Section 1.

6 Proof by Mathematical Induction 89

Section 1.6: Proof by Mathematical Induction

Purpose of Section: To introduce the Principle of Mathematical Induction,

both the weak and the strong forms, and show how a certain class of theorems
can be proven by this technique.

Introduction
An important technique for verifying proofs in combinatorics and number
theory is the Principle of Mathematical Induction. The technique was used
implicitly in Euclid's Elements in a "descent proof" that every natural number
has a prime divisor. The term Mathematical Induction was first coined in 1828
by the English logician Augustus DeMorgan (1806-1871) in an article called
Induction.
Mathematical Induction is generally not used in deriving new formulas, but is
an effective tool to verify formulas and facts you suspect are true. That said, it
part of the repertoire of any good mathematician.
The beauty of mathematical induction is it allows a theorem to be proven in
cases when there are an infinite number of cases to explore without having to
examine each case. Induction is the mathematical situation analogous to an
infinite row of dominoes where if you tip over the first one and if each domino
tips over its adjacent one, they all get tipped over. The nice thing about induction
is you don't have to prove it works, it's an axiom1 in the foundations of
mathematics.

Mathematical induction provides a convenient way to establish that a statement

is true for all natural numbers 1,2,3,The following statements are prime
candidates for proof by mathematical induction.

For all natural numbers n , 1 + 3 + 5 +
+ (2n 1) = n 2

If a set A contains n elements, then the collection of subsets
of A contains 2n elements.

1 3 5 2n 1 1

for all natural numbers n .
2 4 6 2n 3n + 1

1
In 1889 Italian mathematician Guiseppe Peano (1858-1932) published a list of five axioms
which define the natural numbers. Peanos 5th axiom is called the induction axiom, which states
that any property which belongs to 1 and also to the successor of any number which has the
property belongs to all numbers.
90 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

Here, then is how the method of mathematical induction works.

Mathematical Induction
The Principle of Mathematical Induction is a method of proof for verifying
that a proposition P (n) is true for all natural numbers n = 1, 2,... .The
methodology for proving theorems by induction is as follows.

Methodology of Mathematical Induction

To verify that a proposition P (n) holds for all natural numbers n , the Principle
of Mathematical Induction consists of carrying out two steps.
Base Case: Prove P (1) is true.
Induction Step: Assume P (n) is true for an
arbitrary n , then prove P (n + 1) is true.
If the above two steps are proven, then by the Principle of Mathematical
Induction, P (n) is true for all natural numbers n . In other words:

P (1) is true
( n  ) P ( n ) is true
( n  ) P ( n ) true P ( n + 1) true

Important Note: Dont confuse mathematical induction with inductive

reasoning associated with the natural sciences. Inductive reasoning in the
sciences is a scientific method whereby one induces general principles from
specific observations. Mathematical induction is not the same thing: it is a
deductive form of reasoning used to establish the validity of a proposition
for all natural numbers.

Important Note: There are many modifications of the basic induction

proof. For example, there is no reason the base case starts with P(1) . If the
base case is replaced by P(a ) , where " a " is any integer (positive or
negative), one would conclude P (n) true for all n a . Also, if the induction
step is replaced by the implication P (n) P (n + 2) , one concludes P (n)
true for P (1), P (3),..., P (2n + 1),...

Theorem 1: Famous Identity If n is a positive integer, then

n ( n + 1)
1+ 2 +
+ n = .
2
Section 1.6 Proof by Mathematical Induction 91

Proof: Denote P (n) as

n ( n + 1)
P ( n) : 1 + 2 +
+ n =
2
Base Case: P (1) is true since2 P (1) says
1 (2)
1=
2
Induction Step: Assume P (n) true for an arbitrary n :
n ( n + 1)
P ( n) : 1 + 2 +
+ n =
2
Adding n + 1 to each side of this equation, we get:

n ( n + 1)
1 + 2 +
+ n + (n + 1) = + (n + 1)
2
n(n + 1) + 2(n + 1)
=
2
(n + 1)(n + 2)
=
2
which is statement P(n + 1) . Hence P ( n ) P(n + 1) and so by induction the
result is proven.

Visual Proof The n n array3 drawn in Figure 1 has n 2 boxes where

number of boxes with x ' s = is 1 + 2 + 3 +
+ n
number of unmarked boxes = 1 + 2 +
+ ( n 1) ,
Hence,
n 2 = (1 + 2 +
+ n ) + (1 + 2 +
( n 1) )

Adding n to each side of this equation gives

n 2 + n = 2 (1 + 2 +
+ n )

and solving for 1 + 2 + 3 +
+ n gives the desired result

2
The reader can verify that P(2) and P(3) are also true, but that isnt relevant to proof by
induction.
3
The array is really a 6 6 array but we imagine it is an n n array.
92 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

n 2 + n n ( n + 1)
1+ 2 + 3 +
+ n = =
2 2

Visual proof
Figure 1

Important Note: Do we have to prove that the principle of mathematical

induction holds? The answer is no. We accept mathematical induction as a
logical axiom in much the same way as we accept the classical rules of
Aristotelian logic.

