23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena

Auckland, New Zealand

1922 November 2012

Modelling of frost growth and densification on flat surfaces revisited:

Analytical solution
C.J.L. Hermes
Centre for Applied Thermodynamics, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Paran
81531990 Curitiba-PR, Brazil, chermes@ufpr.br

Abstract Subscripts
a Moist air
This paper advances an algebraic model to predict the frost f Frost layer
growth and densification on flat surfaces. The model was put s Frost surface
forward based on macroscopic heat and mass balances in the sat Saturation
frost layer, which were written according to a dimensionless v Water vapour
formulation and solved analytically to obtain an algebraic w Plate surface
expression for the time evolution of the frost thickness as a
function of the Nusselt number, the supersaturation degree and Introduction
the air-to-surface temperature difference. The model predictions
for the frost thickness were compared with experimental data Frost is observed in several engineering applications, spanning
obtained elsewhere, when a good agreement was observed. An from aircrafts to refrigeration products. In general, the presence
assessment of the model sensitivity to key heat and mass transfer of frost is undesired since it is associated with either the
parameters is also reported. deterioration of the equipment performance (e.g., evaporator
clogging [1,2]) or critical safety aspects (e.g., in-flight wing icing
[3]). Thus understanding and predicting frost growth and
Nomenclature densification through simulation models are up-to-date issues for
Roman modern engineering design.
Bi Biot number, Bi=hxs/kf Different frost growth and densification models have been
cp Specific heat of moist air, J kg-1 K-1 proposed in the past two decades [4-10]. Among the most
D Diffusivity of water vapour in air, m2 s-1 influential studies lies the one of Lee et al. [7], who presented a
Df Effective diffusivity of water vapour in air, m2 s-1 simplified algebraic model for frost growth and densification
h Heat transfer coefficient, W m-2 K-1 over a flat plate. The model accounted for both molecular
hm Mass transfer coefficient, kg m-2s-1 diffusion and vapour ablimation within the frost layer. The initial
isv Latent heat of ablimation (=2.83106), J kg-1 condition for frost density, the Lewis number and the heat
Ja Modified Jakob number, Ja=cpT/a1isv transfer coefficient were all adjusted to enhance the model
k Thermal conductivity of moist air, W m-1 K-1 predictions that, at the end, agreed with experimental data
kf Effective thermal conductivity of frost layer, W m-1 K-1 satisfactorily. The model of Lee et al. [7] was later improved by
L Plate length, m Cheng and Cheng [8], who incorporated the empirical correlation
Le Lewis number, Le=k/cpD for frost density devised by Hayashi et al. [11], so that the frost
m Mass flux, kg m-2 s-1 layer thickness became the only dependent variable. Through
Nu Nusselt number, Nu=hL/k such an approach, they not only solved the issue related to the
Pr Prandtl number, Pr=cp/k initial condition for frost density but also enhanced the model
q Sensible heat flux, W m-2 predictions for frost densification, reporting improvements in
Re Reynolds number, Re=uaL/ comparison with the original model. Later, Kandula [9] carried
t Time, s out a study in which advanced correlations for frost density and
T Temperature, C thermal conductivity were used with a numerical model based on
ua Air velocity, m s-1 that of Cheng and Cheng [8] to predict experimental data from
X Dimensionless frost thickness, X=xs/L different researchers.
xs Frost thickness, m
In a prior publication [10], the author and co-workers put forward
Greek a theoretical and experimental investigation of the frost accretion
on flat surfaces focusing on the most important factors affecting
T Air-to-surface dimensionless temperature difference
the frost growth and densification phenomena, such as the
Supersaturation degree, kgv kg-1
surrounding air temperature, humidity and velocity, and the
Dimensionless temperature surface temperature. The processes of frost growth and
Dimensionless thermal conductivity densification were investigated experimentally in order to
Ablimation coefficient provide a physical basis for the development of a theoretical
Viscosity, Pa s model to predict the variation of the frost layer thickness with
Density of moist air, kg m-3 time. The governing equations for mass and heat diffusion were
f Space-averaged density of frost, kg m-3 integrated analytically, coming up with a formulation which
Dimensionless time, =ft/kfcpL2 requires numerical integration of only one time dependent
Relative humidity, =pv/psat ordinary differential equation. When compared with experimental
Humidity ratio, kgv kg-1 data, the model predictions of the frost thickness as a function of
time agreed to within 10% error bands.
Despite the abundant literature in the field, there is still a need for tortuosity of the frosted medium, isv is the latent heat of
an explicit, algebraic relationship between the frost thickness and sublimation, and is the ablimation coefficient to be determined
the factors affecting the frost formation process. This paper puts from the solution of eq. (2) with =w and d/dx=0 at x=0, and
forward a dimensionless model based on heat and mass balances =s at x=xs. Similarly, eq. (3) can be solved considering a
in the frost layer, which was solved analytically to obtain an prescribed temperature condition at the plate surface, T=Tw, and
algebraic expression for the frost thickness as a function of time. the following heat flux continuity at x=xs:
The model predictions for the frost thickness were compared with
experimental data obtained from [12], when a very good dT (4)
kf = q + mi sv
agreement between calculated and measured counterparts was dx x = xs
observed. The model was also used to assess the sensitivity of the
frost thickness to key heat and mass transfer parameters, where q=h(Ta-Ts) is the heat flux from the air stream to the frost
deepening the understanding of the factors affecting the frost layer. The solution of eq. (3) yields [10]:
formation phenomena.
q + mi sv + D f a ( w s )i sv (5)
Ts = Tw +
General Frost Growth and Densification Model kf

In general, the following key simplifying assumptions have been In addition, empirical information for the frost density and
considered for modelling the frost accretion on flat surfaces: (i) thermal conductivity of the frost layer are required, which are
the processes of mass and heat diffusion within the frost layer are usually in the following form [10,11]:
treated as quasi-steady and one-dimensional; (ii) the frost
thickness is uniform along the plate length; (iii) the air pressure is f = a 0 exp(a 1Ts + a 2 ) (6)
uniform in the air stream and within the frost layer; and (iv) the
k f = k fo + f (7)
Lewis analogy is applicable. Thus, most frost growth and
densification models available in the open literature [4-10] have
The formulation provides a way to determine the time evolution
been formulated based on the following mass balance in the frost
of the frost thickness, which in addition to requiring numerical
layer represented in Fig. 1: calculations do not provide a straight indication of the parameters
d s
x
dx d affecting the frost formation process. The present study revisits
(1)
m=
dt 0
(x )dx = f s + x s f
dt dt
the model of Hermes et al. [10], invoking additional assumptions
and adding further simplifications so that an algebraic, explicit
expression for xs(t) is put forward.
where m=hm(a-s) is the mass flux of water vapour going into
the frosted medium, f is the space-averaged frost density, xs is
Proposed Analytical Solution
the frost thickness, and hm is the convective mass transfer
coefficient, related to the heat transfer coefficient, h, through the The model simplification starts by recognizing that the
Lewis boundary layer analogy, hm=h/cpLe2/3, where Le is the temperature profiles in the frost layer (see Fig. 1) are fairly linear
Lewis number (1). [10], hence eq. (4) can be re-written as follows:
Ts Tw i (8)
kf = h (Ta Ts ) + h (a s ) sv
xs cp

where s=sat(Ts) and w=sat(Tw), so that the porous medium

formed within the frost layer has no need to be modelled.
Defining the Biot number as Bi=hxs/kf, eq. (8) can be written as

Ts Tw s i sv (9)
= = Bi1 + a
Ta Ts
Ta Ts c p
Additionally noting that a variation in the supercooling degree is
proportional to a variation in the supersaturation degree [10], it
follows that
a s a w (10)

Figure 1. Physical model for frost growth and densification over Ta Ts Ta Tw
a flat surface
Now defining the dimensionless frost thickness, X=xs/L, and
In addition to the overall mass balance of eq. (1), local mass and noting that Bi=NuX(k/kf), where Nu=hL/k is the Nusselt number
energy balances are invoked to determine the water vapour associated with the boundary layer over the frost surface, it
concentration and also the temperature distribution in the frost follows that
layer, respectively:
= Bi(1 + 1 Ja ) = Nu (1 + 1 Ja )(k k f )X (11)
2
d (2)
Df = where Ja is a modified Jakob number, which can be interpreted as
dx 2 a sensible-to-latent heat ratio [13]:
d 2T (3) Ta Tw c p
kf = a i sv Ja = (12)
dx 2 a w i sv
where Df is the effective diffusivity of water vapour in air in the
frost layer, and kf is the effective thermal conductivity of the Based on eq. (11), it can be noted that the temperature differences
porous medium, being both dependant on the porosity and the involving the frost surface temperature are functions of (X), and
the temperatures Ta and Tw, as follows:
 Ts Tw (13) 2 1
= d1 =
Ta Tw 1 + Nu (1 + T )(1 + 1 Ja ) CT

Ta Ts 1 (14) It can be noted that the positive root of eq. (24) provides the
= following explicit solution for eq. (22),
Ta Tw 1 +

Thus, once X, Ta and Tw are known, the dimensionless d12 + 4d 0 d1 (25)

X=
temperature variation (X) can be determined over time. Further 2
advancements can be incorporated into the model by introducing
In addition, the C-coefficient can be determined by noticing that
the dimensionless time, =ft/kfcpL2, which is a modified Fourier
/X~X/do after the early crystal growth period, thus yielding
number based on the diffusive length xs, where the frost thermal
conductivity is calculated from eq. (7). Noting that kf/f=kfo/f+,
C
(1 + T )(1 + 1 Ja ) (26)
and also that kfo/f>> [14], it follows that kf/fkfo/f, yielding (2 + T )
c p L2 c p L2 (15) so that the coefficients of eq. (25) can be re-written as follows:
dt = f d + d f
k fo k fo
d 0 =
(2 + T )
Thus, eq.(1) can be re-written as follows: (1 + T )(1 + 1 Ja ) (27)

c p L2 d1 =
(2 + T )
(f d + df ) (16)
L f dX + LXd f = m Nu (1 + T )(1 + 1 Ja )
k fo
One can note in eq. (25) that X is a function of , , T, and Nu
In addition, it can be shown that
only, as Ja=cpT/a1isv. Since the solution is a parabola passing
c p L2 Nu through the origin, one should expect X to growth continually
m = L (17)
with 1/2, which is a typical behaviour of diffusive dominant mass
k fo 1+
transfer processes. In this study, the frost density correlation
where =kfo/k is a dimensionless thermal conductivity, and proposed in [10] was adopted, thus the coefficients of eq. (6) are
=a-w is the supersaturation degree. Equation (16) can hence a0=207, a1=0.266, a2=0.615Tw, with 80<f<320 kg/m3 and Tw
be written as follows: in [C]. The effective frost conductivity was calculated based on
the correlation presented in [7] with kf expressed as a function of
Nu df Nu (18) the frost density according to 2nd-order polynomial fit. However,
dX + X = d
1 + f 1+ in the present analysis the quadratic term was removed, so that
the correlation of Lee et al. [7] could be fitted to eq. (7), with
If eq.(6) is used for the sake of frost density calculation, then kfo=0.132 W/mK and =310-4 m4/s3K. Finally, the Nusselt
number was calculated from Nu=0.037Re0.8Pr0.43, valid for
d f dX (19)
= T Re<3107 [15].
f 1+ X

where T=a1(Ta-Tw). Substituting eq. (19) into eq. (18), the Results
following evolving equation for X over time can be derived, Figure 2 compares the model predictions with experimental data
(20) for the frost thickness obtained from [12] for Ta=16C, a=80%,
dX Nu
= and ua=1.0 m/s. It can be clearly seen that the analytical solution
d + Nu (1 + T )(1 + 1 Ja )X NuT (eq. 25) followed closely the experimental trends for different
1+ X surface temperatures, particularly for t>30 min, where the rates of
In addition, one should note, through a scale analysis, that frost growth and densification are equally important.
/(1+)~1 and X~1/2, thus yielding 5.0
analytical solution
(21)
experimental data
CX
1+ X
4.0
-16C
where C is a constant to be determined. Substituting eq. (21) into
eq. (20), one can show that
-12C
dX Nu 3.0
= (22)
d + Nu ((1 + T )(1 + 1 Ja ) CT )X xs, mm -8C

which can be integrated straightforwardly, 2.0 Tw=-4C

X X
dX + Nu ((1 + T )(1 + 1 Ja ) CT ) XdX = Nu d (23)
0 0 0 1.0
nd Ta = 16C
thus yielding the following 2 -degree algebraic equation, a = 80%
ua = 1.0 m s-1
X 2 + d 1X d 0 = 0 (24) 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
with t, min
2 Figure 2. Comparison between model predictions and
d0 =
(1 + T )(1 + 1 Ja ) CT experimental data from [12] for Ta=16C, a=80%, ua=1.0 m/s
At the early stages, the model predictions showed poorer experimental data for the early crystal growth stage, although an
comparisons with experimental data partly because the excellent matching is observed for X>0.01.
approximation kf/fkfo/f breaks down in the crystal growth 0.05
regime. Nevertheless, since the numerical model of Hermes et al. perfect matching
[10] also underpredicted the experimental data for the early model predictions

growth stages, one can conclude that the empirical information

0.04
required for frost density and thermal conductivity calculations
are not suitable for the early crystal growth period.
Figure 3 illustrates eq. (21), where the bullets refer to the term
0.03
/(1+)X calculated from the exact analytical solution of eq.
(20), whereas the lines are linear best fits considering a zero Xcalc
intercept. One can clearly see that /(1+)X behaves linearly
with X, thus corroborating the approximation of eq. (21). 0.02

30
best linear fit -4C
exact value 0.01
-8C
25
-12C

-16C
0.00
20 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Xexp

15
1+ X Figure 5. Comparison between model predictions and 246
experimental data points from [12]
10 Figure 6 explores the model sensitiveness to , T and Nu,
using the normalized derivatives, (f/X)(X/f), with
f={,T,Nu}={0.005,10,25}. It is clear that both Nu and
5
play important roles upon the frost growth process, whereas T
has a minor influence. A brief look at the coefficients of eq. (25)
0 points out the term (2+T)/(1+T) in both do and d1 coefficients.
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Since T~10, then (2+T)/(1+T)~1 which explains why the T
X parameter plays a minor influence on X.
Figure 3. Validity of eq. (21) for Ta=16C, a=80%, ua=1.0 m/s 1.0

Figure 4 explores different humidity (50 and 65%), surface

temperature (-9 and -5C) and air temperature (22C) conditions
0.8
with ua=0.7 m/s. Again, a good matching between the predictions
of eq. (25) and the experimental data was found, with differences
within the experimental uncertainty thresholds, thus indicating
that the model is suitable to be used in a vast range of conditions. 0.6

3.0
f X
analytical solution X f Nu
experimental data
0.4
2.5

-9C, 65%
0.2
2.0
-9C, 50%

xs, mm 1.5 0.0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
Tw=-5C, a=50% X
1.0
Figure 6. Sensitivity of X with regard to , T and Nu

0.5 Closing Remarks

Ta = 22C
ua = 0.7 m s-1 A dimensionless algebraic expression was introduced to calculate
the thickness of a frost layer over time as a function of key
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 independent heat and mass transfer parameters such as the
supersaturation degree, the air-to-surface temperature difference,
t, min
and the Nusselt number (and so the Sherwood number, as Le1).
Figure 4. Comparison between model predictions and The model predictions were compared with experimental data
experimental data from [12] for other working conditions from [12], when it was observed that the model followed closed
the experimental trends. The formulation was used to assess the
Figure 5 compares the predictions of eq. (25) with all influences of , T, and Nu on the frost thickness and surface
experimental data points, where the 45 line indicates the perfect temperature. It was found that the most important players are
matching. Again, it is clear that the model underpredicts the
and Nu, whereas T has a minor influence.
Acknowledgments
Financial support from the CNPq Agency, Government of Brazil,
and the Araucria Foundation, Government of the Paran State
Brazil, is duly acknowledged.
References
[1] Knabben FT, Hermes CJL, Melo C, In-situ study of frosting
and defrosting processes in tube-fin evaporators of
household refrigerating appliances, Int. J. Refrig. 34 (2011)
2031-2041
[2] Silva DL, Hermes CJL, Melo C, First-principles simulation
of frost accumulation on fan-supplied tube-fin evaporators,
App. Therm. Eng. 31 (2011) 2616-2621
[3] Lynch FT, Khodadoust A, Effects of ice accretions on
aircraft aerodynamics, Prog. Aerosp. Sc. 37 (2001) 669767
[4] Sami SM, Duong T, Mass and heat transfer during frost
growth, ASHRAE Trans. (1989) 158-165
[5] Tao YX, Besant RW, Mao Y, Characteristics of frost growth
on a flat plate during the early growth period, ASHRAE
Trans.: Symposia, CH-93-2-2 (1993) 746-753
[6] Sherif SA, Raju SP, Padki MM, Chan AB, A semi-empirical
transient method for modelling frost formation on a flat
plate, Int. J. Refrig. 16 (1993) 321-329
[7] Lee KS, Kim WS, Lee TH, A one-dimensional model for
frost formation on a cold flat surface, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer 40 (1997) 4359-4365
[8] Cheng CH, Cheng YC, Predictions of frost growth on a cold
plate in atmospheric air, Int. Comm. Heat Mass Transfer 28
(2001) 953-962
[9] Kandula M, Frost growth and densification in laminar flow
over flat surfaces, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 54 (2011)
3719-3731
[10] Hermes CJL, Piucco RO, Melo C, Barbosa Jr. JR, A study of
frost growth and densification on flat surfaces, Exp. Therm.
Fluid Sc. 33 (2009) 371-379
[11] Hayashi Y, Aoki A, Adashi S, Hori K, Study of frost
properties correlating with frost formation types, ASME J.
Heat Transfer 99 (1977) 239-245
[12] Piucco RO, 2008, Anlise terico-experimental da formao
de geada em refrigeradores domsticos, MSc thesis, Federal
University of Santa Catarina, Florianpolis, Brazil
[13] Baehr HD, Stephan K, 2006, Heat and Mass Transfer, 2nd
ed., Springer, Berlin, Germany
[14] Storey BD, Jacobi AM, The effect of streamwise vortices on
the frost growth rate in developing laminar channel flows,
Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 42 (1999) 3787-3802
[15] Lienhard IV JH, Lienhard V JH, 2011, A heat transfer
textbook, 4th ed., Dover, Mineola, USA
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

The Thermo -Electrical Characteristics for a Thermoelectric Generator Module

with Plate-Fin Heat Sink used in Waste Heat Recovery System

J.Y. Jang, Y.C. Huang and J.H. Jian

Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Cheng -Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan

Abstract dynamic viscosity

When the thermoelectric generators (TEGs) are used to recover
waste heat from a larger chimney plate, the TEG hot side
temperature and thus the electric power output can be increased
through inserting plate-fin heat sink into the chimney tunnel to
increase the convective heat transfer area. In the present study,
the thermoelectric module consists of a plate-fin heat sink, a
thermoelectric generator and a cold plate based on water cooling.
On a whole, the main purpose of this article is to analyze the
effects of the geometrical parameters on both the electric power
output and the chimney pressure drop characteristics. The
geometrical parameters include the fin height (Lf), and the total
number of fin (N), respectively. In addition, the effects of
different operating conditions include waste gas heat transfer
coefficients ( hh = 540 W/m2-K ) and different temperature
differences between the waste-gas and the cooling water ( T =
200400 K ) for TEG modules and different inlet velocities for
the chimney waste gas are also discussed in detail.
Nomenclature
Afin fin surface area
ATEG TEG surface area
l laminar viscosity
t turbulent viscosity
gas density
Prandtl number for turbulent kinetic energy
Prandtl number for turbulent energy dissipation
Introduction
Thermoelectric effects include Seebeck effect, Peltier effect and
Thomson effect, and it also accompanies with other effects, such
as Joule heating and Fourier heat conduction law. Seebeck effects
in semiconductor materials induce electromotive force due to
temperature gradients, and Peltier effects induce temperature
gradients when a DC electrical current is applied. Accordingly,
thermoelectric devices could be basically categorized into two
operational modes, which are thermoelectric generators and
thermoelectric coolers (TECs), depending on the direction of
energy conversion. As miniature generating devices, the
thermoelectric generator (TEG) has the advantages of compact
structure, high reliability, no vibration and direct electric energy
conversion. In general, a thermoelectric generator consists of a
number of semiconductor pairs that are connected electrically in

E electric field a series and thermally in parallel, and each pair includes a p-type
hc cooling water heat transfer coefficient and an n-type element. Although in theory, a single piece of
hh waste gas heat transfer coefficient semiconductor material could work, a series connection is used to
I electric current meet the high voltage potential requirement. P-type and n-type
J current density elements are alternated to assure that the carriers transport in the
kP/N equivalent thermal conductivity of TEG same direction.
Lf fin height Thermoelectric generators present potential applications in the
N number of fin conversion of low level thermal energy into electrical power.
P electric power output Especially in the case of waste heat recovery, it is not necessary
P pressure to consider the cost of the thermal energy input, and there are
Pideal electric power output before counting pumping power additional advantages, such as energy saving and emission
Pmax maximum electric power output reduction, so the low efficiency problem is no longer the most
Pnet net electric power important issue that we have to take into account [8]. In the
Pr turbulent kinetic energy production rate application of TEGs for waste heat recovery power generation,
Qin heat transfer rate of fin surface there have been many conceptual designs for a power conversion
Qout heat transfer rate of TEG surface system that could be potentially capable of being applied in this
T temperature area. Suzuki and Tanaka [9] provided the output powers of their
Tgas Temperature of waste gas proposed 15 systems analytically deduced from heat transfer
Twater Temperature of water theory and written in non-dimensional form to reflect the
V electric potential characteristics of system design. The maximum output was the
Vin waste gas inlet velocity largest in the ideal isothermal systems. Crane and Jackson [2]
ui velocity component studied numerical heat exchanger models integrated with models
P/N equivalent Seebeck coefficient of TEG for Bi2Te3 thermoelectric modules which were validated against
P chimney tunnel pressure drop experimental data from previous cross-flow heat exchanger
temperature difference between the waste-gas and the studies as well as experiments using thermoelectric modules
T
cooling water between counter-flow hot water and cooling air flow channels.
turbulent energy dissipation ratio Niu et al. [7] constructed an experimental TEG unit, which was
P/N equivalent electrical resistivity of TEG used to examine the influences of the main operating conditions,
turbulent kinetic energy the hot and cold fluid inlet temperatures, flow rates and the load
resistance on the power output and conversion efficiency. Hsiao field (T) and electrical potential (V) for the p-type and n-type
at al. [4] constructed a mathematic model to predict the element can be expressed as
performance of a TEG module attached to a waste heat recovery
system. The results showed that the TEG module presented better 2T 2T 2T
performance on an exhaust pipe as opposed to a radiator. Dai et k P / N 2 2 2 P / N J 2 0 (1)
al. [3] provided a new type of TEG system based on liquid metal x y z
which served to harvest and transport waste heat. The V V V
experimental results for the TEG system were discussed and a E i j k
calculated efficiency of 2% in the whole TEG system was x y z
obtained. Karri et al. [5] studied the power and fuel savings (3)
T T T
produced by TEGs placed in the exhaust stream of a sports utility P / N i j k P / N J
vehicle (SUV). The optimized quantum-well (QW) based TEG x y z
stack generated about 5.35.8 kW, resulting in a fuel savings of
about 3%. 2V 2V 2V 2T 2T 2T
2 2 P / N 2 2 2 (4)
Since the tunnel of the chimney is a bare tube, for a given gas x 2
y z x y z
flow rate the hot side temperature of TEG and thus the electric
power output can be increased through inserting plate-fin heat where kP/N, P/N and P/N represent the equivalent thermal
sink into the chimney which could raise convective heat transfer conductivity, electrical resistivity and Seebeck coefficient of
area and reduce thermal resistance from the waste gas to the TEG TEG module with 49 pairs of p-type and n-type semiconductors,

module. Lee [6] developed an analytical simulation model for respectively. The E and J denote the electrical field and
predicting the thermal and pressure characteristics of fin heat current density, respectively.
sinks in a partially confined configuration. Barrett and Obinelo [1]
studied the straight-channel longitudinal fin heat sinks under
forced air cooling. The parameters included the tip clearance and
spanwise spacing across a range of approach flow rates and fin
densities are used to examine the influence of flow bypass
phenomena on the thermal resistance and pressure drop across
the heat sinks.
Although other studies on TEG modules have been made, they
are mostly based on the theoretical analyses and experiments for
the TEG. Accordingly, the present work focuses on the geometry
of the plate-fin, especially investigating the influences of the fin
height (Lf) and the numbers of fin (N) on the power output and
the pressure increment, which is solved numerically using the
finite difference method. Eventually the TEG module net power
could be calculated from the above results in different operating
conditions.

Theoretical Model
The schematic diagram of the waste heat recovery system with
thermoelectric module is shown in Fig. 1. The thermoelectric
module shown in Fig. 1(a) consists of a plate-fin heat sink, a
TEG and a cold plate based on water cooling. A TEG is the
major component for converting heat energy into electric power,
in which 49 pairs of p-type and n-type semiconductor legs
composing the generator are connected thermally in parallel
between the hot exhaust gas and cold plate and electrically in a
series to power the load circuit. Since the thermoelectric models (a) TEG module
was used on the basis of an equivalent current method, which
means there is an equal electric current and an equal cross area of
thermoelectric elements, only one pair is considered here. And in
Fig. 1(b), there is the chimney with built-in plate-fin for
computing the pressure drop of the chimney tunnel.
Governing equations
For the solid plate-fin heat sink, ceramic substrate and conductive
copper, the three-dimensional heat energy balance equation under
steady state and constant conductivity with no heat generation is
expressed as

2T 2T 2T
0 (1)
x 2 y 2 z 2
(b) chimney tunnel with built-in plate-fin
Assuming constant thermal and electrical properties of the
thermoelectric material, the governing equations of the thermal Figure 1. Schematic of the thermoelectric module with a plate-fin
heat sink and the chimney with built-in fin.
For the waste gas flow in the chimney, the fluid is considered
incompressible with constant properties and no viscous
dissipation. The equations for mass and momentum (Reynold-
averaged Navier-Stokes equation) could be expressed as
ui
0 (5)
x
P With the help of the experimental data, the values of the physical
u j ui 2 ui u j ui (6) and thermoelectric parameters adopted in the FDM model were
x j xi x j
In the present study, the - turbulent model was introduced to
simulate the flow field more accurately. The - turbulent
equations are shown as below
x j
u j
x j
l t Pr
x j
x j
u j l t
x j
x j
c1Pr c2
Boundary Condition
Because the governing equations are elliptic in spatial
coordinates, the boundary conditions are required for all
boundaries of the computational domain. For the TEG module,
constant convection coefficients are specified at the cold side of
TEG and the surfaces of the plate-fin exposed to waste gas. All
remaining surfaces are set to be adiabatic conditions. For the gas
flow in the chimney, the inlet boundary is assumed to be uniform
velocity distribution, and the ambient pressure is set at the outlet
boundary. At the solid-fluid interface, no-slip condition is
specified. For turbulent calculation, the turbulence intensity at the
inlet is set to 3 %.
Numerical Methods
The foregoing governing equations and the boundary conditions
are solved numerically by a commercial computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) code using a control volume based on a finite
difference method (FDM). The finite difference approximations
are employed to discrete the transport equations onto a non-
staggered grid mesh system. Prior to computation, a thorough
verification of the grid-independence of the numerical solution is
performed in order to ensure the accuracy and validity of the
numerical results. For validating the independency of the solution
on the grid, each model with four different grid systems are
investigated, which include about 8,190, 11,712, 15,600 and
18,120 nodes for TEG module and 309,960, 376,200, 435,600
and 474,768 nodes for chimney waste gas with built-in fin,
respectively. It is found that the relative errors of the electric
power of the TEG module between the solutions of 15,600 and
18,120 is less than 0.2%, on the other, the relative errors of the
chimney pressure drop between the solutions of 435,600 and
474,768 is less than 0.5%. When the results satisfy the following
conditions, the solutions are treated as converged:
R anbnb b a p p 10 6 (9)
domain
i1 i
10 5 (10)
i
where R represents the residual sum, and is a general
dependent. The subscripts i and nb are the number of iterations
and the neighborhood grid points, respectively.
Experimental Setup
Numerical predictions of the module performance obtained from
the CFD code need to be verified with the experimental results.
calibrated. As illustrated in Fig. 2, the experimental setup is
mainly composed of three parts which are the wind tunnel system,
the water circulating system and the electrical network.
(7)
(8)
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup.
The wind tunnel system consists of a blower, 12 annular heating
units assembled on a round stainless duct, a flow settling
chamber, the test section, and an exhaust pipe. The air flow was
driven by a 5HP centrifugal fan with a variable-frequency
converter to provide various inlet velocities to flow along the
wind tunnel and pass through the TEG module to simulate the
flow in the chimney. The air velocity in the test section was
measured by a hot wire with 2.0% accuracy. The heating section
of the experimental setup used 12 heaters which supply
maximum heat load about 35kW. In addition, the thermoelectric
module was built-in from the top surface of the test section.
Thermal grease was used to minimize the thermal contact
resistance between the TEG and the plate-fin, made of aluminium
(Al 6063) without additional surface treatment. Moreover, the air
temperatures at the inlet and the exit zones across the test section
were measured by two pre-calibrated RTDs (pt-100) with
accuracy within 0.05C. To reduce heat loss, all wind tunnel
system was surrounded by an insulator.
The TEG module was cooled by water which was pumped in a
closed circulating system that includes a flow meter and a
thermostat reservoir with a temperature controlled immersion
heater to maintain the water at 27C. The water volumetric flow
rate was measured by a magnetic volume flow meter with 0.002
L/s resolution. T-type thermal couples are embedded in inlet and
outlet of cooling water system to record temperature while
measuring.
In the electric network, a high power electrical resistor array was
connected in series to the TEG module which was used to capture
the matching load for the maximum power output. The ammeter
was connected in series to measure the current in the circuit and
the voltmeter was connected in parallel to measure the voltage
cross the external load resistor, respectively. A digital multi-
meter (Fluke 170) was used to measure the voltage with an
accuracy of 0.15% and the current with an accuracy of 1.0%. All
the data signals were collected and converted using a data
acquisition system (a hybrid recorder).
Results and Discussion
Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 illustrate the temperature and electric potential
distributions of the thermoelectric module with and without the
built-in plate-fin, respectively, for the fin height Lf = 48mm, and
its number of fin N = 4, where the module were assumed to be
exposed to heat transfer with convective heat transfer coefficient
hh = 20W/m2-K for the fin surfaces and hc = 3000W/m2-K for the
cold side of TEG and with a temperature difference T = 300K.
It can be seen from Fig. 3 that a built-in fin can indeed increase
the module bulk temperature due to a larger heat transfer area
from the hot waste gas to the fin surfaces. Thus, the average
temperature difference between the hot and cold sides of the TEG
with a plate-fin is 91.3K, which is larger than that without a
plate-fin at 13.5K. This temperature difference results in an open
circuit voltage Voc = 2.07V (5.7 times increase) for a TEG
module with a plate-fin compared to Voc = 0.31V for the one
without a plate-fin, as seen in Fig. 4.
(a) module without fin
(b) module with fin
Figure 3. The temperature distributions of the thermoelectric
module with and without fin, respectively for N = 4, Lf = 48mm,
hh=20 W/m2-K and T = 300K.
(a) module without fin
(b) module with fin
Figure 4. The corresponding electric potential distributions of the
thermoelectric module with and without fin, respectively for N =
4, Lf = 48mm, hh=20 W/m2-K and T = 300K.
Fig. 5(a) and 5(b) show the voltage-current (V-I) and power-
current (P-I) curves, respectively, for the temperature difference
between the waste gas and the cooling water at 150K and hh =
20W/m2-K with Lf = 48mm and N = 4. The experimental results
are denoted by circle symbols. It can be seen that the predicted
numerical data for the V-I and P-I curves are in good agreement
(within 12%) with the experimental data. It can also be found that
the maximum power, Pmax, occurs when the external load
resistance is to equal the effective internal resistance of the TEG.
A closer look at Fig. 5(b) indicates that the Pmax with a fin can be
significantly increased up to 45times compared to those without a
fin.
(a) V-I curve
(b) P-I curve
Figure 5. V-I and P-I curves for numerical and experimental
results.
Fig. 6 presents the variations of Pmax with the plate-fin height (Lf)
for four values of waste gas heat transfer coefficients (hh = 5, 10,
20 and 40 W/m2-K) with temperature difference at 300K and fin
number N = 4. It is evident that the power output is significantly
increased as either the fin height (Lf) or the waste gas heat
transfer coefficient (hh) is increased which correspond to a larger
heat transfer area or a higher waste gas velocity. As fin height
increases from 0 to 72mm, Pmax improve about 163, 112, 65 and
32 times for heat transfer coefficient hh = 5, 10, 20 and 40 W/m2-
K, respectively.
As the plate-fin heat sink was inserted into the chimney tunnel,
though the waste gas tends to bypass from the clearance around
the fin and redistributes itself, it increases the total tunnel
pressure drop undoubtedly. Fig. 7 displays the variations of the
total tunnel pressure drop P with the plate-fin height for three
different values of inlet gas velocities (Vin = 1, 5 and 10m/s) with
the same fin number N = 4. It can be found that with the faster
inlet gas velocity it causes much pressure drop and the pressure
drop remains rising with longer fin height. The pressure drop
between fin height Lf = 72mm and Lf = 0mm are 0.0012, 0.015
and 0.061pa for inlet gas velocities at 1, 5 and 10m/s.
Figure 6. The Pmax vs. fin height (Lf) for four different values of
waste gas heat transfer coefficients.
Figure 7. The P vs. fin height (Lf) for three different values of
inlet gas velocities.
In order to know the net electric power the TEG module could
actually generate, the Pideal should minus the fan pumping power
to obtain the actual power which could be used in other purpose
without any cost uncounted. Figs. 8(a) and 8(b) show the effect
of fin height on the Pnet for three different inlet gas velocities (Vin
= 1, 5 and 10m/s) and two temperature difference (T = 200K
and 400K) with the same fin number N = 4. In Fig. 8(a) the Pnet
under higher inlet gas velocity (Vin = 10m/s) and smaller
temperature difference (T = 200K) exists an optimal fin height
for the increment in Pideal is less than in the fan pumping power,
otherwise, in Fig. 8(b) the Pnet with larger temperature difference
(T = 400K) for the same inlet velocity is still getting better. In
both figs. 8(a) and 8(b), as the Pnet under lower inlet gas velocity
(Vin = 1 and 5m/s), the Pnet are very close to the Pideal for the fan
pumping power is relatively smaller than Pideal.
(a) T = 200K
(b) T = 400K
Figure 8. The Pnet vs. fin height (Lf) for three different values of
inlet gas velocities and two different temperature differences.
Furthermore, if the fin height is fixed at 48mm and changes the
number of the plate-fin from 4 to 6 and 8, the variations of Pmax
with different fin number is as shown in Fig. 9. As can be seen
that increase the fin number can greatly improve the module
performance, and with higher waste gas heat transfer coefficient
the effect of the fin number on Pmax increment is more obvious.
As fin number increases from 4 to 8, Pmax improve about 1.85,
1.45, 1.04 and 0.69 times for heat transfer coefficient hh = 5, 10,
20 and 40 W/m2-K, respectively.
Similarly, the net electric power for different number of fin could
be evaluated. As shown in Figs. 11(a) and 11(b) the effect of fin
number on the Pnet for three different inlet gas velocities (Vin = 1,
5 and 10m/s) and two temperature difference (T = 200K and
400K) with the same fin height Lf = 48mm was investigated. The
net power seems to increase under all conditions and it is superior
under lower inlet velocity than higher ones for the Pideal is the
same under given temperature difference and waste gas heat
transfer coefficients, and the fan pumping power grows larger
under faster inlet velocity. At the same time, it can also be found
that the fan pumping power is relatively minor under T = 400K
than under T = 200K. For N = 8 under T = 200K the Pideal is
2.14W and the Pnet are 2.14, 2.04 and 1.45W for Vin = 1, 5 and
10m/s respectively, and under T = 400K the Pideal is 4.95W and
the Pnet are 4.95, 4.88 and 4.40W.

Figure 9. The Pmax vs. fin number (N) for different values of
waste gas heat transfer coefficients.
If the fin number of the plate-fin heat sink increases with the fin
base width and fin thickness keep fixed, the fin pitch would
become comparatively smaller and raise the pressure drop in the
chimney tunnel. Fig. 10 demonstrates the variations of the total
tunnel pressure drop P with the number of the plate-fin for three
different values of inlet gas velocities (Vin = 1, 5 and 10m/s)
with the same fin height Lf = 48mm. Apparently, the tunnel
pressure drop continues to go up due to both higher inlet gas
velocity and more fin number. For inlet gas velocities at 1, 5 and
10m/s, the pressure drop between fin number N = 4 and N = 8 are
0.0008, 0.036 and 0.051pa.
(a) T = 200K

(a) T = 200K
Figure 10. The P vs. fin number (N) for three different values of
inlet gas velocities. Figure 11. The Pnet vs. fin number (N) for three different values
of inlet gas velocities and two different temperature differences.
Conclusions
In this study, first, it was demonstrated that the plate-fin can
decrease the thermal resistance and the open circuit voltage Voc
with a fin can be significantly increased up to 5.7 times as
compared to TEG without fin. The predicted numerical data for
the power versus current (PI) curve are in good agreement
(within 12%) with the experimental data. Secondly, the
parametric study considering the fin height (Lf) and number of
fin (N) for the thermal-electrical characteristics about the electric
power generated from a TEG module used in a waste heat
recovery system under different waste gas convection heat
transfer coefficient was investigated numerically, and also take
into account the pressure drop in the chimney tunnel with built-in
plate-fin under different inlet waste gas velocities. For fixed fin
number N = 4, as fin height increases from 0 to 72mm, Pmax
improve about 32 to 163 times for different heat transfer
coefficient, and the increment of pressure drop are 0.0012, 0.015
and 0.061pa for inlet gas velocities at 1, 5 and 10m/s. As fin
number increases from 4 to 8 at the same fin height Lf = 48mm,
for different heat transfer coefficient Pmax raise around 0.69 to
1.85 times, and the pressure drop increase 0.0008, 0.036 and
0.051pa for inlet gas velocities at 1, 5 and 10m/s. At last, the net
power could be estimated by subtracting the fan pumping power
used for putting forward the waste gas in the chimney from the
electric power generated from the TEG module. Under high
velocity and small temperature difference there exists an optimal
net power as fin height increases at fixed fin number, and with
higher inlet gas velocity the net power generated decreases under
the same heat transfer coefficient and temperature difference. The
Pideal is 4.95W and the Pnet are 4.95, 4.88 and 4.40W for Vin = 1, 5
and 10m/s respectively for N = 8 and T = 400K.
Acknowledgments
Financial support of this paper was provided by NSC-101-2221-
E006-109-MY2, Taiwan, ROC.
References
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Lateral Migration and Focusing of Inertial Particles in Two -Phase

Boundary-Layer Flows

A.N. Osiptsov and O.D. Rybdylova

Institute of Mechanics
Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119192 Moscow, Russia

Abstract dynamic viscosity

density
The Saffman lifting force exerted on particles in shear flows can sm particle material density
significantly affect the admixture distribution in near-wall two- particle radius
phase flows. In this study, in the framework of the one-way specific heat ratio of the gas and the particle material
coupled two-fluid model we consider three examples of laminar self-similar coordinate
gas-particle flows of boundary layer type and investigate the st correction factor for the aerodynamic drag force
lateral migration and focusing of particles in these flows. A new saf correction factor for the lifting force
non-stationary aerodynamic scheme of inertial-particle focusing h correction factor for the heat flux
behind a shock wave moving in a microchannel is proposed. The stream function
study is based on the two-phase boundary layer A auxiliary parameter
approximation [10] and the Full Lagrangian approach (FLA) [9], h, z, auxiliary functions
which allows to calculate all particle parameters, including the Subscripts
number density, from the solution of systems of ordinary +, parameters behind and ahead of the shock front
differential equations on chosen particle trajectories. The results s dispersed-phase parameters
obtained in this study may be of interest for the development of 0 values of reference
technologies which use near-wall dilute two-phase flows and Superscripts
focused particle beams. * dimensional parameters

Nomenclature Introduction
a sonic velocity Near-wall solid-particle fluid/gas flows are encountered in
d channel half width many natural and engineering applications, e.g. aircraft motion
cs specific heat of the particle material through dust clouds, pneumatic conveying systems for powdered
DT temperature ratio of the wall and the gas behind the materials, surface processing by two-phase jets (coating,
shock front cleaning, etc), problems of fire and explosion safety in coal
DU velocity ratio of the shock wave and the gas behind the mines [15], particle sorting and fractionation in biochemical and
shock front medical applications, etc. In the examples listed above, the
Ec Eckert number presence of near-wall shear flow plays a significant role: it leads
g gravity force acceleration to the appearance of the lateral (with respect to the bulk flow)
K coefficient in viscosity-temperature and thermal force exerted on the particles [13]. As a result, the admixture
conductivity-temperature dependences distribution in near-wall flows can be very nonuniform, regions
L longitudinal length scale devoid of particles, as well as local particle accumulation zones,
lch channel length may appear. In particular, the lifting force exerted on the particles
M Mach number may result in the formation of aerodynamically focused particle
E value of the flow integral in jet flow beams, which can be used for microchip manufacturing [1],
m particle mass needle-free injections, and other applications. In this study, we
ns particle number density consider three 2D flows of two-phase boundary layer type. The
p pressure first one is the solid-particle fluid/gas flow along a flat plate;
Pr Prandtl number we investigate the particle lateral migration and validate the
Re Reynolds number model by comparing the results of mathematical modeling with
T Temperature known experimental data. In the second part, we study a laminar
Tw channel wall temperature two-phase dusty wall jet, and in the third part we consider a new
Ush shock wave velocity non-stationary aerodynamic scheme of inertial-particle focusing
U0 velocity scale behind impulse shock waves in microchannels.
u, v velocity components
x longitudinal axis The two-phase boundary layer model
y transverse axis
ratio of the fluid and particle materials The solid-particle fluid flow is investigated in the framework
particle inertia parameter of the one-way coupled two fluid approach [6]. The carrier phase
specific heat ratio is an incompressible viscous fluid or a perfect viscous gas. The
small parameter dispersed phase, treated as a continuum, consists of identical
dimensionless coefficient in the lifting force spherical particles of radius , mass m, particle material density
thermal conductivity sm. Since the particle mass loading is assumed to be small, the
feedback effect of the particles on the carrier flow is neglected,
and the problems of finding the parameters of the phases can be
solved separately. First, the carrier-flow parameters are
calculated, and then we find the dispersed phase parameters. We
introduce the coordinate system and stretched variables in a
standard way for a boundary layer problem. The x-axis is directed
along the wall, the y-axis is normal to the wall. In the third
problem of the shock wave travelling through a dust cloud in a
narrow channel, the x-axis is directed along the channel
symmetry axis, and the y-axis along the shock front.
In general case, in the interphase momentum exchange the
following forces are taken into account: the aerodynamic Stokes
drag, the Saffman lifting force, the buoyancy, added mass, and
Basset forces. The expression for the total force acting on a
single particle takes the form [7] (here and in what follows, the
asterisk denotes the dimensional parameters):
f fst fsaf farc fvm f BB mg
f st 6 v* v*s st ,
u* *
f saf 6.46 2 (u us* ) j saf
y*
parameter =1/(Re)1/2, and in the third problem =1/Re. The
characteristic parameters used for nondimensionalization differ
for different problems; they will be specified in the
corresponding sections.
In the first two problems, the carrier phase flow parameters are
described by the known self-similar solutions of the standard
incompressible boundary layer equations. In the third problem,
we calculate numerically the equations of the narrow-channel
approximation for the compressible, viscous, heat conducting
gas; the corresponding equations are given in the last section.
Basic ideas of the Full Lagrangian approach for calculating
the dispersed phase parameters
The dispersed-phase parameters are calculated using the Full
Lagrangian approach [9], which makes it possible to calculate all
particle parameters (including the number density) from the
(1) solution of systems of ordinary differential equations on chosen
particle trajectories. This method makes it possible to calculate
correctly the particle number density fields in the flows with
multiple intersections of particle trajectories, which is typical for
boundary layer flows. For the steady-state problem, the
Lagrangian system of equations for dispersed phase for fixed y0
(origin of the particle trajectory) takes the form [9]:

