatives of the
idem. Aceste principii nu sunt ntotdeauna i Member States of the European Union, states in
consecvent respectate n materia sanciunilor Art. 2 par. 2 that "The Union shall offer its
aplicate de ctre organele comunitare. Aa, de citizens an area of freedom, security and justice
pild, Curtea Comunitilor Europene a admis, without internal frontiers, in which the free
printr-o decizie din 16 februarie 1982, c, n movement of persons is ensured, in conjunction
mod excepional, pot fi acte comunitare care s with appropriate measures with respect to
intre n vigoare imediat, aplicndu-se i external border controls, asylum, immigration
faptelor care s-au comis anterior acestei date and the prevention and combating of crime".
(cazul Rumi). Ca regul general, Curtea de Also art. 61 par. 1 states that "The Union shall
Justiie a Comunitilor Europene a recunoscut, constitute an area of freedom, security and
ns, necesitatea respectrii legalitii i justice with respect for fundamental rights and
neretroactivitii legii care prevede aplicarea de the different legal systems and traditions of the
sanciuni comunitare. Member States and in par. 3 and 4 it is stated
n ceea privete vinovia, exist multiple that The Union shall endeavour to ensure a
102
Jean Pradel, Geert Corstens, op. cit., p. 503.
108
ROMANIA RATIFIED THE LISBON TREATY WITH THE LAW NO. 13/2008 (OFFICIAL GAZETTE NO 107 OF
FEBRUARY 12 2008).
169
regulamente bazate pe tratatele CECA i high level of security through measures to

Euratom care nu pretind existena inteniei sau prevent and combat crime, racism and
a culpei pentru aplicarea de sanciuni n cazul xenophobia, and through measures for
unor violri a acestor regulamente, lsnd s se coordination and cooperation between police
cread c este vorba de rspundere penal and judicial authorities and other competent
obiectiv. Unele observaii critice s-au fcut i authorities, as well as through the mutual
cu privire la respectarea principiului non bis in recognition of judgments in criminal matters
idem i al proporionalitii pedepsei103. and, if necessary, through the approximation of
Concluzia care se desprinde n literatura criminal laws.
de specialitate este n sensul necesitii, To achieve these objectives, in terms of
clarificrii, n perspectiv, a naturii penale sau preventing and combating terrorism and related
nonpenale a sanciunilor aplicate de ctre activities, the European Parliament and the
organele comunitare, cu toate consecinele care Council, acting by means of regulations in
s-ar desprinde din aceasta cu privire la accordance with the ordinary legislative
respectarea principiilor fundamentale ale procedure, shall define a framework for
dreptului penal. administrative measures with regard to capital
movements and payments, such as freezing of
4. Reglementri n domeniul dreptului funds, of financial assets or economic gains
penal cuprinse n Tratatul de la Lisabona belonging to natural or legal persons, groups or
Tratatul de la Lisabona104, semnat la 13 non-State entities, are owned or held by them.
decembrie 2007, de ctre reprezentani statelor Chapter 4 of the Treaty is reserved for
membre ale Uniunii Europene, precizeaz n judicial cooperation in criminal matters within
art. 2 alin. 2 c Uniunea ofer cetenilor si the European Union. This cooperation is based
un spaiu de libertate, securitate i justiie, fr on mutual recognition of judicial sentences,
frontiere interne, n interiorul cruia este judicial decisions and shall include the
asigurat libera circulaie a persoanelor, n harmonization of the regulations and
corelare cu msuri adecvate privind controlul administrative provisions of the Member
la frontierele externe, dreptul de azil, States.
imigrarea, precum i prevenirea criminalitii European Parliament and the Council,
i combaterea acestui fenomen. De asemenea, acting in accordance with the ordinary
n art. 61 alin. 1 se prevede c Uniunea legislative procedure, shall adopt measures
constituie un spaiu de libertate, securitate i concerning:
justiie, cu respectarea drepturilor fundamen- - the establishment of rules and
tale i a diferitelor sisteme de drept i tradiii procedures for ensuring recognition throughout
juridice ale statelor membre, iar la alin. 3 i 4 the Union, of all forms of judgments and
se arat c Uniunea acioneaz pentru a judicial decisions;
asigura un nalt nivel de securitate prin msuri - prevention and settlement of conflicts of
de prevenire a criminalitii, a rasismului i a jurisdiction between Member States;
xenofobiei, precum i de combatere a acestora, - supporting the training of the judiciary
prin msuri de coordonare i de cooperare ntre and judicial staff;
autoritile poliieneti i judiciare i alte - facilitating cooperation between judicial
103
Ibidem, p. 504-505.
104
ROMNIA A RATIFICAT TRATATUL DE LISABONA PRIN LEGEA NR. 13/2008 (M. OF. NR. 107 DIN DATA DE 12 FEBRUARIE 2008).
170
autoriti competente, precum i prin or equivalent authorities of the Member States