The following theorem is one where a direct proof would be difficult but
induction is easy.

Theorem 2: Induction in Calculus Prove that for every natural number n , we

have

d n ( xe x )
P ( n) : = ( x + n) ex
dx n

Proof: Using mathematical induction,we have

Base Step: If n = 1 and using the product rule for differentiation, we can write

d ( xe x ) d x
=x e + e x = ( x + 1) e x .
dx dx

Induction Step: Assuming

Section 1.6 Proof by Mathematical Induction 93

d n ( xe x )
P ( n) : = ( x + n) ex
dx n

true for arbitrary n , we compute

d n +1 ( xe x ) d d ( xe )
n x

P(n + 1) : =
dx n +1 dx dx n

d
= ( x + n ) e x (induction assumption)
dx
= ( x + n) ex + ex (product rule)
= x + ( n + 1) e x

which proves P(n + 1) , hence by induction the theorem is proven

Theorem 3: Inequality by Induction If n 5 , then 2n > n 2 .

Proof: Defining P(n) : 2n > n 2 we prove:

Base Case: P(5) : 25 = 32 > 25 = 52 .

Induction Step: P ( n ) P ( n + 1) for n 5 .

2
This step requires we prove 2n > n 2 2n +1 = ( n + 1) , n 5 which we do with
the following steps:

2n +1 = 2 2n
> 2n 2 (induction hypothesis)
= n2 + n2
n 2 + 5n (we assume n 5)
= n 2 + 2n + 3n
> n 2 + 2n + 1
= (n + 1) 2

By induction P(n) true for all n 5 .

So how did we arrive at the non-intuitive inequalities in the previous proof that
made everything turn out so nice? The answer is we worked out the inequalities
backwards starting at the conclusion.
94 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

Sometimes a result can be proven by induction or with a direct proof. The

following problem is such an example. You can decide if you have a preference.

Theorem 4: Direct Proof or Proof by Induction? For any n  , the number

n ( n + 1) is even.
Direct Proof: The idea is to show that for any natural number n the number
n(n + 1) contains a factor 2
If n is even, we have
( k  )( n = 2k ) n ( n + 1) = 2k ( n + 1)
If n is odd, we have

( k  )( n = 2k + 1) n ( n + 1) = (2k + 1)(2k + 2) = 2(k + 1)(k + 2)

Proof by Induction: Let P(n) : n(n + 1) is even . We show

Base Step: P(1) : 1(1 + 1) = 2 is even

Induction Step: P(n) P(n + 1) Assuming n(n + 1) is even, we have
n(n + 1) = 2k for k  .Hence, we can write

P(n + 1) : (n + 1)(n + 2) = n(n + 1) + 2(n + 1)

= 2k + 2(n + 1)
= 2(k + n + 1)

which proves, P(n + 1) , and so by induction the result is proven.

Important Note: Someone once said mathematical induction is the formal

way of saying and so on.?

The type of induction discussed thus far is sometimes called weak induction.
We now introduce another version of induction called strong induction.
Although the two versions are logically equivalent, there are problems where
strong induction is more convenient.

Strong Induction
The difference between weak and strong induction has to do with what is
assumed in the induction step. In weak induction using the dominoes
metaphor if any domino is tipped over, then the next one is tipped over. In
Section 1.6 Proof by Mathematical Induction 95

strong induction, you assume all previous dominoes are tipped over, then prove
the next one is tipped over. Surprising as it might seem, both weak and strong
induction are logically equivalent, the difference is more practical, sometimes
strong induction is more convenient and sometimes weak induction is more
convenient. The following examples illustrate why strong induction is the
desired form of induction in some proofs.

Methodology of (Strong) Mathematical Induction

To verify a proposition P(n) holds for all natural numbers n , the Principle
of (Strong) Mathematical Induction consists of carrying out the following
steps.
1. Base Case: Prove that P(1) is true.
2. Induction Step: Show that for all n 
P(1) P(2)
P(n) P(n + 1).

Theorem 5: Every integer greater than 1 is divisible by a prime number.