4 Dv* 2 dv* dv*s ns 0 (0, y0 )us 0 ns (t , y0 ) J , J use2 vse1

farc 3 g , fvm 3
3 dt 3 dt dt dx dy dus dv
us , vs , fx , s f y ,
dt dt dt dt
dv dv
t *
dt1 *
f BB 6 2
s
,
0 dt dt t t t t1 de1 de de f de f
1 e3 , 2 e4 , 3 x , 4 y ,
dt dt dt y0 dt y0
1
6



s 1 exp 0.427 M s
st 1 Re 2/3 4.63
e1
x
, e2
y u v
, e3 s , e4 s .
y0 y0 y0 y0
Re g
saf 0.4687 1 exp 0.1Re s The first is the continuity equation in Lagrangian form, the next
Re s Re s 40 four are the equations of motion on a chosen particle trajectory,
exp 0.1Re s , and the last four are additional equations for the Jacobian
components entering in the continuity equation. Here, fx, fy are
saf 0.0741 Re g , Re s 40 the longitudinal and transverse components of the force acting on
the particles (1), t=t*L/U0 is the nondimensional time of particle
motion along the chosen trajectory, y0 is the ordinate of the
2 * v* v*s v* v* s u* 2 * particle trajectory origin, taken as the Lagrangian coordinate. The
Res , Ms , Re g .
*
a *
y* * initial conditions corresponding to the origin of a particle
trajectory are:
Here, d/dt and D/Dt stand for the substantial derivatives along the
trajectories of a solid and liquid particle, respectively, g is the t 0 : x 0, y y0 , us us 0 , vs 0 , (3)
gravity force acceleration, fst, fsaf, farc, fvm, fBB are the drag force,
the Saffman lifting force, the Archimedes, added mass, and e1 0, e2 1, e3 0, e4 0 .
Basset forces; Res and Ms are the Reynolds and Mach numbers of
The systems of ordinary differential equations for different
the flow around the particle, Reg is the shear Reynolds number of
trajectories were solved by the fourth-order Runge-Kutta method.
the flow around the particle, and j is the unit vector of the y-axis.
The direct particle-wall interactions are ignored.
The subscript s denotes the dispersed-phase parameters. The
correction functions st and saf are used in the forms proposed
in [2] and [8]. Suspension and dusty-gas flow in boundary layer on a plate

The dimensionless variables are introduced as follows: To validate our model of two-phase boundary layer with
allowance for the Saffman force, we compare the results of
x* y* u* v* * mathematical modeling with known experimental data [4],[5].
x , y , u , v , , (2) The steady flow of a fluid with solid particles along a flat plate is
L L U0 U 0 0
considered. The flow diagram is presented in Figure 1. The
p* u* v* n* LU carrier phase is incompressible fluid; its parameters (velocity
p , us s , vs s , ns s , Re 0 0 . components u(x,y) and v(x,y)) are calculated on the Eulerian grid
0U02
U0 U 0 ns 0 0 using the known self-similar Blasius solution [14].
Here, ns0 is the characteristic particle number density, L and U0 Dusty-gas flow in the boundary layer on a vertical flat plate
are longitudinal length and velocity scales, 0 and 0 are density
and viscosity scales. In the first two problems, the small In [4], a dusty-gas flow along a vertical flat plate was
investigated experimentally. The carrier phase was air, dispersed
 Clearly, if the lifting force is neglected, the particle number
density grows without bound near the wall, as in model
calculations [11]. When the lifting force is taken into account, a
qualitative agreement between the calculations and experimental
data is achieved: the particle number density decreases with
approach to the wall, and there is a local maximum at a certain
distance from the wall. Taking into account the polydispersity of
particles allows to achieve a better agreement between the
calculated and experimental data. Thus, the calculations
Figure 1. Flow diagram; broken line shows the boundary layer
performed for the particles that are 30% larger in diameter
edge, the gravity force g may be directed in longitudinal or
(broken lines in Figure 3) lie closer to the experimental data.
transverse direction.
phase consisted of 32 m solid spherical particles with density of
3.95 g/cm3. The particle size scatter was within 30%. The plate
was 50 cm long; the free-stream velocity U0 = 150 cm/s. The
length scale L is equal to l = mU0/60. The ratio of the carrier-
phase and particle material densities is very small. Under these
conditions, the particle motion is determined by the aerodynamic
drag force, the gravity force, and the Saffman lifting force. In
Lagrangian form, the equations of dispersed-phase motion in the
boundary layer take the form:
dx dy dus
us , vs , u us st ,
dt dt dt

dvs u
v vs st u us saf ,
dt y

ns 0 (0, y0 )us 0 ns (t , y0 ) J
1/ 4
gL
, 0.0832Re3/s 02 sm .
U 02
The values of nondimensional parameters corresponding to the
experimental conditions are: = 0.0855, = 3.88, and
Res0 = 2U0/0=3.36. The equations for Jacobian components
are omitted for the sake of brevity.
Figure 2 shows the particle concentration profiles in the cross-
sections corresponding to the experiments (us0 = 0.35, x1 = 2.55
(5 cm), x2 = 5.1 (10 cm), x3 = 8.7 (17 cm)). In order to compare
the results of the numerical modeling and experimental data the
particle concentration is normalized to its value on the outer edge
of the boundary layer.
Figure 3. Particle number density profiles in dusty-gas flow along
a vertical flat plate. Solid lines the same as in Figure 2, broken
lines correspond to particles 30% larger in diameter.
Suspension flow in the boundary layer on a horizontal plate
In [5], a flow of water with solid particles along a horizontal flat
plate 244 cm long was studied experimentally. Particle material
density was 12 g/cm3, particle diameter was 100 m. The
measurements were performed at the distances x1* = 2.5, x2* = 5,
and x3* = 7.5 cm. Since the liquid and solid phase densities are
similar, in addition to the aerodynamic drag force, the gravity
force, and the Saffman lifting force, we take into account the
nonstationary forces (the Archimedes, added mass, and Basset
forces). As the characteristic length scale L we use the length of
the plate now, then the particle motion equations take the form:
dx dy
us , vs ,
dt dt

dus 2 3 u u
u us st u v
dt 2 2 x y
9 2
t
u u dus dt1
u v ,
2 2 0 x y dt t t t t1
1

dvs 2 u
v vs st u us saf
dt 2 y
2 1 3 v v
u v
2 2 x y
2.394
t
v v dv dt1
u v s
2 0 x y dt t t t t1
Figure 2. Particle number density profiles in dusty-gas flow along 1

a vertical flat plate; particle concentration is scaled to the

1/ 4
corresponding value in free stream: solid lines calculations, gL
broken lines calculations without taking the lateral force into , 2 Re , 0.0832Re3/s 02 5/ 4 .
sm U0 sm
account, dots experimental data.
Here, = 60L/mU0. Since in [5] the experimental value of the
particle density was not exactly determined, in the calculations
we slightly varied this value (see Table 1, in which the values of Here, the prime denotes the derivative with respect to . In this
the governing dimensionless parameters are given for case, it is convenient to take the characteristic velocity and length
U0 = 50 cm/s, Res0 = 100, and = 1.05105): scales equal to
240E
1/3
mU 0
1 2200 1.2106 U0 , L .
m 6
0.91 2000 1.1106
0.77 1700 1106 For simplicity, we consider the case when only the Stokes and
Saffman forces are important (small ), and Res0<<1. Since, due
Table 1. Parameter values for U0 = 50 cm/s, Res0 = 100,
to the choice of the length scale, the particle inertia parameter is
= 1.05105.
automatically equal to unity, the only one parameter
The system of integro-differential equations for chosen particle (dimensionless coefficient in the Saffman force) retains in the
trajectories was solved numerically with a special treatment of problem formulation. The corresponding equations of dispersed-
the singularity in the improper integral. Since in this case the phase motion take the form:
particle trajectories did not intersect, the dispersed phase number
dx dy dus
density was calculated using the integral continuity equation for a us , vs , u us ,
flow tube: dt dt dt

ns 0us 0y0 nsus y . dvs u u

v vs sign (u us ) ,
The dispersed phase number concentration profiles in three cross- dt
y y
sections corresponding to the experiments are presented in Figure
4 (U0 = 50 cm/s, Res0 = 100, = 1.051, = 0.77, us0 = 1; solid L
ns 0 (0, y0 )us 0 ns (t , y0 ) J , 1.54 Re1/ 4 .
lines numerical modeling, dots experimental data). In this sm
case of similar particle and fluid densities, the concentration
decreases with approach to the plate, that qualitatively agrees The equations for the Jacobian components are not reproduced
with the experimental data [5]. here for the sake of brevity.
It is worth noting that, due to a singularity in the self-similar
solution for the carrier-phase velocity at the slot, the initial
conditions for the particulate phase should be specified at a
certain small distance from the slot. These conditions may be
different, depending on different ways of introduction of the
particles into the jet flow. We will reproduce some calculations
corresponding to a fixed longitudinal velocity, zero normal
velocity, and uniform number density of the particles in the initial
cross-section of the flow. Even in the case of very small particles
(zero coefficient in the Saffman force), depending on the initial
value of the particle longitudinal velocity, the patterns with and
without intersecting particle trajectories may be formed. Two
examples of the calculations are presented in Figure 5 and 6. The
figures show the profiles of the quantity J/ns0us0 as the function
of the carrier-phase stream function =x1/4() in different cross-
sections of the jet. Such representation of the results is
convenient because of two reasons. First, with the downstream
Figure 4. Particle number concentration profiles in a suspension
development of the flow the phase velocity slip vanishes, and the
flow along a horizontal flat plate. Solid lines numerical
particles start to move along the carrier-phase streamlines, i.e. all
modeling, dots experimental data.
particle parameters become the functions of only. Second,
In the proximity to the wall, at distances comparable with the when the particle trajectories intersect, a fold is formed, in
particle diameter, the experimental data and the calculations which the particle density field is double-valued. Different signs
noticeably differ, which is probably attributable to the neglect of of J/ns0us0 correspond to different layers of the fold. The total
direct particle-wall interactions and the wall effect in the nondimensional particle number density is equal to the sum of
expression for the Saffman force. the absolute inverse values of J/ns0us0 at a fixed point of space.
This form of the data representation also clearly shows the
Two-phase laminar near-wall jet particle number density singularities at the points where J/ns0us0
equals zero. Note that the singularity at the outer edge of the
The second example is a steady dusty-gas jet flow along a plane particle jet is integrable and, for fairly small initial volume
wall from an infinitely narrow slot. The dimensionless carrier- fraction of the particles, the model of non-colliding particles
phase velocity field is given by the Glauert analytical self-similar remains valid [10].
solution (this solution is completely determined by a single
dimensional constant E, equal to the product of the fluid mass In the first case us0 = 0.3, the particle trajectories do not intersect.
and momentum fluxes in the slot) [3]: In the second case us0 = 0.01, the dispersed-phase parameter
fields are two-valued. In Figure 6, the left branch of the particle
y 1 3 concentration profile corresponds to rising particles, and the right
, u , v ,
4 x 3/ 4 4 x 4 x3/ 4 branch to descending particles. Clearly, two well expressed zones
of particle accumulation are formed on the outer edge of the
1 h h2 3h particle jet and on the wall.
h2 , ln 3 arctan .
1 h 2h For larger particles, when the coefficient in the Saffman force is
of order unity and greater, the particles start to deposit on the
initial section of the wall. With the further increase in , flows
with multiple intersections of particle trajectories and multiple
local peaks in admixture concentration are formed in the far field
of the jet (see Figure 7).
Figure 5. Profiles of J/ns0us0 vs. in different cross-sections,
us0 = 0.3, = 0.
Figure 6. Profiles of J/ns0us0 vs. in different cross-sections,
us0 = 0.01, = 0.
Figure 7. Typical patterns of particle trajectories in the wall jet.
Viscous dusty gas flow behind a shock wave in a narrow
channel of constant cross-section
The third example is an axially symmetric or plane flow of a
dusty gas behind a normal shock wave traveling through a plane
channel or a circular tube of finite length. The channel is 2d wide
and lch long, d << lch (the flow diagram is shown in Figure 8).
The thickness of the channel is assumed to be so small that the
boundary layers growing on the wall behind the shock wave
overlap at a distance comparable with the particle velocity
relaxation length.
Figure 8. Flow diagram. Boundary layers are shown by broken
lines.
We assume that the shock wave propagates with a constant
velocity Ush through a uniform gas-particle mixture being at rest.
The channel wall temperature Tw is equal to the gas temperature
ahead of the shock. The carrier-phase parameters ahead of and
behind the shock wave are related by the standard Rankine-
Hugoniot conditions. The carrier phase is a perfect viscous gas,
the gas viscosity and thermal conductivity are linear functions of
the gas temperature (the subscripts + and denote the
parameters just behind and ahead of the shock front in the
inviscid-flow region):
* * T*
K .
T
We introduce a cylindrical (axially symmetric flow) or Cartesian
(plane flow) coordinate system fitted to the shock front. The x-
axis is directed along the channel, and the y-axis along the shock
front. In this moving reference frame, the original problem
becomes the steady-state one. In the interphase momentum
exchange, only the aerodynamic drag and the lifting force are
taken into account: f f st f saf . The heat flux to a single particle
is given by the formula [12]:
qs* 4 * T * Ts* h
c p
h 1 0.3Pr1/3 Re1/s 2 , Pr .
Here, Pr is the Prandtl number. It is natural to take the gas
parameters in the inviscid-flow region just behind the shock front
as the scales for nondimensionalization. The problem formulation
contains a small parameter =1/Red, where the Reynolds number
Red = +U+d/+. The longitudinal length scale is L = d/, so that
lch = AL. L is the characteristic distance through which the
boundary layers developing on the channel walls are overlapped.
It is assumed that A = O(1). A steady-state solution behind the
shock wave can exist only over a finite interval behind the shock
wave, until the flow choking occurs. We assume that the
channel length does not exceed the region of the existence of a
steady-state solution.
The dimensionless variables are introduced as in (2), with the
subscript 0 substituted by +. The temperatures are normalized
as follows:
T * U sh U U Tw U shT
T ,
T w T U
 Ts* U sh U U Tw U shT This flow is accompanied by the monotonous pressure increase
Ts . along the channel axis (Figure 11). Downstream, the gas density
T w T U on the symmetry line increases and the absolute value of the
transverse velocity component decreases. The fields of the carrier
To simplify some expressions, we introduce the auxiliary phase parameters calculated on the Eulerian mesh are saved in
notation: tabular form. When finding the dispersed-phase parameters, the

DT
Tw U D 1T DT DU .
, DU sh , z T
tabular data are interpolated using second-order polynomials.

T U DU 1

Then: T * T z , * K z , * K z .
In the narrow-channel approximation (zero order in ), the
dimensionless carrier-phase phase equations take the form:
r
u v v
0, (4)
x y y

u u dp 1 u
u v K r zy r ,
x y dx y y y

T T dp Figure 9. Transformation of the dimensionless longitudinal

u v Ec DU 1 u velocity profile.
x y dx
2
1 1 r T u
K zy K Ec DU 1 z ,
Pr y y
r
y y
1
z M2 p, uy dy 2
r r

Here, Ec 1 M2 / DT 1 is the Eckert number, r = 1 and 0

for axisymmetric and plane flows, respectively. System (4) is
similar to that of a compressible boundary layer. However, in the
case under consideration the pressure distribution along the
channel is unknown, and system (4) has elliptic properties.
The boundary conditions for the carrier phase on the shock
surface, on the wall, and on the symmetry line are: Figure 10. Solid lines show the carrier-phase streamlines,
1 dimensionless temperature distribution is shown with color.
x 0, 0 y 1: u 1, v 0, T 1, 1, p (4)
M 2

0 x A, y 1: u DU , v 0, T DU ,

u T
0 x A, y 0 : 0, v 0, 0.
y y

The independent dimensionless governing parameters for the

carrier-phase flow are: , M+, Pr, and K (the specific heat ratio,
the gas Mach number behind the shock front in the inviscid
region, the Prandtl number, and the coefficient of the linear
dependence of gas viscosity and heat conductivity on
temperature).
The equations (3) with boundary conditions (4) are solved
numerically by a finite-difference method on a uniform mesh.
We used an implicit scheme of the first order with respect to the Figure 11. Gas pressure distribution along the channel, x is
x-coordinate and of the second order with respect to the y- measured from the shock front.
coordinate. The unknown value of the pressure on the next layer
The dispersed-phase equations in Lagrangian form are:
is obtained by iterations using the condition of fixed gas mass
flow through the channel. dx dy dus
us , vs , K z u us st ,
Some calculation results for axially symmetric case for Pr = 1, dt dt dt
K = 1, = 1.4, M = 1.1, and A = 0.095 are presented in
dvs u u
K z v vs st sign K z u us saf ,
Figures 911. Figure 9 shows the development of the profiles of
the longitudinal gas velocity component along the longitudinal dt y y
coordinate, x = 0.01, 0.05, 0.095. Since the channel walls move
faster than the gas in the channel center, due to the viscous
friction the gas moves towards the channel walls (Figure 10).
 dTs 2 K
z T Ts h ,
dt 3 Pr

3/ 2
0.727 .
sm

The expressions for the particle Reynolds and Mach numbers in

terms of dimensionless variables are:

Res 0 u us u us u
Res , Ms , Re g Res 0 .
Kz p 2d Kz y

The initial conditions corresponding to the particle trajectory

originated on the shock surface are:
t 0 : x 0, y y0 , us DU , vs 0, Ts DU .
Figure 12. Particle trajectories in a circular tube, M = 2, = 30,
Depending on the values of the particle inertia parameter and = 36104.
the lift parameter , three qualitatively different regimes of
particle motion were detected. Low-inertia particles ( < 103,
which corresponds to ~ 10-6 m) are entrained by the carrier
phase and move from the symmetry axis towards the channel
walls. For so small particles, the lifting force has only a slight
effect as compared to the aerodynamic drag. The similar flow
pattern is observed in the limiting case, when the lifting force is
neglected. The mode of motion of larger particles ( 10-5 m) is
qualitatively different. The particles, initially moving towards the
channel walls, at a certain distance behind the shock wave change
the motion direction and start to move towards the channel axis
(particle trajectories in a circular tube at M = 2 are presented in
Figure 12, and in a plane channel at M =1.5 and M = 2 in
Figure 13 and Figure 14, the figures show the particle trajectories
in the reference frame fitted to the shock front; examples of
different flow regimes are presented.). Such behavior of the
particle trajectories is attributable to the action of the lifting force
in the region where the transverse gradients of the longitudinal Figure 13. Particle trajectories in a plane channel, M = 1.5,
velocity are large. In this region, the action of the lifting force is = 0.2, = 8.9103.
significant. At the same time, a region devoid of the particles is
formed near the channel walls. From the parametric calculations,
we found a wide range of governing parameters, for which the
particles focus on the channel axis. An example of particle
focusing is shown in the Figure 14. Figure 13 shows the example
of oscillating particle trajectories. The particle trajectories cross
the channel axis and oscillate about it with a decreasing
amplitude. Eventually, these particles may or may not
accumulate near the channel symmetry axis.
The calculated particle number density fields contain singularities
which, as a rule, are formed on the envelopes of particle
trajectories. These singularities are integrable and, for parameters
of practical interest, the estimates indicate that the model of non-
colliding particles usually remains valid, since near the
singularities the mean distance between the particles is still much
greater than the particle size.
Figure 14. Particle trajectories in a plane channel, M = 2, = 30,
Conclusions = 36104.
In the framework of the two-fluid one-way coupled model, three the model used gives only a qualitative pattern of the dispersed-
two-phase shear flows are considered using the Full Lagrangian phase distribution.
approach for the dispersed phase. The mechanisms of particle
lateral migration and focusing, associated with the Saffman In the laminar dusty-gas wall jet, depending on the way of
lifting force exerted on the particles in two-phase flows of introducing the particles in the flow (initial value of the phase
boundary layer type, are investigated. velocity slip) and the contribution of the Saffman force, flows
with and without intersecting particle trajectories may develop. In
The laminar two-phase boundary layer flow on a flat plate was the far field of the jet, two or more local peaks of particle
modelled numerically and the particle number density profiles concentration may be formed.
were compared with the known experimental data. A satisfactory
agreement is achieved in the case of vertical dusty-gas flow. In Three qualitatively different regimes of particle motion behind a
the case of horizontal suspension flow with low-inertia particles, shock wave travelling with a constant velocity in a narrow
channel are detected: (i) particles move towards the channel
walls; (ii) particles monotonically approach the channel axis; and
(iii) particle trajectories cross the channel axis and oscillate about
it with a decreasing amplitude. These regimes correspond to
different values of the dimensionless particle inertia and particle
lift parameters. The first regime is typical of very low-inertia
particles, while the second and the third occur when particle
inertia is noticeable. The most interesting effect revealed is the
particle focusing on the symmetry axis behind the shock wave.
The focusing effect is most pronounced for relatively weak shock
waves, travelling in microchannels of about 10-3 m in diameter,
and for particles of about 10-5 m in size. This effect may be of
interest for the development of technologies using focused beams
of microparticles (coating, microchip manufacture, needle-free
injections, etc.)
Acknowledgments
The work was supported by the RFBR (No. 11-01-00483),
RF Presidential grant MK-3582.2011.1, and the Analytical
Departmental Program The Government Tasks to the Higher
Schools for Scientific Research (project 1.370.2011).
References
[1] Akhatov, I.S., Hoey, J.M., Thomson, D., Swenson, O.F.,
Schulz, D.L. and Osiptsov, A.N., Aerosol flow in
microscale: Theory, experiment, and application to direct
write microfabrication, Proceedings of ECI International
Conference on Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow in Microscale,
Whistler, Canada, 2126 September, 2008, 17.
[2] Carlson, D.J. and Hoglund, R.F., Particle drag and heat
transfer in rocket nozzles, AIAA Journal, 2, (11), 1964,
19801984.
[3] Glauert, M.B., The wall jet, J. Fluid Mech., 1, 1956, 625
643.
[4] Hussainov, M., et al., Properties of solid particle distribution
in two-phase laminar boundary layers of various shapes and
particle sedimentation, Proc. Estonian Acad. Sci. Phys.
Math. 42 (4), 1994, 237249.
[5] Lee, S.L., Aspects of suspension n shear flows, Advan. Appl.
Mech. 22, 1982, 165.
[6] Marble, F.E., Dynamics of dusty gases, Annual Review of
Fluid Mechanics, 2, 1970, 397446.
[7] Maxey, M.R. and Riley, J.J., Equation of motion of a small
rigid sphere in a nonuniform flow, Phys. of Fluids, 26, 1983.
883889.
[8] Mei, R., An approximate expression for the shear lift force at
finite Reynolds number, International Journal of Multiphase
Flow, 18, (1), 1992, 145147.
[9] Osiptsov, A.N., Lagrangian modeling of dust admixture in
gas flows, Astrophysics and Space Science, 274, 2000, 377
386.
[10] Osiptsov, A.N., Mathematical modeling of dusty-gas
boundary layers, Appl. Mech. Rev., 50 (6), 1997, 357370.
[11] Osiptsov, A.N., Structure of the laminar boundary layer of a
disperse medium on a flat plate, Fluid Dynamics, 15 (4),
1980, 512517.
[12] Ranz, W.E. and Marshall, W.R., Evaporation from drops,
Chemical Engineering Progress, 48, Pt. 1, 1952, 141146,
Pt. 2, 173180.
[13] Saffman, P.G., The lift on a small sphere in a slow shear
flow, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 22, 1965, 385400.
Corrigendum: Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 31, 1968, 624.
[14] Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1968.
[15] Wang, B.Y. and Osiptsov, A.N., Nearwall boundary layer
behind a shock wave in a dusty gas, Fluid Dynamics, 34, 4,
1999, 505515.
23 rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Computing of the Particle Transport in the Turbulent Hydrocyclone Flow

J. Dueck1 , L. Minkov2 , Th. Neesse1
1
Friedrich-Alexander-Universitt Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany
2
Tomsk State University, Russia

Abstract The scheme of the hydrocyclone is shown in Fig. 1 which

This contribution is dedicated to the direct modelling the non-
monotonic course of the separation function of a hydrocyclone.
The results can be summarised as following:
The consideration of the interaction of particles in a polidisperse
suspension can explain the non-monotonic character of the
separation curve (the Fish-Hook-effect) by the deviation of the
particles' sedimentation rate from the law of Stokes.
The magnitude of the Fish-Hook-effect depends on the
concentration of the solid phase.
Nomenclature
presents the simplified flow in the hydrocyclone. The suspension
enters the apparatus tangentially under pressure which causes the
rotational motion and produces the centrifugal force. Suspended
coarse particles move in radial direction to the cyclone wall and
leave the apparatus through the underflow nozzle. Fine particles
are discharged with the main stream of the inner vortex through
the overflow nozzle.
To characterize the efficiency of separation in the hydrocyclones,
the partition curve is used. This curve shows the mass fraction
T(d j ) of each size class d j which is separated in the coarse
product (underflow).
Although the theory [1] predicts a monotonically increasing with
increasing particle size for the partition function T(d j ) , the

a acceleration, m/s 2 experiments shown in many cases, [4-13], that the partition
d diameter, m function is non-monotonic. Such behavior of the separation
D diameter, m curve is called the "fish-hook" effect. The reason for his
Dt diffusion coefficient, m2/s phenomenon is the disturbed particle settling due to particle
f coefficient of resistance interaction. In frame of this contribution it will be demonstrated
g acceleration due to gravity, m/s 2 by direct numerical calculation.
G drag function
k kinetic energy of turbulence, m2/s 2
m mass concentration Overflow
p pressure, Pa
Q volumetric flow rate; l/ min
Re Re-number
T separation function
U, V, W components of velocity, m / s
U velocity vector, m / s
volume fraction (volume concentration)
dissipation rate of turbulent energy, m2/s 3 Feed
stress tensor, Pa suspension
relaxation time, s
viscosity, Pa s
Indices:
c cylindrical section
in the input area (inlet)
0 liquid
m mi xture
k fractions number
m,k velocity of fraction k relative to mixure Underflow
rad radial
tan tangential
Figure 1. Principal scheme of the hydrocyclone
s solid (solid)
t turbulent
o overflow
u underflow Base of the simulation of the separation process in the
hydrocyclone is the description of the turbulent multiphase flow
in the apparatus. Numerical models based on the Navier-Stokes
Introduction
equations have clarified the main aspects of the hydrocyclone
The principle of the solids separation in a hydrocyclone bases on swirl-flow problem [12-18].
the sedimentation of solid particles in a rotating turbulent fluid
flow, [1-3].
An appropriate description of the particle transport in a The velocity of the dispersed phase relative to the liquid (slip
polydisperse suspension has been developed in [19-22], based on velocity) is described by the known relation [23]:
a numerical analysis and considering particles interaction during
k s m , (9)
the disturbed settling. Uk,0 ak
f k s
Here, the latest developments in research of the solid/liquid flow
in the hydrocyclone are applied to the problem of numerical where the particle acceleration according to the "mixture model"
simulation of non-monotonic character of the separation curve. can be found via the pressure gradient:
1
Formulation of the mathematical problem a k g U Uk g - Um U m p . (10)
s
The system of equations describing the steady-state turbulent
flow of a polydisperse suspension consisting of a liquid phase Here for the drag function f k 1 0. 15 Re 0.687
k
is chosen, with
(water) and N fractions of the dispersed phase (particles) in the 0 d k
hydrocyclone, in line with the " mixtures model " [23, 24] can be Re k U k, 0 .
0
written in a form of conservation equations as follows.
a) Continuity equation for the mixture: The viscosity of the suspension [29] depends on the
concentration of the dispersed phase:
( mU m ) 0 . (1)
0 . (11)
m
b) Momentum equation for the mixture: 1 1.61 1 .55
( mU m U m ) p For the coefficient of turbulent diffusion of particles the inertia of
particles [30] was taken into account.
N
(2)
(m t ) mg k k U m,k U m,k t (12)
k 0 m Dt, k 2 2
s d2k
1 1.6

c) Continuity equation for the k-th fraction of the particles
k 0
according to their diffusion through turbulence:
The central point of the calculation is to consider the interaction
m k
m m k Uk Dt,k 0 , (3) of particles of different sizes.
mk
This is reflected in the calculation of the relaxation time in
k=1, 2, , N. equation (9). The relaxation time of particles in the liquid
(without regard to its interaction with other particles) is
Here the index k 0 refers to the liquid phase, and the indices
determined by the known expression [23],
s d2k .
k 1 - to fractions of the dispersed phase. k
180
The viscous stress tensor for the mixture: m , and the turbulent
stress tensor mixture t are introduced in equation (2). To According to the previously developed model [19, 22], fine
particles are entrained by large ones and acquire a velocity much
determine the turbulent parameters of the flow field the
higher as after Stokes law. In polydisperse suspension k is
turbulence Reynolds stress model [25, 26] was involved.
proportional to the square of the "apparent" particle diameter:
To close the system of equations the following algebraic relations
d2k G( ) f(d k ) , where the functions of the particles entrainment
are used.
are:
The relationship between mass concentration m k and volume 1
N 3 (13)
fractions k is given by f(d k ) jd 6j , dj dk
j

m m k s k . (4)
and
The velocity of each fraction is expressed in terms of its
"diffusion velocity and velocity of the mixture:
1

G ( ) 2 .5 3 exp - (5 ) 3 . (14)

Uk Um ,k Um . (5) Therefore, the relaxation time of particles in the formula for the
particle velocity relative to the suspension is as follows:
According to definition
m 1 l s , (6) k
s
18 m
2

dk G( ) f(d k ) . (15)

1 j N

0 1 U 0 s j U j It is obvious that at low concentrations of solid phase k
Um (7)
m j 1 . increases if increases due to the entrainment of small particles
by coarse one (function G ( ) f(d k ) increases), but at high
Diffusion velocity can be presented in terms of the k-phase slip
velocity: concentrations of a suspension k decreases due to increased
viscosity of the suspension (according to equation (11)).
s N
(8)
U m,k U k,0
m
U j j,0 It is assumed that the flow in the hydrocyclone is circulated with
axial symmetry, i.e. U m U m , Vm , W m , x x, r
j 1
.
.
The system of equations (1), (4), (8), (9) was solved numerically At the entrance of hydrocyclone it is supposed that liquid and
with the following boundary conditions: particle velocities are equal. The flow rate o f the suspension at
the inlet of the hydrocyclone was equal to 74.9 liter / min. The
at the entrance to the classifier: density of particle substance s = 2650 kg/m3. The volume
2 fraction of particles was equal to 0.0189, which corresponds to
k 0.015Um , (16)
the content of the solid phase in suspension of 50 g / L. The
particle size distribution was taken from [31]. The entire set of
3
k 2 , with C 0.09
3 particles was divided into 12 fractions, the volume fraction of the
C 4 . (17)
dispersed phase are given in Table 2.
0.07 d in
Here d in hydraulic diameter of the inlet section, for a
rectangular inlet: d in 2a in b in /( a in b in ) . Number d, m k 10 3
1 0.66 0.596
Um 0 , V QF , QF . (18)
m Wm
D c a in a inbin 2 0.88 0.743

at the two outlets of the hydrocyclone an equality to the 3 1.63 0.972

atmospheric pressure p p a was specified and the condition of 4 2.73 1.236
free flow of suspension was used. 5 4.43 1.531
on the axis of symmetry the set conditions of symmetry is valid.
6 6.67 1.698
Reynolds stresses at the wall of the hydrocyclone were
determined by the method described in the manual [27]. 7 9.44 2.293
8 12.71 3.388
Parameters of calculation
9 17.74 3.301
The geometrical parameters of the hydrocyclone are given in
Fig.2 and in Table 1. 10 24.91 2.312

11 36.90 0.617
12 45.84 0.181

Table 2. The initial function of particle size distribution

r
Results of calculation

x For the analysis of the obtained results all factions of the particles
were divided into three main groups: "small" - with less than 5
microns, "medium-sized" - the size from 5 microns to 15
microns, "large" size from 15 microns and above. The first group
consisted of particles from the first to fifth fraction (in Table 2),
the second from the sixth to eighth one and the third - from the
ninth to twelfth fractions. The volume fraction of fine particles
entering the apparatus was 0.0051, medium - 0.0074, largest -
0.0064.
In Figure 3 is shown the distribution of the volume fraction of
particles of different sizes across the cyclone in the middle of the
cylindrical part of hydrocyclone, x = 0.165 m.
In Fig. 3a the concentration profiles of particles of different size
groups (referred to the appropriate concentration at the inlet to
the hydrocyclone) are shown.
This figure illustrates the degree of dilution of the suspension
near the axis and thickening at the wall.
Figure 2. Scheme of the hydrocyclone
The large particles are expectedly concentrated at the apparatuses
wall, the particles of average particle size distribution along the
hydrocyclone radius is almost uniformly, but the fine particles
a in b in Dc D of D uf l1
are unexpectedly collected at the wall, just as is the case with the
22 9.1 50 14.4 7.2 30.1 larger particles.
l2 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 This means that fine particles are entrained by large one, as
described above.
45.5 277 192 76 102 43
The neglecting of the entrainment effect, as shown by special
calculations, does not affect the concentration profiles of large
Table 1. Di mensions of hydrocyclone in mm and medium-sized particles.
It is quite different for the fine particles. This is shown in Fig. 3b. diffusion happens. The centrifugal force influences mainly large
It is seen that the proportion of fine particles increases, compared particles which are thrown to the periphery, whereas fine
with the case of calculation without account of the entrainment
particles due to turbulent diffusion are more or less evenly
effect. The proportion of small particles increases towards the
wall of the cyclone, due to an increased velocity of small distributed throughout the volume.
particles caused by their entrainment with large particles.

0,01
6 1
5 0,008 2
C
4 M

V, m/s
in,-

0,006
3 F
0,004
2
1 0,002
0
0
0 0,005 0,01 0,015 0,02 0,025
0 0,01 0,02
r, m
) r, m
)

0,016 0,02 1
1 2
0,012 0,016
, -

2
V, m/s
0,012
0,008
0,008
0,004
0,004

0 0
0 0,01 0,02 0 0,01 0,02
r, m
b) r, m
b)
Figure 3. Profiles of relative volume fraction of particles of
different sizes (a) and of volume fraction of fine particles in the 0,2
cylindrical part of apparatus. C coarse, M medium, F fine 1
fractions. 1 - without consideration of entraiment effect, 2 with 0,16 2
V, m/s

consideration of entrainment.
0,12

0,08
In Fig. 4 the profiles of the relative radial velocity of particles of
different fractions in the cylindrical part of cyclone (the section 0,04
x= 0.165 m), are shown.
0
As expected, the particle velocity on the axis and at the wall is 0 0,01 0,02
zero (here the driving force that is proportional to the square of r, m
the tangential velocity becomes zero). In the middle part of
c)
cyclone, between the wall and the axis V is greater than zero, a
movement of the particles relative to the center of the mixture Figure 4. The radial velocity of the particles in the cylindrical
mass is indicated. part of the cyclone. a - fraction d 4 2.73 m , b - fraction
d 8 12.71 m , c - fraction d 11 36.90 m . 1 - with
Consideration the entrainment effect leads to an increase in the
velocity of small particles by an order of magnitude (Fig. 4a, consideration of entrainment, 2 without consideration of
curve 2). entraiment effect.

In opposite, the velocities of medium and large particles are

practically unchanged (Figs. 4b, 4c).
If the entrainment of fine particles by coarse ones is not taken
During the transport of the suspension in the hydrocyclone a into account, i.e. G ( ) 0 is set in (16), then a separation curve
redistribution of particles due to centrifugal forces and turbulent
rises monotonically to 1 with increasing particle size (Fig. 5 mk V (d k ) Dc . (20)
exp
curve 1). m k, 0 2D
t ,k
Accounting the entrainment effect leads to the fact that some
Now, the function of separation,
small particles move to the wall of the cyclone with large one and
leave the apparatus through the underflow. V(d k )D c
Q u mk,0exp
As a result, there is a physically justified increase of the 2D t, k , (21)
separation functions in small-sized particles (Fig. 5, curve 2),
T(d k )
V(d k )D c
observed in many experimental studies [4, 5, 6, 10]. Fig.6 shows Q 0m k,0exp Q u m k,0

2D t,k
also the comparison with the experimental points [31].
i.e. the ratio of the solid phase flux of every size fraction through
the underflow to the total output flux from the apparatus, can be
1 estimated by assuming that on the basis of calculations (Fig. 6a)
and the experiments. Here, the discharge particles through the
0,8 underflow is performed by the flow near the wall, and the
discharge of the particles through the overflow nozzle by the
0,6
T(d), -

flow near the cyclone axis..

Therefore Eq.21 changes to
0,4 1
1 (22)
2 T(d k )
0,2 Q V(d k )Dc
3 1 0 exp

Qu 2 D t, k
0
0,1 1 10 100 Here, for simplicity the average values V(d k ) and D t, k in the
d, m volume of the apparatus are taken for si mplicity.

Figure 5. Influence of entrainment effect on the separation Dependence T ( d k ) on the particle size in this analysis is given
function. 1 without accounting of entrainment, 2 with by the dependence V( d k ) on particle size.
accounting of entrainment; 3 - experimental data from [31].
Accordingly, we should expect: T( dk ) V(d k ) .
d k dk
Discussion In particular, excluding the small particles acceleration effect,
Qu
Thus, direct calculation shows that considering the effects of V( d k ) tends to 0 and T ( d k ) T ( 0) , if d k 0.
particles interaction in polydisperse suspensions under the action Qu Q0
of mass forces (centrifugal force here is caused by in strongly
swirling flow) leads to a non-monotonous separation curve of the Eq. (22) represents the so-called "tapping" model of classification
hydrocyclone. [1, 3].
It can be explained taking into account that, with some Equation (22) represents the so-called "tapping" model of
simplification, for any fraction the total flow to the wall is the classification [1, 3].
sum of the convective sedimentation flow, and in opposite
direction the diffusive flow due to turbulence. The transformation of equation (27) to the form:

ln 1 ln 0 c V ( d) ,
The sum o f these components of the total flow is almost 1 Q D (23)
balanced, according equation (3) and corresponding boundary T Q u 2 D t, k
conditions by:
k s m m k predicts a linear dependence ln 1 1 of V (d ) . In Fig. 6 this
ak Dt,k 0 (19)
fk s mk T
dependence is depicted.
The integration of this equation gives an expression for the radial
profile of the considered volume fraction in the form, Note that 1
1 is the ratio of the mass flow fractions of
V ( d k ) r , where, for simplicity, the radial T(d)
mk m k, 0 exp
particles of size d through the overflow and the underflow
D t, k nozzles.
component of the slip velocity of particles, is denoted by
k s m , and m - the value of the mass From the proportionality ln 1 1 and V (d ) the effective
V(d k ) ar
fk s
k ,0
T
(average) coefficient of turbulent diffusion can be estimated:
fraction of particles in the axial region of the apparatus.
D t ,k 2.54 104 m2 / s .
The ratio of mass fractions at the wall and in the axial region will
be
 [4] Gerhart Ch. Untersuchungen zum Trennverhalten in
Hydrozyklonen niedriger Trennkorngrossen: Dissertation.
2
Erlangen: Universitat Erlangen-Nurnberg, 2001.
1 [5] Finch J. A. Modeling a fish-hook in hydrocyclone selectivity
y = -98,411x + 1,4611 curves // Powder Technol. 1983. No. 36. P. 127129.
ln(1/T-1)

0 2
R = 0,9554 [6] Nageswararao K. A critical analysis of the fish-hook effect
-1 in hydrocyclone classifiers // Chem. Eng. J. 2000. No. 80.
P. 251256.
-2 [7] Roldan-Villasana E. J., Williams R. A., and Dyakowski T.
The origin of the fish-hook effect in hydrocyclone separator
-3
// Powder Technol. 1993. No. 77. 243250.
-4 [8] Kraipech W., Chen W., Parma F. J., and Dyakowski T.,
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 Modelling the fish-hook effect of the flow within
hydrocyclones // Int. J. Miner. Process. 2002. No. 66.
Sedimentation velocity V(d), m/s
P.4965.

1 [9] Schubert H. Zu den Ursachen "anomaler" Verlaufe der

Figure 6. The linear dependence ln 1 of V(d). Trennkurve bei der Feinskornklassierung in Hydrozyklonen
T insbesondere zum so genannten Fish-Hook-Effekt //
Aufbereitungstechnik. 2002. B. 44, No. 2. S. 517.
[10] Dueck J. und Neesse Th. Zum Verlauf der Trennkurve des
Recommendations which are usually used for the calculation of
Hydrozyklons im Feinstkornbereich // Aufbereitungstechnik.
D t, k , can be reduced to a formula 2003. B. 44, No. 7. S.1725.
p 2 . [11] Neesse Th., Dueck J., and Minkov L. Separation of finest
D t, k 15,4 10 4 d in m /s particles in hydrocyclones. // Miner. Eng. 2004. V.17.
f
P . 689696.
For calculated p 0 .73 10 5 Pa, f 10 3 kg/m3, [12] Wang B., Yu A. B. Computational Investigation of the
Mechanisms of Particle Separation and Fish-Hook
d in 14.4 10 -3 m calculation leads to D t,k 2.04 104 m 2/s - Phenomenon in Hydrocyclones // AIChE, July 2010. Vol.
close to the value resulting from the numerical calculation. 56, No. 7. P.17031715.