recunoaterea reciproc a deciziilor judiciare n relating to the criminal prosecution and
materie penal i, dup caz, prin apropierea enforcement of decisions.
legislaiilor penale. To the extent necessary to facilitate
Pentru realizarea acestor obiective, n ceea mutual recognition of judgments and judicial
ce privete prevenirea i combaterea decisions, as well as police and judicial
terorismului i a activitilor conexe, cooperation in criminal matters having cross-
Parlamentul European i Consiliul, hotrnd border dimension, the European Parliament and
prin regulamente n conformitate cu procedura the Council, acting through Directives, in
legislativ ordinar, definesc cadrul msurilor accordance with the ordinary legislative
administrative privind circulaia capitalurilor i procedure, may establish minimum standards
plile, cum ar fi nghearea fondurilor, a that take into account the differences between
activelor financiare sau a beneficiilor the legal traditions and systems of the Member
economice care aparin unor persoane fizice States. These relate to:
sau juridice, grupuri sau entiti fr caracter - mutual admissibility of evidence
statal, sunt n proprietatea acestora ori sunt between Member States;
deinute de acestea. - the rights of individuals in criminal
Capitolul 4 al Tratatului este rezervat procedure;
cooperrii judiciare n materie penal n cadrul - the rights of victims of crime;
Uniunii Europene. Aceast cooperare se - other specific aspects of criminal
ntemeiaz pe principiul recunoaterii procedure which the Council has identified in
reciproce a hotrrilor judectoreti, a advance by a decision; to adopt that decision,
deciziilor judiciare, i include apropierea acte- the Council shall act unanimously after
lor cu putere de lege i a normelor obtaining the consent of the European
administrative ale statelor membre. Parliament.
Parlamentul European i Consiliul, European Parliament and the Council,
hotrnd n conformitate cu procedura acting in accordance with the ordinary
legislativ ordinar, adopt msurile privind: legislative procedure, may establish measures
- instituirea unor norme i proceduri care to promote and support the action of Member
s asigure recunoaterea, n ntreaga Uniune, a States in the field of crime prevention,
tuturor categoriilor de hotrri judectoreti i excluding any harmonization of the laws,
decizii judiciare; regulations and administrative provisions of the
- prevenirea i soluionarea conflictelor de Member States.
competen ntre statele membre; EUROJUST will continue its mission to
- sprijinirea formrii profesionale a support and reinforce coordination and
magistrailor i a personalului din justiie; cooperation between national investigating and
- facilitarea cooperrii dintre autoritile prosecuting authorities in relation to serious
judiciare sau echivalente ale statelor membre crimes which affect two or more Member
n materie de urmrire penal i executare a States, or requiring a prosecution on common
deciziilor. bases, by operations undertaken by the Member
n msura n care este necesar pentru a States and Europol and the information
facilita recunoaterea reciproc a hotrrilor provided by them.
judectoreti i a deciziilor judiciare, precum i EUROPOL will maintain its mission to
171
cooperarea poliieneasc i judiciar n materie support and strengthen the actions of police
penal cu dimensiune transfrontalier, authorities and other law enforcement services
Parlamentul European i Consiliul, hotrnd of the Member States and their mutual
prin directive n conformitate cu procedura cooperation in preventing and combating
legislativ ordinar, pot stabili norme minime serious crime affecting two or more Member
care s ia n considerare diferenele existente States, terrorism and forms of crime which
ntre tradiiile juridice i sistemele de drept ale affect a common interest covered by a Union
statelor membre. Acestea se refer la: policy.
- admisibilitatea reciproc a probelor ntre Thus, from the perspective of the Reform
statele membre; Treaty, we can assist, in time, to the increasing
- drepturile persoanelor n procedura Europeanization of national law.
penal; Serious steps have been taken in this
- drepturile victimelor criminalitii; regard, in an area that appeared, some years
- alte elemente speciale ale procedurii ago, that it could not be influenced by
penale pe care Consiliul le-a identificat n Community law, such as criminal law
prealabil printr-o decizie; pentru adoptarea (admitting minimum requirements for its
acestei decizii Consiliul hotrte n harmonization at least in the matter of
unanimitate, dup aprobarea Parlamentului terrorism, organized crime and human
European. trafficking) or the creation of a Community
Parlamentul European i Consiliul, legal area (especially for tracking fraud in EU
hotrnd n conformitate cu procedura funds) or in civil law (the draft of the European
legislativ ordinar, pot stabili msuri pentru a Civil Code).
ncuraja i sprijini aciunea statelor membre n In other words, we wonder how far can
domeniul prevenirii criminalitii, excluznd we go with legislative harmonization? We
orice armonizare a actelor cu putere de lege i cannot harmonize the entire law of Member
a normelor administrative ale statelor States, because each state has its own
membre105. personality and specificity, with the opinion
EUROJUST va avea n continuare that too much Community law has been
misiunea de a susine i consolida coordonarea enforced.
i cooperarea dintre autoritile naionale de
cercetare i urmrire penal n legtur cu REFERENCES
formele grave de criminalitate care afecteaz 1. Andrean St. B.- Grigoriu, Drept comunitar, Ed.
C.H.Beck, Bucureti, 2007, pp. 180- 181.
dou sau mai multe state membre ori care
2. Dauses Manfred,
impun urmrirea penal pe baze comune, prin Drepturilefundamentalecaelemente ale ordinii de drept a
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furnizate de acestea. ceteniei europene dup Tratatul de la Lisabona:
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EUROPOL i va menine misiunea de a
Tratatul de la Lisabona. UE ctre reforma instituional
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din statele membre, precum i cooperarea drepturilor omului, Ediia a III-a revzut i adugit,
Editura C.H. Beck, Bucureti, 2008
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173