Proof:
Base Case: The result is true for n = 2 since 2 is prime and 2 divides 2..
Induction Step: Assume all positive integers from 2 through n 1 are divisible
by a prime number, where n is an arbitrary natural number. The goal is to show
n is divisible by a prime number. If n is prime, then it is divisible by a prime
number, itself. If n is not prime, then it is a composite and has a divisor m
which is not 1 or n . By the induction assumption, we know there is a prime
number p that divides m . But m divides n , so p divides n . Symbolically,

[( p | m) (m | n] ( p | n) .
Hence, the induction step in proven, so by the Principle of Strong Induction, the
result is proven.
A fundamental result in number theory is the Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic, which can be proven by strong induction.

Theorem 6: Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

Every natural number n 2 can be written as the product of prime numbers. For
example, 350 = 2 52 7, 1911 = 3 7 2 13 .
96 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

Proof: We must prove

Base Case: P(2) holds since 2 is prime.

Induction Step: For an arbitrary natural number n we prove

P(2) P(3) P ( 4 )
P (n) P(n + 1)

We assume P(2), P(3),..., P(n) true which means every natural number 2,3,
n can be written as the product of primes. To prove n + 1 can be written as a
product of prime numbers, consider two cases.:

Case 1: If n + 1 is a prime number, the result is proven since we can write

n +1 = n +1 .

Case 2: If n + 1 is not prime, it can be written as the product n + 1 = p q , where

both factors p and q are less than n + 1 and greater and or equal to 2. By the
induction hypothesis both p and q can be written as the product of primes:

p = p1 p2
pm q = q1q2
qn

Hence, we have

n + 1 = p q = ( p1 p1
pm )( q1q2
qn ) .

which proves P(n + 1) true, so by the principle of strong induction P(n) is true
for all n 2 .

History of Mathematical Induction Although some elements of

mathematical induction have been hinted at since the time of Euclid, one of
the oldest argument using induction goes back to the Italian mathematician
Francesco Maurolico, who used induction in 1575 to prove that the sum of
the first n odd natural numbers is n 2 . The method was later discovered
independently by the Swiss mathematician John Bernoulli, and French
mathematicians Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat (1601-
1665). Finally, in 1889 the Italian logician Guiseppe Peano (1858-1932) laid
out five axioms for deducing the natural numbers, of which his fifth axiom
was the Principle of Mathematical Induction. Hence, from that point of view
induction is an axiom of arithmetic.
Section 1.6 Proof by Mathematical Induction 97

The next example shows a variation of the base step from previous examples.
Each problem is different and you must adjust the induction proof accordingly.

Theorem 7: Modifying the Base Step You are given two rulers, one is 3 units
long, the other is 5 inches long. Your job is to show you can measure any unit
distance greater than or equal to 8 using only those rulers.

Proof: Let P(n) be the proposition

P ( n ) = any integer distance of length n 8 can be measured with rulers, lengths 3,5 It is

useful to see the following pattern that develops.

P(8) = 5 + 3
P(9) = 3 + 3 + 3
P(10) = 5 + 5
P(11) = P(8) + 3 = ( 5 + 3) + 3
P(12) = P(9) + 3 = ( 3 + 3 + 3) + 3
P(13) = P(10) + 3 = ( 5 + 5 ) + 3

This pattern will serve as an aid in deciding the base and induction steps which is
often the most difficult part in an induction proof.

Base Step: For the base step, we verify the first three propositions:

P(8) = 5 + 3, P(9) = 3 + 3 + 3, P (10 ) = 5 + 5

Induction Step: We now prove the induction step

P(8), P(9), ..., P(n) P ( n + 1) , n 10

To prove this step, we make the observation that if P ( n 2 ) is true (i.e. a length
of n 2 can be measured with rulers of length 3 and 5), then P ( n + 1) is also
true since a length of n + 1 is 3 units longer than n 2 . Hence, P (11) is true
since P ( 8 ) is true, and P (12 ) is true since P ( 9 ) is true, and so on. Hence, if
P(8), P(9), ..., P(n) , n 10 is true so is P ( n + 1) . Hence, by induction P ( n ) is
true for all natural numbers n .

___________________________
 98 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

Problems

1. Proof by Induction Prove the following propositions, either by weak or

strong induction.

n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
a) 12 + 22 + 32 +
+ n 2 =
6
2
n 2 ( n + 1)
b) P ( n ) : 1 + 2 + 3 +
+ n =
3 3 3 3

4
c) 1 + 3 + 5 +
+ ( 2n 1) = n .2

d) 9n 1 is divisible by 8 for all natural numbers n .

e) For n 1, 1 + 22 + 23 + 24 +
+ 2n = 2n +1 1
f) For n 5, 4n < 2n ,
g) n3 n is divisible by 3 for n 1 .
h) 2n 1 n ! , n 
i) For all positive integers n , n 2 + n is even.
j) For any real numbers a, b and natural number n , we have
n
( ab ) n n
=a b .