Conclusions
The direct calculation of the separation curve for a hydrocyclone
shows that the non-monotonic course of the separation curve,
often observed in experiments, can be successfully explained by
the rapid settling of fine particles under the influence of the
entrainment by large fractions.
It is shown that the logarithm of the ratio of particles fraction of
the size d through the overflow and the underflow is linearly
dependent on the sedimentation velocity of the particles to the
wall in the hydrocyclone.
Acknowledgments
The work was supported by the Ministry of Education and
Science of the Russian Federation within the framework of the
Federal Target Program "Research and scientific-pedagogical
personnel of innovative Russia". State Contract
12.740.11.1421.
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[1] Schubert H., Heidenreich E., Liepe F. und Neesse Th.
Mechanische Verfahrenstechnik, 3. . Leipzig: Deutscher
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[2] Bradley, D. The Hydrocyclone, Pergamon Press, London,
1965.
[3] Heiskanen K., Particle Classification. London
Glasgow New-York Tokyo Melbourne Madras:
Chapman and Hall, 1993. 321 p.
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Nr 5, pp. 428-438.
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[18]
Pericleous, K.A. and Rhodes, N.(1986): The hydrocyclone
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Fish-Hook Effect in a classifier. Journal of Engineering
Physics and Thermophysics, Vol. 80, No. 1, 2007.
[20] Dueck, J., Minkov, L, Neesse, T. A Hydrodynamical Model
for Enhanced Sedimentation of Small Particles in a
Bidisperse Suspension. Thermophysics and Aerodynamics,
2001, 8, N2, pp 283-294
[21] Neesse, Th., Dueck, J., Minkov. L. Separation of finest
particles in hydrocyclones. Minerals Engineering, Vol. 17
(2004) pp. 689-696.
[22] Minkov, L. Dueck, J. Collective Effects by Settling of
Polydisperse Dense Suspension. Eurasian Physical-
Technical Journal, V.2, No. 1(3), 2005
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S. Kallio. Espoo: Technical Research Centre of Finland.
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Aeronautics, Virginia. 1998. Vol. 182. Pp. 173181.
[31] Minkov, L. L., Krokhina, A. V., Dueck J. Hydrodynamic
me chanisms of the influence of injection on the
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No 4. P. 807-819.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Performance Enhancement of Unit number six in Misurata Gas Turbine

Power Plant by Effective Utilization of the Exhaust Gases

Yussef .A. Awin1, and Giuma M. Fellah2

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
High Institute for Trainers Preparation, Misurata, Libya
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Tripoli University, Tripoli, Libya

Abstract T Temperature [K]

k The component
The basic gas turbine cycle has low thermal efficiency, which
decreases in the hard climatic conditions of operation. There are W Work [kJ]
several successful methods to enhance their performances,
Greek letters
among which is the refrigerated inlet air-cooling gas turbine
cycle where cold air at the inlet of the compressor is introduced. Specific exergy [kJ/kg]

Exergy rate [kW]
A computer program has been developed to find out the effect of

Change in the exergy due to the cooling process
the ambient and inlet temperatures on the performances of unit Cool

six of gas turbine power plant of Misurata city by utilizing an 1 st

law
ammonia- water absorption cycle. First law efficiency

2 nd Second law efficiency

From the results attained it can be said that the combined system law

(cooling/power) achieves gains in concluded power, exergy Heat exchanger effectiveness

effectiveness, and specific fuel consumption, of about 80.7, 57.04
th Thermal efficiency [%]
and 16.47% respectively.
exergy The exergy efficiency [%]
Nomenclature

COP Coefficient of performance Subscripts

EES Engineering equation solver software ab Absorber

sfc Specific fuel consumption cond Condenser

Pot The improvement potential evap Evaporator
t Time f Formation

Symbols sh Shaft
C Capacity flow [kJ/K] gen Generator

h Specific enthalpy [kJ/kg] HX Heat exchanger

q Heat per unit mass [kJ/kg] p Pump

w Work per unit mass[kJ/kg] gt Gas turbine

o Ambient
h Enthalpy per unit mol [kJ/kmol]

Q Heat transfer rate [kW]

CS Control surface
PH Physical
I Irreversibility [kJ/kg.K]
m Mass flow rate [kg/s] Introduction
n Number of moles. Gas turbine power plants are extensively used in Libya and in the
s Specific entropy [kJ/kg-K] rest of the world for generating electricity; this is mainly due to
their low capital cost, short construction time, and fast running
r ratio of cooling to net work produced
time in comparison with steam power plants. The drawback of
rev Reversible gas turbine power plants is their low thermal efficiency,
especially when they are located in a hot and hard climate similar
fa air-fuel ratio
to that of Misurata city. So it is important to look for improved
cp Specific heat at constant pressure [kJ/kg.K] gas turbine based cycles. There are plenty of methods to improve
the performance of the gas turbine plants, cooling the input air is
one of them. Another method for increasing the performance has
been to introduce a high amount of water or steam at various
points in the cycle. There are several methods suggested and
some are already in operation. All of them offer increased
performance and increased specific output compared to a dry gas
turbine cycle. The water addition in the gas turbine cycle also
helps in reducing exhaust emissions [1].
Generally, controlling some of the factors that affect gas turbine
performance is not possible. The planned site location and the
plant configuration determine most of these factors. In the event
that additional output is needed, several possibilities to enhance
performance may be considered [2, 3].
Cooling with Absorption Chiller can increase the gas turbine
power output by 15-20% and efficiency by 1-2%. The main
advantage of this chiller lies in the fact that the inlet air can be
cooled down to a specific temperature for a wide range of
ambient air temperatures and, therefore the power output of a gas
turbine remains more or less constant, independent of ambient air
conditions [4]. Misurata gas turbine power plant contains six
units. Three units are of the type W191G (units number 2, 4, 6)
and three units are of the type W251B manufactured by
Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Misurata gas turbine power
plant was sited in Karazaz zone; the air ambient conditions reach
the peak in the summer (ambient temperature at 45oC and
humidity over 60%). Unit six which is of type W191G designed
to give a net work of 17.3 MW when ISO conditions are
available (ambient temperature at 15oC and humidity over 60%)
the system a condensate precooler is included. This heat
exchanger subcools the saturated liquid refrigerant leaving the
condenser (3) by preheating the evaporator outlet (1). Provided
that stream (1) is kept at the required temperature and if the
enthalpy content of liquid refrigerant (3b) is reduced by the
precooler the performance of the evaporator is increased, because
a higher mean temperature difference between the refrigerant and
the air is reached. This benefit overcomes the inconvenience of a
higher rejected heat in the absorber, and the extra pressure drop
caused by this heat exchanger in real machines. The evaporation
of refrigerant takes place at low pressure using the heat released
by the Environment (Qevap). The steam generated in this process
(1) flows to the subcooler and finally to the absorber to dilute the
weak solution.
Fuel
Combustion
b c
Compressor
Turbine W net
d Gases
a
2 f1
J1
Condenser
Generator J2
3

exchanger
[5].
Heat
f2

3b k
The purpose of this work is to enhance the performance of unit 7
Gases
six in Misurata gas turbine power plant at high environmental 4
8
temperatures; to do so, the inlet air will be cooled to lower

exchanger
1

Heat
temperatures by an aqua-ammonia absorption chiller which is
driven by the tail-end heat recovered from the engine exhaust Evaporator
9

gases.
10 6
Unit six has low nominal thermal efficiency (31.2%), this 1b
5

efficiency decreases in hard climatic conditions of operation Absorber Pump

(during summer season.

An aqua-ammonia absorption Description

An aqua-ammonia absorption refrigeration cycle, as show in
figure (1) which uses water as the absorbent and ammonia as the
refrigerant, is examined to clearly illustrate the refrigeration
cycle.
In the cycle, strong solution refers to a solution with a high
refrigerant content, while a weak solution means a solution with a
low content of refrigerant.
To reduce the water content in the refrigerant flow, a rectifier
column is typically used. The saturated liquid solution leaving
the absorber (5), is pumped to the inlet of the rectifier column, by
the solution pump. In order to minimize the input of high-level
energy, the saturated weak solution leaving the generator (8)
exchanges heat with the solution coming from the absorber (6).
The subcooled weak solution (9) exiting the exchanger is
throttled to the absorber pressure (low pressure) and the two-
phase solution is brought into contact with the refrigerant vapor
in the absorber (1b). The heat generated in the absorption process
(Qab) is rejected to the environment. The saturated liquid solution
rich in refrigerant (5), the strong solution, leaves the absorber and
starts again the solution circuit.
The refrigerant leaving the top of the rectifier column (2) follows
the same path as the refrigerant of a compression machine. It
enters the condenser where the steam is condensed by rejecting
heat (Qcond ) to the environment . To improve the performance of
Figure 1, Diagram of the combined gas turbine with aqua-
ammonia absorption cycle.
It is assumed that, pressure changes are only significant in valves
and pumps, and the heat loss to the surroundings is negligible.
The states at the outlet of the throttle or expansion valves are
calculated assuming isenthalpic expansion.
Thermodynamic analysis
Traditional methods of thermal system analysis are based on the
first law of thermodynamics. In general, energy balances provide
no information on the quality or grades of energy crossing the
thermal system boundary and no information about internal
losses, where exergy is a measure of the quality or grade of
energy and it can be destroyed in the thermal processes.
The first law of thermodynamics for an Open cycle
For a steady state, steady flow process, the first law can be
written as [1]:
m q = m h2 h1 + w (1)
1 2
1 2
dh = c po (T ) dT
The enthalpy of an ideal gas is defined as:
 (h ho ) = T c p (T ) dT First law efficiency is obtained for the combined cycle by the
T
(2)
o
o following expression:
In mole basis, the first law can be written as: W +
1st law = net cool
(12)
Q W = n h
out in
(3)
Q gen + Qsh
The second law efficiency is a measure of the performance of a
And the advection enthalpy ( m h ) for a mixture is given by: device relative to its performance under a reversible condition. In
m h = n k hk (4)
the Goswami cycle the working fluid used is a zeotropic mixture
k of ammonia and water; therefore, the Lorenz cycle is used as a
Where k is the component in the mixture. reference cycle (reversible cycle) because it is based on using a
mixture of refrigerants as the working fluid rather than a single
For reacting systems the enthalpy can be expressed as: pure refrigerant as the Carnot cycle [10]. Therefore, the second
[ (
hk = h fo + h h o )]
k
(5) law efficiency is calculated as:
1 law
2 =
st
(13)
rev
nd
law
Exergy Analysis
Where rev is based in the Lorenz cycle efficiency for power and
To determine the irreversibilities, the exergy analysis method is
refrigeration; this was developed by Vijayaraghavan and
applied, providing an indicator that points in which direction
Goswami [8,13].
efforts should be concentrated to improve the performance of the
1+ r
thermodynamic systems [6]. rev = Lorenz (14)
Sice there is no departure of chemical substances from the cycle 1 + (r COP )
Lorenz

to the environment, the chemical exergy is not considered [6, 7]. And Lorenz for power was found to be as:

Therefore, in this analysis the physical exergy ( PH ) is only

considered and is calculated by the general expression: Lorenz = 1
(T7 T2 ) ln(T7 T2 )

PH = (h ho ) To (s s o )
(T6 T5 ) ln(T6 T5 )
(15)
(6 )
The COPLorenz for refrigeration was developed as:
The exergy difference is expressed as [7]:
(T6 T5 ) ln(T6 T5 )
PH = (h 2 h 1 ) To (s 2 s1 ) COPLorenz = (16)
(7 )
(T7 T2 ) ln(T7 T2 ) (T6 T5 ) ln(T6 T5 )
Exergy associated with the heat transfer is expressed as:
And the ratio of cooling to net work produced (r) is:
T
Q = Q 1 o (8 ) r=
Qcool
(17)
Tcs Wnet
Where, Tcs is the uniform temperature at the control The exergy effectiveness is calculated as:
surface. I
W
+
= 1 cycle
= net exergy produced =

shaft
+ +
cool
+W (18)
net exergy supplied net exergy supplied gen abs HX p

The improvement potential of a system is a measure of how

much and how easily the system could be improved for
Exergy balance and irreversibilities
optimization purposes and can be obtained from the following
The exergy balance can be expressed as:
expression:
+

in Q in = out + Q out + W sh + I (9) Pot = Icycle (1 )
(19)
abs

Where the subscripts (in and out) indicate inlets and outlets, The first term in Eq. (19) has been proposed by Van Gool, cited
respectively. The exergy destruction due to irreversibilities in a in Hammond et al. [9]; to define the improvement potential;
steady state can be determined for each component of the cycle however, Rivero et al. [10] added the term of the environmental
by the following expression:
potential ( abs ), which is a measure of how much a system can
Q
I = To m s m s
be improved by using the effluent streams instead of rejecting
(10)
out in sh Tsh their exergy to the surrounding medium. This term has a greater
For adiabatic process, eq. (10) can be written as: importance when the temperature level of effluents is high; so
their recovery is feasible.

I = To m s m s (11) The specific fuel consumption can be calculated as follows:
out in
f a 3600
sfc = (20)
W gt + Q cool gt W p
Efficiency definition
Time of cooling
The first and second law efficiencies (Eqs. (12) and (13)) of the
The time of cooling of compressor inlet air by the absorption
combined cycle were calculated using definitions given by
cycle can be calculated with the following assumptions:
Vijayaraghavan and Goswami [8]. The exergy parameters were
1. Constant thermodynamic properties.
calculated using definitions of Rivero and Le Goff [8].
 2. Negligible tube wall conduction resistance. 2 57.658 1293.812 2034.691 0.999 0.399 0.064 4.07

3. Uniform temperature distributions within the 3 50 240.573 2034.691 0.999 0.399 0.002 0.815
3b 49.988 240.573 2034.691 0.999 0.399 0.002 0.814
evaporator. 4 3.22 240.573 483.03 0.999 0.399 0.048 0.883
The conservation of energy requirement for the interval of time 5 50 -11.865 483.03 0.43129 2.664 0.001 0.589

(t) is expressed as: 6 50.288 -9.378 2034.691 0.43129 2.664 0.001 0.591
7 109.98 295.354 2034.691 0.43129 2.664 0.003 1.448
Th ,in Th ,out
C min (Th ,in Th ,out ) 8 129.38 374.404 2034.691 2.265 0.33129 0.001 1.619

Q
t = Conv = Th ,out Tc ,in (21) 9 50.288 15.994 2034.691 2.265 0.33129 0.001 0.63

Q Evap
Q Evap 10 50.578 15.994 483.03 2.265 0.33129 0.001 0.635
107.42 253.397 2034.691 0.028 0.43129 0.001 1.339
Rectifier
107.40 1507.975 2034.691 0.427 0.96238 0.082 4.672
Assumptions for the analysis of combine cycle
Table 2, Parameters obtained in the simulation for the case(Ta=40oC)
It is assumed steady state and steady flow process, the
compression and expansion processes are adiabatic, complete T P H m v s
x
(C) (kPa) (kJ/Kg) (kg/s) (m3/kg) (kJ/KgK)
combustion, pressure drop is neglected, the composition of the 1 15.6 1303.145 462.527 0.999 0.254 0.291 4.732

natural gas are 99% methane, and 1 % ethane, the natural gas in 1b 15.798 1303.145 462.527 0.999 0.254 0.287 4.725
2 50.629 1295.543 1554.688 0.999 0.254 0.084 4.177
the feed comes directly at a pressure of 20 bars, the mechanical 40 190.313 1554.688 0.999 0.254 0.002 0.659
3
losses are neglected, ideal gas behaviour for air and combustion 3b 40.001 190.313 1554.688 0.999 0.254 0.002 0.659

products. 4 2.034 190.313 462.527 0.999 0.254 0.04 0.704

5 40 -60.57 462.527 0.4825 1.567 0.001 0.439
Also for the absorption cycle it that, the vapour leaving the 40.197 -58.798 1554.688 0.4825 1.567 0.001 0.441
6
dephlegmator is saturated at the average temperature of generator 7 87.162 185.029 1554.688 0.4825 1.567 0.004 1.159
104.80 246.565 1554.688 0.3825 1.313 0.001 1.312
and condenser temperatures, the liquid leaving the condenser is 8
9 40.197 -44.469 1554.688 0.3825 1.313 0.001 0.469
saturated at the condenser temperature, the strong solution 40.41 -44.469 462.527 0.3825 1.313 0.001 0.473
10
leaving the absorber is saturated at the absorber temperature, the Rectifier
85.075 146.326 1554.688 0.4825 0.008 0.001 1.052
85.064 1443.968 1554.688 0.98268 0.262 0.102 4.618
weak solution leaving the generator is saturated at the generator
Table 3, Parameters obtained in the simulation for the case(Ta=30oC)
temperature, the strong solution is heated only up to saturation
T P H m v s
temperature, heat exchanger effectiveness is below 1.0, the (C) (kPa) (kJ/Kg)
x
(kg/s) (m3/kg) (kJ/KgK)
refrigerant vapour concentration (x) at the dephlegmator exit is 1 14.3 436.909 1301.782 0.999 0.052 0.307 4.753
1b 14.476 436.909 1301.782 0.999 0.052 0.303 4.746
equal to 0.99, and condenser and evaporator pressures are 38.273 1065.577 1292.516 0.999 0.052 0.121 4.321
2
condensation and evaporation pressures, respectively; the 3 27 1065.577 126.567 0.999 0.052 0.002 0.453

absorber pressure is equal to the evaporator pressure and the 3b 27.001 1065.577 126.567 0.999 0.052 0.002 0.454
4 0.493 436.909 126.567 0.999 0.052 0.029 0.476
generator pressure is similarly equal to the condenser pressure; 27 436.909 -113.96 0.55992 0.278 0.001 0.247
5
pressure drops in the system are not taken into consideration. 6 27.109 1065.577 -112.915 0.55992 0.278 0.001 0.248
7 58.481 1065.577 56.688 0.55992 0.278 0.004 0.781
Actual data 73.386 1065.577 91.936 0.45992 0.227 0.001 0.9
8
The actual data, provided by Misurata gas turbine power plant is 9 27.109 1065.577 -116.294 0.45992 0.227 0.001 0.255
shown in table1, given below: 10 27.237 436.909 -116.294 0.45992 0.227 0.001 0.258
57.156 1065.577 24.242 0.55992 0 0.001 0.683
Rectifier
Measurement Unit Value 57.156 1065.577 1378.519 0.99492 0.052 0.139 4.593
Table 4, Parameters obtained in the simulation for the case(Ta=17oC)
Ambient temperature K 290.15 303.15 313.15
Compressor outlet temp. K 604.10 655.90 710.23
During the analysis the fuel mass flow rate is fixed for the three
environmental temperatures, those are 17, 30, and 40 Celsius.
Turbine inlet temperature K 1129.0 1063.0 1184.15
Figure 2, shows the time required to cool the ambient
Turbine outlet temperature K 630.15 701 752
temperature. It is found that the ambient temperature can be
Ambient pressure bar 1.013 1.013 1.013
cooled to 13.8oC in about 31 minutes of cooling time.
Comp. discharge press bar 10.4 10.4 10.5
45
Net production power MWh 14.2 13.8 9.3 AMBIENT TEMPRETURE(40C) AMBIENT TEMPRETURE(17C)
40 AMBIENT TEMPRETURE(30C) AMBIENT TEMPRETURE(13.8C)
Table1, Actual data
35

Results and discussion

TEMPERATURE (C)

30

A thermodynamic analysis of a combined power-and-cooling 25

cycle was carried out with the help of EES software (for 20

determining the properties of aqua-ammonia at each step in the 15

13.8

absorption cycle) linked with Excel sheet. 10

The analysis was carried out using the data produced in the 5

simulations; only three simulation cases are reported in tables 2, 0

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
3 and 4.
T P H m v s TIME(s)
x
(C) (kPa) (kJ/Kg) (kg/s) (m3/kg) (kJ/KgK)
1 16.6 1304.168 483.03 0.999 0.399 0.28 4.716 Figure 2, Time required to cool the ambient temperature
1b 16.817 1304.168 483.03 0.999 0.399 0.275 4.708
Since the compressor speed, inlet cross sectional area, and hence 4

3.4
the air volume of air flow rate are all constants, the inlet air mass 3.5

3
flow rate decreases with the increasing in ambient temperature, 3
2.75 2.81
2.88
2.8 2.83

this can be shown in figure 3. 2.5

Kg/Kwh
The reduction in the air mass flow rate alters both the compressor 2

and the gas turbine power, and hence the first law efficiency will 1.5

change accordingly. 1

120
112.34
110 0.5
103.86
97.27
100 0
sfc

81.74 Design condition At T=17 C With cooling At T=17 C Without cooling At T=30 C With cooling
At T=30 C Without cooling At T=40 C With cooling At T=40 C Without cooling
80

Figure 5, Variations of specific fuel consumption with inlet air

kg/s

60

temperature
40

Following the increase in the net power output and the reduction
20 in specific fuel consumption, an increase in the first law and
second law efficiencies is expected as shown in figure 6. At
0
Mass flow rate design condition, the first law efficiency is 31.2%. The first law
Design condition With cooling At T=17 C At T=30 C At T=40 C
efficiency is found to be equal to 29.8, 27.3 and 19.4% at
Figure 3, Reduction in mass flow rate with the increase in ambient temperatures of 17, 30 and 40oC respectively. By
ambient temperature. cooling the ambient temperature to about 13.8oC, the first law
efficiency approximately reaches 30.1%.
Figure 4, shows the effect of ambient temperature on the net
The influence of the ambient temperature on the second law
power output of the gas turbine unit. The net power output at
efficiency is also shown in figure 6. At design condition the
design condition (15oC) is 17.3 kW, while equals to 14.2, 13.8,
second law efficiency is 31%. It deteriorates to 18.3% when the
and 9.3 kW at ambient temperatures of 17, 30, and 40oC
ambient temperature reaches 40oC, however, it is found that
respectively. When inlet air cooled by the absorption cycle to
when cooling the ambient air to 13.8oC, the second law
13.8oC, the net power out becomes 16.8 MW, hence more power
efficiency reaches a value of about 29.1%, which is very close to
is produced and the design condition is almost reached.
the design value.
20
35
17.3
18 16.81 16.802
16.808 31.2 30.02
31 30.1 30.15 29.125 30.11
29.8 29.33 29.1
16 30
27.3
14.2 26.4
13.8
14
25

12
19.4
20 18.3
10 9.3
Mw
%

8 15

6
10

5
2

0 0
Power 1st efficiency Exergy efficiency 1st efficiency Exergy efficiency 1st efficiency Exergy efficiency 1st efficiency Exergy efficiency

Design condition At T=17 C With cooling At T=17 C Without cooling At T=30 C With cooling
Design condition At T=17 C With cooling At T=17 C Without cooling At T=30 C With cooling
At T=30 C Without cooling At T=40 C With cooling At T=40 C Without cooling
At T=30 C Without cooling At T=40 C With cooling At T=40 C Without cooling

Figure 4, Variations of net power with inlet air temperature Figure 6, Variation of gas turbine performance with inlet air
The reduction in net power output with the raise in the ambient temperature
temperature reduces the specific fuel consumption as shown in
figure5. The specific fuel consumption at design condition is 2.75 As the exhaust temperature increases with the increase in the
kg/kWh, while equals to 2.88, 3, 3.4 kg/kWh at ambient environmental temperature, more heat is supplied to the generator
temperatures equal to 17, 30, and 40oC. A value of 2.81 kJ/kWh and rejected by the absorber as the gas turbine exhaust
is obtained when inlet air is cooled to 13.8oC; hence less specific temperature increases, it is found, that the heat rejected to
fuel consumption is obtained as a result of cooling the inlet environment by the absorber (ab) is 73.00, 368 and 588 kW,
temperature. while the heat supplied to the generator (gen) is 76.9, 411.5 and
697.4kW, at environmental temperatures of 17, 30 and 40oC
respectively.
The coefficient of performance is also calculated for the
absorption cycle. Values of 0.78, 0.683 and 0.603 are obtained at
environmental temperatures of 17, 30 and 40oCrespectively.
The exergatic performance of the compressor and the gas turbine However, at 40oC the percentage loss attains higher values of
is deteriorating with the increase in the environment temperature; 46.24%, 19.12%, 37.8% and 40.8%.
this can be shown in figure 7, where the irreversibility increases
substantially with the increase in the ambient temperature. The When environmental air is cooled from 17 to 13.8oC, an
raise in the ambient temperature increases the inlet air improvement of 18.38%, 2.43%, 1.34% and 2.08% in power
temperature at the combustion chamber entrance, and hence a
output, specific fuel consumption, first law efficiency and second
decrease in the irreversibility with the increase in the ambient
temperature is resulted as shown in figure 7. law efficiency respectively is obtained. This is shown in figure9.
Similarly, when the environmental air cooled from 40 to 13.8oC,
25000

22242 22103
figure (11) shows an improvement of 80.7%, 16.47, 55.2% and
19935
20000 19305 57% in power output, specific fuel consumption, first law
efficiency and exergy efficiency respectively.
Kw 15000

20
18.38028169
17.91907514
10000 18

6032 16

4868
5000
14
2801 3019 2934
2087 2173 2266
12

0
Irreversibility air compressor (KW) Irreversibility combustion chamber (KW) Irreversibility Gas turbine (KW) %10

WITH COOLING AMBIENT TEMPRETURE(17C) AMBIENT TEMPRETURE(30C) AMBIENT TEMPRETURE(40C) 8 7.096774194

6
4.487179487
4.513888889
Figure 7, Irreversibilities in gas turbine, air compressor, and 4
2.430555556
2.083333333
combustion. 2 1.342281879

0
The effect of environmental temperature on the thermodynamic Power sfc 1st efficiency Exergy efficiency

Loss Percentage Without cooling at T=17 C Percentage improvement at=17 C

performance of compressor, combustion chamber, turbine, and
Figure 9, Loss percentage and percentage improvement at 17oC
exhaust gases is shown in figure 8. The compressor work, the
exergy change through the combustion chamber, and the turbine 25

21.79710145

work increase with the increase in the environmental 20.23121387

20

temperature, this is mainly due to the reduction of the air mass

14.83870968
flow rate with the increase in the environmental temperature. As 15
12.5
%
the exhaust temperature increases with the increase in the 10.43956044 10.3219697
10

environmental temperature, it is found that an increase in the 8.333333333

6.666666667

exhaust exergy is obtained accordingly; this can be also shown in 5

figure 8.
0
70000 Power sfc 1st efficiency Exergy efficiency

64371 Loss Percentage Without cooling at T=30 C Percentage improvement at=30 C

61838
60000 58700
Figure 10, Loss percentage, and percentage improvement at 30oC
50238
50000
46505 47135
42586 90
40938 80.66666667
40000
80
Kw

30000 70
24321
23747
57.04263357
19509 60 55.20618557
20000
16042
12096 50 46.24277457
10418
10000 8350 %
6811 37.82051282 40.22580645
40

0
30
Work compressor (KW) Exergy combustion chamber(KW) Work turbine (KW) Exergy exhaust (KW)
16.4706
With cooling AMBIENT TEMPRETURE(17C) AMBIENT TEMPRETURE(30C) AMBIENT TEMPRETURE(40C) 20 18.117647

10
Figure 8, Exergy evaluations for different plant components
0
Power sfc 1st efficiency Exergy efficiency

The percentage losses of power, sfc, first law efficiency, and Loss Percentage Without cooling at T=40 C Percentage improvement at=40 C

exergy efficiency over the design values are shown in figures (9, Figure 11, Loss percentage and percentage improvement at 40oC
o
10, and 11). For instance, at 17 C the percent loss in power,
specific fuel consumption, first law efficiency and exergy
efficiency are 17.92%, 4.513%, 4.487% and 7.1% respectively.
 Conclusions 5. From this work, the combined system can be arrived at for
Table 5 presents a summary of the calculated results. design conditions in a small period of time.
Mass 1st Exergy
Power sfc flow efficiency efficiency
[MW] [kg/kwh] [%]
rate [kg/s] [%] References
Design condition (15 C) 17.3 2.75 110 31.2 31
At T=17 C without cooling 14.2 2.88 103.82 29.8 29.34 1. Philip P. Walsh,Paul Fletcher, Gas turbine performance, second
At T=17 C with cooling 16.81 2.81 112.34 30.1 30.02 edition, Blackwell Science ,2004.
At T=30 C without cooling 13.8 3 97.27 27.3 26.4
At T=30 C with cooling 16.808 2.8 112.3 30.15 29.125 2. Cengel, Y.A., Boles, M.A., Thermodynamic An Engineering
At T=40 C without cooling 9.3 3.4 81.75 19.4 18.3 Approach, fifth edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co, 2007.
At T=40 C with cooling 16.802 2.83 112.25 30.11 29.1
3. J. H. Horlock, Advanced gas turbine cycle, Elsevier Science
Table 5, General summary
Ltd, 2003.
According to the results, the first law efficiency, and the exergy
4. Ishaq Al-Tobi1, Performance Enhancement of Gas Turbines by
efficiency certainly increase (in the proposed combined power- Inlet Air Cooling, (ICCCP'09), Muscat, February 15-18, 2009.
and-cooling cycle), with decreasing the heat source temperature, 5. General Company for electrical, Electrical Power Stations in
which is related to the ambient temperature. Libya, 2007. p:1-3.
6. A. Sathyabhama, and T. P.Ashok Babu, Thermodynamic
Also, the exhaust temperature determines the suitable amounts in
simulation of Ammonia-Water absorption refrigeration system.
cooling. As shown from the calculations made; where the cooling Thermal science: Vol. 12 (2008), No. 3, pp. 45-53.
capacity increases with increasing the exhaust temperature, this is 7. A. Vidala, R. Bestb, R. Riveroc, and J. Cervantesd (2006).
Analysis of a combined power and refrigeration cycle by the exergy
due to the increase in ammonia vapour flow rate to the generator
method. International Journal of Energy Research 31, 2006, p. 3401
in aqua-ammonia absorption cycle. 3414.
It should be pointed out that the actual data obtained from unit 8. Vijayaraghavan S, Goswami DY., On evaluating efficiency of a
six of Misurata gas turbine power plant, (on Sunday, January combined power and cooling cycle. ASME J Energy Resour Technol
(125):2217, 2003.
10th, 2010), showed that the power was 16.79 MW, where the air
9. Christopher Martin, Study of cooling production with a
temperature was 13.5 degrees Celsius; this means that the error combined power and cooling thermodynamic cycle, PHD thesis,
does not exceed 0.5%. university of Florida, 2004.
efficiency is increased with increasing the power. 10. Bortmany, J.N. [2002], Assesstment of aqua-ammonia
refrigeration for pre-cooling gas turbine inlet air, ASME Paper No.
The conclusions came out to be:
GT-2002-30657.-12 p.
1. Exergy parameters were good indicators to show the 11. Shaoguang Lu, Goswami DY. Theoretical analysis of ammonia
effectiveness of the cycle. based combined power/refrigeration cycle at low refrigeration
temperatures. In:Pearson JB, Farhi BN, editors. Solar engineering
2. The exhaust temperature increases with the increase in the
2002,proceedings of the international solar energy, conference, Reno,
environmental temperature, it is found that an increase in the NV. New York: ASME; 2002. p.11725.
exhaust exergy is obtained accordingly. 12. G. Tamm , D.Y. Goswami , S. Lu , A.A. Hasan. Theoretical and
3. The exergatic performance of the compressor and the gas experimental investigation of an ammoniawater power and
refrigeration thermodynamic cycle. Solar Energy 76 (2004),p. 217
turbine is deteriorating with the increase in the environment
228.
temperature. 13. S.M. Sadrameli, D.Y. Goswami, Optimum operating conditions
4. The cooling of compressor inlet air in a combined system for a combined power and cooling thermodynamic cycle. Applied
improves the power output by about 80.7%, the overall thermal Energy 84 (2007) 254265

efficiency by about 55.2% and the overall specific fuel

consumption by 16.47%.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Numerical Analysis of Flow past an Airfoil for a Solar Powered Unmanned Aerial
Vehicle with Internal Propulsion System

L. Velazquez-Araque 1 and J. Noika 2

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National University of Tchira, San Cristobal 5001, Venezuela
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague 16607, Czech Republic

Abstract This paper is part of a project which consists in the design of a

This paper deals with the numerical simulation of the two-
dimensional, incompressible, steady air flow past an airfoil for a
solar powered unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) with internal
propulsion system. This airfoil results from a NACA 2415 four
digits family base airfoil modification [7] and has a propulsive
outlet with the shape of a step on the suction surface as seen in
Figure 1. The analysis involved the airfoils aerodynamic
performance which meant obtaining lift, drag and pitching
moment coefficient curves as a function of the angle of attack for
the condition where the engine of the UAV is turned off called
the gliding condition and also for the blowing propulsive
condition by means computational fluid dynamics. The
computational domain has been discretised using a structured
mesh of 188 x 200 tetrahedral elements. The RNG k- model is
utilized to describe the turbulent flow process as it was followed
in [5]. The simulations were held at a Reynolds number of
300000. Results allowed obtaining lift and drag forces and
pitching moment coefficient and also the location of the
separation and reattachment points in some cases by means of the
wall shear stress on the suction surface as well as velocity
contours and streamlines for both conditions at different angles of
attack, from 0 to 16 degrees with the smallest increment of 4
degrees (Figure 2). Finally, results from both cases were
compared and the influence of the propulsive flow on the
aerodynamic characteristics of the airfoil has been analysed
turning out that it improves significantly the performance of the
airfoil reaching values up to 1,85 times in terms of lift at high
angles of attack.
solar UAV with internal blowing propulsion system; it presents
the analysis of the aerodynamic performance of a new airfoil
called 2415-3S. The analysis involved the comparison of two
simulated conditions: when the engine of the UAV is turned off,
called the gliding condition, which means no airflow through the
propulsive outlet, and also for the blowing propulsive condition.
For this purpose, lift, drag and pitching moment coefficient
curves as a function of the angle of attack were obtained and also
wall shear stress on the suction surface, velocity contours and
streamlines by means of computational fluid dynamics (CFD).
The whole process is described in the following sections.
Airfoil Tested
The 2415-3S airfoil (Figure 1), has been previously designed for
the solar UAV focusing on several parameters of common
commercial UAVs manufactures such as total wingspan, weight,
flight velocity an others. It comes from a NACA four digits
family airfoil, the NACA 2415 (Figure 2) [3]. It has an abrupt
step on the suction side, located at 30% of the chord from the
leading edge. This step simulates the blowing propulsive outlet of
the wing in normal flight conditions. Since solar panels must be
placed on the wings, it is possible to see the large and almost flat
area for placing them after the blowing outlet.

Keywords - lift; drag; pitching moment; unmanned aerial vehicle;

CFD.
Figure 1. 2415-3S airfoil.
Nomenclature
AOA angle of attack, degrees
c chord, m
CD drag coefficient
CL lift coefficient
Cm pitching moment coefficient at the leading edge
FD drag force, N
FL lift force, N
Mp pitching moment computed to leading edge, Nm
Figure 2. NACA 2415 airfoil.
Re reynolds number
Computational domain
Introduction
According to the evolution of unmanned aerial vehicles, Something very important in this part is the choice of the domain,
commonly referred to as UAVs, several investments have been because it is formed by real borders such as the upper and lower
increasing every year, especially in the field of aerodynamic surfaces of the airfoil and also by imaginary borders which
characteristics which can be obtained through wind tunnel tests. enclose the external environment. The domain extends from 8
chords lengths upstream to 20 chord lengths downstream
according to [1], an also 8 chord lengths for the upper and lower
heights. The fluid flow simulated is air with a Reynolds number of
3.105. In Figure 3 it is possible to see the geometry of the domain
for the 2415-3S airfoil.
Figure 3. Computational domain for the numerical simulations.
Discretization of the domain
The geometry shown in Figure 3 is discretised using a structured
mesh of 188 x 200 tetrahedral elements, this mesh has been also
supplemented with very small elements in the vicinity of the
surface of the airfoil forming a boundary layer with a grow factor
of 1,2. References when creating the mesh were followed in [4],
therefore the created mesh had a size change of 2,66 and an
equisize skew of 0,348.
The domain and the mesh were created using the commercial
software GAMBIT, version 2.3. In order to obtain the lift and
drag as a function angle of attack, single meshes were created for
0, 4, 12 and 16 degrees and for every airfoil, thus there were
created a total of 20 meshes (Figure 4).
Figure 4. A mesh used for the numerical simulation.
Then, from the governing equations, the discretization of the
domain and using the finite volume method based on finite
elements, a discrete set of algebraic equations is set which
solution is obtained as coupled, iteratively, using the commercial
solver ANSYS FLUENT, version 12.0 using a scheme of second
order upwind.
Turbulence model
The k- model is derived from the Navier-Stokes equations and it
is one of the simplest complete models of turbulence with two-
equation models in which the solution of two separate transport
equations allows the turbulent velocity and length scales to be
independently determined. The standard k- model in ANSYS
FLUENT falls within this class of models and has become very
used for practical engineering flow calculations. It is a semi-
empirical model. It is robust, economic, and presents reasonable
accuracy for a wide range of turbulent flows.
The chosen turbulence model was the RNG k-. The RNG
(renormalization group theory) is an improvement of this model
of turbulence because it provides an analytically derived
differential formula for effective viscosity that accounts for low-
Reynolds-number effects. Therefore it is more accurate and
reliable for a wider class of flows.
Boundary conditions
At the inlet it is specified the air absolute velocity magnitude and
also its components; in this case the velocity is parallel to the
horizontal axis, therefore it does not have any component in the
ordinates. Concerning turbulence, it was also specified the
turbulence intensity of 1,3 % in accordance to [2] and also the
turbulent length scale. The upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil
are set as walls. At the outlet it is specified the pressure as the
atmospheric pressure. For the lateral walls of the domain they are
set as symmetry.
Governing equations
Since this problem does not involve heat transfer nor
compressibility the equation for energy conservation is not
required, therefore the most important equations such as
conservation of mass and momentum used by the softwares
solver are listed as follows:
Continuity equation:
+ = 0 (1)
Conservation of momentum in a non-accelerating reference
frame:
+ = + + + (2)
where, and are the gravitational and external body forces
and is the stress tensor which is described as:
2
= + (3)
3
where is the dynamic viscosity, I is the unit tensor, and the
second term on the right hand side is the effect of volume
dilation.
Due to the RNG k- model was selected for the problem, the
transport equations for k and are described.
 () ( ) conditions also presents higher values of CL compared to the
+ = + +
NACA 2415 between 4 and 12 degrees of AOA.
+ (4)
0.25
CD
() ( )
+ = + 1 ( + 3 ) 0.2

2 0.15
2 + (5)

0.1
where k is the specific turbulence kinetic energy and it is defined
as the variation in the velocity fluctuations; it has units m2/s2. is
the turbulence dissipation of small vortices (eddies), in other 0.05 2415-3S (N)
words, the rate at which the velocity fluctuations are dissipated, NACA 2415 (N)
its units are m2/s3. 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Likewise, Gk represents the generation of turbulence kinetic AOA []
energy due to the mean velocity gradients. Gb is the generation of Figure 6. Numerical drag coefficient for 2415-3S and NACA
turbulence kinetic energy due to buoyancy, YM represents the 2415 airfoils.
contribution of the fluctuating dilatation in compressible
turbulence to the overall dissipation rate. k and are the inverse In Figure 6 above, it is possible to see that the drag coefficient
effective Prandtl numbers for k and respectively. SK and S are observed in the 2415-3S airfoil decreases to values similar to the
user-defined source terms. NACA 2415 for AOA between 0 and 8 degrees. From this point,
the values of lift coefficient increase rapidly. This behaviour may
Convergence criteria indicate that the flow reattaches the airfoil surface after the step
until 8 degrees of AOA, however this will be confirmed with the
The convergence criteria selected for this problem was the wall shear stress charts and streamlines which will be analyzed
recommended by the software, it is 10-3 for all the scaled later. At 0 degrees of AOA the two airfoils present a similar
residuals, however the convergence checking was deactivated value of CD around 0,05 for 16 degrees.
because the drag and lift monitors were activated, therefore the
convergence was achieved when the values of CD and CL
remained constant for a minimum of 1000 iterations. 1.2
CL
Results and Analysis 1
Gliding Condition 0.8
In Figures 5 8, it is possible to see numerical CL versus AOA, 0.6
CD versus AOA, CL versus CD and CM versus AOA for the 2415-
3S airfoil for the condition where there is not flow through the
0.4 2415-3S (N)
blowing outlet. Curves from the original NACA 2415 airfoil have
been included from [5] for further comparisons.
0.2 NACA 2415 (N)

1.2 0
CL
1 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
CD
0.8
Figure 7. Numerical polar graph for 2415-3S and NACA 2415
0.6 airfoils.

0.4
2415-3S (N)
The polar diagram shown in Figure 7 indicates that the airfoil
0.2 NACA 2415 (N) 2415-3S has a good aerodynamic performance since it is very
0 similar to NACAs 2415 from 0 to 10 degrees of AOA, however
this performance decreases at high angles of attack, specifically
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 from 10 degrees.
AOA []

Figure. 5. Numerical lift coefficient for 2415-3S and NACA 2415 Concerning pitching moment coefficient at the leading edge,
airfoils. results shown in Figure 8 indicate that values of the 2415-3S
airfoil are very similar to NACAs 2415 airfoil until 12 degrees
Concerning lift coefficient shown in Figure. 5, it can be observed of angle of attack, from this point a small discrepancy appears.
the lift slope presented by the 2415-3S airfoil which was
simulated at a Reynolds number of 310528 for a flow velocity of
20m/s, the stall region starts at 8 degrees of AOA with a stall
point of CL = 0,84 at 12 degrees of AOA, it is clear that the stall
region starts at a lower AOA since the NACA 2415 present the
beginning of the stall region at 15 degrees. This airfoil at these
 0 AOA
[]
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 4
-0.05
2415-3S (N)
-0.1
NACA 2415 (N)
-0.15

-0.2

-0.25 8
Cm
-0.3
Figure 8. Numerical pitching moment coefficient for 2415-3S
and NACA 2415 airfoils.

In Figure 9, it is possible to see the numerical wall shear stress on

the suction surface along the chord line for the 2415-3S airfoil for
the gliding condition; these images allow observing points of
separation and reattachment of the flow.

A shear stress is applied parallel or tangential to a face of a 12

material. Any real fluids (liquids and gases included) moving
along a solid surface will incur a shear stress on that surface. That
is the reason why the wall shear stress is considered an indicative
of separation of flow because when it is equal to zero, it means
that the flow is not attached to the surface of the airfoil [6]. After
this point, values of shear stress are different of zero and the
separation region begins. In the case of reattachment of flow, it is
noticed when the values of wall shear stress reach zero again, and
the area between these two points is the separation region, in this
region, the values of wall shear stress are negative, this can be
seen if only the x-component of the wall shear stress is plotted
but for a better observation, it was decided to plot the resultant 16
wall shear stress, where all values are always positive.
It can be seen that the flow detaches at the location of the step at
all AOA excepting at 16 degrees where the flow detaches before
the step at 23 percent of the chord. At 0 and 4 degrees of AOA
the flow reattaches after the step at locations of 56 and 62,5
percent of the chord respetively. At 12 and 16 degrees of AOA
the flow does not reattach to the surface of the 2415-3S airfoil.

0 Figure 9. Wall shear stress of the 2415-3S airfoil at gliding

condition for different AOA.

In Figure 10 it is possible to observe the flow field as velocity

Figure 9. Wall shear stress of the 2415-3S airfoil at gliding
condition for different AOA.
contours of the air flow past the 2415-3S airfoil. This is the first
numerical graphical approach to the behavior of the air flow past
the airfoil tested. Here it is observable the velocity changes in the
selected domain; in our case the most important is to observe this
phenomenon near the surface of the model. However these
pictures do not show clearly the separation and reattachment
points.
 0 4
8 12
16
Figure 10. Velocity contours of the 2415-3S airfoil at gliding
condition for different AOA.
Observing the flow fields for all AOA in Figure 10, it is possible
to notice that for 8 degrees of AOA within the separation region,
zones of high velocity which may indicate the presence of
vortices due to the turbulence provoked by the high velocity of
the flow and the sudden change in the geometry of the airfoil, this
phenomena will be observed in more detail below when
analyzing the streamlines.
In Figure 11, it is possible to see the streamlines of the flow past
the 2415-3S airfoil.
0 4
8 12
16
Figure 11. Streamlines of the 2415-3S airfoil at gliding condition
for different AOA.
In Figure 11, it is observed that the flow is fully attached to the
suction surface of the airfoil until the step where separation of
flow occurs, this phenomenon occurs for all AOA, the spatial
extension of the separation region can be detected by exploring
the wall shear stress along the surface of the airfoil (Figure 9).
Inside this region, it is possible to observe that the adverse
pressure gradient causes a reversed flow and this becomes into a
counter-rotating vortex. Then the flow reattaches again and
remains in contact with the surface until the trailing edge, this
reattachment was observed from 0 to 4 degrees of AOA.
At 8 and 12 degrees of angle of attack, the flow does not reattach
to the surface but in this case two vortices appear within the
separation region due to the turbulences provoked by the high
velocity of the flow. At 16 degrees of AOA, the separation region
is huge but in this case it begins at certain distance before the
step.
Propulsive Condition
In order to develop the new numerical simulation involving the
blowing scenario, only one boundary condition was changed and
it was the step which is not set as wall anymore but as
velocity inlet and the value of this parameter was introduced as
normal to the boundary, the introduced was 30 m/s.
In Figure 12 - 15, it is possible to see numerical CL versus AOA,
CD versus AOA, CL versus CD and CM versus AOA for the 2415-
3S airfoil for the condition where air at a velocity of 30 m/s flows
through the blowing outlet. Previous curves of the 2415-3S for
the gliding condition and curves of the original NACA 2415
airfoil have been included for further comparisons.
CL
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
2415-3S (N)
0.4 NACA 2415 (N)
0.2 2415-3S blow (N)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
AOA []
Figure 12. Numerical lift coefficient for 2415-3S airfoil for
blowing and gliding conditions and NACA 2415 airfoil.
In Figure 12, the values of the lift coefficient for the 2415-3S at
this new condition are similar to the ones for the gliding
condition at very low angles of attack up to 4 degrees but from
this point, the CL increases rapidly and progressively with a
higher slope and reaching values up to 1,5 times bigger than the
original NACA 2415. The lift curve does not present a stall
region in the range of studied angles of attack, what makes think
that the flow is very attached to the surface of the airfoil for AOA
even higher than 16 degrees. However this will be discussed
when analyzing the wall shear stress graphs and streamlines.
 0.25 0
CD AOA []
2415-3S (N) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
0.2 NACA 2415 (N) -0.1
2415-3S blow (N)
0.15 -0.2

0.1 -0.3

0.05 2415-3S (N)

-0.4 NACA 2415 (N)
2415-3S blow (N)
0 Cm
-0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
AOA []
Figure 15. Numerical pitching moment coefficient for 2415-3S
airfoil for blowing and gliding conditions and NACA 2415
Figure 13. Numerical drag coefficient for 2415-3S airfoil for
airfoil.
blowing and gliding conditions and NACA 2415 airfoil.
Concerning pitching moment coefficient at the leading edge,
Concerning drag coefficient, shown in Figure 13, it is possible to
see that values of CD are low and similar for all cases at low results shown in Figure 15 indicate that the Cm for the 2415-3S at
the blowing condition increases almost directly proportional to
angles of attack until 7 degrees, after this point the drag of the
the angle of attack. Comparing to the NACA 2415 airfoil the
2415-3S at the gliding condition increases rapidly and the drag of
behaviour is similar until 8 degrees of AOA where it stabilizes
the original NACA 2415 does so but moderately. The CL of the
2415-3S at the blowing condition increases as well but very and the other still increases reaching a maximum of 0,415 in
magnitude at 16 degrees of angle of attack.
moderately less that all other cases reaching a maximum of
0,1055 at the highest AOA, this indicates that the air blowing
In Figure 16, it is possible to see the numerical wall shear stress
through the outlet does not exert a big influence on the drag
on the suction surface along the chord line for the 2415-3S airfoil
because the flow seems to be attached at every moment to the
under the blowing condition; these images allow observing points
surface of the airfoil.
of separation and reattachment of the flow. It can be observed,
according to the wall shear stress behaviour that the flow never
1.8 detaches from the surface of the airfoil at any tested angle of
CL
1.6 attack, there is not present any separation region and high values
1.4 of AOA could be reached without stalling. However it is
important to note some aspects; the initial value of the wall shear
1.2 stress at the leading edge, which is high and then decreases
1 towards the location of the blowing outlet where a sudden rise is
0.8 present in this point because of the flow through the outlet,
reaching much higher values and then it decreases towards the
0.6 trailing edge. Besides, the initial value of the wall shear stress at
0.4 2415-3S (N) the leading edge increases with the angle of attack while the
NACA 2415 behaviour after the step remains constant no matter the AOA.
0.2
2415-3S Blow (N)
0
2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 CD
Figure 14. Numerical polar graph for 2415-3S airfoil for blowing
and gliding conditions and NACA 2415 airfoil.