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SERIA LITERE I TIINE SOCIALE

LETTERS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES SERIES

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2226996

EDITURA ACADEMICA BRNCUI

Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2226996

Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din

Annals of the Constantin Brncui University of

SERIA LITERE I TIINE SOCIALE

LETTERS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES SERIES

EDITURA ACADEMICA BRNCUI

1. DEMOCRAIA - MIT I REALITATE 1. DEMOCRACY - MITH END REALITY

2. DELINCVENA JUVENIL-UN 2. THE JUVENILE DELINQUENCYAN

3. GLOBALIZAREA, FUNDAMENTALISMUL 3. GLOBALIZATION, ISLAMIC

4. ABORDARE A ECOLOGIEI POLITICE 4. INDIGENOUS POLITICAL ECOLOGY

5. LIBERTATEA DE CIRCULAIE A 5. LA LIBERT DE CIRCULATION DES

6. COMUNICARE PRIN PROTEST N 6. COMMUNICATION THROUGH PROTEST

7. SCURTE CONSIDERAII PRIVIND 7. BRIEF CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING

9. CERCETAREA-ACIUNE METOD 9. ACTION RESEARCH- METHOD USED IN

10. POLITICA PENAL EUROPEAN I 10. EUROPEAN CRIMINAL POLICY AND

DEMOCRAIA - MIT I DEMOCRACY - MITH END

Abstract: Esena democraiei este Abstract: The essence of democracy refers

Cuvinte cheie: democraie, stare social,

Preocupat de descoperirea naturii Concerned with tracing the nature of

aceasta, mai apropiat n coninut ar fi The issue complexity of constraints and

umbr semnificaia valorii intrinseci a substantially on the same issue;

reacia sa conservatoare mpotriva to moderate interference position of Strauss

(tiranului nu-i sunt specifice nici interesele benefit);

exist, desemneaz deviere fundamental de freedom crystallization, a differentiation

comunitii ca primordialitate i ea aparine conception, such a condition that any group

republican22. the process on historical coordinate. Thus he

democraiei, considernd-o (n linia lui what an Athenian understood in Pericles

genereaz i ambiguitate i multiple ghost-theory o democracy. In this sense he

demosului: Se poate c democraia atenian explicit public theories of demos, theories

fantom30. Whereas the critics hostile to

momentul ei iniial: neither to civil order not to political order. In

societatea american, mai preocupat de wealth of the community as a whole.

completely reasonable manner or

DELINCVENA JUVENIL-UN THE JUVENILE DELINQUENCY-

Andra DASCLU Andra DASCLU

Abstract: Fenomenul de delincven juvenil Abstract: The phenomenon of juvenile

1.Aspecte generale 1. General aspects

fond de ostilitate, de negare a valorilor instability, generated by poor education and,

4. Din punct de vedere psihologic, tind delinquency is provided by W.W.

- strile de frustraie afectiv i needs and tendencies; - the lack or insuficient

i Lila Rucker au analizat rezultatele obinute the family environment.

2.4.Influena inteligenei n obinerea 2.5. The role of parents in

conceptelor abstracte48. The basic issue that must be understood

economice mondiale actuale, i, n of the child in relation with its

Cohen - de exemplu - n urm cu peste 50 de resources.

analizrii cauzelor violenei, precum i a communities of the respective hoods or cities;

minori); Enciclopedic, Bucureti)

comportamental i boal psihic(Ed Academiei

GLOBALIZAREA, GLOBALIZATION, ISLAMIC

Aitana Bogdan53 - Academia Naional de Aitana Bogdan - The Mihai Viteazul

Abstract: Adepii fundamentalismului islamic au Abstract: The promoters of Islamic

Aceast lucrare analizeaz provocrile The present paper explores the

instituiile tradiionale comparativ cu cele segments of the global population reconsider

1. Propaganda/publicitatea these there are the computer games created

comunicarea n interiorul grupului dar i pe

Aceast lucrare a avut drept scop

3. Conway, Maura, 2006, Terrorists Use of the

INDIGENOUS POLITICAL ECOLOGY ABORDARE A ECOLOGIEI POLITICE