2. Something Fishy Let's prove by induction n 2 + 7 n + 3 is even for all natural

numbers n = 1, 2,... .What is wrong with the following induction argument?
Letting P(n) denote

P(n) : n 2 + 7n + 3 is an even integer

we prove P(n) P(n + 1) . Assuming P(n) true, we have

+ 7 ( n + 1) + 3 = ( n 2 + 2n + 1) + 7 n + 7 + 3
2
P(n + 1): ( n + 1)
= ( n 2 + 2n + 3 ) + 2 ( n + 4 )
= 2k + 2 ( n + 4 ) (since P(n) even)
= 2 ( k + n + 4)
Section 1.6 Proof by Mathematical Induction 99

Hence P(n + 1) is true which by induction proves n 2 + 7 n + 3 is even for all

natural numbers n .

3. Clever Mary To prove the identity

n ( n + 1)
1+ 2 + 3 +
+ n =
2

Mary evaluates the left-hand side of the equation for n = 0,1, 2 getting

n 0 1 2
p(n) 0 1 3
.
and then finds the quadratic polynomial p(n) = an 2 + bn + c that passes
through those points, getting

1 2 1 n ( n + 1)
p ( n) = n + n= .
2 2 2

Mary turned this into her professor. Is her proof4 valid?

4. Hmmmmmmmm Is there something fishy with this argument that Mary

can carry a 50-ton load of straw on her back. Clearly she can carry one straw
on her back, and if she can carry n straws on her back, she can certainly carry
one more. Hence, she can carry any number of straws on her back which can
amount to a 50-ton load.

5. Geometric Principle by Induction Show that every convex polygon5 can

be divided into triangles. An example illustrating a triangulation
(triangulations are not unique) of a 8-sided convex polygon is drawn below..

4
This problem is based on a problem in the book A = B by Marko Petkovsek, Doron Zeilberger
and Herbert Wilf. (This amazing book, incidentally, can be downloaded free on the internet.)
5
A convex polygon is a simple polygon (sides do not cross) whose interior is a convex set.(i.e
the line segment connecting any two points in the set also belongs to the set.
100 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS

6. Nature of Induction Often one gets a general idea something is true by

constructing examples. For example, suppose you have only 3 and 5 cents
stamps and want to determine what postages are possible. So you make a table
like

5 CENT STAMP
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 5 10 15 20
3 1 3 8 13 18 23
CENT 2 6 11 16 21 26
STAMP 3 9 14 19 24 29
4 12 17 22 27 32
5

From this table, we might hypothesize that possible postages are 0,3,5, and 6
cents and every value of 8 or more cents. Can you prove this by induction?

Answer: If we denote

P ( n ) : postage of n cents is possible

then the goal is to prove P(n) for n = 0,1, 2,... We can verify the initial step
and show P(n) is true for n = 0,3, 5, and 6 and false for
n = 1, 2, 4,5, and 7 .We now resort to strong induction and assume all
postages are possible for 8, 9,..., n cents and prove a postage worth n + 1 cents
is possible. To do this, consider four cases:
Section 1.6 Proof by Mathematical Induction 101

case 1: n + 1 = 8 (true, we can use a 3 cent and a 5 cent stamp)

case 2: n + 1 = 9 (true, we can use three 3 cent stamps)
case 3: n + 1 = 10 (true, we can use two 5 cent stamps)
case 4: n + 1 > 10 (same as n 2 8 which is assumed true)

So we have proven P(0) P(1) P(2)
P(n) P(n + 1) and so by strong

induction P ( n ) is true for all n = 0,1, 2,... Note: The basic idea is that for
n > 10 (or n = 11,12,13,...) , we know postage of n 2 = 8, 9,10,... (three cents
less) is possible, so we simply add another 3 cent stamp to get a postage of
n + 1.

7. Fibonacci Sequence The Fibonacci sequence

{Fn , n = 1, 2,...}
is defined for n 2 by the equations

Fn +1 = Fn + Fn 1 , F1 = 1, F2 = 1 .

A few terms of the sequence are 1,1,2,3,5,8,13, Show the n th term of the
sequence is given by

n n
Fn =
5

( ) (
where = 1 + 2 / 2, = 1 2 / 2 . )
Parting Note: Just because something is true for the first million
numbers doesn't mean it's true for the millionth and one number. For
example, the equation

(n 1)(n 2)
(n 1, 000, 000) = 0

is true for n from 1 to a million, but not true when n = 1, 000, 001 .

8. Peanos Axioms The Principle of Mathematical Induction is generally

taken as an axiom for the natural numbers. and is in fact the fifth axiom for
Peanos axioms. Google Peanos axioms and read about them on the internet.
102 A TASTE OF PURE MATHEMATICS