The polar graph shown in Figure 14 summarizes all the aspects

previously observed in Figures 12 and 13. It is clear that the
effect of blowing maximizes the aerodynamic performance of the
airfoil and it can be seen in the polar curve for the 2415-3S which
is completely concave, also for low angles of attack it is almost
vertical, which indicates that the drag does not vary very much
and the lift increases rapidly. Being the original NACAs 2415 4
aerodynamic performance the main goal during the modification
of the airfoil, it has been greatly improved by the blowing effect.

Figure 16. Wall shear stress of the 2415-3S airfoil at blowing

condition for different AOA.
 8 boundary called blowing, and this is the locus of the
propulsion. No presence of regions with a velocity of 0 m/s
besides the stagnation point at the leading edge, therefore no
regions of separation were observed at any angle of attack.

In Figure 18, it is possible to see the streamlines of the flow past

the 2415-3S airfoil under the blowing condition.

0 4

12

8 12

16
16

Figure 18. Streamlines of the 2415-3S airfoil at blowing

condition for different AOA.
Figure 16. Wall shear stress of the 2415-3S airfoil at blowing
Concerning streamlines, it is possible to observe in Figure 18 the
condition for different AOA.
flow along the airfoil for the blowing scenario, where these ones
look very well distributed, now next to the blowing outlet,
In Figure 17, it is possible to observe the flow field as velocity
streamlines are fully attached to the upper surface until the
contours of the air flow past the 2415-3S airfoil under the
trailing edge, filling all the spots which are formed when there is
blowing condition.
not flow through the outlet. No vortices are present. Streamlines
look parallel to the surface at every angle of attack, which helps
0 4
to believe that much higher AOAs can be reached without
approaching to the stall condition.

Conclusion
By means of the use of CFD it has been possible to obtain lift,
drag and pitching moment coefficients and also the flow field of
air past a new designed airfoil, the 2415-3S. It was also possible
12 to obtain the location of separation and reattachment points in
8
some cases for different angles of attack. Two conditions were
analyzed through an exhaustive comparison, turning out that the
aerodynamic performance of the airfoil increases at the blowing
propulsive condition reaching values up to 1,85 times in terms of
lift at high angles of attack.

Future work
Since this work is part of the development of the unmanned aerial
16
vehicle with internal propulsion, a lot of work still needs to be
done, however concerning airfoils, which was the scope of this
work, new questions have been found according to obtained
results and several aspects can be investigated focusing on:

Testing experimentally the selected 2415-3S airfoils with

the blowing condition and study its aerodynamic
Figure 17. Velocity contours of the 2415-3S airfoil at blowing
condition for different AOA. performance.
Analyzing the design of the interior of the wing to find the
Comparing the flow fields obtained for the blowing scenario in best distribution of the flow for efficient propulsion.
Figure 17 to the ones obtained for the gliding condition, it is
possible to see the zone of highest velocity just next to the
References
[5]
[1] Malan P., Suluksna K., Juntasaro E., Calibrating the -
Re Transition Model for Commercial CFD, in The 47th
AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting, 2009.
[6]
[2] Noika J., http://profily.fs.cvut.cz/, Laboratory of
Department of Fluid Dynamics and Power Engineering
of the CTU in Prague. Section Airfoils and Straight
Blade Cascades.
[7]
[3] Selig M.S., Lyon C.A., Giguere P., Ninham C.,
Guglielmo J.J., Summary of Low-Speed Airfoil Data,
Vol. 2, Viginia Beach, SoarTech Publications, 1996.
[4] Rhie C.M., Chow W.L., Numerical Study of the
Turbulent Flow Past an Airfoil with Trailing Edge
Separation, AIAA Journal, Vol. 21, No. 11, 1983.
Velazquez L., Noika J., Numerical Simulation of the
Fluid Flow past an Airfoil for an Unmanned Aerial
Vehicle, in The 22nd International Symposium on
Transport Phenomena. Delft, the Netherlands, 2011.
Velazquez L., Noika J, Kulhanek R., Oil and Smoke
Flow Visualization past Two-Dimensional Airfoils for
an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, in The 11th Asian
Symposium of Visualization. Niigata, Japan. 2011.
Velazquez L., Noika J., Vavn J., Experimental
Measurement of the Aerodynamic Characteristics of
Two-Dimensional Airfoils for an Unmanned Aerial
Vehicle, in Experimental Fluid Mechanics 2010.
Liberec, 2010.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Effect of Chip Aspect Ratio on Hydraulic Transportation of Wood Chips in

Sloped Terrain Pipelines

T. Sawai1, M. Ohmasa1, N. Hirokawa1 and T. Kajimoto2

1
Department of Biomechanical and Human Factors Engineering,
Kinki University, Kinokawa-shi, Wakayama 649-6493, Japan
2
Industrial Technology Center of Wakayama Prefecture,
Wakayama-shi, Wakayama 649-6261, Japan

Abstract
Nomenclature
The unutilized forest and agricultural biomass such as residues aspect ratio of wood chip
left on forest floor and unutilized portions of farm crops is A cross-sectional area of liquid film
considered as one of the most promising domestic resources in B width of liquid film
Japan. The utilization of domestic biomass contributes to the d inner diameter of test tube
environmental protection of forests as well as the reduction in g gravitational acceleration
exhaustion of carbon dioxide. To promote the utilization of hm average depth of liquid film
woody biomass generated in forests and hilly agricultural areas, Ie energy gradient
the efficiencies for the transportation across hilly district regions M0 specific force
has to be improved. n roughness coefficient of Manning
nS frequency of transported wood chip
In the present study, the hydraulic transportation system of wood N number of wood chips
chips by means of liquid film flow in sloped pipeline is QL flow rate of liquid film
investigated. The wood chips produced by crushing or cutting QS flow rate of wood chip
forest biomass such as thinned woods and logging residues are QSmax maximum flow rate of wood chip
supplied to the pipeline laid on hilly district regions. The water is r radius of test tube
drawn by the pump from the water reservoir at the foot of a R hydraulic radius
mountain to the supply port of pipeline. The wood chips are average length of wood chips arranged in the cross
transported downward with the liquid film flow formed in the sa
direction on the liquid film
pipeline due to the gravity force. The hydraulic transportation sl longer side of wood chip
system in this study is simple and economical compared to the ss shorter side of wood chip
conventional forestry harvesting machines, but the stagnation of v velocity
wood chips can occur, which causes the blockade of wood chips vs velocity of wood chip
in pipelines [1]. The purpose of the study is to clarify the effect V volume of wood chip
of wood chip aspect ratio on the mechanism of blockade and angle formed by width of liquid film
maximum flow rate of wood chips. The test section imitating the x average distance of the neighboring wood chips
hilly terrain pipeline consists of three parts: the upstream part, the inclination angle of midstream part of test tube
downstream part and midstream part. Both the upstream and S density of wood chip
downstream parts of the test section are mounted with an incline
of 30 degree, and the midstream part of the test section is
Subscripts
mounted in the horizontal position. Three test tubes are used with
1 supercritical flow
inner diameters of 32mm, 50mm and 65mm. Wood chips are
2 subcritical flow
made of Balsa square timber, and the three kinds of aspect ratios
of wood chips are used, 333mm, 633mm and 933mm.
The density of wood chips is adjusted in the range of 600- Introduction
1000kg/m3 by varying the time to soak wood chips in the water.
To predict maximum flow rate of wood chips at a given liquid To reduce the exhaustion of carbon dioxide, the biomass resource
flow rate, the analytical model for blockade of wood chips is also is considered to be an important contributor to sustainable energy
investigated. strategies, since biomass has carbon neutral and renewable
characteristics.
The results obtained are as follows. The blockade of wood chips
in the pipeline is caused by the occurrence of hydraulic jump in Biomass resources can be classified into three categories [2]; (1)
horizontal flow, and the maximum flow rate of wood chips is Plantation biomass produced in the field without the land-use
greatly affected by the liquid film flow rate and aspect ratio of competition, (2) Waste biomass derived from the production
wood chips. The maximum flow rate of wood chips increases activities, and (3) Unutilized forest and agricultural biomass such
with increasing liquid film flow rate, but decreases with as residues left on forest floor and unutilized portions of farm
increasing aspect ratio of wood chips. From the comparison crops. Among them, the forest biomass derived from logging and
between the experimental data and the analytical model to predict thinning operations in forests is one of the most promising
the blockade of wood chips, it is found that the model gives a domestic resources in Japan. The potential annual energy of
fairly good agreement with the experimental results of maximum forest biomass is estimated to be one hundred million toe [2],
flow rate of wood chips at a given liquid film flow rate. which corresponds to 20% of the annual primary energy
consumption in Japan. The promotion of the utilization of forest
biomass also contributes to the environmental protection of
forests as well as the reduction in exhaustion of carbon dioxide. Wood chip supply system
However, since most of the forests in Japan locate in the Electric drill
mountain region, the forest biomass has not been used
continually due to the difficulty in carrying residues out of the
forest. In order to promote the utilization of forest biomass, the
efficiencies for the transportation across the mountains with steep
slopes have to be improved. DC power supply

Mixing device
In the present study, the hydraulic transportation system of wood
chips proposed by Sawai et al. [1] is investigated. The wood
chips produced by crushing or cutting forest biomass such as Test section
thinned woods and logging residues are supplied to the pipeline
laid on hilly district regions. The water is drawn by the pump
from the water reservoir at the foot of a mountain to the supply
port of pipeline. The liquid film is formed in the pipeline, and the Needle valve
Video camera
wood chips are transported downward with the liquid film flows
due to the gravity force. In the previous study [1], it is found that
the stagnation of wood chips in the hydraulic jump causes the
blockade of wood chips in pipelines. But the wood used in the
previous experiment was a cubic chip whose side length is 3mm.
The actual wood chips produced by crushing or cutting forest Gear pump PC
biomass are rectangular parallelepiped. The shape of wood chip
is considered to affect the mechanism of blockade and the
maximum flow rate of wood chips. The purpose of the study is to
clarify the effect of aspect ratio of wood chips on the maximum
flow rate of wood chips at a given liquid flow rate. The analytical
model to predict the blockade for various aspect ratios of wood Water storage tank
DC power supply
chips is also investigated.
Fig.1 Experimental Apparatus
Experimental Apparatus and Procedures

Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of experimental apparatus.

The experimental apparatus consists of test section, wood chip
supply system, water supply system, and measuring devices. The
30
transparent suction hose is used as the test section, since the hose
is flexible and a circular cross section of the hose is not distorted d
into an oblate shape. As shown in Figure 2, the test section
imitating the hilly terrain pipeline consists of three parts: the 30
upstream part, the downstream part and midstream part. Both the
upstream and downstream parts of the test section are mounted
with an incline of 30 degree. The midstream part of the test
section is mounted in the horizontal position. Three kinds of
inner diameters of test tubes 32mm, 50mm and 65mm are used to
investigate the effect of tube diameter on the blockade condition Fig.2 Test Section
of wood chip. The lengths of test section for the upstream,
midstream and downstream parts are 1100, 850 and 600mm,
respectively.
Experimental Results
The wood chip supply system is composed of the wood chip
container and impeller. The flow rate of wood chips is set by Flow Pattern and Maximum Flow Rate of Wood Chips
adjusting the number of rotation of the impeller. The water is
supplied by the gear pump from the reservoir tank. The funnel is According to the visual observation in the previous study [1], it is
used as the solid-liquid mixing device. The water is injected from confirmed that the blockade of wood chips occurs at two
the side wall of the funnel, and the wood chips are dropped from locations, one is the solid-liquid mixing device, and the other is
the wood chip container. The liquid film flow is formed in the the test tube. The former blockade occurs, when the liquid flow
test tube, and the wood chips are transported downward with the rate is below 1.510-5m3/s, or the inner diameter of test tube is
liquid film. Wood chips are made of Balsa square timber, and the 32mm. At the above conditions, the width of the liquid film
sizes of wood chip are 333mm, 633mm and 933mm, formed in the test tube is too narrow to transport the wood chips
which are hereafter represented by a=1, a=2 and a=3. The steadily. The latter blockade is based on the solid-liquid two-
density of wood chips, S is adjusted in the range of 600- phase flow characteristic. In the present study, the mechanism of
1000kg/m3 by varying the time to soak wood chips in the water. the latter blockade in the test tube is investigated.
 [10-5] 3 [10-5] 3
d=50mm d=50mm
=0 =0
3 S=1012kg/m3
2 S=567kg/m 2

QS m3/s
QS m3/s

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
QL m3/s [10-5] QL m3/s [10-5]
(a) S =567kg/m3 (b) S =1012kg/m3

Fig.3 Flow pattern map of wood chip for 333mma=1

[10-5] 3 [10-5] 3
d=50mm d=50mm
=0 3
=0 3
2 S=568kg/m 2 S=1000kg/m
QS m3/s

QS m3/s

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
QL m3/s [10-5] QL m3/s [10-5]
(a) S =568kg/m3 (b) S =1000kg/m3

Fig.4 Flow pattern map of wood chips for 933mma=3

conditions of QL and S. The difference in QSmax between a=1 and

Figures 3 and 4 show the flow pattern maps of wood chips in the
test tube of 50mm for a=1 and a=3. The vertical and horizontal
axes represent the flow rates of wood chips and liquid film, QS
and QL. Figures (a) and (b) in each figure show the effect of
density of wood chips on the flow pattern. The symbols used in
the figure are as follows:
: Wood chips can be transported with the liquid film
flow.
a=3 is closely related to the arrangement of wood chips after the
hydraulic jump. In the supercritical flow region, the wood chips
of a=3 is transported under the condition where the longer side of
wood chips is located in the same direction of liquid film flow. In
the subcritical flow region, however, the longer side of wood
chip is arranged in perpendicular to the flow direction of liquid
film, which can cause the reduction in QSmax for a=3. The effect
of arrangement of wood chips on QSmax is analyzed in the next
chapter.

: Blockade of wood chips is observed at the hydraulic
jump of the liquid film flow.
: Stagnation of wood chips is observed right after the
hydraulic jump, and the wood chips are arranged in layers
in the liquid film. The wood chips are transported slowly
with the liquid film flow.
In the case of a=1 and S=1012kg/m3, stagnation of wood chips is
observed right after the hydraulic jump, but the wood chips
arranged in layers in the liquid film are transported slowly with
the liquid film flow. The maximum flow rate of wood chips for
S=1012kg/m3 is larger than that for wood chips whose density is
smaller than water density. In the case of a=3 and S=1000kg/m3,
the wood chips arranged in layers in the liquid film are not
observed after the hydraulic jump.

In the horizontal tube, the liquid film changes from supercritical
flow to subcritical flow, and the drastic increase in the depth and
width of liquid film flow occurs, which is what is called
hydraulic jump. When QS becomes large at a given QL, blockade
of wood chips is observed right after the hydraulic jump.
Therefore, at a given QL, the flow rate of wood chips has a
maximum, which is defined as the maximum flow rate of wood
chips, QSmax. As shown in Figures 3 and 4, it is found that QSmax
increases with increasing QL. From the results of comparison
between a=1 in Figure 3 and a=3 in Figure 4, it is found that
QSmax for a=3 is smaller than QSmax for a=1 under the same
Effect of liquid flow rate, chip density, tube diameter and chip
aspect ratio on maximum flow rate of wood chips
Figure 5 shows the variation of QSmax with QL for various
densities of wood chips, S. In the case of a=1 in Figure 5(a), the
maximum flow rates of wood chips for S=1000 kg/m3 is larger
than those for S=600 kg/m3 and 800 kg/m3. In the case of a=3 in
Figure 5(b), the effect of S on QSmax is small.
Figure 6 shows the variation of QSmax with QL for various tube
diameters, d. The maximum flow rates of wood chips decreases
 [10-5] 3 [10-5] 3
333mm S=600kg/m33 933mm S=600kg/m33
d=50mm S=800kg/m d=50mm S=800kg/m 3
=0 S=1000kg/m3 S=1000kg/m
2 =0
QSmax m3/s

QSmax m3/s
2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
QL m3/s [10-5] QL m3/s [10-5]
(a) 333mma=1 (b) 933mma=3

Fig.5 Effect of chip density on QSmax for d=50mm

[10-5] 3 [10-5] 3
333mm d=32mm 933mm d=32mm
=0 d=50mm =0 d=50mm
3 S=800kg/m3
2 S=800kg/m d=65mm d=65mm
QSmax m3/s

QSmax m3/s
1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
QL m3/s [10-5] QL m3/s [10-5]
(a) 333mma=1 (b) 933mma=3

Fig.6 Effect of tube diameter on QSmax for S =800kg/m3

[10-5] 3 [10-5] 3
d=65mm 333mm d=65mm 333mm
=0 633mm =0 633mm
S=600kg/m3 933mm S=1000kg/m3 933mm
2 2
QSmax m3/s

QSmax m3/s

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
QL m3/s [10-5] QL m3/s [10-5]
(a) S =600kg/m3 (b) S =1000kg/m3

Fig.7 Effect of chip aspect ratio on QSmax for d=65mm

with decreasing the tube diameter. In the case of d=32mm,

blockade of wood chips occurs at the solid-liquid mixing device,
since the width of the liquid film formed in the test tube is too
narrow to transport the wood chips steadily. Particularly, the
wood chips for a=3 in Figure 6(b) are not transported with liquid
film, even if QL becomes large.
In the previous section, it is confirmed that QSmax is largely
affected by the aspect ratio of wood chips. The actual wood chips
produced in forests are not composed of uniform aspect ratio, and
therefore the effect of mixture of two kinds of wood chips on
QSmax is investigated in the present section.

Figure 7 shows the variation of QSmax with QL for various aspect
ratios of wood chips, a. The maximum flow rate of wood chips is
largely affected by the aspect ratio of wood chips. QSmax
decreases with increasing the aspect ratio of wood chips.
Effect of mixture of two kinds of wood chips on flow pattern
Figures 8(a) shows the flow pattern maps of wood chips, when
the wood chips for a=1 and for a=3 are mixed in equal volumes.
To clarify the effect of mixture on QSmax, the flow pattern maps of
wood chips for a=1 and a=3 are also shown in Figures 8(b) and
8(c). From the results of comparison in Figure 8, it is found that
QSmax for the wood chip mixture of a=1 and a=3 is between QSmax
for a=1 and QSmax for a=3 at a given QL.
 Figure 9 shows the schematic diagram of liquid film flow in both
the upstream inclined tube and midstream horizontal tube. The
cross section of the liquid film in the test tube whose inner
[10-5] 3 diameter is r is also shown.
d=50mm
=0 3
2 S=790kg/m3 for 333mm
S=827kg/m for 933mm
QS m3/s

v1 Supercritical Subcritical
flow flow
1
v1 v2

0 r
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1
QL m3/s [10-5]
A1
B1
(a) Flow pattern map of wood chip mixture of 333mma=1 r
2
and 933mma=3
A2
B2

[10-5] 3
d=50mm Fig.9 Liquid film flow in test section
=0 3
2 S=851kg/m In the present section, one-dimensional analysis of hydraulic
QS m3/s

jump for the liquid film in horizontal tube is conducted.

Assuming that the frictional force between the liquid film and
tube wall can be negligible as compared to the specific force in
1
the control volume including hydraulic jump, the following
conservation equation of specific force can be applied.

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 (M 0 )2 (M 0 )1 = 0 (1)
QL m3/s [10-5]
The terms (M0)1 and (M0)2 in equation (1) represent the specific
(b) Flow pattern map of wood chip for 333mma=1 forces before and after hydraulic jump, and are given by the
following equations;

[10-5] 3 Q1 2 hm1
( M 0)1 = + A1
2
d=50mm 2
(2)
=0
S=839kg/m3
gA1
2
QS m3/s

Q2 2 hm 2
( M 0) 2 = + A2
2
2
(3)
1
gA2
In the above equations, Q represents the flow rate of liquid film
0 and is given by the product by the cross-sectional area A and
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
QL m3/s [10-5] average velocity v.

(c) Flow pattern map of wood chip for 933mma=3

QL = A v (4)

The cross sectional area A, width B and average depth hm of the

liquid film are given by the following equations as a function of
Fig.8 Effect of mixture of two kinds of wood chips on flow the angle formed by width of liquid film and radius r.
pattern
r2
A= ( sin ) (5)
2
Analysis on Maximum Flow Rate of Wood Chips

Analysis on liquid film flow in test tube B = 2r sin (6)
2
 A r sin chips are arranged in the same direction of liquid film flow. In
hm = = (0 ) (7) the neighborhood of hydraulic jump, the wood chips are arranged
B 4 sin in the lateral direction of the liquid film due to the drastic
2 decrease in velocity of liquid film. After rotating, the longer sides
of some wood chips are arranged in perpendicular to the flow
direction of liquid film in the supercritical flow region.
The average velocity of liquid film v in the upstream inclined
tube is given by Manning formula,
Supercritical Hydraulic Subcritical
flow jump flow
2

R (I e ) 2
1 1
v= 3
(8)
n
where the roughness coefficient of Manning n is given by 0.01,
and the energy gradient Ie is given by sin30. The hydraulic B1
radius R is given by vs1 vs2
B2
r sin
R= (9)
2
Fig.10 Flow of wood chips in horizontal tube
It is assumed that the characteristics of liquid film in the
upstream inclined tube can be applied to those in supercritical The blockade of wood chips in the test tube is caused by the
flow region in horizontal tube. The flow rate of liquid film in friction between wood chips and tube wall, when the number of
supercritical flow is given by substituting equations (5) and (8) wood chips in the cross direction on the liquid film exceeds the
into equation (4). limit of the number of wood chips.

The blockade condition of wood chips is given by,

r2
QL = (1 sin 1 )
2 sl B
2 (10)
1 r 1 sin 1
(I e )
3 1
n 2
2
1 where the left hand term represents the number of wood chips in
Equation (10) is considered to be a function of r and 1. When r
and QL are given, equation (10) can be solved for 1. Using 1,
the characteristics of liquid film such as average velocity v, cross-
sectional area A and average depth hm are obtained and the
specific forces before hydraulic jump (M0)1 can be determined.
Once (M0)1 can be obtained, equation (1) is considered to be an
equation for 2 in subcritical flow. Solving equation (1), the
characteristics for the liquid film in subcritical flow, A2, B2, hm2
and v2, can be determined.
Analysis on blockade of wood chips on the basis of aspect ratio
The average distance of the neighboring wood chips on the liquid
film in the flow direction x is given by the frequency nS and
average velocity of wood chip vs,
= 2 (12)
x 2 s a
the cross direction on the liquid film which is given by the longer
side of wood chip sl and the average distance of the neighboring
wood chips in the subcritical flow x2, and the right hand term
represents the limit of the number of wood chips which is
determined by dividing the width of liquid film in the subcritical
flow B2 by the average length of wood chips arranged in the cross
direction on the liquid film sa. x2 is given by using the velocity
of liquid film in the subcritical flow v2.
v2
x 2 = (13)
ns
The maximum frequency of wood chips nSmax and the maximum
flow rate of wood chips QSmax at a given liquid flow rate are
obtained by the following equations;

x =
vs B2 v 2
(11) n S max = (14)
ns sl s a
where nS is given by dividing the flow rate of wood chip by the
B2 v 2
average volume of wood chip, and vS is assumed to be equal to QS max = n S max V = V (15)
the average velocity of liquid film v. sl s a
Figure 10 shows the schematic diagram of liquid film flow and
wood chip arrangement in the neighborhood of hydraulic jump. The average length of wood chips arranged in the cross direction
At the location of hydraulic jump from the supercritical flow to on the liquid film, sa is given by equation (16), assuming that the
subcritical flow, the drastic decrease in velocity and drastic half the number of wood chips are arranged under the condition
increase in the depth and width of liquid film occur. In the where longer sides of wood chips are arranged in perpendicular
supercritical flow before hydraulic jump, the wood chips are to the flow direction of liquid film, as shown in Figure 10.
transported under the condition where the longer sides of wood
 s s + sl sl 1 6 N + sl 2 N + s s N 5
sa = (16) sa = = ss (22)
2 8N 4
The volume of wood chip, V is given by the shorter side ss and QSmax in the case of mixture of two kinds of wood chips is given
longer side sl of wood chips. by substituting equations (21) and (22) into equation (12). The
comparisons between the analytical model and experimental data
V = s s s s sl (17)
are shown in Figures 8(a). It is found that the solid curve
obtained by the analytical model agrees well with the
experimental results.
Substituting equations (16) and (17) into equation (15), QSmax is
expressed as a function of the aspect ratio of wood chip, a. In Figure 11, the experimental results for the equivalent aspect
ratio obtained by equation (21) are shown by the square symbols.
2 The analytical result, equation (20) gives a good agreement with
QS max = ss B2 v2 (18) the experimental results. Therefore, the blockade in the case of
1+ a mixture of two kinds of wood chips is predicted by using the
equivalent aspect ratio.
sl
a= ( 1)
a (19)
ss 1
a=1.5
0.8 a=2
From the equation (18), it is found that QSmax decreases with

(QSmax )a/(QSmax )1
a=3
increasing a when the flow rate of liquid film is constant. Using
equation (18), the ratio of (QSmax)a for the given aspect ratio a to 0.6
(QSmax)1 for a=1 is expressed as a function of aspect ratio.
0.4

(QS max )a 2
d=50mm
0.2=0
=
(QS max )1
(20) QL=3.4710-5m3/s
1+ a 0
1 2 3 4 5
a
The comparisons between the analytical model, equation (18) and
experimental data are shown in Figures 3 and 4. The solid curves
in both figures represent QSmax obtained by equation (18), and Fig.11 Effect of aspect ratio on transportation limit of wood chips
agree well with the experimental results with the exception of the
conditions S=1000kg/m3 and a=1.
Subcritical flow

Figure 11 shows the comparison between equation (20) and

experimental results. The broken curves in the figure represents sl2
the analytical results and gives a good agreement with the sl1 sl2
experimental results for a=2 and a=3. sl1

Analysis on blockade of mixture of two kinds of wood chips ss

The blockade of wood chips in the case of mixture of two kinds

of wood chips is analysed on the basis of the experimental results
shown in Figure 8(a). The longer side of wood chips for a=1 and
a=3 represent sl1 and sl2, and the shorter side of wood chip
represents ss. Since the ratio of the number of wood chips for a=1
to that for a=3 is three, as shown in Figure 12, the average length
of longer side of wood chip mixture in the supercritical flow is
given by
s 3 N + sl 2 N 3
sl = l 1 = ss (21)
4N 2 In the present chapter, the required energy of transportation by
From the above results, the equivalent aspect ratio for wood chip
mixture is considered to be 1.5.
In the subcritical flow region, the average length of wood chips
arranged in the cross direction on the liquid film sa is given by
equation (22), assuming that the wood chips for a=3 are
transported under the condition where half the number of longer
sides of wood chips are arranged in perpendicular to the flow
direction of liquid film, as shown in Figure 12.
Fig.12 Arrangement of mixture of two kinds of wood chips in the
neighborhood of hydraulic jump
Required Energy of Present Hydraulic Transportation
System
the present hydraulic transportation system is compared with that
by the cable logging system. According to the study by Harada
[3], the energy required to transport trees from forest to forestry
road by using a cable logging and a mobile tower yarder is
estimated to be about 180-375MJ per ton wood weight. In the
mountains whose angle of inclination is 30 degree, the
transportation pipeline of 200m in length and 300mm in diameter
and the feed water pipeline of 200m in length and 30mm in
diameter are to be installed. In the present system, the energy
required to transport wood chips depends on the energy of pump
to feed water. The required energy of transportation by the
present system is estimated to be about 2-3MJ per ton wood
weight. From the comparison between the present system and the
conventional cable logging system, it is found that the required
energy of transportation by the present system is much smaller
than that by the conventional system.
Conclusions
1. The blockade of wood chips in the test tube is caused by the
occurrence of hydraulic jump in horizontal flow, and the
maximum flow rate of wood chips is greatly affected by the
liquid film flow rate and aspect ratio of wood chips. The
maximum flow rate of wood chips increases with increasing
liquid film flow rate, but decreases with increasing aspect
ratio of wood chips.
2. From the analytical results, it is found that QSmax is
expressed as a function of the aspect ratio of wood chip at a
given liquid film flow rate. The blockade of wood chips in
the case of mixture of two kinds of wood chips is predicted
by using the equivalent aspect ratio. From the comparison
between the experimental data and the analytical model, it is
confirmed that the model gives a fairly good agreement with
the experimental results.
3. From the comparison between the present system and the
conventional cable logging system, it is found that the
required energy of transportation by the present system is
much smaller than that by the conventional system.
References
[1] Sawai, T., Kajimoto, T., Ohmasa, M., Shibue, T. and Nishi,
K., Hydraulic Transportation System of Wood Chips by
Hilly Terrain Pipelines, in ISTP-22, 2011.
[2] Komiyama, H., Sakoda, A., and Matsumura, Y., Biomass
Nippon, Nikkankougyou shinbunsha, 2003.
[3] Harada, T., Wood Industry, 57-11, 2002, 480-483. 2002.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
A Time-of-Flight Type Micro Flowmeter:
Water Flow Measurement Below 0.1 mL/min
H. Koizumi1 and K. Yonezawa2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Intelligent Systems
The University of Electro-Communications, Tokyo 182-8585, Japan
2
Undergraduate student
Abstract
A simple measurement method with high precision and low cost
for micro volumetric flow rate below 0.1 mL/min is proposed.
This method is based on the measurement of a mean travelling
velocity between thermal sensors of a locally heated pipe flow
which is called time-of-flight type flowmeter. A copper pipe
was indirectly heated by a heated pulse with a small amount of
Joule heating in order not to influence the basic Poiseuille flow.
That is, the heated flow acted only as a thermal fluid marker. A
paper wall with the small inner diameter of D=1 mm and thin
wall thickness of 0.1 mm was used to obtain the almost flat
temperature distribution across a pipe. Experiments were carried
out using several Reynolds numbers up to ReD=2.1 which
corresponds to the maximum flow rate of Qv=0.1 mL/min. It was
found that the volumetric flow rate Qv in the pipe is directly
proportional to the mean travelling velocity WT for water flow
experimentally and numerically. Qv can be obtained by using the
linear relationship between WT and Qv.
Nomenclature
D inner pipe diameter, 1 mm (Figs. 1(a) and 2)
g gravitational acceleration
H amount of Joule heating
L1 pipe entrance length, 1 mm (L1/D=1, Fig. 1(a))
distance between the end edge of the ring heater and
L2
the position of TC1, 4 mm (L2/D=4, Fig. 1(a))
distance between the thermocouples, 4 mm (L12/D=4,
L12
Figs. 1(a) and 2)
Lheater length of the ring heater, 3 mm (Lheater /D=3, Fig. 1(a))
P pressure
PE electric power due to Joule heating
Qm mass flow rate
Qv volumetric flow rate
r radial coordinate (Figs. 1(a) and 2)
ReD Reynolds number, WmD/
t time
T temperature
TC1 thermocouple 1 in an upward position (Figs. 1 and 2)
TC2 thermocouple 2 in a downward position (Figs. 1 and 2)
Tin uniform fluid temperature at the pipe inlet
th pulse heating time
U radial component of the velocity
W axial component of the velocity
Win axial uniform velocity at the pipe inlet
Wm axial mean velocity
Wmax axial maximum velocity in the Poiseuille flow, =2Wm
mean travelling velocity between the thermocouples
WT
which is the distance of L12 apart
z axial coordinate (Figs. 1(a) and 2)
Greek symbols
t travelling time between the thermocouples (Fig. 1(b))
fluid temperature rise from the pipe inlet flow
T
(Fig. 1(b))
kinematic viscosity
fluid density
Introduction
Flow measurement is a classical field of measuring technology.
A large number of researchers have already developed small flow
rate measuring methods, which are based on a wide variety of
principles [2, 8]. However, there are few measuring methods for
micro flow rates below 1 mL/min with high precision and low
cost.
There are two classifications of flow measurement: non-
thermal and thermal flow measurements. The most popular non-
thermal flowmeters are based on a mechanical working principle.
For example, the flow can be measured indirectly by the drag
force, which is associated with the relative motion between a
body and a fluid. Direct proportionality of the drag to the flow
velocity is a linear relationship in laminar flow conditions. Other
flowmeters based on the pressure drop on the laminar flow
velocity are very popular, but it is difficult to measure a small
pressure drop precisely and cheaply, especially for low Reynolds
number flows. For the vortex flowmeter, the volumetric flow rate
is measured by the vortex shedding frequency behind the bluff
body (von Krmn vortex shedding). This flowmeter has been
widely used in industrial liquid, gas and steam flow
measurements because of its simple installation, high reliability
and high accuracy. It is usually employed to measure the
volumetric flow rate, but several methods using the vortex
flowmeter to detect mass flow rate have been recently introduced.
One particular true mass flowmeter which is now sold widely and
commercially is a Coriolis flowmeter based on a Coriolis-force
which acts on an oscillating tube with fluid flowing inside [1, 3].
Thermal flowmeters are most widely used in industrial flow
metering due to their easy measuring method. Therefore, a large
number of flowmeters for measuring mass and volumetric flow
rates have been developed for semiconductor manufacturing
processes and chemical processes. Currently, there are four main
types of thermal flowmeters. The first kind is thermal diffusion
flowmeters that measure the diffusion temperature rise of a
locally heated thermal flow in a Poiseuille flow [5, 6]. The
second kind is thermal flowmeters that measure the effect of the
flowing fluid on a hot body. They are usually called hot-wire
and hot-film flowmeters. The third kind is thermal flowmeters
that measure the asymmetry of temperature profile around the
heater, which is modulated by the fluid flow. They are called
calorimetric flowmeters. Last are thermal flowmeters that
measure the passage of time of a heated pulse over a known
distance. They are called time-of-flight flowmeters. Paper Pipe (Inner diameter of D = 1 mm, Wall Thickness = 0.1 mm)

Recently, the micro flow rate has become inceasingly

important in industrial flow measurement for micro-fluidics, D = 1 mm 0.1 mm

2D
semiconductor manufacturing processes and production of TC2
medical instruments. Micro-machined flow sensors have been
developed, and their structural and electronic simplicity
flowmeters can be widely and easily realized by using TC1

L12
micromachining technology [2, 8, 10]. Nowadays, there is a
strong demand for highly precise and low cost micro flowmeters,
and especially flow rates below 1 mL/min are very limited for
1.2 mm

L2
industrial use. The micro Coriolis flowmeter for flow rates below
Qv 1 mL/min is now sold commercially, but its price is
extremely high.
1.4 mm
As for time-of-flight flowmeters, they have a very serious

Lheater
Copper Ring Heater
shortcoming, especially in low Reynolds number flow situations,
that is, in cases of a heated pulse occurring diversely within a
very short traveling distance due to the large diffusive effect. Poiseuille Flow
Therefore, a conventional time-of-flight flowmeter could not be
applied to these low Reynolds number flows. Recently, Koizumi
Win

L1
and Serizawa [7] proposed a micro flowmeter for measuring a
flow rate below 1 mL/min based on the velocity measurement of
locally accelerated thermal flow. The accelerated thermal flow is
produced by a small electric heater, which is placed in the central
part of an upwardly directed Hagen-Poiseuille flow. Z
In this paper, we thus propose a time-of-flight type micro
flowmeter which is based on the measurement of a mean
r
travelling velocity between the thermal sensors, WT, of a locally
heated pipe flow. It was found that WT is directly proportional to (a) Schematic drawing of the flowmeter.
the volumetric flow rate Qv in a pipe. The validity of measuring
the flow rates below 0.1 mL/min (ReD=2.1) for water flow was
confirmed both experimentally and numerically. Thermocouple Signals

Measurement principle
This flowmeter is called the time-of-flight type flowmeter.
Figure 1 shows the flowmeter and its measurement principle. Fig. TC1 TC2
1(a) shows the schematic drawing of the flowmeter which

consists a ring heater and thermal sensors, Fig. 1(b) shows the
two thermocouple signals of TC1 and TC2, and Fig. 1(c) shows
the ideal relationship between the mean travelling velocity WT
and volumetric flow rate Qv.
Poiseuille flow is obtained within a very short entrance length
which is dependent on the Reynolds number for laminar flow:
0.065ReDD, where D is the pipe inner diameter [4]. For
example, Poiseuille flow is obtained within only the short
entrance length of 0.14D in the case of ReD=2.1. Then, the total (b) Two thermocouple signals.
length of a flowmeter becomes compact. The pipe entrance
length of L1 for obtaining the Poiseuille flow is 1 mm (L1/D=1),
the heater length of Lheater is 3 mm (Lheater/D=3), the distance
between the end edge of the ring heater and TC1 of L2 is 4 mm
(L2/D=4), and the distance between thermocouples L12 is 4 mm
[mm/s]

(L12/D=4), respectively. The copper ring heater with an inner

diameter of D=1 mm is set in an upward position of the sensors.
The copper pipe is indirectly heated by a heated pulse with a
WT

small amount of Joule heating in order not to influence the basic

Poiseuille flow. The heated flow acts only as a thermal fluid
marker. Two thermocouples with a distance of L12 apart are
located at the downstream of L2 from a ring heater. When the
mean travelling velocity of WT between the thermocouples 0 1
(WT=L12/t: t is the travelling time between the thermocouples
as shown in Fig. 1(b)) is obtained, Qv can be obtained by using
Qv [mL/min]
the linear relationship between WT and Qv as shown in Fig. 1(c).
The flowmeter is operated with small Reynolds numbers (c ) Relationship between the mean travelling velocity WT
(ReD=WmD/2.1). The flow associated with free convection is and the volumetric flow rate Qv.
in a vertical upward direction, and the forced flow is the same
direction. The flow therefore becomes an aiding flow in which
forced convection is predominant. Figure 1. Flowmeter and its measurement principle.
 The density of liquidwas almost unaffected by the change Additionally, two thermocouples with a length of L12 apart
of ambient temperature and pressure under normal operations. were located downstream of L2 from a heater. The mean
Therefore, conventional mass flow rate Qm is simply derived travelling velocity of WT (L12/t: t is the travelling time between
from the volumetric floe rate Qv multiplied by liquid density . the thermocouples) between the thermocouples was obtained.
The fluid volume of gas is a function of ambient fluid The Cu-Co thermocouple had a diameter of 50 m and its
temperature T and pressure P. Then, the mass flow rate can be output was amplified. The amplified output was then passed
calculated as Qm=(T, P)Qv, but it is necessary to measure through a low-pass filter with a cut-off frequency of 20 Hz.
both T and P of a flowing gas at the same time. Figure 3 shows the heating pulse generation circuit which
consists of a timer IC and a magnetic relay switch circuit, and the
switch of the delay circuit has a on or off selection according to
Experimental method
the on or off signal of timer IC. The heating time period for
The experiment was carried out with water as a working fluid, electric current and the waiting time for heating pulse generation
because there is a strong industrial demand for a liquid flowmeter can be adjusted by changing the amount of the values of variable
with high precision at low price. Figure 2 shows the schematic resistance.
drawing of the flowmeter and signal processing system.
The flow pipe was made of paper with an inner diameter of
D=1 mm and a thickness of 0.1 mm. The heating pipe with a
length of Lheater=3 mm was made of copper with the same inner
diameter but a thickness of 0.2 mm. A fine nichrome wire, which
was wounded around the pipe like a spring coil and electrically
insulated, was electrically heated by a constant direct current.
That is, the copper pipe was indirectly heated by a heated pulse
with a small amount of Joule heating in order not to influence the
basic Poiseuille flow. Then, the heated flow acted only as a
thermal fluid marker. These flow pipes were set vertically, and
water was sent towards the upper part of the pipe.

Paper Pipe (Wall thickness = 0.1 mm)

Figure 3. Heating pulse generation circuit diagram.
TC 2

Amplifier Experiments were carried out using several Reynolds

L12 = 4 mm numbers up to 2.1, which correspond to the maximum flow rate
TC 1 of 0.1 mL/min. The equipment of a volumetric flow rate Qv of
water was made by connecting seven syringes with each full
volume of 1 mL in parallel. Then the syringes were controlled by
a traversing system with a stepping motor, and Qv was adjusted
by the traversing velocity. This arrangement yielded a minimum
DC power unit volumetric flow rate of 0.001 mL/min. Prior to the experiment,
Copper Pipe
the temperature of the water was maintained uniform and
constant at 20 at the pipe entrance by immersing the coiled
vinyl tube in the lower water vessel.
Lheater = 3 mm Pulse generation circuit
Numerical method
A numerical simulation provides a powerful tool for analysing
Heater
flowmeter behavior. It is obvious that both wide linear range and
W high sensitivity are critical parameters for designing the
flowmeters. Therefore, it is used to determine the design of the
measurement device, such as measuring the most suitable
Poiseuille Flow D = 1 mm distance between the two sensors, and to determine the amount of
PC Joule heating. Furthermore, it is used to numerically obtain the
validity of the flow measurement principle below 0.1 mL/min.
Z g Transient three-dimensional numerical simulations are
r performed using the Storm/CFD2000 software [11]. The
following assumptions are made in this flow system.
(i) The Boussinesq approximation is applied to the fluid. That is,
variations of the density are ignored except insofar as they give to
a buoyancy force, and the other properties are assumed to be
independent of temperature.
Figure 2. Schematic drawing of the flowmeter (ii) Viscous dissipation and pressure work are negligibly small.
and signal processing system. Furthermore, the thermocouple volumes of TC1 and TC2 were
neglected for simplification. Using the above assumptions, the
continuity, momentum, and energy equations for unsteady free
and forced mixed convection are used. At the same time, the WT =0.5 mm/s can be observed for the adiabatic wall. On the
conduction equation for both the paper pipe wall and the ring contrary, WT is zero for the paper pipe, because the buoyancy
heater is used in order to obtain the fluid temperature change due flow could not be produced by decreasing the fluid temperature
to its heat capacity of a thin pipe wall. Approximate forms of the through a heat transfer from the fluid to the paper wall. From the
Boussinesq equations were obtained using a control-volume results of Fig. 4, it is found that when the material of a flow pipe
based finite difference procedure. The SIMPLE algorithm [9] with small thermal diffusivity is used, the decrease of fluid
was used for pressure-velocity coupling to solve these equations. temperature could be avoided by reducing the amount of heat
The boundary conditions were no slip at the inner wall of the conduction towards the inner pipe wall as much as possible.
flowmeter (U=V=W=P/n =0, n is the normal direction to the
wall). The heated section was heated with a uniform wall heat
flux. The flow condition at the pipe inlet was set to uniform flow
of Win=Wm and Tin=20, and the outlet flow condition was set to
free stream, that is, the gradients of all variables along the Water flow (Tin=20), H=0.46 J, th=3 s, PE=0.15 W
streamwise direction were set to zero. The time step was set to
0.0001 s. All calculations were carried out with double precision
using a personal computer. Prior to the final computations, cell

[mm/s]
size independence tests were performed for all the Reynolds
numbers. Calculations were carried out for water flow.
Table 1 shows the physical properties of water at 20 , and

WT
those of copper and paper which constitute the flow pipe.
Adiabatic Wall
Water Copper Paper
: Density [kg/m3] 998 8954 930
cP: Specific heat [kJ/(kgK)] 4.2 0.38 2.5
: Thermal conductivity [W/(mK)] 0.598 384 0.13
10-7 : Thermal diffusivity [m2/s] 1.43 1110 0.56 Paper Wall
Table 1. Physical properties of water and flow pipe.

The boundary fitted coordinate was used, and the Qv

computational domain extended 8 times that of the pipe inner [mL/min]
diameter D in the upstream regime (L1+Lheater+L2=8D), and to 2D
in the downstream regime between the thermocouple setting
distance of L12 (4D). The entire computational domain was ReD
covered with the non-parallel hexagonal cells. A non-uniform 9
(in the radial r-direction: 5 cells in fluid and 4 cells in pipe wall,
respectively)36 (in the azimuthal -direction) 48 (in the
streamwise z-direction: 4 cells in L1 and Lheater, 16 cells in L2 and Figure 4. Relationships between WT and Qv for adiabatic and
L12, and 8 cells in pipe exit length of 2D, respectively) cells were paper walls obtained by numerical simulation.
used for all calculations in the present study.
Prior to the experiment, the optimal design of the flowmeter
was determined by the numerical simulation as the most suitable
setting position of thermocouples and by the amount of Joule
heating H in order to produce high linearity and sensitivity
between the mean travelling velocity WT and the volumetric flow
rate Qv. The optimal setting position of thermocouples and the
amount of Joule heating H are described in Fig. 2. No difference
was produced between WT and Qv when the length L12 between
the thermocouples took two different values of 2 mm and 4 mm
in the case of H=0.46 J. Then, L12 was determined to be 4 mm
and H was a constant of 0.46 J in this experiment, because it is
easier to set more precisely the two thermocouples in a pipe with
an inner diameter of 1 mm. Heating time was set to th=3 s, and
then the electric power became PE=0.15 W.
Figure 4 shows the relationship between the mean travelling
velocity WT and the volumetric flow rate Qv below 0.1 mL/min
which was obtained by numerical simulation. Symmetric flow
patterns were obtained for all Qv and boundary conditions. The
dashed line is the result of the adiabatic inner wall, and the solid
line is the result of the paper wall with a thickness of 0.1 mm
next adjacent the ring heater. A close relationship was observed
between WT and Qv, but the difference produced was about 0.5
mm/s in velocity between both of the calculated results for all Qv.
When a pure free convection occurs (Qv=0), the small value of
Results and discussion
Figure 5 shows the relationship between the mean travelling
velocity WT between the thermocouples apart from L12 and the

T [K]
[mm/s]
volumetric flow rate Qv below 0.1 mL/min. The dashed line is the 3.0 30
result of the numerical simulation, and the solid line is the result
of the experimentation. The dotted and dashed line represent the
velocity distribution for the Poiseuille flow. The linear 2.5 25

W
relationship between WT and Qv is fairly good, and high
sensitivity is also obtained over a wide range of flow rates for
W
either of the results of the simulation and for the experiment for 2.0 20
water flow. The small discrepancy between the simulation and
the experimental results seems to be due to the difficulty of
setting the thermocouples just as the same positions of length L12
apart in the experiment. The result confirms that this micro
1.5 15
flowmeter is feasible and cost effective for industrial use as a
volumetric flow rate measurement below 0.1 mL/min, such as in TC1 T
medical fields and production process of chemicals. 1.0 10

TC2
0.5 5
Water flow (Tin=20), H=0.46 J, th=3 s, PE=0.15 W T12 = 2.9 K

0.0 0
-1 0 1
Wall Center Wall
[mm/s]

Simulation
Figure 6. Axial velocity W and temperature riseT
distributions for Qv=0.06 mL/min.
WT

Poiseuille flow : Wmax

The calculated velocity distribution W across the pipe is in

good agreement with that of the Poiseuille flow shown by the
solid line. This fact indicates that a heated pulse with a small
amount of Joule heating and a pipe with a small inner diameter
which produces rapid diffusion velocity especially in the radial r-
Experiment direction could not influence the basic Poiseuille flow.
Furthermore, temperature distributions across the pipe at
different positions, that is the positions of TC1 and TC2, were
mostly flat, because the diffusion time in the radial r-direction
becomes extremely small by using a pipe with an inner small
diameter of D=1 mm. Approximately 2.9 K in the temperature
Qv difference is produced between the two points.
[mL/min]

ReD
Figure 5. Relationship between WT and Qv.
Figure 6 shows the axial velocity W and temperature rise
T distributions along a horizontal line passing through the center
of the pipe for Qv=0.06 mL/min which were obtained by
numerical simulation. The measurement positions are at TC1 and
TC2 both for velocity and temperature fields. The velocity
distribution is exactly the same for both measuring positions, and
the only the velocity distribution at the position of TC1 is shown.
The solid line shows the velocity distribution for the Poiseuille
flow, and the dashed line shows the simulated result for this
mixed convection flow. The solid circles indicate the temperature
distribution across the pipe where the TC1 is located, and the
solid squares indicate the temperature distribution across the pipe
where the TC2 is located.
Conclusions
A simple measurement method for micro volumetric flow rate
below 0.1 mL/min with high precision and low cost is proposed
for industrial use. This method is based on the measurement of a
mean travelling velocity between the thermal sensors of a locally
heated pipe flow which is called time-of-flight flowmeter. The
copper pipe was indirectly heated by a heated pulse with a small
amount of Joule heating in order not to influence the basic
Poiseuille flow. That is, the heated flow acts only as a thermal
fluid marker.
Experiments were carried out using several Reynolds
numbers up to ReD=2.1 which correspond to the maximum flow
rate of Qv=0.1 mL/min. It was found that the volumetric flow rate
Qv in the pipe is directly proportional to the mean travelling
velocity WT. Qv can be obtained by using the linear relationship
between WT and Qv. The linear relationship between WT and Qv
was confirmed for a water flow rate below 0.1 mL/min
experimentally and numerically. This method is feasible and cost
effective to measure volumetric flow rates below 0.1 mL/min.
References
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Flowmeters: Overview of the Current State of the Art and Latest
Research, Flow Measurement and Instrumentation, 17, 2006,
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Small Liquid Flowrate Measurement and its Future Landscape
(in Japanese), AIST Bulletin of Metrology, 8-1, 2010, 15-43.
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Characteristics of a Micro-Machined Coriolis Flow Meter: An
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of a Diffusion Temperature Rise of a Locally Heated Thermal
Flow in a Hagen-Poiseuille Flow, Flow Measurement and
Instrumentation, (submitted).
[6] Koizumi, H., Kato, Y., Kimura, T., A Micro Flowmeter
Based on the Measurement of a Diffusion Temperature Rise of a
Locally Heated Thermal Flow in a Hagen-Poiseuille Flow, The
12th International Symposium on Advances in Computational
Heat Transfer, July 2012, 1-8 (CD-edition).
[7] Koizumi, H. and Serizawa, M., A Micro Flowmeter Based on
the Velocity Measurement of a Locally Accelerated Thermal
Flow in an Upwardly Directed Hagen-Poiseuille Flow, Flow
Measurement and Instrumentation, 19-6, 2008, 370-376.
[8] Nyuyen, N.T., Micromachined Flow Sensors-A Review, Flow
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Differential Expressions Involving both First and Second
Derivatives, Int J. Numer. Methods Eng., 4, 1972, 551-559.
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Modeling of bioheat equation for skin and a preliminary study on

a noninvasive diagnostic method for skin burn wounds

Shong-Leih Lee* and Yung-Hsiang Lu

Department of Power Mechanical Engineering
National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan

Abstract dimensionless thickness of hypodermis

dimensionless heat capacity
A three-dimensional vascular model is employed in the present dimensionless thickness of epidermis
study for a unit area of skin covering just one single pair of T reference temperature difference
terminal artery-vein vessels. The tissue temperature and the
dimensionless intensity of a thermal radiation
blood temperatures in artery and vein vessels are solved with a
multi-grid system. A strong countercurrent heat exchange dimensionless temperature
between the bloods inside artery and vein vessels is evidenced. mean temperature of tissue
The mean temperature of the tissue over the cross-section of the dimensionless thermal conductivity
unit skin area is evaluated. The resulting one-dimensional perfusion parameter
function is regarded as the normal tissue temperature valid for
density, ( kg m 3 )
large area of skin in view of the symmetric and periodic structure
of the paired artery-vein vessels in nature. A three-dimensional dimensionless time
bioheat equation then is formulated by superposing the effect of dimensionless temperature
skin burn wound on the normal skin temperature with and dimensionless normal skin temperature
without thermal radiation exposure. Finally, the bioheat pseudo-Biot number
equation is employed to simulate the process of active dynamic b
thermography (ADT) for grade assessment of skin burn wounds. blood perfusion, ( m 3 s 1m 3 )
The decaying factor of the skin surface temperature is found to subscript
decrease monotonically in the self-cooing stage after a thermal a artery
radiation heating. The boundary of grades IIa and IIb in a large a0 secondary artery
burn wound might be detected by tracking the peak of the b blood
gradient of decaying factor within 30 seconds after the thermal c core
radiation is turned off. d dermis
ed epidermis
Nomenclature v vein
Bi Biot number v0 secondary vein
c dimensionless radius of secondary vessel
1.Introduction
cp specific heat, ( J kg 1K 1 )
sweat evaporation rate, ( Wm 2 )
Ev The first attempt to quantitatively describe heat transfer in human
tissue with blood flow effect was presented by Pennes [1]. He
ev dimensionless sweat evaporation rate added a source term b b (c p )b (1 k ) (Ta T ) to the heat
h ambient heat transfer coefficient, ( Wm 2 K 1 ) conduction equation for tissue temperature by considering heat
k thermal conductivity, ( Wm 1K 1 ) transfer from blood to tissue, where Ta and T denote arterial
L reference length or thickness of dermis, (m) blood and tissue temperatures, while b , (c p ) b and b are
m b mass flow rate of blood, ( kg s1 ) density, specific heat and perfusion of blood, respectively. The
q dimensionless heat flux at z 0 equilibrium factor
Qm heat generation by metabolism, ( Wm3 ) Tv T
k (1)
Q tr intensity of thermal radiation, ( Wm2 ) Ta T
qm dimensionless heat generation by metabolism
is a prescribed constant in the range 0 k 1 throughout the
(r , z ) cylindrical coordinates tissue. Pennes [1] assigned k 0 by assuming thermal
rb dimensionless radius of a round burn wound equilibrium between venous blood and tissue ( Tv T ). This is
r0 dimensionless radius of the computational domain the well-known Pennes equation.
T temperature or tissue temperature, (K)
t time, (s) The Pennes equation has gained widespread acceptance ever
since it was published in 1948, although its validity has been
( x, y, z ) Cartesian coordinates
seriously questioned in many applications [2, 3]. One of the
Greek symbols major problems is the countercurrent heat exchange taking place
decaying factor between artery and vein in paired artery-vein vessels. The net
d thermal diffusivity, ( m 2 s 1 ) heat lost to the tissue from the vessel pairs was found to be the
predominant mode of bioheat transfer for vessels of 50 200 m
in diameter [4-6]. This behavior has been confirmed by the
numerical investigation for a branching countercurrent network
in Brinck and Werner [7]. To take this effect into account,
some nonvascular models were proposed to improve the Pennes
equation by altering the equilibrium factor such as the efficiency
function [3] and the correction coefficient [6].
The artery and vein vessels in skin are typically paired. Their
diameters are less than 200 m in general [6]. Hence, the
countercurrent heat exchange in the vessel pairs might be
significant. Henriques and Moritz [8] were the pioneers in the
study of skin burn injury. They found that a first degree burn
occurs when the skin is maintained at a temperature above
44C . Recently, a few mathematical models of heat transfer in
skin have been proposed for some thermal hazards including
contact burn, scald burn, flash fire, and thermal radiation
exposure [9-12]. However, these models are all based on the
conventional Pennes equation without considering the effect of
countercurrent heat exchange in vessel pairs.
Skin consists of three layers, namely epidermis, dermis, and Figure 1. A schematic vascular system of the skin.
hypodermis. The grades of skin burn wound are classified
according to the burn wound depth. Grades I, IIa, IIb, and III
correspond to destruction of epidermis, shallow dermis, deep
equation then is employed to simulate the ADT process on burn
dermis, and full dermis thickness, respectively. The burn
wounds as in the experiment by Renkielska et al. [14]. A new
wounds of grades I and IIa would heal spontaneously within 3
parameter is proposed to estimate the boundary of grades IIa and
weeks of the burn, whereas both grades IIb and III need surgery.
IIb in large burn wounds from the different responses of the
In clinical practice even an inexperienced doctor has no difficulty
normal and burned skins.
in distinguishing grades I and III burn wounds. However,
differentiation between grade IIa and IIb is still problematic.
Accurate prognosis is only 50-70% in clinical evaluation based 2. Three-dimensional vascular model
on visual inspection [13]. 2.1 Governing equation
To assess the burn wound depth more accurately, Renkielska et al. Figure 1 illustrates a schematic vascular system of the skin [6, 7].
[14] developed a noninvasive diagnostic method termed as active The blood vessels (including artery and vein) beneath the muscle
dynamic thermography (ADT) for relatively large burn areas. are known as the primary vessels. The blood circulates between
They conducted an experiment on young domestic pigs (each the primary vessels and the cutaneous vessels by separate riser
weighted approximately 20 kg) in view of the high degree of vessels. The blood enters the secondary artery in the bottom of
functional and structural similarity of pig skin to human skin [15]. the dermis with a temperature Ta 0 approximately the same as
The wounds were inflicted by an aluminum rod which was
applied to the skin at controlled temperature and time. One day that in the primary artery. Next, the blood rises to the top of the
after the burn the ADT experiment was performed with a short dermis by the terminal artery, and then flows to the terminal vein
optical excitation (halogen lamps of 1000W). The optical through a capillary bed (not shown in Fig. 1). Subsequently, the
blood descends to the secondary vein by the terminal vein. The
heating resulted in a surface temperature rise of about 2.5C
blood temperature in the secondary vein Tv 0 is slightly smaller
followed by a self-cooling stage. The skin surface temperature
was assumed to decrease exponentially with a constant time than Ta 0 . There is no blood vessel in both epidermis and
constant during the self-cooling stage. The time constant was hypodermis.
calculated for each of the burn wounds, while the wound depth
was determined by the method of histological analysis [16]. The terminal vessels are roughly 20-40 m in diameter. They
form a pair of countercurrent heat exchanger as mentioned earlier.
Based on the experimental results, Renkielska et al. [14] The spacing between the terminal vessel pairs is the typical
concluded that burn wound having a time constant longer than length of the capillary bed, 500-1000 m . The typical diameter
10.125 s would heal after 3 weeks of burn spontaneously,
otherwise it would be unhealed. This discrimination threshold of the secondary vessels is 50-100 m [6, 7]. In the present
is equivalent to a burn wound shallower or deeper than 60% of study, diameter and spacing of the terminal vessels are assumed
the dermis thickness at the measurement sits. However, of the to be 30 and 750 m , respectively, while the distance between
23 burn wounds investigated in their study, two wounds with the terminal artery and terminal vein is 30 m (60 m center-
similar burn depth (57.5% and 62.1%) had significantly different to-center). The diameter of the secondary vessels is 75 m .
time constants (18.125s and 8.125s). By contrast, two time The average thicknesses of the epidermis, the dermis, and the
constants of essentially the same value (10.200 s and 10.023 s) hypodermis are, respectively, 75, 1500, and 10000 m [12].
corresponded to burn wounds of healed and unhealed with totally
different burn depths (22.0% and 67.8%). Hence, the time Figure 2 shows a simple 3D model for a unit skin area that
constant suggested by Renkielska et al. [14] is not necessarily an contains just one single pair of terminal artery and vein. The
efficient parameter for assessment of burn wounds grades. dimensionless coordinates ( x, y, z ) is normalized with the
thickness of the dermis L 1500 m such that the
The purpose of the present work is to formulate a bioheat
dimensionless thicknesses of the hypodermis and the epidermis
equation with a superposition technique for normal and burned
skins in particular. The effect of countercurrent heat exchange are 6.667 and 0.05 , respectively. Due to symmetry,
in artery-vein vessel pairs is taken into account. The bioheat the computational domain b x b , 0 y b , 0 z 1
 where / n represents the normal heat flux on the tissue
side of the vessel surface. The perfusion parameter is
proportional to m b which is the mass flow rate of blood inside
the blood vessels.

2.2 Boundary conditions

The hypodermis possesses a large thickness and a low thermal
conductivity. It provides a good insulation for the muscle under
the skin. This implies that the temperature inside the dermis is
essentially maintained by the secondary vessels. For simplicity,
the secondary artery and vein are simplified as a flat surface of
width 2c ( c y c ) on the bottom of the dermis ( z 0 ) as
illustrated in Fig. 2. This gives rise to the boundary condition
on the surface z 0

( x, y, 0)
0 for y c
z

( x , y , 0) b 0 for 0 y c (5)
Figure 2. A 3D vascular model for one single pair of terminal where b 0 ( a 0 v 0 ) / 2 is the average temperature of the
artery and vein.
secondary artery and vein. On the skin surface ( z 1 ), the
convective boundary condition is
is employed, where b 0.25 . The radius of the secondary ( x, y, 1 )
vessel is c 0.025 . All of the thermophysical properties in the Bi ( x, y, 1 ) ev 0 (6a)
z
tissue are assumed constant.
h L L Ev
After imposing the assumptions and introducing the Bi , ev (6b)
dimensionless transformation, ked ked T

d t T T Qm L2 where h is the ambient heat transfer coefficient, and Ev is

, , qm (2) the sweat evaporation rate. The boundary conditions in the y-
L2 T k d T
coordinate assume the form
the energy equation inside the tissue of the dermis and the
( x, 0, z ) ( x, b, z )
hypodermis is expressible as 0, 0 (7)
y y

( ) ( ) ( ) qm (3) due to symmetry, while the periodic boundary condition is
x x y y z z
imposed in the x-coordinate
where d and k d are, respectively, the thermal diffusivity (b, y, z ) (b, y, z )
and thermal conductivity of the dermis. Q m is the heat
generation by metabolism. The dermis and the epidermis are ( x 2b, y, z ) if x b
( x, y, z ) (8)
represented by 0 z 1 and 1 z 1 , respectively. The ( x 2b, y, z ) if x b
thermal conductivity is a step function. Its value is unity in
the dermis, and jumps to another constant k ed / k d in the The temperatures on the surfaces of the terminal artery and vein
are, respectively,
epidermis. Similarly, the specific heat jumps from unity in
the dermis to ( c p )ed /( c p ) d in the epidermis. The ( x, y , z ) a ( z ) , ( x, y , z ) v ( z ) (9)
reference temperature difference is assigned as T Ta0 T The initial condition for the artery blood temperature (4a) is
with T being the ambient temperature.
a ( 0) a 0 (10)
Both blood temperatures inside the terminal artery and vein are
Owing to the very tiny vessels, the blood temperature inside the
assumed one-dimensional. They are governed by the total heat
capillary bed is essentially the same as the surrounding tissue at
transfer across the wall of the blood vessels, i.e.
z 1 . Hence, one assigns the initial condition
d a

dz
(
a n
) ds (4a) v (1) (1) (11)

d v
(x, y, z) dx dy
1

dz v
(
n
) ds (4b) ( z)
ad ad
(12)

m b (c p ) b for the blood temperature in the terminal vein (4b), where ad is

(4c) the cross-section area of the dermis.
kd L

Figure 3. (a) Isotherms on the plane y 0 . (b) Isotherms on the
plane z 0.3 .
Figure 4. The mean tissue temperature ( z ) and blood
temperatures in artery a (z ) and in vein v (z ) at 0.1
and 0.2 .
2.3 Numerical method and the results
In the present study, a uniform fine grid system is employed in
the vicinity of the terminal vessels ( 0.05 x 0.05 and
0 y 0.05 ),
xi 0.05 (i 1) x , y j ( j 1) y (13)
where x y 0.001 , i 1, 2, 3, , 101, and j 1, 2, 3, ,
51 after a series of grid tests. To conserve computational effects,
the other coarse grid system with a grid mesh of 5x 5y
x i 0.25 5 (i 1) x , y j 5 ( j 1) y (14)
where i 1, 2, 3, , 101, and j 1, 2, 3, , 51, is used for the
remainder of the physical domain ( 0.25 x 0.25 and
0 y 0.25 ). The temperature of the outer boundary of the
fine grid system at x 0.05 and y 0.05 is provided by the
solution of the coarse grid system. Similarly, the temperature of
the inner boundary of the coarse grid system at x 0.045 and
y 0.045 is determined by the solution from the fine grid
system. Both gird systems have the same gird size in z-
coordinate,
z k (k 1)z (15)
where z 0.01105, k 1, 2, 3, , 96. The interface of the
dermis and the epidermis ( z 1 ) is located at the middle of the
two successive grid points z 91 and z 92 .
The thermophysical properties of skin and blood from the
literature [9, 12] are employed in the present computation, i.e.
k d 0.37 , k ed 0.21 , k hd 0.16 ,
d 1200 , ed 1200 , b 1100 ,
( c p ) d 3200, ( c p )ed 3580 , ( c p )b 3300 (16)
where the units of thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat
are W m 1 K 1 , kg m 3 , J kg 1K 1 , respectively. The
2
sweat evaporation rate is assumed Ev 10 W m , while the
metabolism heat is negligible in skin ( Qm 0 ) [12]. Under
normal condition the blood perfusion rate is
b 0.024 m3 s 1m 3 [12]. It is equivalent to
8 1
m b 2.110 kg s or 0.125 in the present
configuration. The other two dimensionless parameters in Eq.
(6b), the sweat evaporation and the Biot number, would be
ev 0.006803 if the reference temperature difference is
T 10.5C , and Bi 0.05 if the ambient heat transfer
coefficient is h 7 W m 2 K 1 [12].
Based on these parameters, the steady-state solution of the
problem is solved with the conventional central difference
scheme and the SIS solver [17]. The resulting isotherms on the
planes y 0 and z 0.3 are shown in Fig. 3(a) and 3(b),
respectively. In Fig. 3(a) the increments of the isotherms
employed in dermis and epidermis are 0.002 and 0.001,
respectively. From Fig. 3(a), one sees that the blood
temperature in the terminal artery decreases from a (0) 1 to
a (1) 0.959 while that in the terminal vein increases from
v (1) 0.9583 to v (0) 0.994 . This implied a strong
countercurrent heat exchange in the paired artery-vein vessels
through the gap between them as observable from Fig. 3(b).
Figure 4 reveals the mean temperature ( z ) over the cross-
section of the dermis (12) at two representative perfusion
parameters 0.1 and 0.2 . The perfusion parameter
after exercise could be twice as larger as in rest. It is very
interesting to note that the mean temperature of the dermis ( z )
is essentially independent of the perfusion rate.
Figure 5 shows the effect of the Biot number on the mean
temperature of the tissue ( z ) under normal condition
( 0.125 ). The Biot number is seen to have a significant
influence on the tissue temperature. Nevertheless, the mean
temperature of the tissue ( z ) is always a linear function of z
in both dermis and epidermis. The epidermis has a smaller
thermal conductivity ( k ed / k d 0.5676 ) and thus a larger
temperature gradient. For convenience, the mean temperature
of the tissue ( z ) is correlated by

( z) ( z ) (17)

where
q
( z) (1) ed (1 z)( ) for 0 z 1
ed

q
( z) (1) (1 z)( ) for 1 z 1 Figure 5. Influence of Biot number on the mean tissue
ed temperature ( z ) at 0.125.
1 q e
(1) ( )( ) v f1
Bi ed Bi

q Bi f 2 ev by noting that the heat flux q is maintained by the secondary

vessels (see Eq. (18)). In the skin burn wound area ( 0 r rb ),
ed 1 Bi (0.8 ed )
the burned secondary vessels provide no heat energy. The heat
f1 0.01812 0.03995Bi 0.08439Bi2 0.08799Bi3 0.03359Bi4 flux at z 0 would come from the core temperature c (at
z ) beneath the hypodermis. Hence, the boundary
f 2 0.9797 0.2651Bi 0.1411Bi2 0.03627Bi3 (18)
condition is assumed
The correlation is valid for 0 Bi 1 and ev 0.006803 .
The particular function (z ) is the solution of the one- (r,0, ) k hd
( c (r,0, )) , (22)
dimensional problem z kd
d d d (0)
( )0, q , Boundary condition (22) can be regarded as an insulation surface
dz dz dz because the pseudo-Biot number is very small ( 0.065 ) in
d (1 ) general. On the skin surface ( z 1 ), the convective
Bi (1 ) (ev Bi f1 ) 0 (19) boundary condition is employed
dz

3. Burned skin with thermal radiation exposure d

Bi (ev Bi f1 ) 0 (23a)
dz
Consider a round burn wound of radius rb . The bioheat
equation for the skin tissue in and around the burn wound can be L Qtr
(23b)
written as ked T

where Q tr is the intensity of a thermal radiation from some heat

( ) ( ) (20)
r r r r z z source such as halogen lamps. It is noted that Eq. (23a) has
been corrected by adding the term Bi f1 to match Eq. (19)
where ( r , z ) is a dimensionless cylindrical coordinate system
when the mean temperature is used instead of the local
normalized with reference length L. The definition of the mean
temperature for the tissue. Finally, the boundary conditions
temperature of the skin tissue (r, z, ) is the same as that in at r 0 and r r0 are assigned as
the previous section. The formulation is performed in the
region of 0 r r0 and 0 z 1 that might cover
(0, z, ) (r0 , z, )
thousands of terminal vessel pairs. The skin is normal in the 0 , 0 (24)
annulus rb r r0 where the boundary condition should be r r

The axially-symmetrical transient problem (20)-(24) should

(r,0, )
q (21) reduce to the one-dimensional steady problem (19) in the absence
z
 Figure 7. Variation of skin surface temperature after thermal
Figure 6. Isotherms of (r, z, ) for the case of rb 5 , radiation exposure.
Bi 0.05 , c 1.02 , and 0 .
Finally, let the solution revealed in Fig. 6 be the initial condition.
As suggested by Renkielska et al. [14] a thermal radiation of
of burn wound ( rb 0 ) and thermal radiation exposure ( 0 ). intensity Qtr 441Wm 2 is applied on the skin surface
Therefore, one gets the governing equation
(covering the burn wound) for 30.42s to raise the skin surface
temperature by about 2.5C , then turn off the halogen lamps

( ) ( ) (25) and leave the skin cooling-off gradually. The thermal radiation
r r r r z z in dimensionless form is

and the associated boundary conditions 0.3 1.303 0

( ) (28)
0 0
(0, z, ) (r0 , z , )
0, 0
r r
based on the reference time L2 / d 23.4s . The time step
(r , 1 , ) employed in the computation is 0.05 (or 1.17s ). The
Bi (r , 1 , ) ( ) 0
z resulting skin surface temperature is shown in Fig. 7. The burn
wound area ( 0 r rb ) is seen to have a larger temperature
(r ,0, ) decaying factor
0 for rb r r0
z
/
(29)
(r ,0, )
(r ,0, z ) q ( c (0)) for 0 r rb (26)
z

by substituting the superposition

( r , z , ) ( r , z , ) ( z ) (27)

into Eqs. (20)-(24). The unsteady term on the left-hand-side of

Eq. (25) arises from the time-dependent thermal radiation ( ) .
It appears that the solution of Eqs. (25) and (26) is (r , z, ) 0
for normal skin without thermal radiation exposure ( rb 0 and
0 ). Figure 6 shows the resulting isotherms of the solution
(r, z, ) for the case of rb 5 , Bi 0.05 , c 1.02 , and
0 , while the computation domain is truncated at r0 50 .
The burn wound has a low temperature as compared to the
normal skin due to the burned secondary vessels. The minimum
temperature occurring at the center point of the burn wound is
(0, 1 ) 0.76 on the skin surface. It corresponds to 34C
if the reference temperature difference and the ambient Figure 8. Decaying factor of skin surface temperature after
temperature are T 10.5C and T 26C , respectively. thermal radiation exposure.

Figure 9. Variation of / r with time after thermal
radiation exposure for Bi 0.05 and rb 5 .
Figure 10. The ratio rp / rb as a function of time for various
sizes of burn wound.
as compared to the normal skin (see Fig. 8). This finding is
consistent with the experiment [14]. However, the decaying
factor is not a constant. It seems to decrease monotonically
with time (see Fig. 8). Hence, it is not relevant to grade the
burn wounds with the value of (or the time constant
employed in [14]). In the present study, the gradient of the
decaying factor / r is proposed for the grade assessment
of skin burn wounds. Figure 9(a) and 9(b) show the distribution
of / r in the periods of 0 t 30.42s and
30.42s t 152.10s for the case of Bi 0.05 and rb 5 .
From Fig. 9(a) the gradient of the decaying factor is seen to have
a sharp peak at r rp near the boundary of the burn wound
( r p rb ). As time elapses the peak moves left gradually, while
the second peak emerges at t 143s (see Fig. 9(b)). For
convenience, the ratio r p / rb as a function of time is presented
in Fig. 10 for various sizes of burn wound. Figure 10 indicates
that r p is closed to rb at the very beginning of the cooling
stage. Therefore, the burn wound area ( 0 r rb ) might be
detected by tracking the first peak of the decaying factor gradient
of the skin surface temperature ( r rp ) within 30 seconds after
the halogen lamps are turned off.
4. Conclusion
In the present study, a one-dimensional function is obtained for
the tissue temperature of normal skin based on a three-
dimensional solution of a vascular model. Next, a three-
dimensional bioheat equation is formulated by superposing the
effect of skin burn wound on the normal skin temperature.
Finally, the proposed bioheat equation is employed to simulate
the method of active dynamic thermography for grade assessment
of skin burn wounds. Based on the numerical results, the
following conclusions are drawn.
(a) A strong countercurrent heat exchange between the bloods
inside the terminal artery and vein vessels is evidenced.
(b) The three-dimensional bioheat equation proposed in the
present study is able to handle a large area of skin burn wound.
(c) The decaying factor of the skin surface temperature decreases
monotonically in the self-cooing stage after a thermal radiation
heating.
(d) The boundary of grades IIa and IIb in a large skin burn wound
area might be detected by tracking the peak of the decaying
factor gradient of the skin surface temperature within 30 seconds
after a thermal radiation heating.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their appreciation to the National
Science Council of Taiwan for the financial support of this work
through the contract NSC 100-2221-E-007-085.
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[14] Renkielska, A., Nowakowski, A., Kaczmarek, M. and
Ruminski, J., Burn depth evaluation based on active
dynamic IR thermal imaginga primarily study, Burns
32 ,2006, 867-875.
[15] Meyer, W., Schwarz, R. and Neurand, K., The skin of
domestic mammals as a model for human skin, with special
reference to domestic pig, Curr. Probl. Dermatol. 7 ,1978,
39-52.
[16] Singer, A.J., Berruti, L., Thode, H.C. and McClain, S.A.,
Standardized burn model using a multiparametric histologic
analysis of burn depth, Acad. Emerg. Med. 7 ,2000, 1-6.
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16 ,1989, 161-178.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Study of Hypersonic Rarefied Gas Flow over Shallow Cavity by DSMC Method

P.Y. Tzeng1, T.H. Lin2, C.Y. Soong3 and M.C. Lo4

1
Department of Mechatronic, Energy, and Aerospace Engineering,
Chung Cheng Institute of Technology, National Defense University, Tauyuan 33551, Taiwan, R.O.C.
2
School of Defense Science,
Chung Cheng Institute of Technology, National Defense University, Tauyuan 33551, Taiwan, R.O.C.
3
Department of Aerospace and Systems Engineering, Feng Chia University, Taichung 40724, Taiwan, R.O.C.
4
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Chiao Tung University , Hsinchu, 30010, Taiwan R.O.C

Abstract
In this study, rarefied gas flow over optical window of high-speed Introduction
interceptor was simplified and investigated numerically as a two Investigation of hypersonic rarefied gas flow is realistic applicable
dimensional rectangular cavity flow. With high altitude rarefied in aerospace engineering, especially, in development of high
flow field, the traditional computational method for solving Navier- altitude interceptor. Optical viewing window is an important
Stokes equation is inappropriate. Direct Simulation Monte Carlo assembly, designed for it effective target seeking. The window
(DSMC) method is hence adopted to implement investigation of must maintain its optical transparency throughout the operational
the rarefied gases problem. Improved DSMC techniques and flight envelope of vehicle. However, under the conditions of high
suitable gas-surface interaction models for solid boundary Mach number and high temperature, the performance of seeker,
conditions were employed. Proper initial conditions were specified, which behind optical viewing window, was degraded by
in which hypersonic flow went through a forebody with wedge aerothermodynamic effects. Imprecision detection will result in
shape. Shallow cavity flow field with varying altitude and flight faulty mission. For this reason, offering accurate flow field
speed are then examined. Length-to-depth ratio of shallow cavity is information becomes necessary.
fixed. The major concerns are the effects of gas-surface interaction
models on simulations of gas dynamic characteristics of this In generally, atmosphere is considered as continuum and studied by
window system in various flight conditions. Navier-Stokes method. According to Diehl's report[1], however,
the density of atmosphere is less than which at see level as the
Nomenclature altitude over 60 km. The mean free path ( ) of molecules is raised
to 310-4 m. Moreover, as the altitude higher than 100 km, the
C molecular velocity pressure decreases to 10-7 atm and is reached to 4.710-1 m.
d depth of cavity Under this rarefied conditions, viewing atmosphere as continuum is
f0 equilibrium velocity distribution function unadapted. Classical continuum model should be replaced by
H altitude molecular model. Direct simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) is one of
kB Boltzmann constant the widely used molecular approaches in studying rarefied gas flow.
Kn Knudsen number Therefore, DSMC method is adopted herein to study hypersonic
l length of cavity rarefied gas flow.
M Mach number
m molecular mass Kogan[2] is one of the precursors who investigate hypersonic
R gas constant rarefied gas flow. Btefisch and Vennemann[3] studied hypersonic
Rf random number between 0 to 1 rarefied flow by electron beam technique. It is until Bergemann[4],
T Temperature who investigated near continuum hypersonic flow by gas kinetic
U incident molecular velocity simulation and considered wall-catalysis, then gas surface
U* reflection molecular velocity interaction was reconsidered in hypersonic rarefied flow. In 1998,
Vmp molecular most probable thermal velocity Ivanov and Gimelshein[5] mentioned that interaction of gas
accommodation coefficient particles with surface is one of the major problem in hypersonic
Reciprocal of the most probable molecular speed in an rarefied gas dynamic problem. Gas surface interaction models
influence on flow parameters substantially as rarefaction of gas
equilibrium gas
specific heat ratio increases.
deflection wave angle In this study, the flow field of high speed interceptor is divided into
wedge angle two parts. The first is hypersonic wedge flow and another is
molecular mean free path shallow cavity flow. In wedge flow, the simulation results are
viscosity coefficient compared with theoretical compressible gas dynamics. Besides, the
Subscripts flow parameters behind oblique shock in wedge flow simulation
results are set as the initial conditions for shallow cavity flow.
freestream Cercignani, Lampis, and Lord[6](CLL), isotropic scattering(IS),
n normal direction and partial specular partial diffuse (Pt-SD) gas surface interaction
t tangential direction models are studied in specifying boundary conditions for this
w solid wall, surface rarefied gas flow problem.
0,1,2,3 particular value
Problem Description
In the forebody of high speed interceptor, as Figure 1, hypersonic
free stream passes though wedged leading edge and forms a shock
in the flow field. Behind the shock, the pressure, temperature, and
density of flow raise immediately. Besides, the flow velocity is
slow down and changes its direction to along with the wedged
surface. With high temperature and varying density near the surface,
the performance of target seeking of interceptor could be degraded.
To obtain more accurate flow field information is useful for this
engineering problem.
Virtual image
Real image
Bow shock
Optical-Window
Seeker system
Free stream
Figure 1 Schematic diagram of hypersonic flow over an optical
window.
Hypersonic rarefied flow problem is interesting and attracts many
researchers. In 1984, Moss and Bird [7] studied hypersonic reentry
by DSMC at the altitude range of 92 to 150 km. Their results were
in good agreement with continuum predictions in low altitude.
However, rarefaction and slip effects departed continuum
predictions and DSMC results rapidly. In 1998, Riabov[8] studied
hypersonic rarefied gas flow by DSMC with several simple shapes.
Riabov's results pointed that under low Reynold's number condition,
the influences of specific heat ratio(), viscosity parameter(~Tn),
and freestream Mach number(M ) are significant. Riabov[9]
investigated hypersonic gas flow near two side-by-side plates and
discussed the geometric factor and Knudsen number(Kn) effects on
lift and drag. The Kn in Riabov's research were from 0.024 to 1.8.
In the same time, Riabov[10] studied side-by-side cylinder with
similar conditions.
In 2002, Santos and Lewis[11] studied hypersonic flow passing
though a wedge forebody with different freestream attack angle and
wedge shape by DSMC at the altitude of 70 km. In 2003, Santos[12]
studied the pressure and heat transfer coefficients with similar
condition and Santos[13] also investigated flat nose influence on
heat transfer in hypersonic wedge flow. Until 2004, Santos[14]
extended his research to gas surface interaction in hypersonic
wedge flow. In 2008, Padilla[15] studied gas surface interaction
with hypersonic reentry problem. In 2010, Sampaio and Santos[16]
studied reentry satellite with different altitude and discussed
pressure, heat transfer, drag on the satellite.
In hypersonic cavity flow, Blair[17] investigated cavity flow with
different length to depth ratio( l / d ) and classified cavity flow by
length to depth ratio to opened( l / d 10 ) and closed
( 10 l / d 13 )cavity. In Blair's research, he mentioned that as
hypersonic flow passing through a closed cavity there is an
expansion wave in the leading side and a free shear layer impinging
to cavity's bottom wall. Moreover, Roshko[18] studied closed
cavity and mentioned that free shear layer will attach with cavity
bottom then form two vortices in both side. Heller et al[19] studied
cavity flow by wind-tunnel and discussed the pressure oscillation
happened in different location in the cavity bottom. East[20] did
similar experiments as Heller and found the oscillation in cavity
can be related to acoustic depth mode. Tai and Lee[21] investigated
cavity flow with cooling injection by solving Navier-Stokes
equations. Lamp and Chokani[22] studied cavity flow numerically
by Navier-Stokes scheme. In Lamp's research, a small jet was
implemented to force the shear layer with different amplitudes and
frequencies.
In this study, hypersonic wedge flow has been investigated at the
altitudes ranging from 85 to 100 km and the deflection oblique
shock wave angles were compared with theoretical compressible
gas flow. Different gas surface interaction models for specifying
solid boundary conditions were compared in this rarefied gas cavity
flow. The initial conditions for cavity flow calculations were
obtained from the simulation results of wedge flow.
Numerical Method
As mentioned in previous section, in this study, DSMC is chosen as
simulation method. Bird [23] proposed the DSMC method for
studying shock. Then DSMC was applied to the investigation of
dilute gas[24]. Until 1994, Bird[25] wrote the book to introduce
DSMC method integrally. The DSMC method used a statistical
method to solve the Boltzmann equation. In this method, the gas
velocity distribution function is the most important for flow
macroscopic properties. For the equilibrium state, it can be shown
as in equation (1), the so-called Maxwellian distribution function.
3
f0 ( 3
)exp( 2C 2 )
2
1 (1)
m
2 RT 2k BT
All flow properties, momentum, energy, density, and pressure, are
related to the integral of the distribution function. Besides, DSMC
method simulates real gas flows by simulation particles, each of the
particles represented a great number of real gas molecules. Within
several physical procedures, move, collision, indexing, and
sampling gather flow properties from simulation particles. The gas
surface interaction is in the part of move in DSMC. Heat flux and
momentum flux between gas particles and body surface were
simulated by proper gas surface interaction model.
Maxwell[26] proposed the models for gas surface interaction in
1879. In Maxwell's research, gas particles incident to surface then
reflected from surface by two ways. One is specular reflection and
the other is diffuse reflection. In specular reflection, incident
molecules preserve their tangential velocity unchanged. However,
their normal velocity gets an equal magnitude with opposite
direction. The reflection molecules' velocity can be written as
equation (2).
U n U n
U t1* U t1 (2)
U t 2* U t 2
In equation (2), U and U * are respectively the incident and
reflection velocities. The subscripts n and t represent the normal
and tangential directions of the surface. For diffuse reflection, the
reflected velocity is shown as equation (3).
1/ 2
U n* Vmp ln R f 1
U t1* Vmp ( ln R f 2 )1/ 2 sin(2 R f 3 ) (3)
*
U t 2 Vmp ( ln R f 2 ) 1/ 2
cos(2 R f 3 )
In Eq. (3) , Vmp is the thermal velocity with the greatest
probability, and which is dependent on surface temperature. R f is
a random number and its range is between 0 and 1. Maxwell also
proposed that when gas molecules incident into surface, a portion
of molecules are reflected diffusely and the others are specular.
That can be written as fraction reflected specularly and U n* U n
(1 ) fraction reflected diffusely. This concept is widely adopted

12
2 2
in study of kinetic gas flow and implement in DSMC method for U t1* C U n sin(2 R f )
several decades. In 1971, Cercignani and Lampis [27] proposed a
C (6)
12
gas surface interaction so-called CL model. In they research, 2 2
U t 2* Un cos(2 R f )
prediction reflection molecule angles agreed well with experiment
of electron beam. Lord[6, 28] implemented CL model to DSMC

12
C U n 2 U t12 U t 2 2
method successfully and the followers call it CLL model. The
normal and tangential component of reflection velocity in CLL
model can be written as equations (4) and (5) In equation (6), the normal velocity reversal but the two velocity
components tangential to the wall, U t1* and U t 2* , reflecting
1/ 2

2 randomly. Recently, Tzeng et al[30] proposed an improvement of
Rn 2 1 n U n the gas surface collision rule for adiabatic walls, the IS model. The
Vmp reflection molecule's velocity can be written as equation (7).
U n* Vmp
1/ 2 U n
2 Rn 1 n Vmp cos(2 R f 2 )
(4) U n* C R f 11/ 2

U t1* C (1 R f 1 )1/ 2 sin(2 R f 2 )

1/ 2
Rn n ln R f 1
U t 2* C (1 R f 1 )1/ 2 cos(2 R f 2 ) (7)
In equation (4), normal reflection velocity is depend on normal

12
momentum accommodation n and pre-collision normal velocity C U n 2 U t12 U t 2 2

U n . As n 1 , the normal reflection velocity is same as diffuse Figure 2 show four different gas surface interaction models. In this
one. research, several different gas surface interaction model were
studied in cavity flow.

U t1* Vmp U t1* cos(angle) U t 2* sin(angle)
ang ang

U t 2* Vmp U t1* sin(angle) U t 2* cos(angle)
ang ang

U
1/ 2 Pre-collision molecule Collided molecule
2
U t 22

t1
Rt cos 2 R f 4 1 t
1/ 2
U t1*
ang Vmp (5)
U t 2*
ang

Rt sin 2 R f 4 (a)
Collided molecule

1/ 2
Rt t ln R f 3 , t t 2 t Dependent on Surface Temperature

U Pre-collision molecule
angle arctan t 2
U t1
Similarly, tangential reflection velocity alone the interaction plane,
U t1* and U t 2* also depend on tangential momentum
ang ang

accommodation t and pre-collision tangential velocity U t1

and U t 2 . When t 1 , tangential reflection velocity alone the
(b)
interaction plane are equal to that in diffuse model. As showing in
equation (5), the different is that tangential reflection velocity U t1* Collided molecule
Pre-collision molecule
and U t 2* are related to the angle of interaction plane.

Tzeng et al [29] proposed a novel gas surface interaction model to

modify the adiabatic solid boundary and investigate instability
phenomena in a two-dimensional RB convection. In their reflection
rule, the normal reflection velocity is unchanged in magnitude and
direction, which is opposite to the pre-collision one. Then the
tangential velocity is dependent on the conservation of energy. This
Pt-SD model can be shown as equation (6). (c)
 Collided molecule molecules is decreasing and molecular mean free path is increasing.
Pre-collision molecule Equal probability in all direction Under this rarefied condition, the interaction between gas particles
and surface is much less than that at lower altitude. Theoretical
results were based on continuum assumptions. However, as the
altitude getting higher, the state of gas flow is far from continuum.
The rarefied effect influences flow properties strongly.

Theoretical Simulation results

H T1
M1
(km) (K) T2 T2
M2 M2
(d) (degree) (K) (degree) (K)
Figure 2 Gas surface interaction models. (a)specular reflection, 85 12 188.8 21.4 5.65 760.8 22.2 5.26 849.2
(b)diffuse reflection, (c)CLL model, and (d)isotropic scattering (IS).
90 12 186.9 21.4 5.65 752.9 23.4 5.26 850.3
Results and discussions 95 12 188.4 21.4 5.65 759.1 25.5 5.31 842.0
In this study, the collisions between molecules are simulated by 100 12 195.1 21.4 5.65 786.0 29.2 5.33 868.4
using variable hard sphere (VHS) molecular model. Besides, this
study adopted the modified no time counter (MNTC)[31] and
sampling technique. The geometry of wedge body is shown as Table 2 Wedge flow simulation results at various altitude.
Figure 3.
In Table 3, different freestream Mach number are investigated at
Y:0~5 m the altitude of 90 km. The shock wave angles in these computations
5 are larger than theoretical values. Besides, the temperatures behind
Computation Domain the shock are also higher than theoretical results.

Theoretical Simulation results

H T1
M1
(km) (K) T2
M1=6~12 Mach M2 M2 T2
(degree) (K) (degree)
M2
12 186.9 21.4 5.65 752.9 23.4 5.26 850.3

X: -1~5 m 90 10 186.9 21.9 5.28 596.1 23.9 5.03 646.4

-1 0 Wave angle =15 5 8 186.9 22.8 4.75 469.0 25.4 4.64 483.8

Figure 3 Geometry and computation domain of hypersonic wedge 6 186.9 24.6 3.99 366.3 27.3 3.83 387.3
flow.
According to compressible gas dynamics, the wave angle can be Table 3 Wedge flow simulation results with different freestream
related to wedge angle by equation (8). Mach number at the altitude 90 km.

M 2 sin 2 1 Figure 4 presents temperature contour with different altitude. With

tan 2cot 2 1 , when max (8) the same freestream Mach number, oblique shock wave angle
M 1 ( cos 2 ) 2 increased as the altitude getting higher. At high altitude, the
molecule mean free path increasing that mean Kn is increasing
In equation (8), M 1 is the flow velocity in front of the oblique
with altitude and rarefied effect is much significant than it at lower
shock. The simulation conditions in hypersonic wedge flow are altitude.
shown as
Table 1. The Freestream Mach number ( M ) is 12. and diffuse
reflection (fully accommodation) is used as gas surface interaction
model in this wedge flow portion. Besides, Freestream Mach
number from 6 to 12 is also investigated at the altitude of 90 km.

H Temperature Speed of Number Mean free

(km) (K) sound(m/s) density path(m)
85 188.84 2.75E+02 1.71E+20 9.88E-03
90 186.87 2.74E+02 7.12E+19 2.37E-02
95 188.42 2.75E+02 2.92E+19 5.79E-02
100 195.08 2.80E+02 1.19E+19 1.42E-01

Table 1 Wedge flow simulation conditions.

(a)
Table 2 shows the computation results with freestream Mach
number 12 at various altitudes. The simulation results show that
wave angles are rapidly departed from theoretical ones as the
altitude increasing. At high altitude, number density of gas
 (a)
(b)

(b)

(c)
Figure 4 Hypersonic wedge flow temperature contour with
different altitudes. (a)85 km, (b)95 km, and (c)100 km.
In cavity flow study, Simulation results from hypersonic wedge
flow at 90 km are used to set the initial conditions. Figure 5 shows
the diagram of shallow cavity. The length to depth ratio( l / d ) is
fixed as 10 in this computation. Freestream Mach number is 8 and
12 in wedge flow study. Three different gas surface interaction
models are investigated. Figure 6 shows the normalized
temperature contour in hypersonic shallow cavity flow. The
temperature distributions are obviously different with each gas
surface interaction model. In isotropic scattering and Pt-SD
boundary conditions, high temperature are located near the cavity (c)
bottom. With CLL model as the surface boundary condition, the
high temperature region is closed to the trailing edge of cavity.
This result indicated that gas surface interaction model influences
flow properties obviously.

M2 d

Figure 5 Schematic diagram of hypersonic shallow cavity flow.

(d)
Figure 6 M 12 , normalized temperature contour in hypersonic
shallow cavity flow. (a)CLL ( t 0.75 ), (b)CLL ( n 0.75 ),
(c)IS, and (d)Pt-SD.
Figure 7 and Figure 8 show the temperature and pressure
distribution, respectively, along the top, middle and bottom level of
cavity with different surface boundary models. The results indicate
that with Pt-SD and IS boundary, the temperature and pressure of
flow are higher than which within CLL boundary. Besides, there is
a low pressure and low temperature region in the front side of
cavity. It is due to that hypersonic flow passed through the cavity
and expanded in the leading part of cavity.

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

(c)
Figure 8 M 12 , comparisons of normalized pressure
distribution at (a)top, (b)middle, and (c)bottom of cavity with
different surface boundary models.
Figure 9 shows the density distribution with different boundary
conditions. The density distribution are less influenced by various
surface models. Figure 10 shows different freestream Mach number
(c) with various accommodation coefficients in CLL model. The
results indicate that normal momentum accommodation coefficient
Figure 7 M 12 , comparisons of normalized temperature influence temperature distribution more significant than tangential
distribution at (a)top, (b)middle, and (c)bottom of cavity with momentum accommodation coefficient.
different surface boundary models.
 (a)
(b)

(b)
(c)
Figure 10 M 8 and 12 , comparison normalized temperature
distribution at (a)top, (b)middle, and (c)bottom of cavity with CLL
models.
Conclusions
In this study, hypersonic rarefied gas passing through wedge body
simulated by DSMC is compared with theoretical result. The
simulation results are used to set initial flow condition on shallow
cavity problem. The effects of gas surface interaction models are
investigated in hypersonic cavity flow and some conclusions are
obtained:
1. In hypersonic wedge flow, the deflected shock angles are greater
(c) than theoretical ones, especially, at high altitude. This can be
attributed to rarefaction effect.
Figure 9 M 12 , comparisons of normalized density distribution
at (a)top, (b)middle, and (c)bottom of cavity with different surface 2. Gas surface interaction models influence overall flow field
boundary models. significantly in shallow cavity problem.
3. Adiabatic boundary conditions, such as IS and Pt-SD, result in
more uniform and higher temperature distribution than that in CLL
boundary.
4. Gas surface interaction has minor influence on density
distribution in cavity flow study. Because of gas surface interaction
has dominate effects on molecules' velocity distribution function
that affects momentum and heat flux more, influences mass flux
less.
Acknowledgments
This research was partially supported by the National Science
Council, the Republic of China under the Grant NSC 99-2221-E-
606-006-MY2.

(a)
References
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Fe, 2007.
   
 

 
 
 

  
 
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
19 22 November 2012
A Computational Study of Flammability Limits of Opposed-Jet Syngas
Diffusion Flames
Hsin-Yi Shih and Jou-Rong Hsu
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Taiwan
Abstract
The computed flammability limits of opposed-jet syngas
diffusion flames were reported in this paper. A narrowband
radiation model was coupled to the OPPDIF program, which
used detailed chemical kinetics and thermal and transport
properties to study 1-D counterflow syngas diffusion flames.
Although syngas or syngas-hydrocarbon mixture could extend
the flame stability and improve the combustion performance in
the lean combustion systems, a wide flammable range of syngas
fuels is considered a drawback in the fire safety aspect. The study
of flame extinction and flammability limits is then important in
applying syngas fuels. Extensive computations were made to
determine the flammability limits from high stretched blowoff to
low stretched quenching. Results from the U-shape extinction
boundaries indicate that a minimum hydrogen percentage is
required for H2/CO syngas mixture to be combustible in air. The
minimum hydrogen concentration becomes larger towards both
ends of high strain and low strain rates. The most flammable
strain rate is found near 1 s-1 where syngas diffusion flames exist
with minimum 0.002% hydrogen content. On the other hand, the
critical oxygen percentage (or limiting oxygen index) below
which no diffusion flames could exist for any strain rate is found
to be 4.7 % for the equal-molar syngas fuels (H2/CO=1). The
critical oxygen percentage is lower for syngas mixture with
higher hydrogen content. The flammability maps were also
constructed with strain rates and ambient pressures or CO2
dilution percentages as the coordinates. The lowest ambient
pressure at which the diffusion flames finally extinguish was
computed for equal-molar syngas. By adding dilution gases such
as CO2, H2O and N2 to make the syngas non-flammable, besides
the inert effect from the diluents, the chemical effect of H2O
contributes to higher flame temperature, while the radiation effect
of H2O and CO2 plays an important role in the flame extinction at
low strain rates. Several near extinction flame structures were
compared to provide a better understanding of the extinction
characteristics of syngas diffusion flames.
Nomenclature
a strain rate (radial velocity gradient on the fuel side)
cp constant-pressure specific heat
Dk j multi-component diffusion coefficient
T
D thermal diffusion coefficient
h enthalpy
I radiative intensity
P total pressure
pl pressure path length
qr
radiative heat flux
Ru universal gas constant
s,s direction along a ray
T temperature
U nondimensional radial velocity
V axial mass flux
diffusion velocity
W molecular weight
X mole fraction or broadening equivalent width
Y mass fraction
y axial direction
mean line width to spacing ratio
line half-width
line spacing parameter
k mean absorption coefficient
heat conduction coefficient
viscosity or direction cosine
wave number
w quadrature weights
density
transmittance
production rate
solid angle
b blackbody
i reaction step index
k species index
oxygen side
fuel side
Introduction
Syngas or synthetic gas can be obtained from many kinds of
fossil fuels and solid combustibles, such as coal, biomass,
refinery residual and even municipal waste through gasification
processes. In recent years, syngas which is mainly composed of
H2 and CO is being recognized as a viable energy source and an
attractive fuel, particularly for stationary power generation with
IGCC (Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle) technology [1,
2]. As the energy demand and environmental concerns continue
to grow, syngas is expected to be one of the promising fuels in
future energy production. However, the syngas composition and
relative amount of the constituents may vary depending on the
fuel sources and the gasification processes [3]. There is
considerable variation of H2/CO ratio with the rest being
primarily N2, CO2, and H2O. This widely variation in syngas
composition has a direct impact on the combustion and extinction
characteristics, which will be a challenge in designing syngas
combustors and applying syngas fuels. Due to the presence of
hydrogen, syngas or syngas-hydrocarbon mixtures could be a
proposal of the extension of flame stability limit, improvement of
performance and the reduction of emissions in lean combustion
systems, especially for H2-enriched syngas fuels [4-6]. On the
other hand, a wide flammable range of syngas fuels is considered
a drawback in the fire safety aspect. To prevent accident
explosions and fires from occurring in the processes, the
flammable range of syngas mixture must be known, and the study
of flame extinction and flammability limits are important.
Several piror research works have focused on the flame structures 1 K dX jDT 1 dT
and NOx emission characteristics of opposed-jet syngas diffusion vk
X kW
W j Dkj dy
k
Yk T dy
(5)
flames considering various syngas compositions, dilution and j
1
operation conditions [7-10]. Recently, Shih and Hsu [11, 12]
numerically studied 1-D counterflow syngas diffusion flames where Dkj is the multi-component diffusion coefficient, DkT is
with detailed chemical kinetics, thermal and transport properties
the thermal diffusion coefficient, X k is the mole fraction, and
and flame radiation calculated by narrowband radiation model.
The combustion, extinction and emission characteristics of Wk is the molecular weight of kth species.
opposed-jet syngas diffusion flames at low strain rate (10 s-1)
were investigated. Although some flame extinction limits due to Fuel and oxidizer jets are located at negative and positive sides in
low hydrogen content, low pressure and dilution were found, the the axial coordinate, respectively. The fuel is the H2/CO mixture as
flammability limits over a wide range of flammable strain rates the syngas, and the oxidizer is air. The boundary conditions for the
from quenching to blowoff are not completed. In this work, the preceding equations are:
flame extinction limits are obtained for both high-stretch blowoff, T () T , T ( ) T (6)
where the flame goes out because of insufficient gas residence
time for chemical reaction, and for the low-stretch flame Yk () Yk ,, Yk ( ) Yk , , k 1,..., K (7)
quenching due to radiative heat loss. The flammability maps are
numerically constructed with the flammable strain rates and
syngas composition or operation conditions as the coordinates. U () ( / )1 / 2 , U () 1 (8)
The effects of hydrogen percentage of syngas, oxygen
V ( y 0) 0 (9)
concentration, ambient pressure, and dilution gases on the
flammability limits of H2/CO synthetic mixture flames are also Note that the quantity a in Eqs. (1) and (2) is the fuel-side strain
examined. rate, consistent with the boundary conditions given in Eq. (8) . The
stagnation point is at y = 0 as indicated in Eq. (9). The last term in
Mathematical and Numerical Models the energy equation (3), dqr / dy , represents the thermal radiation
Opposed-jet Diffusion Flames contribution from flame. The treatment of this term is given next.
Assuming a counterflow, axisymmetric laminar diffusion flame
stabilized near the stagnation plane of two opposing jet flows, as Oxidizer

shown schematically in Figure 1, two equivalent formulations exist

in the literature: one specifying the flame strain rate (or stretch rate) u y

and the other the jet exit velocity and the distance between two Stagnation
V y 0 0 x
plane
nozzles [13]. Constant strain rate formulation is more convenient in
theoretical studies since the flow field is described with only one
parameter. On the other hand, constant velocity formulation is
suitable for direct comparison of numerical results with Fuel
experiments since it has the jet exit velocity and nozzle separation
distance as parameters. In this paper, the constant strain rate, which
is defined as the radial gradient of the radial velocity at the fuel Figure 1. Schematic of opposed-jet diffusion flame.
boundary i su t
ilized.Ifo nea ssume st h
atth ed en sity ,t empe r
a t
u re
A comparison of different radiation treatments for one-dimensional
,ma ssf ra ct
ion sYk, nondimensional radial velocity U, and axial
diffusion flames has been made in the past, indicating that optically
mass flux V are functions only of the axial direction y, then the
thin and gray gas models are inadequate for quantitative
resulting equations can be derived as following [14]:
predictions [15], especially for the predictions of the flame
dV extinction due to radiative heat loss at small strain rates or under
Continuity: 2 aU 0 (1) slow convection flows [16, 17]. In this work, a statistical
dy
narrowband model with the exponential tailed inverse line strength
dU d dU distribution is used to calculate the radiative properties of the
Momentum: V ( ) a ( U 2 ) 0 (2) participating gases assumed in the calculations (CO, CO2, and
dy dy dy H2O). The narrowband model enables one to calculate spectrally
averaged emissivity and absorption coefficients within a small
dT d dT K dT
Energy: Vc p ( ) ( Yk vk c pk ) wavenumber range and it is the most accurate other than lin-by-line
dy dy dy k 1 dy calculations. The combination of detailed chemical kinetics with a
narrowband radiation model provides more accurate predictions on
K dqr the flame structures, species production, and extinction limits
k hk
0 (3) compared to the optically thin or gray gas models. The coupled
k 1 dy
combustion/narrowband radiation model has been used and tested
dYk d by comparing experimental temperature profiles and emitted
Species: V ( Yk vk )
k 0, k 1,..., K (4) radiation for counterflow H2/O2/N2 diffusion flames at normal
dy dy pressure [18]. This computational model was also employed for the
previous study of syngas diffusion flames by Shih and Hsu [11, 12].
PW
The density is calculated by the equation of state: ( ),
Ru T The radiative source term in Eq. (3) is given by the nongray
radiative transport equation for an absorbing and emitting medium
where W is the mixture molecular weight given by:
written in terms of the mean transmittance over a narrowband,
YK
W ( k ) 1 , and the diffusion velocities are defined as: which is described as [19]:
k1Wk
I v ( s, ) ( s s )
v s I bv ( s) I wv ( s w , )
| s {v ( s w s )}
s s
s (10)
s ( s s )
[ v ]I bv ( s
) ds
sw s s
The transmittance of a homogeneous gas column with combined
collision and Doppler broadening is given by Ludwig et al. [20]:
1/ 2
exp
kpl 1
1/ 2
[1 ( X C / kpl ) 2 ]2 [1 ( X D / kpl ) 2 ]2 1
In these expressions, k is the mean absorption coefficient and pl
is the pressure path length. XC and XD are the equivalent widths
for collision and Doppler broadening, respectively.
X C ( / )( 1 (2kpl ) 1
X D 1.7D (ln{1 [0.589(kpl D )]2 })1 / 2
6
D 5.94 10 (v / W ) T / 273
where 2C is the mean line-width to spacing ratio. The
collision half-width expression C and the line spacing
parameter are taken from Soufiani and Taine [21].
The preceding formulas are extended to the non-homogeneous case
with the use of the Curtis-Godson approximation [22]. With this
approximation, the non-homogeneous gas properties are obtained
from the same expressions using equivalent parameters. Once the
spectral intensity I v is calculated, the radiative source term is
calculated fromad o ubleintegrationo v erthes olidanglea nd the
wave number as:
dqr d
[ I v ( y, )d]v
dy dy v 4
Numerical Methods
The opposed-jet constant-stretch diffusion flame equations (1-5)
were solved and coupled with the narrowband radiative transfer
equations (10-16). The calculations were carried out with a code
revised from OPPDIF program [23] for opposed-jet diffusion flame
configuration. This program was converted from the constant
velocity formulation to the constant strain rate formulation, and
radiation heat transfer is accounted for by statistical narrowband
solver. In the code, upwind and central difference schemes are used
for the convective and diffusion terms, respectively. The nongray
narrowband radiative transfer equation was solved with the S8
discrete ordinates method [19]. A 20-direction Gaussian quadrature
set was used. The radiation participating gaseous species included
are CO, CO2, and H2O. A recent computational study for spherical
diffusion flames in microgravity also reported that the statistical
narrowband radiation model combined with the discrete ordinate
method reproduced the experimental results with highest accuracy
[24]. Variable grid distribution was used and the grid sizes were
adaptable, which are controlled by specifying the acceptable first
and second gradients in the solution. The difference between the
present results and the ones with much more stringent gradient
specifications is minimal. A grid independence check has been
performed.
The solution of the governing equations also requires the
knowledge of transport coefficients (
,)a ndth ethermody namic
properties (cp, cpk, hk). These data were determined using the
CHEMKIN [25] and TRANSPORT package [26]. Both ordinary
and thermal diffusion were considered. Two detailed chemical
kinetics of CO/H2 flames were employed alternatively in this work,
one is from GRI 3.0 [27] and the other one is from Davis et al. [28].
GRI 3.0 involves 53 species and 325 reactions, and it is a well-used
chemical kinetics. The Davis s mechanism is then an optimized
kinetic model of H2/CO combustion, which involves only 14
species and 38 reactions. The justification of the chemical kinetics
of GRI 3.0, thermodynamic and transport properties has been made
in previous studies for non-premixed H2/CO synthetic mixtures [9].
(11) In addition, the numerical results of peak flame temperature and
laminar flame speed with the mechanisms of GRI 3.0 and Davis s
for premixed H2/CO syngas with CO2 dilution were in good
(12) agreement with experimental measurements [29]. Therefore, in
this study, GRI 3.0 is used for the comparisons of detailed flame
structures and chemical reactions, while Davis s mechanism is
applied for the determinations of the flammability limits, since
the construction of the flammability maps requires a great
amount of the computations.
(13)
Results and Discussions
(14) Flame Stretch and Flame Extinction
(15) The flame structures of opposed-jet syngas diffusion flames at
two different strain rates are compared first in Figure 2, where
the distributions of flame temperature and main species are
shown for equal-molar syngas (50%H2+50%CO or H2/CO=1)
combusted with air at strain rates of 1 and 1000 s-1. These two
flames represent typical low-stretched and high-stretched
diffusion flames, respectively. The results show that even the
maximum flame temperatures of these two flames are close; the
flame widths and species distributions are quite different. Low-
stretched flame is wider, and produces more H2O compared to
that of high-stretched flame. Due to high diffusivity and
reactivity of hydrogen, the mole fraction of H2 decreases faster
than that of CO. The mole fraction of CO then exhibits a peak
ahead of flame zone. Figure 3 then plots the variations of
maximum flame temperatures with strain rates at 1 and 0.01 atm,
(16) where non-monotonic behaviours are found with two expected
extinction limits. Quenching extinction occurs at low strain rates,
where flames are cooled by radiative loss, so flame temperature
is too low to sustain the combustion. On the other hand, blowoff
extinction happens at high strain rates, where chemical reactions
are incomplete due to the short residence time in the flame
stabilization region. Although this trend has been identified in
previous works [30, 31], the use of more accurate and update
kinetic and radiative data here could enables the quantitative
predictions for future applications of syngas fuels. Figure 3 also
demonstrates the effect of ambient pressure on the extinction
limits. Results indicate both blowoff and quenching limits are
extended when the ambient pressure is higher. However, the
extension in blowoff limits is more obvious. Since the molar
concentrations of reactants are larger at higher pressure, so the
overall reaction rate is increased, and this leads to flame blowoff
at higher strain rates.
As mentioned earlier, two chemical mechanisms are used
alternatively in this work. Figure 3 also shows the comparisons of
maximum flame temperatures at different strain rates computed
from GRI 3.0 and Davis s kinetics. Results indicate that the
predictions of maximum temperature variations from these two
mechanisms are rather close. Further comparing the peak mole
fractions of the main combustion products (CO2, H2O) and
reactive radicals and atoms (OH, H, and O), the results shown in
Figure 4 also demonstrate good agreements. In addition, for the
computed range of strain rates, the peak mole fractions of H2O
continually decrease with increasing strain rates, however, the
peak mole fractions of radicals and atoms first increase and then
begin to drop near blowoff. Note that the peak mole fractions of
these reactive species at 1000 s-1 are larger than those for the
flame at strain rate of 1 s-1, which is opposite for the H2O
production, indicating the incomplete chemical reactions for fraction where flame extinction occurs becomes higher when the
high-stretched flame. ambient pressure is lower. Except the considerable variations of
H2/CO ratios in syngas fuels, three dilution gases, CO2, H2O and
2300 1 N2, may be present in the syngas mixtures. In the model
P = 1 atm
Temperature = 300 K
strain rate, a = 1 (1/s)
strain rate, a = 1000 (1/s)
calculations, an equal-molar H2/CO syngas with various diluents
Syngas / Air
Syngas: 50%H 2 + 50%CO N2
on the fuel side of the opposed jet with air on the other side are
0.8
1800
T
tested. Figure 6 then shows the variations of maximum flame
temperatures with dilution percentage at strain rate of 1 s-1. The

Mole fraction
CO
0.6 dilution percentage in the figure represents the molar fraction (or
volumetric fraction) of dilution gases for syngas mixtures where
T (K)

1300
H2 H2/CO ratio is kept the same (H2/CO=1). Results show the
0.4
H 2O
maximum flame temperatures decrease when adding more
800
dilution gases. Among three dilution gases of CO2, H2O and N2,
CO2 O2
0.2 the maximum flame temperature decreases the most by using
CO2 dilution, followed by H2O and N2, except near the extinction
limits, where the minimum dilution percentage needed to
300 a = 1 (1/s) 0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 extinguish the syngas flames can be reached with smaller amount
-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2
a = 1000 (1/s)
0.4 of H2O dilution compared to the others. This is different from the
y (cm) cases at higher strain rates of 10, and even 1000 s-1, where CO2
Figure 2. Comparisons of flame structures at strain rates of 1 and gases always has the lowest dilution percentage to extinguishes
1000 (1/s). the flames, regardless H2-rich or CO-rich syngas in the previous
study [11]. However, before extinction, the flame temperature is
highest with H2O as the diluents. The possible dilution effects on
2500
the syngas flames can be categorized as pure dilute effect,
Temperature = 300 K
Syngas / Air
chemical effect, and radiation effect [11]. Therefore, besides the
Syngas: 50%H 2 + 50%CO
P = 1 atm
differences of pure dilute effects among CO2, H2O and N2,
2000
GRI 3.0 radiation effects of H2O and CO2 contribute to the flame
GRI 3.0
Davis extinction at low strain rate, and chemical effects of H2O
contribute to higher flame temperature. The shift of the lowest
T max (K)

dilution percentages from CO2 to H2O at lower strain rate may

1500
attribute to the competitions between chemical and radiation
P = 0.01 atm effects.
1000
3000

Quench Blowoff
2500
500
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 P = 10 atm
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Strain rate, a (1/s) P = 1 atm
2000
Frame 003
Figure 3. Variations of maximum flame temperatures with strain
T max (K)

extinction P = 0.1 atm

rates for equal-molar syngas at 1 and 0.01 atm. 1500 extinction

P = 0.01 atm
Frame 002 14 Aug 2012 No Data Set

1000 Temperature = 300 K extinction

-1
0.5 10 strain rate, a = 10 (1/s)
P = 1 atm
Syngas / Air extinction
Temperature = 300 K H 500
Syngas / Air (Syngas : H 2 + CO)
Syngas: 50%H 2 + 50%CO OH
0.4 -2
10
GRI 3.0 0
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Peak mole fraction

Peak mole fraction

Davis
Mole fraction of H 2
0.3 O

10
-3 Figure 5. Variations of maximum flame temperatures with
hydrogen contents of syngas at different pressures.
0.2 H 2O

10-4 2500
CO2 P = 1 atm
0.1 CO2
H 2O Temperature = 300 K
N2 strain rate, a = 1 (1/s)
-5
10
2000 Syngas + Dilution / Air
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Syngas: 50%H 2 + 50%CO
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Strain rate a (1/s)
T max (K)

1500
Figure 4. The comparisons of peak mole fractions computed from
GRI3.0 and Daviss kinetics.
Figure 5 then shows the variations of maximum flame 1000
temperatures with H2 fraction of syngas fuels at different ambient
extinction
pressures. The maximum flame temperature decreases with
decreasing hydrogen percentage until flame extinction. In other 500
words, there is minimum hydrogen content for the syngas 0 20 40 60 80 100
Dilution percentage (%)
mixture to be combustible at a certain strain rate (the strain rate is
10 s-1 here). The maximum flame temperature also decreases Figure 6. Variations of maximum flame temperatures with
with decreasing ambient pressure and the minimum hydrogen dilution percentages for equal-molar syngas.
Flammability Boundary where three boundaries are presented for H2-riched (80% H2+
20% CO), CO-riched (20% H2+80% CO), and equal-molar (50%
From Figure 5, we know that at a certain strain rate and pressure, H2+50% CO) syngas fuels. Syngas with higher hydrogen
flame extinction can be obtained when the hydrogen content in percentage has wider flammable range, which is expected. The
syngas fuels is low enough. Therefore, the flammability most flammable strain rate with the lowest oxygen percentage is
boundary using strain rate and hydrogen percentage of syngas also near 1 s-1. This limiting oxygen percentage is called limiting
can be drawn as shown in Figure 7. A U-shaped extinction oxygen index (LOI) or critical oxygen limit. It was previously
boundary with two modes of extinction, quenching and blowoff referred to as the fundamental limit [16]. Below this limit, no
is observed. The flames go out in different ways depending on flame can be sustained at any strain rate (or any jet velocity). For
which branch of extinction boundary is crossed. The lowest practical applications of syngas mixtures, diluents may be present.
hydrogen percentage, which allows diffusion flames in opposed As mentioned earlier in Figure 6, flame can become non-
jet is the merging point C of the blowoff and the quenching flammable by adding the diluents in the syngas fuels, and H2O
branches. Below this hydrogen percentage, diffusion flame will and CO2 are efficient diluents for flame extinction to occur.
not occur for any strain rates in this ambient environment. Therefore, in Figure 10, the extinction boundary is constructed
According to the flammability boundary, the most flammable with strain rate and CO2 dilution percentage as the coordinates.
strain rate is found to be near 1 s-1, and a minimum 0.002% Two inversely U-shaped curves are obtained. One is for syngas
hydrogen is required for the H2/CO syngas to be combustible fuel-side dilution, and the other is CO2 dilution on both fuel and
with air as diffusion flames. Figure 8 then constructs the oxidizer sides. The syngas fuel is equal-molar syngas and the
flammability boundary with strain rate and pressure as the oxidizer is air. Apparently, with CO2 dilution on both sides, the
coordinates. Similarly, a U-shaped extinction boundary divides flammable range is narrower. In addition, the CO2 dilution
flammable and non-flammable regions. At higher strain rates, percentages drop drastically for quenching limits at lower strain
flames go out at higher pressure. The merging point of the rates compared to those for blowoff limits at higher strain rates,
blowoff and the quenching branches is near the strain rate of 0.1 indicating the significance of radiation effect than chemical effect
s-1, where the limiting pressure is found to be around 0.0006 atm from CO2 diluents for low stretched flames. The corresponding
for equal-molar syngas. limiting dilution percentages for H2O and N2 at strain rate of 1 s-1
are also marked in the figure for reference. A crossover of
1
extinction boundaries between CO2 and H2O dilution maybe
10
P = 1 atm
expected and need to be resolved in the future.
Temperature = 300 K

0 Syngas / Air
10
Syngas: H 2 + CO
20
H 2 percentage (%)

P = 1 atm Syngas: 20%H 2 + 80%CO

10-1 Temperature = 300 K Syngas: 50%H 2 + 50%CO

Syngas / N 2 + O2 Syngas: 80%H 2 + 20%CO

15
flammable
O2 percentage (%)

10-2

Quench Blowoff

-3 10
10
C

non-flammable flammable
-4
10
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3 5
Blowoff
Strain rate, a (1/s) Quench
non-flammable

Figure 7. Flammability boundary constructed with strain rate and 0

hydrogen percentage of syngas. 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104
strain rate, a (1/s)

Figure 9. Flammability boundary constructed with strain rate and

101
Temperature = 300 K
oxygen percentage of oxidizer.
Syngas / Air
0 Syngas: 50%H 2 + 50%CO
10
100
N2 non-flammable
Pressure (atm)

-1
10 H 2O
CO2
80
Dilution percentage (%)

flammable
10-2
flammable non-flammable
Blowoff 60
flammable
-3
10 non-flammable
Quench
40
P = 1 atm
10-4 Temperature = 300 K
10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104
20 Syngas: 50%H 2 + 50%CO
Strain rate, a (1/s)
Syngas + Dilution / Air
Syngas + Dilution / Air + Dilution
Figure 8. Flammability boundary constructed with strain rate and 0
pressure. 10-2 10 -1 0
10 101 102 103
Strain rate, a (1/s)
The previous flammability boundaries are created for the syngas
combusted in air. If using strain rate and the oxygen percentage Figure 10. Flammability boundary constructed with strain rate
of oxidizer (balanced with nitrogen) as the coordinates, the and CO2 dilution percentage for equal-molar syngas with air.
extinction boundary can also be drawn as shown in Figure 9,
Near Extinction Flames hydrogen, and the flame stabilizes much closer to the oxidizer
side when oxygen is depleted. The equal-molar syngas diluted
Some near extinction flames are examined and compared in this with CO2 and H2O are shown in Figure 14. Since the limiting
section. All the flames shown here are computed at low strain dilution percentages for CO2 and H2O are 81.2% and 77.6%,
rate of 1 s-1. Figure 11 presents the flame structure near the low respectively, the syngas flames with 77% dilutions are then
hydrogen limit (0.002%). Results are similar to the CO flames, compared, and both flames are believed to be near extinction,
low flame temperature with most of the combustion products as especially for H2O-diluted flame. Consequently, the temperature
CO2. However, CO combustion is very slow. The dry CO (in the of H2O-diluted flame is slightly lower. Since H2O can produce H2
absence of H atoms) was experimentally found to be inflammable through the reverse reaction of H2+OH=H2O+H and CO2 can
in air under the atmospheric pressure condition by Sato in also be converted back to CO through the reversed reaction of
stagnation flow configuration of a Tsuji burner [32], Therefore, CO+OH=CO2+H, the addition of H2O can actually promote the
with only a small amount of H2 in the system, the kinetics of CO production rate of CO2, but not the other around. Therefore, the
oxidization are catalysed appreciably. Figure 12 shows the flame H2O-diluted flame has larger amounts of radiatively species
structure at low-pressure limit (0.002 atm) for equal-molar involving CO2, CO and H2O despite CO2 gases is more radiative
syngas combusted with air. Compared to the flame at and less reactive than H2O.
atmospheric pressure shown in Figure 2 previously, lower
pressure causes weaker reactions, resulting in a low temperature
flame. The flame thickness, which can be estimated by the width 1300 1
of the half maximum of the temperature profile, is enlarged at P = 1 atm
N2
Temperature = 300 K
low pressure. The computed flame thickness here can be over 60 strain rate, a = 1 (1/s)

cm. The diffusion flame thickness is normally the order (D/a)1/2, Syngas / 95.3%N2 + 4.7%O2

Syngas: 50%H 2 + 50%CO

0.8

where D is the mixture diffusion coefficient and a is the strain T

rate (or stretch rate). Because D is inversely proportional to

Mole fraction
0.6
pressure, the flame thickness is then proportional to (Pa)1/2. Both CO

T (K)
800
low stretch and low pressure promote a thick flame. H2
0.4

2800 1
CO2 0.2

H 2O
O2
CO N2
2300 0.8
300 0
-5 0 5
y (cm)
Mole fraction

1800 0.6
Figure 13. The flame structures of syngas at the low-oxygen limit
T (K)

P = 1 atm

Temperature = 300 K T
strain rate, a = 1 (1/s) of strain rate of 1 (1/s).
1300 Syngas / Air 0.4
Syngas: 0.002%H 2 + 99.998%CO

CO2
H 2O O2
1300 1
800 0.2
H2
T
N2
1100 Dilution 0.8
300 0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y (cm) Dilution: CO2

Mole fraction
900 Dilution: H 2O 0.6
T (K)

Figure 11. The flame structures of syngas at the lowest hydrogen P = 1 atm

Temperature = 300 K

limit (0.002%) of strain rate of 1 (1/s). 700

CO2
H 2O strain rate, a = 1 (1/s)
0.4
Syngas + 77%Dilution / Air

Syngas: 50%H 2 + 50%CO

O2
1300 1 500 0.2
CO
P = 0.002 atm

Temperature = 300 K H2

strain rate, a = 1 (1/s)

N2 300 0
Syngas / Air 0.8 -4 -2 0 2 4
Syngas: 50%H 2 + 50%CO y (cm)
Mole fraction

T
0.6 Figure 14. The flame structures of syngas diluted with 77% CO2
CO
T (K)

800 and H2O at strain rate of 1 (1/s).

H2
0.4
Conclusions
O2
H 2O 0.2 The flammability limits of opposed-jet syngas diffusion flames
CO2
have been numerically studied, and the extinction boundaries,
which divide flammable and non-flammable regions, are
300 0
-100 -50 0 50 100 determined. The extensive computations over the flammable
y (cm) ranges of strain rates were made by the model of one-
dimensional counterflow diffusion flames with constant strain
Figure 12. The flame structures of syngas at the low-pressure
rate formulations , which used detailed chemical kinetics and
limit (0.002 atm) of strain rate of 1 (1/s).
thermal and transport properties with flame radiation calculated
The flame structures of equal-molar syngas fuels at low oxygen by narrowband radiation model. From low-stretched quenching
limit are shown in Figure 13, where 4.7% oxygen (balanced with to high-stretched blowoff, the flammability maps were
nitrogen) is the minimum oxygen percentage that the equal-molar constructed with strain rates and operation conditions such as
syngas fuels are combustible at strain rate of 1 s-1. At such low hydrogen content of syngas, pressure, oxygen percentage, and
oxygen percentage, the flame sustains due to the reaction of dilution percentage as coordinates.
U-shaped or inversely U-shaped flammability boundaries are
obtained where flammable strain rates and operation conditions
are presented. The competitions between chemical reaction and
radiation loss lead to the non-monotonic behaviour with two
modes of flame extinction. Low-hydrogen, low-oxygen and low-
pressure limits are numerically predicted, which provides the
fundamental limits, and beyond which no syngas diffusion flames
can ever exist. The near extinction flames are also shown and
compared. The different flame structures reveal the profound
extinction characteristics and require further analysis thermally
and chemically, especially the flame extinction through the
dilution.
By knowing the flammability boundaries and corresponding
critical limits can provide valuable information in apply syngas
fuels and planning a fire safety strategy. Aside from the practical
implications, verifying the extinction limits and the existence of
the critical limits for opposed-jet diffusion flames is also
important from a purely sciential point of view.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the support from NSC,
Taiwan under the grant of NSC100-2221-E-182-053-MY2.
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Numerical investigation for the effect of meniscus geometry
on thermocapillary flow in a thin liquid film
T. Yamamoto1, Y. Takagi1, T. Ban1, Y. Okano1, H. Minakuchi2 and S. Dost3
1
Department of Materials Engineering Science, Osaka University, Osaka 560-8351, Japan
2
Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa 093-0213, Japan
3
Crystal Growth Laboratory, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 3P6
Abstract
Dr. D. Pettit, a NASA Astronaut, carried out a Marangoni
convection experiment onboard the International Space Station
(ISS) in 2003. In this experiment, a thin water film containing
milk powder tracers was formed in a stainless-steel wire ring.
The heating of a section of the ring by a soldering iron induced a
thermocapillary flow in the water film. This flow was towards
the heated part of the ring, in other words it was an outward flow.
However, the theoretically predicted thermocapillary flows were
in the opposite direction. In order to be able to predict the flow
direction correctly, we have carried out a three-dimensional
numerical simulation study by also including the effects of wire
curvature and meniscus shape. The simulation showed that the
meniscus shape determines the flow direction. Its inclusion in the
simulation also led to the prediction of an outward flow (from
center to the hotter part of the ring) in the water film as observed
in the space experiment of Dr. D. Pettit.
Introduction
Thermocapillary, solutocapillary, and Marangoni flows
driven by surface tension gradients along free surfaces are
observed in chemical engineering in various unit operations such
as extraction, gas adsorption, and distillation. Due to their
important roles in these processes, the surface tension gradient
driven flows have thus been widely studied. For instance,
Pearson [9], through a study on the thermocapillary effect,
investigated the Marangoni instability in a static liquid layer
heated from the bottom. In crystal growth particularly, due to
their adverse effects on crystal quality, thermocapillary flows in
the growth melts have often been studied as a fundamental
problem of crystal growth, such as in a liquid bridge [4], [8], [12],
[16], a rectangular liquid layer [1-3], [13], [18], and an annular
pool [7], [10], [15], [17].
Thermocapillary flows also give rise to a characteristic flow
formation in thin liquid films. This formation is known as
hydrothermal wave, and occurs due to thermocapillary flow
instability. When the Marangoni number becomes larger than a
critical value, flow patterns shift to an oscillatory mode and form
the hydrothermal wave. The mechanism of hydrothermal wave
formation has been studied through experiments, linear stability
analyses, and numerical simulations [1-3], [7], [10], [13], [14],
[17] (for further reading on thermocapillary effects, see the
review article of Schatz and Neitzel [14]).
A series of interesting experiments on thermocapillary
effects was conducted by D. Pettit onboard the ISS [11]. These
scientific experiments are called Saturday Morning Science,
and were simple and did not require complex equipment. Among
those, D. Pettit has conducted an experiment in a thin water film
sustained in a circular stainless wire ring. In spite of a large ring
diameter, about 50 mm, it was possible to form a water film due
to the reduced gravity level of the ISS. The thin water film
containing milk powder tracers was held in the wire ring. When a
section of the ring was heated by bringing a soldering iron close
to the wire, a thermocapillary flow, driven by the surface tension
gradient along the free surface, developed in the liquid towards
the hotter region (which is called here an outward flow). This
was contrary to what is predicted theoretically since the liquid
surface tension is a monotonically decreasing function of
temperature.
To address this issue, Kawamura et al. [6] carried out a
combined study with a ground-based laboratory experiment and a
two-dimensional numerical simulation. Their experimental
method and the apparatus used were the replica of the space
experiment of Dr. Pettit. However, to be able to form a film under
Earths gravity, the diameter of the wire ring was selected much
smaller, as 10 mm, than that of the space experiment. In this
ground-based experiment, an outward flow was observed in the
film. Their 2-D numerical simulation (with the assumption of a
steady state flow and a Dirichlet boundary condition for the
temperature field), however, predicted an inward flow; the
computed flow was in the opposite direction of the experiment.
For the explanation of this discrepancy between their experiment
and simulation, they suggested that an effect other than heat
transfer might have caused the outward flow in the film. They
stated that the outward flow could be due to evaporation in the
film: water evaporated in the area near the heated region and then
evaporation gave rise to an outward flow towards the hotter
section of the ring. I. Ueno et al. also conducted an experiment of
water film sustained in a rectangular wire frame to investigate
this phenomenon [19]. One side of the frame was heated and the
other side was cooled. A thermocapillary flow developed in the
film, and inward and outward flow patterns were observed
depending on the Marangoni number.
As seen from the above discussion, questions still remain for
the reasons why an outward flow developed and why could not
be predicted numerically. Studies conducted thus far did not
examine the mechanisms determining the flow direction, and did
not provide a clear explanation for the development of an
outward flow in the experiments.
In this direction, with the purpose of shading light on the
mechanism determining the direction of the thermocapillary flow
develops in a thin circular liquid film, we have conducted a three-
dimensional numerical simulation. In the simulation we have
particularly focused on the effects of meniscus shape and wire
curvature since we have previously found that surface shape
affected the flow patterns in the half-zone method [8] (which is a
simplified model for the floating-zone crystal growth method)
and also in a thin liquid film [1]. Thus, the inclusion of the effects
of meniscus and boundary curvature in the simulation led to a
successful prediction for the flow direction in the film.
Numerical analysis
A schematic view of the computational domain is shown in
Fig. 1. The following assumptions were made in the model: (1)
The effect of gravity is negligible since the space experiment was
conducted under microgravity and the buoyancy driven
convection in the water film was not seen, (2) The heat loss from
water or solid wire into the ambient gas is negligible, (3) The
physical properties, except that of surface tension, are constant,
and the values at 293 K corresponding to the previous
experiments of Kawamura et al. [6] are used, (4) Free surface(s)
does not deform, and (5) The ambient gas is passive.
Heat transfer in the solid wire is analytically approximated
by one-dimensional unsteady heat conduction, and the following
unsteady function is obtained for temperature:
cost. Since we were interested in finding out the mechanism
determining the flow direction, such a downward scaling in the
size of the film is acceptable.
In the analysis, the solid wire was assumed to be a heat-
conducting rigid solid, and the liquid domain being pure water
was assumed to be a heat conducting, incompressible, Newtonian
fluid. The physical properties are presented in Table 1 and Table
2.
Table 1 Physical properties of water (293 K)

T T0
q

6t r
2

(1)
Property (Symbol) Value Unit
A 2k 6t Thermal diffusivity ( 1.4310 -7
m2/s
where T is temperature, T0 the initial temperature, thermal Dynamic viscosity 9.9510-7 m2/s
diffusivity, t time, r radius, angle, k thermal conductivity, and
heat flux q/A was 1.0104 W/m2. The derivation of Equation (1) Density 9.98102 kg/m3
is given in Appendix A. Surface tension coefficient of
9.9310-5 kg/s2
Since the direction of a thermocapillary flow in a thin film is temperature (
affected by various factors, three different geometries of water Prandtl number (Pr) 6.96 -
film were considered to investigate the unsteady heat transfer
from the solid wire. All the thin water films were sustained in a Table 2 Physical properties of stainless steel wire (293 K)
wire ring. Then, the effects of meniscus and the liquid-solid
interface geometry were discussed. Property (Symbol) Value Unit
Thermal diffusivity ( 4.4010-6 m2/s
Computational domain
Thermal conductivity (k) 2.00101 kgm/(s3K)
The first (basic) computational domain was a non-skewed
thin cylinder. In this domain, the solid-liquid and liquid-gas The model equations
interfaces were assumed to be flat. A schematic diagram of the The governing equations of the liquid phase are the
domain is shown in Fig. 1 (a) (hereafter we call this geometry following momentum, continuity, and energy balance equations:
Case 1). We then focused on the meniscus shape. Estimating
v 1
the actual meniscus shape is very difficult because many factors (v )v P 2v (2)
affect the film shape, such as contamination, wire surface t
roughness, and temperature. Thus, we selected some geometric v 0 (3)
patterns of the computational domain and investigated what
T
geometry affects the flow direction. The computational domain v T 2T (4)
was similar to a thin cylinder and the free surface edge was t
skewed. In this case, the solid boundary wall was assumed to be where is the density, is the kinematic viscosity, and is the
flat and the meniscus shape was represented by a smooth Bezier thermal diffusivity of the liquid phase.
curve. The schematic of this computational domain is shown in Along the top and bottom free surfaces, thermocapillary
Fig. 1 (b) (hereafter Case 2), where, is the film thickness, wm forces are in effect, that is, the velocity gradient in the normal
is the meniscus width, and hm is the meniscus height. Finally, the direction to the free surface is proportional to temperature
solid boundary shape was assumed to be a curved wall matching gradient:
the wires long and narrow cylindrical shape. The schematic of v x T
this computational domain is shown in Fig. 1 (c) (hereafter Case T (5)
z x
3).
v y T
The diameter of the film used in the numerical simulation T (6)
(10 mm) is much smaller than that of the space experiment (50 z y
mm). This however was necessary to reduce the computational where presents viscosity and T is the surface tension
coefficient of temperature. The free surface(s) was assumed to be
(a) (b) adiabatic:
Stainless Meniscus
T 0
Stainless
Liquid film wire Liquid film (7)
wire
On the wire wall, no-slip condition is imposed for the flow
5 mm
velocity, and the temperature boundary condition is expressed by
5 mm
Eq. (1).
hm Initial temperature is uniform with a value of 293 K, and the
water film is stationary initially in all regions.
(c) wm The numerical procedure
Stainless
Liquid film
wire The governing equations shown in Eqs. (2) - (4) were
z discretized by the finite volume method, and the velocity and
y
5 mm
pressure fields were coupled by the PISO algorithm. The values
x on cell interfaces were calculated by a second-order central
difference scheme. For the discretization of time derivative, a
first-order implicit Euler method was applied. Computational
grids were non-orthogonal structured grids in multi blocks and
Fig. 1 A schematic view of the film geometry: (a) Case 1, (b) clustered near the wall because local fine grids were required to
Case 2, and (c) Case 3. capture small vertical flows near the wall. One of the numerical
 (a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 3 A snapshot of spoke patterns of temperature fluctuation

(hydrothermal wave).
z
y
similar to that of Peng et al. The snapshot of hydrothermal wave
x is shown in Fig. 3. The wave number was the same as that of
Fig. 2 Numerical grids: (a) Case 1, (b) Case 2, and (c) Case 3. Peng et al. [10]. Therefore, the verification of our simulation
code was successful.
grids used in the present simulation is shown in Fig. 2 and the Using this verified simulation code, we first examined to see
total number of grid points is 87,240. if the unsteady heat transfer at the wall and the three-dimensional
fluid flow structure in the domain played any role in determining
Results and Discussion the thermocapillary flow direction.
Grid convergence was assessed with different grids cases.
Verification of the numerical code Since the geometry of the computational domain in Case 2 was
the most complicated one in the present simulation, the grid
In order to verify the numerical code, the simulation of
convergence assessment was conducted for this case. The
thermocapillary buoyancy-driven flow in Peng et al. [10] was
geometry was selected as = 0.1 mm, wm = 0.05 mm, and hm =
repeated. This article focused on hydrothermal wave at the high
0.2 mm. Three grid levels were examined for each geometry. The
Pr number. This study was chosen to verify the code since the
total grid numbers were 13,430, 87,240, and 176,640. The flow
liquid used in our study is water, which is a high Pr number fluid.
patterns were almost the same in all grid revels.
The configuration of the computational model was a thin annular
Next, the grid dependency of the velocity profile at the film
pool with a free upper surface and a solid bottom. The inner and
surface at 10 s is shown in Fig. 4. The figure shows that the grid
outer walls were isothermal. The depth of the annular pool d was
density of the coarse grid was not sufficient, and the velocity near
1 mm, the Marangoni number Ma was 667.8, the dynamic Bond
the wall became larger with the increasing the number of grids.
number Bod was 0.125, and the temperature difference T
The former was caused by the lack of grid resolution with central
between the inner and outer walls was 8 K. Here, the Ma and Bod
difference scheme and the latter was caused by the grid resolution
numbers are defined by the following expressions:
near the wall. Poor grid resolution near the wall overestimates the
d 2 T (8)
Ma T
r r
scale of vortex. Higher grid resolution gives more accurate results.
0 i However, the computational cost increases dramatically with the
increasing grid resolution. From these results, one may see that
g T d 2
Bod (9) the result of fine 1 grid was corresponding to the result of fine 2
T grid qualitatively. Therefore, it was concluded that the fine 1 grid
where r0 is the outer radius, ri is the inner radius, and g is the was sufficient to express the behavior of the flow. In addition, the
gravitational constant. The physical properties were that of 0.65 grid density of the present study was comparable to that of Peng
cSt silicon oil with a thermal diffusivity of 0.9710-7 m2s-1, a et al. [10]. Peng et al. assumed that the outer radius was twice
kinematic viscosity of 0.6510-6 m2s-1, a density of 760 kgm- as the inner radius and the temperature difference between the
3
, a surface tension coefficient of temperature T of -8.010-5 N inner and outer radii was 2 K. The total volume of the
m-1K-1, a density coefficient of temperature T of 1.3410-3 K-1 , computational domain in this study was 23.56 mm3 ( was 0.3
and the Pr number of 6.7. The governing equations were the mm and the meniscus volume was neglected), while that of Peng
same as in Eqs. (2)-(4), and the Boussinesq approximation was
adopted. Gravity is normal to the top and bottom surfaces. The
velocity boundary conditions were no-slip on the inner, outer,
and bottom walls, and that of the top free surface was expressed
in Eqs. (5)-(6) due to the thermocapillary effect. The temperature
boundary conditions were isothermal on the inner and outer walls,
and adiabatic on the top and bottom boundaries. The top free
surface was assumed to be flat and non-deformable. The
numerical schemes are the following: (1) the second-order central
difference approximation for the diffusion term, (2) the QUICK
method for the convective term, (3) first-order implicit Euler
method for time advancement, and (4) PISO algorithm for the
coupling of the velocity and pressure fields. The computational
grid was uniformly structured, and the numbers of grid points
were 102, 16, and 244 in the r-, z-, and - directions, respectively.
In this simulation, the surface spoke pattern of temperature Fig. 4 The grid dependency of velocity profile at the film surface
fluctuation (hydrothermal wave) obtained numerically was on the upper line at 10 s.
et al. was 235.6 mm3 and their total grid number was 396,576.
The ratio of our grid number to that of Peng et al. was about 1/7-
1/8, while the ratio of the total volume was about 1/10.
Furthermore, the Prandtl numbers were very close in these two
simulations. Therefore, we can conclude that the numerical grid
resolution in this study was comparable to that of Peng et al..
Thermocapillary flow without meniscus
In this section we discuss the case where the water film was
assumed sustained in the circular wire without meniscus, and the
solid boundary is a flat wall. The circular film thickness was 0.1
mm and the diameter was 10 mm. The computed streamlines
(with flow directions) and temperature contours at 5 and 10 s
after heating were plotted in Figure 5. The increment of
temperature contours was selected as 0.5 K. The computed
streamlines exhibit a three-dimensional structure. However, this
is not obvious since the figure was seen in the normal direction to
the free surface. The flow pattern was a roll flow near wall. The
computed temperature fields show that heat transfer is affected
by fluid flow. This figure did not show a specific flow pattern
near the wall.
The streamlines were therefore examined from another
direction to see the behavior of the flow near the wall. The
streamlines with velocity vectors in the cross-section of = 0 of
the circular region are shown at 5 s in Figure 6. As seen from the
figure, a symmetric vortex pair developed near the wall. These
computational results may be explained as follows. Since the
temperature gradient in the film center near the heated edge was
steeper, the thermocapillary effect caused an inward flow and a
return flow developed in the inner region where the temperature
gradient was shallower. As a result, a large symmetric vortex pair
Heat Heat
(a) (b) 295 K
294 K
y y
x x
Heat Heat
(c) (d) 296 K
294 K
y y
x x
Fig. 5 Simulation results in complete thin cylindrical shape at 5s:
(a) streamlines and (b) temperature contours, and at 10s for (c)
streamlines and (d) temperature contours (with 0.5 K increments).
Heat
(a)
Heat
z results as follows. The film thickness did not play any role in
y an outward flow develops. Our numerical simulation results can
(b) 0.5 mm
Heat
z
y flows develop for hm/wm 1. When a small perturbation such
0.5 mm
Fig. 6 Simulation results presented in the cross-section at the
upper encircled region in Case 1: for (a) streamlines at 5 s (b)
velocity vector at 5 s.
developed in the film.
As seen from the above results, the simulation under the
above conditions did not predict the flow pattern of the space
experiment of D. Pettit. In order to shed further light on the issue,
we have also considered the contribution of film thickness. We
carried out simulations with different film thicknesses. However,
the numerical results showed that the film thickness did not affect
the flow direction. These results indicate that the consideration of
the unsteady heat transfer at the ring and three-dimensional flow
structures in the film were not sufficient to predict the outward
flow of the experiments. It seems there are other factors affecting
the flow direction.
Effect of meniscus
In this section, the effect of the following three parameters
of meniscus was investigated: film thickness , meniscus width
wm, and meniscus height hm. In this case, the simulation results
showed that both outward and inward flows could be obtained
depending on the values of these parameters.
For the following values of the parameters: = 0.2 mm, wm
= 0.05 mm, and hm = 0.2 mm, the numerical result showed an
outward flow, for which the snapshots of the computed
streamlines and temperature contours at 5 s and 10 s are shown in
Fig. 7. Isotherms were plotted with the increment of 0.5 K. As
seen in the figure, a symmetric vortex pair was emerged near the
wall similar to Case 1. The size of the symmetric vortex pair in
Case 2 was smaller compared with that in Case 1. In addition, the
interval of the temperature contours was smaller near the heat
source. It means that the temperature gradient near the heat
source towards the center became larger. When the numerical
result showed inward flow, the streamlines and temperature
contours are very similar to that in Case 1.
Heat
Heat
(a) (b) 295 K
294 K
y y
x x
Heat Heat
(c) (d)
296 K
294 K
y y
x x
Fig. 7 Simulation results for the case with meniscus (with an
outward flow development): for (a) streamlines at 5 s, (b)
temperature contour at 5 s, (c) streamlines at 10 s, and (d)
temperature contour at 10 s.
The results for the flow direction obtained numerically are
summarized in Figure 8 at 10 s. Fig. 8 (a) shows that an outward
flow developed with small wm and Fig. 8 (b) shows an inward
flow was predicted with large hm. Fig. 8 (c) and (d) show an
outward flow developed with large hm. We can summarize the
determining the flow direction. When hm is large and wm is small,
be roughly expressed in three categories based on the ratio of
hm/wm. An inward flow develops for hm/wm << 1, and an outward
flow develops for hm/wm >> 1, and both inward and outward
as numerical errors was added in the case of hm/wm 1, the flow
direction was easily changed and became unstable. Therefore,
one can state that the condition of hm/wm 1 represents a
 Inward flow
Inward and outward flow
Outward flow
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 8 Effect of meniscus shape on the flow direction: (a) for hm
= 0.1 mm, (b) for wm = 0.5 mm, (c) for wm = 0.1 mm, (d) for wm
= 0.05 mm.
transitional state (saddle point). Although the criteria of flow
direction switching is an important issue in thermocapillary flow
physics, a precise threshold was not investigated in the present
study since it was beyond our main objective, and the threshold
was dependent on geometrical and physical conditions.
As mentioned earlier, the film thickness was reduced
(compared with the experiment) because of the limitation of the
numerical simulation (computational cost). Here we discuss the
effect of this reduction. The following conditions were
investigated: wm = 0.1 mm, hm = 0.2 mm, and varying between
0.1 to 0.6 mm. When was less than or equal to 0.3 mm, the flow
pattern did not change significantly. On the other hand, when
was larger than 0.3 mm, the flow pattern was affected. It was
noted that a rolling flow pattern was observed when was larger
than 0.3 mm. In the flow pattern, the vortex pair expanded to the
whole film area. As a conclusion, the size of the symmetric
vortex pair became smaller with decreasing .
Next, the film diameter was changed from 10 mm to 50 mm
to compare the result of the space experiment with the numerical
results. The particle tracers movement obtained numerically is
shown in Fig. 9. The meniscus shape in the calculation is the
same as that in Fig. 7. Figure 9 shows that the pattern obtained
from the numerical simulation is almost the same as that
observed in the experiment and the order of the computed flow
velocity is the same that of the experiment. From these results,
we can conclude that our numerical analysis predicts well the
observation of the space experiment.
Effect of wall curvature
In this section, the effect of wall curvature without meniscus
is discussed. Fig. 10 shows the computed streamlines and
temperature contours at 5 s and 10 s. The isotherms were drawn
with an increment of 0.5 K. The film thickness was 0.3 mm and
the curvature radius was 0.15 mm in the basic model. In this case,
an outward flow was developed and a symmetric vortex pair
emerged near the wall similar to the other cases. When was 0.3
mm and the curvature radii were selected from 0.15 mm to 0.5
mm, outward flows were obtained under all conditions, and the
flow direction was changed even if the wall curvature was small
(curvature radius was large).
Next, the flow patterns depending on were evaluated. It
was assumed that the boundary wall kept a half cycle shape when
was changed. The symmetric vortex pair near the wall became
large for large values and the vortex near the wall became
smaller for small values. It was found that the flow direction
Fig.9 Time development of particle tracers movement: numerical
(light colored shapes) and space experiment (dark colored
shapes) [11].
Heat Heat
295 K
(a) (b)
294 K
y y
x x
Heat Heat
(d)
(c) 296 K
294 K
y y
x x
Fig. 10 Simulation results for the outward flow in the thin film
with curved wall (wall curvature): (a) streamlines at 5 s, (b)
temperature contour at 5 s, (c) streamlines at 10 s, and (d)
temperature contour at 10 s.
did not change by , and the size of the symmetric vortex pair
near the wall was affected only for the condition of Case 2.
Two-dimensional simulation in a cross-section plane
For a further examination of the generation of the symmetric
vortex pair near the wall, a two-dimensional simulation was
conducted for the cross-section of the film in the y-z plane. The
use of a two-dimensional model was for simplicity and also for
reducing the computational cost. The computational domain is
the rectangular film that was taken as the cross-section of three-
dimensional domain of Case 1, as shown in Figure 11. The
numerical grid was uniform, and the grid numbers were 400 and
200 in the y- and z- directions, respectively. It was assumed that
the top and bottom surfaces are free surfaces and the sides are
solid boundaries (wall). Initial temperature was uniform at the
value of 293 K. The temperature at the hot wall increased linearly
with time. Figure 12 shows the computed streamlines, velocity
vectors, and temperature contours at 1 s. Isotherms were plotted
with an increment of 0.5 K. As seen, a symmetric vortex pair
develops near the wall, and it was due to the temperature gradient
along the free surfaces. As seen in Figure 12 (c), the temperature
gradient is steep near the wall while it gets shallower away from
the boundary. Similarly, the flow velocity is stronger near the
wall and gets weaker towards the center (Figure 12(b)). A return
flow develops due to the difference in the flow strengths near the
free surface in the region where the flow slows down. Then, a
symmetric vortex pair emerges, as seen in Figure 12(a), due to
the decreasing temperature gradient.
Hot (wall) Top (free surface) Cold (wall)
z
0.1 mm Bottom (free surface)
10 mm
y
Fig. 11 Schematics of the two-dimensional numerical domain
(vertical cross-section).
 (a)
Heat
(b) 1 mm
Heat
(c)
1 mm
Heat
Cold
1 mm
293.1 K
Fig. 12 Two-dimensional simulation at 1 s: for (a) streamlines,
(b) velocity vector, and (c) temperature contour.
Results show that the vortex pair size depends on
temperature gradient. To discuss the relationship between
temperature gradient and the size of the vortex pair, the
temperature gradient distribution and the flow velocity variation
along the free surface in Case 2 are shown in Figures 13 and 14,
respectively. The liquid film geometry used was selected as =
0.2 mm, wm = 0.05 mm, and hm = 0.2 mm, which corresponds to
the cases in Fig. 7. As seen in Figure 13, temperature gradient
takes maximum or minimum values near the wall while a small
value in the central region. Similar to the temperature gradient
distribution, the flow velocity is larger near the wall and weaker
in the center. The highlighted sections with solid lines in Figure
14 indicate the vortex region. Comparing these results, it may be
concluded that the size of the vortex pair was closely related to
temperature gradient.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(c), (d)
(a), (b)
Fig. 13 Computed temperature gradient along the drawn lines
(shown above) at free surface: (a, c) 5 s, (b, d) 10 s.
Mechanism of outward flow development
In this section, the mechanism of the outward flow
development is discussed based on the results of the three-
dimensional simulation. Figure 15 shows the velocity vectors and
temperature contours in the encircled area around the heating
point when an outward flow developed. Geometry of the
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(c), (d)
(a), (b)
Fig. 14 Computed flow velocity component on the drawn lines
(shown below) at free surface: (a, c) 5 s, (b, d) 10 s.
computational domain is that = 0.1 mm, wm = 0.1 mm, and hm =
0.2 mm. In the meniscus, temperature was uniform in the radial
direction and the flow velocity was very small, and a symmetric
vortex pair emerged outside the meniscus. From these results, the
mechanism of an outward flow development is explained as
follows: (1) Temperature gradient in the radial direction was
almost zero in the meniscus because the meniscus width was very
small. (2) The thermocapillary flow in the radial direction
became very weak near the meniscus. (3) The thermocapillary
flow in the circumferential direction developed according to the
circumferential temperature gradient. (4) An outward flow
developed. Once the outward flow developed, the flow pattern
remained unchanged under the condition of hm/wm >> 1. The
reason for this is that the outward flow causes a steep temperature
gradient towards the film center near the wall. As the size of the
vortex depends on temperature gradient as discussed in Section
3.5, the growth of vortex is suppressed and the circumferential
temperature gradient caused an outward flow. The same
mechanism is applied to Case 3, and the effect of wall curvature
creates a region where the radial temperature gradient is almost
(a)
z 0.2 mm
y
y 0.1 mm x
(b)
z 0.2 mm y
y x
0.1 mm
Fig. 15 Computed flow velocity vectors in the cross-section, and
the temperature distribution color map.
zero. An approximate expression for the one-dimensional
Further, we examined the effect of contact angle. From the unsteady wire heat transfer is developed by the following
numerical results, we see that the meniscus shape at hm/wm >>1 procedure [20]. At first, the deviation is given for the unsteady
leads to the development of an outward flow. Therefore, one may heat conduction in a straight wire. It is assumed that at distance ,
conclude that the contact angle between water and the stainless the temperature gradient T x may be taken as zero.
steel wire must have been small in the space experiment. The The first law of thermodynamics is expressed in following form:
contact angle was measured by S. G. Kandlikar and M. E. Q ww w P (A.1)
Steinke [5], and the value was about 30-70 degree. This wide dt

dt

dt
e (v n)dA
c. s .
edV
t
c.v.
range of values was because of the surface roughness. Q. Zhao
and Y. Liu measured the contact angle as 65.8 degree [22]. with
w ws P

Surface roughness enhances hydrophilic and hydrophobic e (v n)dA 0 (A.2)
c. s .
behavior [21], and the relationship between stainless steel and dt dt
water is hydrophilic. Therefore, its contact angle becomes smaller Then the form of the first law now becomes
according to the surface roughness. In addition, the contact angle Q (A.3)
value must have also affected by temperature and the presence of dt

t c.v.
edV

milk powder. Meniscus keeps a sharp shape at a distance from Assuming that all variables are functions of x only, we express
the wall because the capillary length becomes larger under the heat flux as
microgravity. Capillary length k-1 is defined by the following qx L L (A.4)
expression.

A
udx
t
c T dx
0 t 0
p

The interval from 0 to L will now be divided into two parts, i.e.

k 1 (10) qx L
(A.5)
g A

t 0
c p T dx c p T0 dx

where represents surface tension. Since the g value is very and, since T0 is constant, this expression becomes
small under microgravity, k-1 becomes larger. The capillary qx
c p T dx c p T0 ( L )
(A.6)
length means the length where meniscus is formed. Therefore, a A t 0
larger capillary length under microgravity leads to a larger The integral equation to be solved is now
meniscus. In the case of thin film sustained within the wire frame, qx d d (A.7)
an infinitely large meniscus is not formed because the sticking

A dt 0
c p T dx c p T0
dt
wall height is very small and the thin film has two free surfaces. If the heat flux is specified at the wall, the appropriate
Therefore, a practical meniscus forms around the intersection boundary conditions are
point of the theoretical meniscus surface line which is calculated T T0 at x = (A.8)
from the force balance at the free surface. As a sharp meniscus is T at x =
formed in the space experiment, it is estimated that the contact 0 (A.9)
x
angle in the space experiment was sufficiently small (hm/wm is T F (t )
large enough) to allow the development of an outward flow. at x = (A.10)
x k
where the heat flux at the wall is expressed as a general function
Conclusions F(t).
A numerical simulation study has been carried out to If a parabolic temperature profile is used, the above
explanation the flow direction observed in a thin liquid film in a boundary conditions give
microgravity experiment on the ISS. The consideration of T T
F (t )( x) 2 (A.11)
2k
0
unsteady heat transfer in the solid wire and three-dimensional
flow structures did not explain the development of an outward which, when it is substituted into Eq.(A.7), we obtain
flow. However, in this simulation study the consideration of the d F (t ) 2 F (t ) (A.12)

effects of meniscus and ring curvature well predicted the dt 6k
k
development of an outward flow, and the experimental flow and
directions. It was shown that the thermocapillary flow direction 1
1 t 2 (A.13)
changes under the following conditions when the effect of
meniscus was taken into account:
(t ) 6
F (t ) 0
F (t )dt


hm/wm >> 1 outward flow develops For a constant heat flux of a magnitude q0/A, the resulting
hm/wm 1 inward and outward flow develop expression for (t) is
hm/wm << 1 inward flow develops (t ) 6t (A.14)
When the effect of the solid boundary curvature was When this equation is substituted into Eq. (A.11), we obtain
included, the simulation model predicts an outward flow. The
mechanism of the outward flow development is explained as
follows. Temperature gradient in the radial direction becomes
almost zero in the meniscus, but it is large in the film (near the
meniscus). Then, the thermocapillary flow in the radial direction
in the film becomes very weak in the meniscus, and a vortex pair
emerges due to the large temperature gradient in the film. In
addition, a thermocapillary flow develops in the circumferential
direction due to the temperature gradient in this direction. Finally,
these lead to an outward flow in the film.
The size of the symmetric vortex pair is determined by
temperature gradient, and the vortex size remained limited when
the sharp meniscus shape is considered.

Appendix
Fig A.1 Conceptual diagram of the circular wire
 T T0
q


6t x 2
(A.15)
[10] L. Peng et al., Three-dimensional thermocapillary-buoyancy
flow of silicone oil in a differentially heated annular pool,
A 2k 6t
Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, 50, 2007, 872-880.
Then Eq. (A.15) is applied for a circular wire ring. A circular
wire conceptual diagram is shown in Fig. A.1. If the wire [11] D. Pettit: Saturday Morning Science Videos (2003).
curvature is negligible, the distance x is expressed as
[12] F. Preisser et al., Steady and oscillatory thermocapillary
x r (A.16)
convection in liquid columns with free cylindrical surface, J.
Finally, the following equation is derived as the temperature
Fluid Mech., 126, 1983, 545-567.
boundary condition:

T T0
q
6t r
2
(A.17)
A 2k 6t
References
[1] M. G. Braunsfurth and G. M. Homsy, Combined
thermocapillary-buoyancy convection in a cavity. Part 2. An
experimental study, Phys. Fluids, 9, 1997, 1277.
[2] J. Burguete, Buoyant-thermocapillary instabilities in
extended liquid layers subjected to a horizontal temperature
gradient, Phys. Fluids, 13, 2001, 2773.
[3] F. Daviaud and J. M. Vince, Traveling waves in a fluid layer
subjected to a horizontal temperature gradient, Phys. Rev. E,
48, 1993, 4432-4436.
[4] A. Eyer et al., Floating-zone growth of silicon under
microgravity in a sounding rocket, J. Cryst. Growth, 71,
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interface behavior during rapid evaporation of liquid on a
heated surface, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, 45, 2002,
3771-3780.
[6] H. Kawamura et al., Convective experiment in liquid thin
film with thin metallic wire ring, J. Jpn. Soc. Microgravity
Appl., 23, 2006, 157-160 (Japanese).
[7] Y.-R. Li et al, Three-dimensional oscillatory flow in a thin
annular pool of silicon melt, J. Cryst. Growth, 260, 2004,
28-42.
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buoyancy convection in shallow layers. Part 1.
Characterization of steady and oscillatory instabilities, J.
Fluid Mech., 359, 1998, 143-164.
[14] M. F. Schatz and G. P. Neitzel, Experiments of
thermocapillary instabilities, Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech., 33,
2001, 93-127.
[15] D. Schwabe et al., Instabilities of shallow dynamic
thermocapillary liquid layers, Phys. Fluids, 4, 1992, 2368.
[16] D. Schwabe et al., The instability of surface tension driven
flow in models for floating zones under normal and reduced
gravity, J. Cryst. Growth, 99, 1990, 1258-1264.
[17] W. Shi and N. Imaishi, Hydrothermal waves in differentially
heated shallow annular pools of silicone oil, J. Cryst.
Growth, 290, 2006, 280-291.
[18] M. K. Smith and S. H. Davis, Instabilities of dynamic
thermocapillary liquid layers. Part 1. Convective instabilities,
J. Fluid Mech., 132, 1983, 119-144.
[19] I. Ueno and T. Torii, Thermocapillary-driven flow in a thin
liquid film sustained in a rectangular hole with temperature
gradient, Acta Astronautica, 66, 2010, 1017-1021.
[20] J. R. Welty et al., Fundamentals of momentum, heat, and
mass transfer (fifth edition), J. R. Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2007,
266-269.
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water, Ind. Eng. Chem., 28, 1936, 988-994.

[8] C. Nienhuser and H. C. Kuhlmann, Stability of [22] Q. Zhao and Y. Liu, Modification of stainless steel surfaces
thermocapillary flows in non-cylindrical liquid bridges, J. by electroless Ni-P and small amount of PTFE to minimize
Fluid. Mech., 458, 2002, 35-73. bacterial adhesion, J. Food Engineering, 72, 2006, 266-272.

[9] J. R. A. Pearson J. Fluid Mech., 4, 1958, 489.

23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

An Influence of the Wall Temperature on the Flow Patterns above a Floor

Convector
K. Frana, M. Muller and P. Peukert

Department of Power Engineering Equipment

Technical University of Liberec, Liberec, 461 17 Czech Republic

Abstract Introduction
The objective of this paper is to carry out a numerical and ex- The objective of the paper is to present a study of the flow pat-
perimental study of the influence of the cooling wall tempera- terns in the space influenced by the floor convector and cooled
ture on a natural convection driven flow above a floor convector. by the cooling wall. Floor convectors are facilities located di-
The experimental methods are used to determine the tempera- rectly in the floor, and generally, they are widely used for heat-
ture and velocity field above the convector and to visualize the ing or cooling of the air inside rooms or halls. The quality of
flow structures. The total power of the heat exchanger used in the room ventilation and the determination of an appropriate
the convector is calculated from the measured data. The flow temperature stratification is the popular and widely investigated
patterns, velocity and temperature fields for different wall tem- topic in the house architecture. The energy efficiency and the
peratures are studied using CDF code. The boundary condi- thermal comfort was a subject of the research, for instance, in
tions for the numerical simulation are obtained from the experi- Hamza et. al [1]. The author tried to use the radiation for reach-
ment. A one dimensional approach is used to calculate theoret- ing the thermal comfort conditions and to completely avoid the
ical power of the heat exchanger. The experiments proved that natural convection. The study of the air movement close to a
the low cooling wall temperature causes higher thermal power cold vertical window has been performed numerically and the
of the heat exchanger and influences the temperature and ve- impact of the window temperature on the thermal comfort in
locity distribution in the area. The flow visualization reveals an rooms have been clarified in Jurelionis et. al. [2]. Results
existence of the Taylor-Gortler vortices that intensively control showed that even in cases of low thermal transmittance coef-
the flow dynamics and intensify the air mixture in the area above ficient (U value), thermal discomfort conditions may appear in
the convector. The experiment results and the CFD simulation the room if the height of the window is more than 2.0 meters.
show that only the area close to the cooling wall is significantly However, this study has been carried out numerically with the
influenced by the wall temperature. two-equation turbulence model based on the turbulent kinetic
energy and dissipation. Such an approach is not suitable for
Nomenclature all examples mentioned in the study and numerical results have
never been validated by the experimental measurement. The
A distance form the cooling wall basic idea of our research is to find out a balance between the
B height of the fin thermal comfort conditions and the energy consumption in the
cp specific heat at constant pressure living room in respect to the type of the heating system. Be-
h heat transfer coefficient cause the flow and vortex structures depend on various param-
k heat coefficient for conduction eters. From the practical point of view, it is not possible to
L width of the fin consider all effects of the parameters on the flow in a space.
m mass flow rate Consequently, only the area close to the floor convector and the
n number of fins in the heat exchanger cooling wall is preferred for the flow study in this paper. This
p pressure area is strongly influenced by the cooling wall and the heat ex-
S surface for the heat transfer changer. The flow study takes into account the effects of the
t spacing between adjacent fins both elements on the unsteady flow in the preferred area. The
Q rate of the heat transfer optimal design of the heat exchanger was an objective of many
T, Ts temperatures, wall temperature publications, for instance, in Jeong et. al. [3]. The influence
T temperature of the surrounding of the wavy angle, fin pitch, tube diameter, and the wavy den-
Tin temperatures at the input sity on the heat transfer performance has been investigated by
Tout temperatures at the output Cheng et. al. [6, 7]. In the frame of this paper, the flow in-
g gravity acceleration tensity representing the natural convection effect is calculated
u, v components of the velocity theoretically and validated experimentally. Furthermore, the to-
Nu Nusselt number tal heat power is experimentally measured and compared with
Pr Prandtl number theoretical calculation. The main focus is given on the vortex
Rat Rayleigh number structures in the flow and its effect on the flow dynamics in the
expansion coefficient area between the heat exchanger and cooling wall. The mea-
air density surement has been carried out in the lab designed especially for
kinematic viscosity the testing of the floor convectors. The laboratory equipments
emissivity and adopted measurement techniques were described in [5].
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
Problem formulation
The natural flow convection driven by a heat source in the open
climate chamber has been investigated. The heat source rep-
resents the floor convector that is located approximately A =
50mm from the cooling wall and the heat convector operates be-
tween temperatures, 75/65C respectively. Figure 1 illustrates
a case in which the main flow driven by the natural convection is
depicted. The heated air flow is partially cooled by the cooling
wall and falls down to the input of the convector. The second
part of the air flow is rasing up. The cooling wall tempera-
ture is set up to be the fix temperature about 9, 5C, however
in practise, it is slightly fluctuating about 9, 5C because of the
temperature regulation accuracy.
has been investigated e.g. by Rohsenow [4]. As it was demon-
strated in [4], a heat sink with closely packed fins have greater
surface area for heat transfer but a smaller heat transfer coef-
ficient because of the extra resistance represented by the fluid
flow through the interfin passages. On the other hand, a heat
sink with widely spaced fins have a higher heat transfer coeffi-
cient but a smaller area. Therefore, an optimum spacing exist
that maximizes the heat transfer. The heat transfer coefficient
for the natural convection is defined by
Nuk
h= , (1)
t
where k is thermal conductivity and Nu is averaged Nusselt
number for vertical isothermal parallel [4] plates defined as
[ ]0,5
576 2, 873
Nu = + . (2)
(Rat t/L)2 (Rat t/L)0,5

The Rayleigh number Rat is commonly expressed as

g (Ts T )t 3
Rat = Pr. (3)
2
The rate of the heat transfer only by the natural convection from
the fins can be determined from

Q = h (2 n L B) (Ts T ) , (4)

where n corresponds to the number of fins minus one. The flow

between two parallel plates is governed by the Navier-Stokes
Figure 1: The sketch of the natural flow convection above a heat equations. Considering a flow symmetry these equations take a
convector dominated by the cooling wall. form

The air flow is entering into the heat exchanger which is com-
posed of fins (see Figure 2). The air is gradually heated between ( 2 )
Du 1 p u 2 u
the fins and enters the area located above the convector. The the- = + + (5)
Dt x x2 y2
oretical calculation of the heat transfer and the air flow intensity ( 2 )
is an objective of the next chapter. Dv 1 p v 2 v
= + +
Dt y x2 y2
+g (Ts T ) (6)
u v
+ = 0, (7)
x y

where the last term in the equation 6 express a buoyancy forces

due to the difference between the surrounding temperature T
and surface temperature Ts , is the expansion coefficient, is
kinematic viscosity, is air density and g is gravity acceleration.
These equations can be simplified into one equation taking the
form

2 v g (Ts T )
+ = 0. (8)
x2
Du Dv
under assumption that Dt = Dt = 0 for laminar steady flows.
Furthermore, the velocity u, v
y
and p
x
= p
y
are zero or are near
zero. After integration of the equation 8 and applying boundary
conditions such as v is zero for x = t and x = 0, the peak velocity
can be calculated from
Figure 2: The sketch of the heat exchanger with parallel fins.
1
The characteristic length for vertical parallel plates (fins) is de- vmax = [g (Ts T )]t 2 . (9)
8
fined as the spacing t between adjacent fins S. The fin of the
height B and the width L is illustrated in Figure 2. The corre- The peak velocity given by this equation and the total heat flux
lations between the Nusselt number and the optimum spacing by natural convection given by equation 4 can be validate by
measurement as will be demonstrated later. The total rate of the
heat transfer released into the space by the exchanger is defined
by equation 10,
Q = c p m (Tin Tout ) (10)
where m is the mass flow rate of the heat supplying water, Tin
and Tout are the inflow and outflow temperatures that can be ob-
tained by measurements. The total heat supplied into the floor
convector can be split into two parts; the convective heat re-
ferred in 4 and the radiated heat that can be express as

( )
Qr = S Ts 4 T 4 , (11)

where is the material emissivity and is the Stefan-Boltzmann

constant 5, 67 108 kgs3 K 4 . For the heat exchanger ma-
terial the emissivity has been determined experimentally to
be 0,75 for 22C. With the increasing surface temperature, the
emissivity decreases, however in considered temperature range,
it can be used as a fixed constant around =0,75. Figure 3: The power of the heat convector and the input air
temperature in time.
Results

Theoretical computation at the heat exchanger (see Figure 1) intensified the heat transfer,
and consequently, the higher power was detected experimen-
The rate of the heat transfer and the output velocity of the heat
tally. The difference between the experimentally measured heat
exchanger are calculated theoretically and validated experimen-
power 731,4 W and the theoretically calculated heat power 920
tally. The air properties such as density, specific heat, kinematic
W can be caused by several aspects. In the heat exchanger the
viscosity and Prandtl number are to be evaluated at the averaged
convective heat transfer is also accompanied by the heat radia-
temperature Tavg = (Ts + T ) /2. The material used for the fins
tion. The total surface of the heat exchanger active for the heat
is the aluminium bright. The Nusselt number, the heat trans-
radiation has been calculated to be 0, 064m2 . The rate of heat
fer coefficient and the total rate of the heat transfer are calcu-
transfer by the radiation is calculated using equation 11 to be
lated using equations 2, 1 and 4, respectively. The results are
0,046 W. This value is significantly lower than the total heat
summarized in the Table 1.
power and therefore, the radiation can be neglected. The theo-
retical calculation considers the uniform fin surface temperature
and the temperature distribution along the heat exchanger length
Nusselt number 0,18 - and ideal flow conditions throughout the fin spacing. Further-
Rayleigh number 44 - more, there is an uncertainty of the measured quantities that in
Heat transfer coefficient 0,99 W /m2 K the unappropriate combination leading to the significant inac-
Heat transfer per fin space 3,61 W /space curacy of the determined relevant parameters. The measured
Total heat transfer 920 W
Peak output velocity 1,91 m/s

Table 1: The calculated properties of the heat exchanger.

The peak output velocity is calculated using equation 9. The

temperatures at the fin surface Ts and the surrounding tempera-
ture have been measured experimentally to be 65C and 28C,
respectively.

Experimental measurement
For one particular example given by the temperature of the cool-
ing wall 9, 5C, the measured total power of the heat exchanger
and the input air temperature in time are illustrated in Figure 3.
This total power is scaled by the magnitude of the total aver-
age power measured under reference wall temperature (the sur-
rounding temperature at the cooling wall). The input air tem-
perature is scaled by the surrounding temperature and the time
is scaled by / (L B) . The change of the total power in time
in this case is caused by the change in the inlet air temperature. Figure 4: The output velocity and the output temperature in
The total average power is 731,2 W for the cooling wall temper- time.
ature 9, 5C. In the case that the cooling wall temperature was
15C, the total average power was measured to be 717,8 W and output velocity and the output temperature for the cooling wall
for the surrounding temperature at the cooling wall, the total av- temperature 9, 5C in time are shown in Figure 4. The output
erage power was 674,1 W. The lower incoming air temperature velocity is scaled by L/, the output temperature is scaled by
the surrounding temperature and the time is scaled by / (L B)
. The output velocity is oscillating around the velocity mag-
nitude 515. The intensity of the natural convection evaluated
by a velocity magnitude of the generated flow has been the-
oretically calculated to be 562 and that is in good agreement
with the measured velocity. Furthermore, the measured non-
dimensional output velocity was 500 and it was the same for
the cooling wall temperature 15C and for the surrounding tem-
perature at the cooling wall. To visualize the flow structures a

main flow

Figure 5: Flow structure visualization.

smoke is introduced into the area of the interest and it is ex-

posed by the continuous-wave laser with the wavelength of 532
nm (green). The circular laser beam is transformed through a
cylindrical lens to a sheet of light. The images are taken by com-
mon HD CCD camera with the frame rate up to 250 fps. The
method of the flow structure visualization for particular time is
illustrated in Figure 5. Figure 6 shows a snapshot of the vortex
Figure 7: The snapshots of the flow structures above the floor
convector.

the flow feature in respect to the solid cooling wall. The snap-
shot series of the flow structures in various times shown in Fig-
ure 7 describe the basic flow structures behavior. The indicated
flow structures (arrow) are moving in the area above the heat
exchanger due to strong flow generated by natural convection.
The other part of the area remains relatively steady. However,
close to the cooling wall (at the left side of Figures), small vor-
tex structures are created and the flow including flow structures
are falling down to be sucking in the heat exchanger.

Figure 6: The snapshot of the flow structures and zoomed of the
Taylor-Gortler type vortices.
structures in unsteady flow in the area above the heat exchanger.
The position of the heat exchanger inside the floor convector
housing and the air flow orientation is indicated in Figures. The
vortex structures are illustrated by the green color. The snap-
shot of the flow structures in particular time revealed that there
are so called Taylor-Gortler type vortices in the flow that are
composed by the two counter rotating vortices. This particu-
lar combination of the vortex effect causes that the flow in the
surrounding is intensively pumping and these vortex type struc-
tures can dominate the flow, and therefore, to influence strongly
Numerical results
The unsteady flow in the area above the heat exchanger has been
simulated using numerical methods. The computational domain
represents a 2D slice throughout the space between heat ex-
changer and cooling wall. The boundary conditions with the
computational domain are illustrated in Figure 8. The inlet ve-
locity and the temperature were obtained from the measure-
ment. The inlet velocity was calculated based on the flow
balance between inlet and outlet conditions. The wall tempera-
ture was set up at 9, 5C and 23C. Figure 9 shows a snapshot of
the vector field of the velocity magnitude for the cooling wall
temperature at 9,5 C. The flow from the inlet was accelerated
up to 0,36 m/s and its orientation changed due to the wall pres-
ence and the sucking at the outlet. When the flow reached the
 vertical wall it was split into two parts. The first part of the air
Pressure outlet
flow was rising up; the second part was falling down along the
(surroundings) vertical wall and it was sucked into the heat exchanger outlet.
Wall (cooled)

Computational
domain

Velocity inlet +
Velocity Velocity
Wall inlet inlet
Wall

Figure 8: The computational domain and boundary conditions.

Figure 11: The snapshot of the vector field for the cooling wall
temperature at 23C.

Figure 9: The snapshot of the vector field for the cooling wall
temperature at 9, 5C.

Figure 12: The snapshot of the path field with temperature dis-
tribution for the cooling wall temperature at 23C.

Figure 10 shows the snapshot of the path lines with the temper-
ature indication for the cooling wall temperature at 9,5 C. The
temperature of the flow remained constant at 311 K which cor-
responds to the air temperature at the inlet. The backward flow
was slightly cooled by the cooling wall so that the air tempera-
ture at the sucking of the heat exchanger was lower. This effect
would increase the total power of the heat exchanger as it was
demonstrated also experimentally. The effect of the air cooling
was indicated by the lower air temperature particularly at 287
K close to the wall. Figure 11 shows a snapshot of the vec-
Figure 10: The snapshot of the path field with temperature dis-
tor field of the velocity magnitude and Figure 12 illustrates the
tribution for the cooling wall temperature at 9, 5C.
snapshot of the path lines with the temperature indication for
the cooling wall temperature 23 C. The flow character is sim-
ilar to the case represented by the cooling wall temperature at
9,5C. There is no cooling effect on the air backward flow which Plates, ASME Journal of Heat Transfer, 106, 1984, 116
is evident in Figure 12. Numerical results confirmed that the 123.
cooling wall temperature influences the total heat power of the
heat exchanger. The intensive air inflow generated by the heat [5] Frana, K., Muller M. and Lemfeld F., An enhance of the
exchanger changes quickly flow orientation toward the vertical energy effectiveness of the convectors used for heating or
cooling wall. The heated air flow along the vertical wall creates cooling, in WASET Stockholm Sweden, 67 , 2012, 323327.
warm layer that separated the cold and inside warm air area.
[6] Cheng Y. P.,Lee T. S. and Low H. T., Numerical analysis of
This effect, observed also experimentally, positively influences
periodically developed fluid flow and heat transfer charac-
the thermal comfort inside the room.
teristics in the triangular wavy fin-and-tube heat exchanger
based on field synergy principle, Numerical Heat Transfer,
Conclusions
Part A , 53, 2008, 821842.
The unsteady flow generated by the natural convection has been
investigated experimentally and numerically. The flow visual- [7] Cheng Y. P., Qu Z. G., Tao W. Q. and He Y. L., Numeri-
ization revealed the existence of the Taylor-Gortler type vor- cal design of efficient slotted fin surface based on the field
tices that influenced among others the flow dynamics in the synergy principle, Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A , 45,
area above heat exchanger and in the region close to the cooling 2004, 517538.
wall. The total power of the heat exchanger depended only on
the convective heat transfer and the intensity of the heat trans-
fer was influenced by the air temperature at the inlet of the heat
exchanger. The existence of the cooling wall increased slightly
the total rate of the heat transfer in the heat exchanger. The rate
of the heat transfer and the main flow velocity generated by the
natural convection were successfully validated by the theoreti-
cal calculation. The vertically oriented natural convection flow
leaving the convector changed direction towards to the cooling
wall as it has been demonstrated numerically. The numerical
results of the temperature distribution in the area above the con-
vector showed the cooling wall effect on the temperature distri-
bution in the backward flow and in the flow that was rising to
the surrounding area. The relatively thin temperature layer cre-
ated at the vertical cooling wall separated the indoor area from
the cooled vertical wall (e.g. that represents the cooled window)
and thus positively contributed to the thermal comfort condition
inside the room.
The future work will be focused on the investigation of the wall
distance effect on the flow patterns inside the room and on the
total power of the heat exchanger. Also the investigation of the
forced convection flow with the focus on the movement and the
distribution of contaminants will be carried out.

Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported from the project of
the Technology Agency of the Czech Republic under no.
TA01020231.

References

[1] Hamza, A. and Morsy, G.M., Energy efficiency and indoor

thermal perception: a comparative study between radian
panel and portable convective heater, Energy Efficiency, 3,
2010, 283301.

[2] Jurelionis, A. and Isevicius A., Cfd predictions of indoor

air movement induced by cold window surfaces, Journal
of civil engineering and management , 14-1, 2008, 29-38.

[3] Jeong J., Nyung Kim Ch., Youn B. and Kim Y.S., A study
on the correlation between the thermal contact conductance
and effective factors in fintube heat exchangers with 9.52
mm tube, International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow,
25, 2004, 1006-1014.

[4] Bar-Cohen, A. and Rohsenow, W. M., Thermally Optimum

Spacing of Vertical, Natural Convection Cooled, Parallel
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Modelling of the Gas-Liquid Transesterification Reaction to Produce Biodiesel

S.T. Hoh, M.M. Farid and J.J.J. Chen

Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering
University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand

Abstract = density (kg/m3)

= dynamic viscosity (Pa.s)
A kinetic model is derived to provide fundamental understanding = surface tension of soybean oil = 0.025 kg/s2
of the gas-liquid transesterification reaction between triglycerides Re = Reynolds number =
and methanol catalysed by sodium methoxide to produce
biodiesel. The model is based on the fundamentals of the gas Sc = Schmidt number =
absorption process followed by a second-order liquid phase
chemical reaction. Important parameters for the model include We = Weber number =
the Hatta modulus (MH) and the enhancement factor (E). A
laboratory scale droplet reactor set up was used to carry out Sh = Sherwood number =
isothermal gas-liquid transesterification reactions between
soybean oil droplets and vapour methanol at 80, 90 and 100oC.
The gas-liquid transesterification reaction is an intermediate Subscripts
reaction which occurs both in the liquid film and bulk. The
overall process is predominated by mass transfer effects while the A, g = gas/continuous phase
liquid phase reaction rate constant still remains important. The B, l = liquid/dispersed phase
second-order reaction rate constants for the gas-liquid d = droplet
transesterification reaction at 80, 90 and 100oC were calculated to i = interfacial
be 0.0279, 0.237 and 1.796 m3/mol.s respectively. The activation j = jet
energy is rather high at 228 kJ/mol, indicating that the reaction is 0 = initial
very temperature sensitive.
Introduction
Nomenclature
Biodiesel consists of fatty acid methyl esters derived from the
a = interfacial area per unit volume of oil phase (m2/m3) transesterification of triglycerides, which are the building blocks
A = reactant A of all natural fats and oils, with alcohol. Methanol is most
Ar = Arrhenius Law Constant commonly used to produce methyl esters as biodiesel because of
= methanol vapour (gaseous/continuous phase) its abundance and low cost. Biodiesel is established as a potential
B = reactant B alternative to petroleum fuels after being the subject of numerous
= soybean oil (liquid/dispersed phase) researches in the past few decades. It is very attractive because of
C = instantaneous concentration (mol/m3) its non-toxicity and it may be readily used in pure form (B100) or
d = diameter (m) blended with petroleum fuels (B5 B20). In addition, no engine
dm = effective diameter of molecule (m) modifications are necessary to enable its usage. The major
D = diffusion coefficient of solute in a solvent (m2/s) advantages biodiesel have over conventional petroleum or fossil
DG = diglycerides fuels include [1-3]:
E, Ei = enhancement factor and infinite enhancement factor
respectively i. Renewability
Ea = Activation Energy (J/mol) ii. Biodegradability
HA = Henrys Law Constant of reactant A (Pa.m3/mol) iii. Reduced amount of harmful emissions (with exception to
k1 = second order reaction rate constant (m3/mol.s) nitrogen oxides)
kL = liquid film mass transfer coefficient (m/s) iv. Higher engine combustion efficiency
MG = monoglycerides v. Better lubricity and ignition properties which prolong
MH = Hatta modulus engine life
n = number of moles
R = universal ideal gas constant = 8.31434kg.m2/s2.mol.K Although biodiesel has a lot of benefits as a green fuel, it is also
T = temperature (K or oC) not short of weaknesses. One of the major problems that hinder
t = contact/residence time or reaction time (s) the feasibility of biodiesel as an economically competitive
TG = triglycerides alternative to fossil fuels is its higher selling price, contributed by
v = velocity (m/s) expensive feedstock prices and its lengthy production process [3,
VA , B = molar volume of reactant A or B (cm3/mol) 4].
Vb = molar volume at boiling point of reactant A
(cm3/mol) The commercial technology widely used today for biodiesel
X = conversion (%) manufacture is the base-catalysed transesterification method
z = stoichiometry constant (Figure 1). This is a homogeneous reaction between liquid oil and
= liquid holdup or the fraction of liquid volume to liquid methanol using a base catalyst. The base-catalysed process

reactor volume is currently most feasible because it only requires mild

processing conditions and within 30 - 60 minutes to obtain
reasonable conversion of oil to biodiesel i.e. atmospheric
pressure and temperatures of approximately 60 - 70oC [2, 5].
Figure 1: The base-catalysed transesterification method for
biodiesel production [2]
However, this technology limits the operating temperature below
the boiling point of methanol (~65oC) although it is generally
known that higher temperatures will increase the reaction rate
(with accordance to Arrhenius Law). The immiscible oil and
methanol phases also pose as a mass transfer barrier during early
stages of the reaction thus contributed to overall slower reaction
rates [2]. This may be improved by vigorous mixing [6] or the
use of a common solvent [7].
Recognising the shortcomings of the current biodiesel processing
technology, Behzadi and Farid [8] developed a new technology
to produce biodiesel in which reaction rates are drastically
elevated via higher temperatures and improved mass transfer.
This is as an effort to decrease processing costs through shorter
production times. A novel spray tower reactor was used to carry
out the gas-liquid transesterification of different feedstock (beef
tallow or soybean oil) atomised into small droplets with methanol
vapour and catalysed by sodium methoxide. Feedstock
conversion as high as 94 96% was achieved within 7 to 8
seconds and the biodiesel product was of standard quality.
The objective of this work is to model the kinetics of the gas-
liquid transesterification reaction between triglycerides and
methanol catalysed by sodium methoxide to produce biodiesel.
The model is based on the fundamentals of gas absorption
followed by chemical reaction and provides fundamental
understanding to this process in addition to being suitable for
future design and scale-up purposes.
Theory and Background
Gas Absorption Followed by Chemical Reaction
In the absence of any chemical reaction, the absorption of a gas
into a liquid is purely physical, governed by mass transfer
resistances and gas-liquid equilibrium (Henrys Law). At steady
state, the gas absorption rate ( ) can be expressed in terms of the
mass transfer coefficient and the drive for solute transfer partial
pressure and/or concentration difference [9, 10].
= ( ) ( ) (1)
Here, the gas side mass transfer is controlled by the gas phase
mass transfer coefficient (kG) and the difference or partial
pressure in the gas (PA) and at the gas-liquid interface (PAi). Once
solute A enters the liquid phase, the mass transfer resistance
now is governed by the liquid-film mass transfer coefficient (kL)
and the concentration difference at the interface (C Ai) and bulk
liquid (CA0). As with any mass transfer operations, the gas-liquid
interfacial area per unit reactor volume (a) is also a very
important parameter in the equation.
The process of gas absorption coupled with chemical reaction on
the other hand, must consider the kinetics of both mass transfer
and chemical reaction simultaneously [9]. In addition to the mass
transfer resistances described earlier, the chemical reaction terms
should also be included in the model. A general scheme
demonstrating this phenomenon is shown below:
k1 kG, kL
A (g) A (l ) z.B (l ) P (l ) (2)
In the case of gas-liquid transesterification, gaseous reactant (A)
would be methanol and liquid reactant (B) would be the
feedstock oil, while the products (P) are the methyl esters and
glycerol. The stoichiometric constant (z) is one third according to
the stoichiometric conditions of the transesterification reaction
between triglycerides and methanol:
B+ 3A 3 Alkyl Esters + Glycerol (3)
The following mathematical description of the actual mechanism
taking place at the gas-liquid interface is based on the work of
Charpentier [9]. According to Equation 3, the following rate
equations may be written for the liquid phase transesterification
reaction which is considered first-order with respect to the
concentration of oil (B) and methanol (A), therefore second-order
overall [11].
( ) (4)
Assuming steady state conditions, a material balance for both
reactants within a thin liquid film adjacent to the gas-liquid
interface may be written in terms of their concentrations (CA and
CB) and their respective liquid diffusion coefficients (DA and DB).
The distance from the gas-liquid interface within the liquid film
is x.
( ) (5)
( ) (6)
Equations 15 and 16 are subject to the following boundary
conditions at the gas-liquid interface (x = 0).
(7)
While at the inner edge of the liquid film (x = ), the boundary
condition for reactant B is:
(8)
The boundary condition for reactant A is determined by
considering that some amount reacts within the liquid film while
the rest is transferred to the liquid bulk. Taking the specific gas-
liquid interfacial area (interfacial area per unit reactor volume) as
a and the liquid holdup (volume of liquid per total volume of
reactor) as , this liquid bulk may be written as:
Liquid bulk = (9)
With the (initial) concentration of reactants in the liquid bulk to
be CA0 and CB0, the boundary condition for reactant A may be
written as:
( ) ( ) (10)
Depending on how fast the liquid phase reaction is (k1 value),
this corresponds to different concentration profiles within the
liquid film. Typical concentration profiles of the reactants (Cases
A through H) are shown in Figure 2 [10].
2

Figure 2: Typical concentration profiles of reactants near the gas-
liquid interface [10]
With reference to Figure 2, the different reaction schemes are
categorised accordingly [10]:
i. Case A: Instantaneous reaction at interface with low CB
ii. Case B: Instantaneous reaction at interface with high and
constant CB (pseudo-first order)
iii. Case C: Fast reaction in liquid film with low CB
iv. Case D: Fast reaction in liquid film with high and constant
CB (pseudo-first order)
v. Case E and F: Intermediate reaction in both liquid film and
bulk
vi. Slow reaction in liquid bulk with liquid film resistance
vii. Slow reaction in liquid bulk with no mass transfer
resistance
To determine the most suitable reaction scheme to apply for
modelling purposes, the Hatta modulus (MH) must be calculated.
This will be discussed further in the next section.
At present, a complete analytical solution of Equations 5 through
10 is not possible [9]. However, approximate solutions are
realised by incorporating the enhancement factor E. The
enhancement factor is a term that illustrates the effect of having a
liquid phase chemical reaction on the overall gas absorption rate
[10]:
(11)
The enhancement factor is dimensionless and takes a value of
1.00 or larger, therefore indicating that having a liquid phase
chemical reaction will either augment the absorption rate (E >
1.00) or have no effect on it at all (E = 1.00). In other words, the
enhancement factor is a measure of the improvement of solute
A absorption rate when there is a presence of a liquid phase
chemical reaction.
Consequently, for the heterogeneous gas-liquid reaction scheme
presented in Figure 2, a general expression to represent the
overall reaction rate with respect to the gaseous reactant A (-
RA) may be written [10]:
(12)
Enhancement Factor and Hatta Modulus
As discussed in the previous section, the enhancement factor
(Equation 11) is introduced as means to provide a simplified
approach to describe gas-liquid reactions. Instead of attempting
to solve Equations 5 through 10 simultaneously, the prediction of
E is now the key to model the process of gas absorption coupled
with chemical reaction the main objective of this work.
It was found that E may be expressed as a function of the Hatta
modulus (MH) and the infinite enhancement factor (Ei). This is
shown in Figure 3 based on the numerical solutions of van
Krevelens and Hoftjizer in 1954, and modified by Levenspiel
[10].
Figure 3: E as a function of MH and Ei [10]
The Hatta modulus (MH) is also known as the film conversion
parameter. It is the measure of the maximum possible chemical
conversion of a solute in the liquid film compared to the
maximum transport through the film [10]. In the context of the
gas-liquid transesterification reaction, this is written as:
(13)
Therefore, it is an important parameter to consider when
determining the concentration profiles of reactants as shown in
Figure 2. As a general rule of thumb, the following applies to
different reaction schemes [10]:
i. MH > 2.0: fast reactions occurring inside the liquid
film; Cases A, B, C and D
ii. 0.02 < MH < 2.0: intermediate reactions occurring in
both film and bulk; Cases E, F and G
iii. MH < 0.02: extremely slow reactions occurring in liquid
bulk; Case H
It may be observed in Figure 3 that for the region where MH >
2.0, E increases with MH until it reaches an asymptotic value.
This value is known as the infinite enhancement factor (E i). It is
the maximum achievable E if an infinitely fast reaction exists in
the liquid film. In other words, it is the limiting value of E given
the specific conditions of a particular gas-liquid reaction system.
( )( ) (14)
If the values of MH and Ei are known, then the value of E may be
predicted using Figure 3. The value of E may also be calculated
using the corresponding implicit mathematical representation of
Figure 3 developed by van Krevelens and Hoftjizer based on the
film model [9]:
3
 ( ) collected into T-03. Product samples were collected by closing

( ) V-02 and opening V-03.
(15)
( ) P
{ }
( ) P1
V-01

P2
It should be noted that many other researchers have also Compressed
Air Supply
T1
developed implicit and explicit mathematical solutions to E as a T-01 V-02

function of MH and Ei which fit Figure 3 very closely [9]. The Equipment & Instrument List T2
P-17

Annotation Description
most convenient correlation for gas absorption accompanied by a C-01 Droplet Reactor Column
H-02

second-order liquid phase reaction was developed by DeCoursey H-01

H-02
Methanol Heater
Methanol Condenser
C-01

[12] based on the Danckwerts (surface renewal) model: P-01 Methanol Pump
T-01 Soybean Oil Feed Tank
T-02 Methanol & Catalyst Feed Vessel
T-03 Used Methanol Vessel
[ ]
V-04
( )
(16) P1 Pressure Regulator H-01
( ) P2 Pressure Gauge
V-03
P-01
T1, T2 Thermocouple
V-01 Pressure Relief Valve
Derivation of Model V-02, -03, -04 Manual Valves Sample
collection

According to the conditions of the gas-liquid transesterification T-02 T-03

reaction conducted by Behzadi and Farid [8], the following
assumptions hold: Figure 4: Droplet reactor set up
i. The gas film resistance to mass transfer is negligible Samples collected were then analysed using Flame-Ionised
because pure methanol vapour was used. Detector Gas-Chromatography (GC-FID) to ascertain its
composition, mainly the mass fractions of mono-, di- and
ii. The liquid phase reaction is non-reversible because a large
triglycerides, and methyl esters.Eight isothermal gas-liquid
excess of methanol vapour was used (30:1 methanol to oil
transesterification reactions were performed and the results
molar ratio).
obtained. The conditions of the reactions are summarised in
In addition, the use of effective heating elements means the heat Table 1.
transfer resistance within the laboratory scale droplet reactor is
negligible because isothermal conditions were achieved within T-01
T v d32
the reactor. Run Pressure t (s)
(oC) (m/s) ( 106 m)
(kPa)
With accordance to the first assumption, the value of kG becomes 1 80 55.2 8.03 0.0567 492
infinitely large and thus Equation 12 reduces to:
2 80 82.7 11.35 0.0401 436
(17) 3 90 82.7 11.35 0.0401 428
4 90 55.2 8.03 0.0567 440
The kinetic model is derived by integrating Equation 17: 5 100 55.2 8.03 0.0567 408
( ) 6 100 82.7 11.35 0.0401 408
( ) (18) 7 100 110.3 14.22 0.0320 408
8 100 137.9 16.63 0.0274 408
Equation 18 is used as a model to describe the kinetics of gas-
liquid transesterification reaction to produce biodiesel. The first Table 1: Conditions of the isothermal gas-liquid
( ) transesterification experiments reaction temperature, T; driving
term on the left hand side [ ] corresponds to the mass pressure of the soybean oil jet; velocity of the soybean oil
transfer resistance while the second term [ ( )], the jet/droplets, v; residence time of the soybean oil droplets, t; and
the Sauter Mean Diameter of the soybean oil droplets, d32.
reaction kinetics resistance.
Modelling Section
Materials and Methods
The modelling of the gas-liquid transesterification reaction is
Experiment Set Up based on Equation 18. The main aim of the modelling work is to
Figure 4 shows a schematic representation of the laboratory set estimate the values of E and the true reaction rate constant (k1), in
( )
up used to perform gas-liquid transesterification reaction between addition to the contribution of the mass transfer term [ ]
soybean oil droplets with vapour methanol, catalysed by sodium
methoxide. This set up is an effort to model the behaviour of the and the reaction kinetics term [ ( )] respectively, towards
atomised edible grade beef tallow droplets produced in the pilot the overall gas-liquid process as represented by Equation 18.
scale spray tower reactor used by Behzadi and Farid [8]. Soybean
oil used in this work is of edible quality (cooking oil) and Firstly, the liquid phase mass transfer coefficient (kL) of soybean
purchased from a local supermarket. Analytical grade liquid oil droplets formed by the breakup of a laminar jet can be
methanol and pure sodium methoxide powder were purchased estimated using the following correlation [13, 14]:
from Sigma-Aldrich.
( )( )( ) (19)

Pressurised and heated soybean oil from T-01 flowed through a
0.34 mm diameter orifice to form a capillary jet which broke up The diffusion coefficients of methanol molecules in oil droplets
into droplets inside the electrically-heated reactor column (C-01) (DA) can be estimated using the Wilke-Chang (Equation 20) [15]
of 0.455 m length. At the same time, a 5 g/L solution of sodium and Scheibel (Equation 21) [16] correlations. An average of the
methoxide dissolved in pure methanol was pumped at 3.0 10 -4 two is taken for use in the model.
kg/s into a heating coil submerged under a hot water bath ( )
containing 50 vol% ethylene glycol (H-01), vaporised, and fed (20)
( )
into C-01 continuously. The vapour exits C-01 and was
condensed using a cooling water condenser (H-02), then (Where = 1.0 for unassociated solvents i.e. non-polar)

4
 The dimensionless Henrys Law Constant of methanol vapour in
[ ( ) ] (21)
soybean oil is taken to be 0.15 at elevated temperatures (80
100oC) in this modelling work. As pure methanol vapour was
The self-diffusion coefficient of soybean oil molecules (DB) can
used in this work, the vapour phase concentration of methanol
be estimated using a correlation given by Dullien [17]:
(CAg) can be calculated using the Ideal Gas Law (Equation 24),
taking the partial pressure to be 1 atm.
(22)
(24)
The well-known oil-film experiment predicts the size of an oil
molecule to be 2.0 10-9 m [18]. Assuming that the molecules The gas-liquid interfacial area (a) is taken to be the surface area
are one molecular size apart in liquid state, thus the effective of individual soybean droplets per unit volume. Assuming
molecule diameter, dm = 4.0 10-9 m. spherical shaped drops, this is defined by the surface area per unit
volume of a sphere, and derived using the Sauter Mean diameter
The viscosity of soybean oil is given as a function of temperature of the droplets. Thus, the system boundary for consideration in
by Anand et. al. [19]: the model of Equation 18 is confined to one single soybean oil
droplet. Therefore, the liquid holdup = 1.0.
(23)
Calculated values of all important parameters which will enable
The interfacial concentration of methanol on the surface of the modelling of the gas-liquid transesterification reaction using
soybean oil droplets can be estimated using the Henrys Law Equation 18 to determine the enhancement factor (using Equation
Constant. Dimensionless Henrys Law constant of methanol 16) and the true reaction rate constant k1, are summarised in
vapour in paratherm oil was measured by Poddar and Sirkar [20] Table 3.
and presented in Table 2.
With reference to Equation 18, modelling of the soybean oil
conversion, XB (change of soybean oil concentration, CB) is not
T (oC) ( )
possible if k1 is unknown and vice versa. Therefore,
30.0 0.132 experimentally measured values of XB of each reaction run
40.0 0.144 (Table 1) was used to obtain CB, of which, together with the
49.8 0.145 calculated parameters in Table 3 were plugged into Equation 18
Table 2: Dimensionless Henrys Law Constant for methanol and iterated using Microsoft Excel to obtain k1, MH, and E values
vapour in paratherm oil [20] that satisfied Equation 18. Detailed results and discussion are
presented in the following section.

Run 103 DA 109 DB 109 d32 106 a Re We Sc Sh kL 103 CAi HA Ei

1 6.85 1.54 1.50 492 12195.1 352.7 732.7 4846.05 2592.62 1.22 230.08 440.4 13.83
2 6.85 1.54 1.50 436 13761.4 480.7 1349.3 4846.05 3270.37 1.59 230.08 440.4 13.83
3 4.52 2.40 2.34 428 14018.7 800.5 1584.3 2054.25 2060.70 1.42 223.74 452.87 14.19
4 4.52 2.40 2.34 440 13636.4 573.8 894.0 2054.25 1605.25 1.09 223.74 452.87 14.19
5 3.05 3.65 3.56 408 14705.9 819. 8 835.3 911.12 943.16 1.01 217.74 465.34 14.55
6 3.05 3.65 3.56 408 14705.9 1155.7 1669.6 911.12 1220.21 1.32 217.74 465.34 14.55
7 3.05 3.65 3.56 408 14705.9 1442.9 2504.8 911.12 1441.26 1.56 217.74 465.34 14.55
8 3.05 3.65 3.56 408 14705.9 1681.2 3340.0 911.12 1616.31 1.76 217.74 465.34 14.55
Table 3: Calculated reaction system parameters
Results and Discussion 100.00

90.00
The product samples collected from each experiment run 80.00

consisted of a single homogenous liquid phase indicating that the 70.00

Mass Fraction (%)

methanol vapour has been successfully dissolved in the oil phase. 60.00

Small orange-coloured blobs of glycerol can be observed at the 50.00

40.00
bottom of the sample containers. As of Equation 3, the formation
30.00
of glycerol indicated that the transesterification reaction took 20.00
place in the reactor. The composition of the product samples 10.00
were analysed using the Flame Ionised Detector Gas 0.00
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4 Run 5 Run 6 Run 7 Run 8
Chromatography (GC-FID) and the results are summarised in Esters 0.81 0.74 3.98 6.63 5.33 4.44 3.36 3.63
Monoglycerides 0.65 0.73 2.02 3.82 3.77 2.69 2.92 1.67
Figure 5. Diglycerides 0.45 1.19 4.59 2.75 4.30 1.90 2.60 1.80
Triglycerides 97.10 97.34 89.41 86.81 86.03 90.98 91.12 92.90
Calculated soybean oil conversions as reported in Figure 5 are Oil Conversion 2.90 2.66 10.59 10.03 13.97 9.02 8.88 7.10

used to determine the second-order reaction rate constant (k1) for

the gas-liquid transesterification reaction. The values of k1, MH Figure 5: Composition of product samples as analysed by GC-
and E as determined by Equation 18 are summarised in Table 4. FID and calculated oil conversions.

5
 Run T (oC) k1 (m3/mol.s) MH E The comparison of k1 values calculated from the present model
1 80 0.0123 0.11 1.01 (Equation 18) and the conventional second-order reaction
kinetics equation (Equation 26) is tabulated in Table 6. For the k1
2 80 0.0115 0.08 1.00
values calculated using Equation 26, the average of two replicas
3 90 2.07 1.57 1.82 corresponding to Runs 1 and 2, and Runs 3 and 4 was taken for T
4 90 0.896 1.35 1.65 = 80oC and T = 90oC respectively, while for T = 100oC, the k1
5 100 1.41 2.25 2.35 value is an average of four replicas corresponding to Runs 5 8.
6 100 0.894 1.38 1.68 The k1 values from Equation 18 are from Table 4.
7 100 1.39 1.45 1.73 T (oC) k1 (Equation 26) k1 (Equation 18)
8 100 0.960 1.07 1.45 80 0.0121 0.002 0.0279
Table 4: Reaction rate constants, MH and E determined from
experiments and Equation 18
90 0.0635 0.019 0.237
100 0.0766 0.012 1.796
The k1 values from Table 4 are used to plot ln k versus T-1 (K-1), Table 6: Comparison of k1 values calculated from Equation 18
a linear plot in accordance to the Arrhenius Law Equation and Equation 26
(Equation 25). The plot is presented as Figure 6.
From Table 6, the reaction rate constant calculated by both
( ) (25) equations increases with temperature in accordance with
Arrhenius Law. At 80oC, Equation 18 predicts a k1 value
1
approximately 2.3 times that of Equation 26. At 90oC, this
becomes 3.7 times while at 100oC, becomes 23.4 times.
0
0.00266 0.00268 0.0027 0.00272 0.00274 0.00276 0.00278 0.0028 0.00282 0.00284
At temperatures beyond the boiling point of methanol (60
65oC) usually used for liquid-liquid transesterification reactions,
-1 the reaction rate is higher and the mass transfer between reactants
becomes an important factor that contributes to the overall
Ln k

-2 process. This is illustrated by Table 6, where k1 values predicted

using Equation 18 (which takes into account the mass transfer
-3 effect), is consistently larger than the values determined by
Equation 26 (which solely considers reaction kinetics). As the
-4 reaction temperature increases, the reaction rate becomes higher
and the mass transfer effect becomes increasingly important.
-5
T-1 This is supported further by Table 7 which reports the
contribution of mass transfer (MT%) and reaction kinetics
Figure 6: Plot of ln k1 versus T-1 (K-1) (RXN%) to the overall gas-liquid transesterification reaction as
determined from Equation 18. For Runs 1 and 2 at 80oC, mass
From Figure 6, the activation energy Ea = 228 kJ/mol and Ar = transfer and reaction kinetics contributes approximately equally
1.48 1032. Using Equation 25, k1 values at 80, 90 and 100oC are to the overall process. At 90oC and higher as the reaction rate
calculated. Table 5 presents the calculated k1 values of the gas- expedites, the mass transfer contribution becomes dominant.
liquid transesterification reaction at different reaction
temperatures. Run MH E MT (%) RXN (%)
o 3 1 0.17 1.01 64.7 65.4
T ( C) k1 (m /mol.s)
2 0.13 1.01 55.5 44.5
80 0.0279
3 0.53 1.13 91.2 8.80
90 0.237
4 0.69 1.21 92.7 7.30
100 1.796
5 2.54 2.58 97.7 2.30
Table 5: Calculated k1 values
6 1.95 2.12 97.6 2.40
With reference to Table 5, the reaction rate constant increased 7 1.65 1.88 97.5 2.50
approximately 8.5 times and 7.6 times when the reaction 8 1.46 1.74 97.3 2.70
temperature increased from 80 to 90oC, and from 90 to 100oC
Table 7: Reaction parameters as predicted by Equation 18
respectively. As a rule of thumb, the reaction rate constant should
only double for every 10oC increase in temperature. However for Also referring to Table 7, MH < 2.0 with the exception of Runs 5
reactions with high activation energies, such as the gas-liquid and 6, of which the value of MH do not exceed 2.0 very
transesterification reaction (calculated to be Ea = 228 kJ/mol), it significantly. Thus, it may be concluded that the gas-liquid
may be an exception to the rule. Reactions with high activation transesterification reaction is a moderately fast reaction occurring
energies of about 280 kJ/mol and occurring at average both in the liquid film and bulk, corresponding most favourably
temperatures of between 0 400oC are known to be very to case E in Figure 2.
temperature sensitive, with the reaction rate doubling every 1.5 oC ( )
[10]. According to Equation 18, the mass transfer term [ ]
As an effort to decipher the effect of mass transfer to the gas- diminishes when the value of E is large. However, according to
liquid transesterification reaction, the conventional rate equation Table 7, the value of E is not high and it does not vary much.
for second-order reactions (Equation 26) [10], which do not take Other parameters do change much as well as shown in Table 3.
into account any mass transfer effects, is also used to calculate Therefore, the mass transfer term of Equation 18 predominates
the reaction rate constant k1, and compared to the values obtained and the value of k1 is important to the overall gas-liquid
in Table 4 which was obtained using Equation 18. transesterification reaction.
Figure 8 presents the plots of oil conversion versus time as
[ ] ( ) (26) simulated by Equation 18 to predict the completion time of the
(
gas-liquid transesterification reactions according to conditions
(Where ) outlined in Table 1. It should be noted that the x-axis is

6
magnified 10 times ( 101) with the exception of the plots for References
Runs 1 and 2 which were plotted on a 10 0 scale.
1. Knothe, G., J.H. Van Gerpen, and J. Krahl, The
100% biodiesel handbook. 2005, Champaign, Ill.: AOCS
90% Press. ix, 302 p.
80% 2. Mittelbach, M. and C. Remschmidt, Biodiesel : the
70% comprehensive handbook. 3rd ed. 2006, Austria: M.
Oil Conversion

60% Mittelbach. 332 p.

50% 3. Pahl, G., Biodiesel : growing a new energy economy.
40% 2nd ed. 2008, White River Junction, Vt.: Chelsea
30% Green Pub. Co. xxx, 368 p.
20% 4. Behzadi, S. and M.M. Farid, Review: Examining the
10% use of different feedstock for the production of
0% biodiesel. Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
Reaction time ( 10 s)
Engineering, 2007. 2(5): p. 480-486.
5. Zhang, Y., et al., Biodiesel production from waste
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4
Run 5 Run 6 Run 7 Run 8
cooking oil: 1. Process design and technological
assessment. Bioresource Technology, 2003. 89(1): p.
Figure 8: Plots of oil conversion versus residence time by 1-16.
simulation 6. Noureddini, H. and D. Zhu, Kinetics of
transesterification of soybean oil. JAOCS, Journal of
The reaction completion times for Runs 1 8 (considered to be
when 99.9% oil conversion is achieved), are tabulated in Table 8. the American Oil Chemists' Society, 1997. 74(11): p.
1457-1463.
Run Reaction completion time (s) 7. Boocock, D.G.B., et al., Fast formation of high-
1 4.10 purity methyl esters from vegetable oils. JAOCS,
2 3.82 Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 1998.
3 0.99 75(9): p. 1167-1172.
4 1.14 8. Behzadi, S. and M.M. Farid, Production of biodiesel
5 0.41
using a continuous gas-liquid reactor. Bioresource
6 0.39
Technology, 2009. 100(2): p. 683-689.
7 0.38
8 0.36
9. Charpentier, J.-C., Mass-Transfer Rates in Gas-
Table 8: Gas-liquid transesterification reaction completion times Liquid Absorbers and Reactors, in Advances in
Chemical Engineering. 1981, Academic Press. p. 1-
Equation 18 predicted that the gas-liquid transesterification 133.
reaction will reach completion in less than 5 seconds at 80oC. 10. Levenspiel, O., Chemical reaction engineering. 3rd
Behzadi and Farid [8, 21] obtained 97% conversion of beef
ed. 1999, New York: Wiley. xvi, 668 p.
tallow when atomised at 90oC, and 99.9% conversion when
atomised at 120oC, both in less than 7 seconds. However, it must 11. Freedman, B., R.O. Butterfield, and E.H. Pryde,
be noted that isothermal conditions was not achieved and there Transesterification kinetics of soybean oil 1. Journal
were temperature gradients within the spray reactor. The average of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 1986. 63(10):
reaction temperature when beef tallow was atomised at 90 oC was p. 1375-1380.
thus 80.5oC, and 88.0oC at 120oC atomisation. If isothermal 12. DeCoursey, W.J., Absorption with chemical reaction:
conditions were achieved, shorter reaction completion times development of a new relation for the Danckwerts
similar to those reported in Table 8 are expected. model. Chemical Engineering Science, 1974. 29(9):
Conclusions p. 1867-1872.
13. Srinivasan, V. and R.C. Aiken, Mass transfer to
The gas-liquid transesterification reaction can be described using
droplets formed by the controlled breakup of a
Equation 18. The gas-liquid transesterification reaction is an
intermediate reaction best described by Case E in Figure 2. The
cylindrical jet--physical absorption. Chemical
overall process is predominated by the mass transfer term Engineering Science, 1988. 43(12): p. 3141-3150.
( ) 14. Hoh, S.T., M.M. Farid, and J.J.J. Chen, Mass transfer
[ ] of Equation 18, but the reaction rate constant, k1 (i.e.
to droplets formed by the controlled breakup of a
reaction temperature) remains important. The gas-liquid cylindrical jet physical absorption. Chemical
transesterification reaches 99.9% conversion (completion) in less
Engineering Science, 2012. 73(0): p. 329-333.
than 5 seconds at 80oC which is comparable to the findings of
Behzadi and Farid [8]. The calculated k1 values are as reported in
15. Wilke, C.R. and P. Chang, Correlation of diffusion
Table 5 and it increases with reaction temperature in accordance coefficients in dilute solutions. AIChE Journal, 1955.
to Arrhenius Law. 1(2): p. 264-270.
16. Scheibel, E.G., Correspondence. Liquid Diffusivities.
Acknowledgements Viscosity of Gases. Industrial & Engineering
The authors would like to thank the University of Auckland for Chemistry, 1954. 46(9): p. 2007-2008.
providing technical and financial support towards this research 17. Dullien, F.A.L., Predictive equations for self-
work. The New Zealand International Doctoral Research diffusion in liquids: A different approach. AIChE
Scholarship awarded to S.T. Hoh is also gratefully Journal, 1972. 18(1): p. 62-70.
acknowledged. 18. Avison, J., The world of physics. 1984, Walton-on-
Thames: Nelson. 504 p.

7
19. Anand, K., A. Ranjan, and P.S. Mehta, Estimating 21. Behzadi, S., Production of biodiesel using a
the Viscosity of Vegetable Oil and Biodiesel Fuels. continuous gas-liquid spray reactor. 2009, Chemical
Energy & Fuels, 2009. 24(1): p. 664-672. and Materials Engineering)--University of Auckland,
20. Poddar, T.K. and K.K. Sirkar, Henry's Law Constant 2009. p. xiv, 214 leaves.
for Selected Volatile Organic Compounds in High-
Boiling Oils. Journal of Chemical & Engineering
Data, 1996. 41(6): p. 1329-1332.

8
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Using CFD to Investigate the Thermal-Hydraulic Behavior and

Thermal Mixing Phenomena in the Lower Plenum of BWR

Yu-Ting Ku1, Yung-Shin Tseng1, Jong-Rong Wang2, Chunkuan Shih3

1
Department of Engineering and System Science
National Tsing Hua University, HsinChu ,Taiwan
2
Institute of Nuclear Energy Research,
Atomic Energy Council, R.O.C., Taoyuan, Taiwan
3
Institute of Nuclear Engineering and Science
National Tsing Hua University, HsinChu ,Taiwan

Abstract
In boiling water reactors (BWR), subcooled liquid water from the
downcomer enters into lower plenum via the jet-pumps, and
finally goes up into the reactor core. Since the coolant
temperature distributions at the inlet of the core significantly
affect the stability and margin of operation, the thermal-hydraulic
behaviors and temperature mixing phenomena become important
issues in the reactor design. Unfortunately, the system code (e.g.,
RETRAN or TRACE) cannot capture the local three-dimensional
distribution characteristics in detail in complicated transients or
accidents; therefore, the organizations of OECD, NEA and IAEA
convened an international writing group to develop the CFD
methodology and best practice guidelines on several nuclear
safety analysis issues, such as the two-phase flow model,
pressurized thermal shock, boron dilution in reactor and so on.
The lower plenum thermal thermal-hydraulic problem has also
been considered to improve the prediction accuracy by the
writing group. In this study, the lower plenum of BWR-4 reactor
is modeled to investigate its thermal-hydraulic behaviors and
thermal mixing phenomena via a commercial CFD code,
FLUENT. Detailed modeling on components such as jet-pumps
in the downcomer, control rod drive mechanisms is included in
the model development for flow resistance calculations. Since the
geometry model has been constructed and examined by mesh
sensitivity process at present, it will be used to evaluate the
applicability of turbulent models and the thermal-hydraulic
behaviors of transient and accident in the near future. It could be
expected that the study can develop an accurate CFD
methodology for the lower plenum analysis, which can be used to
calculate three-dimensional neutronic parameters for the entire
core for multi-channel system code (TRACE+PARCS) or
provide a basis for conservative evaluations of the hot-channel
safety analysis applications (RETRAN).
Nomenclature
D differential operator
t Time
x, y, z cartesian coordinates
i, j cell number
P Pressure
T Temperature
thermal diffusivity
G Gravity
K Kelvin
k turbulence kinetic energy
S user-defined source term
A area
H height
T temperature difference
density
velocity gradient
partial differential operator
u velocity of x direction
v velocity of y direction
w velocity of z direction
viscosity
specific dissipation rate
Gk generation of turbulence kinetic energy
G generation of specific dissipation rate
Yk dissipation of turbulence kinetic energy
Y dissipation of specific dissipation rate
k effective diffusivity of turbulence kinetic energy
effective diffusivity of specific dissipation rate
Introduction
The purpose of this work is to investigate the influence of
thermal mixing phenomena for lower plenum in Chinshan
nuclear power plant (CSNPP). CSNPP is the first boiling water
reactor nuclear power plant of Taiwan. It has two identical units
of GE-designed BWR/4 reactors with Mark I containment, and
has 1864 MW original licensing thermal power for each unit after
measurement uncertainty recapture power uprate (MURPU)
program. In the CSNPP design, it prevents core damage under
some design basis accidents by Emergency Core Cooling
Systems (ECCS). A high pressure coolant injection (HPCI)
system is included in ECCS, which is the largest auxiliary
cooling water source in the ECCS. It can provide coolant water
(about 291 to 322 K) into vessel when the reactor is under high
pressure situations. With the inadvertent startup of HPCI, the
cold HPCI flow will inject into downcomer through the
feedwater spargers. This event not only increases the subcooling
of coolant but also makes core power rise swiftly. For this reason,
the thermal behavior in the fuel assembly region and the stability
of core will be seriously affected by the event.
Geometrical Model and Mesh Generation
Since the reactor is constructed by many components and with
very complex geometries, some assumptions and simplifications
have been employed to develop the geometrical model for this
research:
1. Jet-pump inlet manifold was ignored to reduce the difficulty Numerical Model
of modeling.
2. The outside RECIRC piping systems of the vessel were Since the turbulent effects in the high velocity flow and complex
ignored. geometries obviously affected the flow pattern and mixing effect,
3. Since the saturated water flows into downcomer via a free the Shear-Stress Transport (SST) k- turbulence model [1] has
surface near the separator, the detailed geometry has been been utilized to simulate the turbulent behavior. The turbulence
simplified as the inlet B.C. with constant flow rate. kinetic energy, k, and the specific dissipation rate, , are
4. Considering the flow temperature is uniform enough at the indicated with the following equations:
outlet of jet-pumps, the reactor model has been divided into

2 separated models from the jet-pump outlets. k kui
t xi
Through the above-mentioned assumptions and simplifications, (6)
k
the first three-dimensional partial geometry model from the k Gk Yk Sk
x j x j
reactor water level to the fuel support has been modeled (Figure
1). This model includes feedwater lines, feedwater sparger ring,
spargers, HPCI line, jet-pumps, recirculation loops (RECIRCs) ui
and so on. Moreover, the low-plenum control rod guide tubes, t xi
(7)
peripheral and orificed fuel support are considered in the model
(Figure 2). G Y S
x j x j

An unstructured grid system is utilized to generate the meshes in
the above 3-D models, where the total numbers of meshes are
about 5.74 and 4.9 million, respectively. The hexahedral
combining tetrahedron mesh element has been employed to
generate the low-skewness mesh (Figure 3). The maximum
deviation of results between original meshes and 130% refined
ones is less than 2%.

Mathematic Model
The governing equations for the incompressible, no heat source,
transient problem can be written as:

Continuity Equation:
D
0 (1)
Dt

Momentum Equation:
Figure 1. Simulated model.
u u u
u v w
t x y z
(2) Boundary Condition and Treatment
P 2u 2u 2u
2 2 2 In this model, the HPCI flow was injected to vessel via HPCI
x x y z pipe and feedwater line, so that 485.011 K coolant from separator
v v v v was mixed with 291.5 K coolant HPCI flow in the downcomer.
u v w RECIRC sucked the mixing flow, injected it into lower plenum
t x y z
(3) by 20 jet-pumps, and finally reached core inlet through fuel
P 2v 2v 2v supports. The related operating conditions which were under
g 2 2 2 normal state and HPCI event are as shown in Table 1. In order to
y x y z
model the simplified geometries, the data from our previous
w w w w study [2] was adopted for conditions at the outlets of jet pumps.
u v w
t x y z A user defined function (UDF) [3] program was utilized to
(4) provide the temperature data at the 20 jet-pump inlets, neglecting
P 2w 2w 2w any heat input from jet-pumps. It was written as:
2 2 2
z x y z N

T i , recirc Ai
(8)
Energy Equation: Tin, jet pump i 1
A
T T T T And the wall is assumed to be adiabatic while calculating the
u v w
t x
flow mixing. For HPCI initiation event, the conservatism of the
y z
(5) results may slightly increase by this assumption. In this study, the
2T 2T 2T commercial CFD code, FLUENT [1], has been selected to
2 2 2
x y z perform the entire simulation work.

Simulation Method and Convergence Condition
SIMPLE method [4] (Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-Linked
equations) with second order upwind scheme was used to solve
the HPCI initiation event, which essentially is a single phase and
incompressible flow problem. The convergent residues for
energy, momentum and other equations are less than10-5 and 10-3
respectively.
Results
Since the inadvertent HPCI initiation event would affect the flow
and temperature distribution in the reactor core, the state of
reactor under normal situation should be established before the
HPCI event. Figure 4 shows the temperature distribution at
heights of -0.54 m, -2.07 m and -3.6 m inside the downcomer.
Significant difference of temperature (T > 15 K) can be found in
the downcomer near the sparger nozzles due to the mixing of
colder feedwater and saturated water separated from the separator.
The flow pattern indicates that there is a stronger mixing
phenomenon in this region which effectively reduces the
temperature difference. As can be seen in Figure 4, the
temperature deviations have been reduced to 10 K and 5 K at
heights of -2.07 m and -3.6 m respectively.

The coolant in the downcomer would eventually flow thru the

jet-pumps and mix with the high velocity driving flow in the jet-
pumps. For this reason, the temperature deviations reduce to
about 0.2 K in one single pump outlet or 4 K for the whole jet-
pump group (Figure 5). In brief, the above discussion shows that
the temperature differences between feedwater and recirculated
water are effectively reduced from the top of downcomer to the
lower plenum under normal operation situation.

Figure 2. Simulated model of lower plenum.

Mass Flow Rate

Boundary Condition Temperature (K)
(kg/s)
Steam Separator 560 5682
HPCI Flow 291.5 269
Figure 4. Temperature distributions under normal operation
Feedwater Flow 485.011 243
situation.
Driving Flow of Counted from Counted from
Jet-pump RECIRC RECIRC
RECIRC N/A 1920
Once the HPCI initiation event occurs in the CSNPP, the cold
Table 1. The operating condition for the CSNPP.
HPCI injection flow enters into the reactor through core spargers.
A large temperature difference (T >180 K) can be found in the
Figure 6a. Moreover, the figure further shows that the HPCI
water would be horizontally injected into the feedwater line on
the right-hand side due to the fact that the HPCI pipe is
horizontally attached on the feedwater pipe. The temperature
stratification flow further induces an obviously lower temperature
region in the right-hand side of spargers.

This finding also indicates that the direction and diameter of

HPCI injection pipe might affect the final result of HPCI event
due to a vertical HPCI arrangement or a smaller diameter of
HPCI pipe could probably enhance flow mixing and show more
uniform temperature distributions in the feedwater spargers.
After the feedwater and HPCI injection flow was roughly pre-
mixed in the sparger ring, the mixed subcooled coolant would
then flow into the downcomer from the nozzles of the spargers.
As shown in the Figure 6b, the pre-mixed subcooled coolant
would be further mixed with saturation water from the separator.

Figure 3. Simulated model with mesh distributions.

Figure 5. Temperature distributions at the outlets of jet-
pumps and the inlet of reactor core.

Therefore, an apparent temperature drop can be found in the

downcomer near the sparger nozzles, especially for those at the
right-hand side. However, the mixing effects in the downcomer
still could not form a uniform temperature before the coolant has
been sucked into jet-pumps (H = -3.6 m). The maximum
temperature deviations in the right and left hand sides of
downcomer are higher than 40 K and 15 K respectively. This
finding can be further proved by the streamline distributions in
Figure 7. The streamline patterns shown mean not too much
strong cross-flow and therefore mixing effect is poor in the lower
plenum region. Figure 8 further shows the temperature
distributions at several heights in lower plenum. Since the weak
mixing exists in the gap of control rod guide tubes, the axial
temperature distribution has the same trend along the height
direction. Consequently, the radial temperature distribution forms
a significantly non-uniform temperature distribution. As a result, Figure 6. The temperature distributions in the (a) feedwater
an obviously temperature difference at the core inlet is inevitable sparger and (b) downcomer.
and should be further discussed.

Figure 9 shows the average temperature variations at the core

inlet. It takes about 5 seconds for HPCI flow to reach to the core
inlet as the HPCI event occurs. Once the HPCI flow enters the
lower plenum, it will replace the hot water within 5 to 30 seconds.
Therefore, the core inlet temperature will decrease as event time
increases until the thermal-hydraulic behavior reaches steady
state condition in the lower plenum.

The distributions of degree of subcooling for the coolant at core

inlet will significantly affect the stability and margin of operation.
The influence of HPCI event should be further investigated by
the quantitative comparisons of subcoolings for each fuel
assembly inlet. Figure 10 shows the simulation result of degree of
subcooling distributions at 120 second. It shows that the
maximum subcooling (28.2 K) occurs at the fuel assembly (5, 10),
which is two times larger than the minimum subcooling (14.6 K)
for the fuel (39, 36). The diagonal temperature difference further
could demonstrate that the temperature distribution may affect
the jet-pump and RECRIC line arrangement.

Moreover, an over than 4 K temperature difference between

neighboring fuels of (21, 24) vs. (23, 24) and (13, 24) vs. (13, 26)
can be found at the core inlet. This result shows that different
local boiling behavior (for example, onset of boiling) could exist
in neighboring channels, which would be an important issue for Figure 7. The streamline distribution in the lower plenum.
the reactor stability analysis.

Figure 8. Temperature distributions at several heights in
lower plenum after HPCI initiation event.
Figure 9. The average temperature at core inlet within 0~120
seconds in HPCI initiation event.
Figure 10. Simulation results of coolant subcoolings at core
inlet at 120 second.
Conclusions
A three-dimensional partial geometrical model of CSNPP has
been built by FLUENT, which includes jet pump outputs, control
rod guide tubes and core supports. The model has employed with
steady analysis and the effects of inadvertent startup of HPCI
event in this study. The influences of HPCI initiation event can
be seen from simulation results. In addition, even with the mixing
effects through the components of spargers, jet-pump and
RECIRC, there still exists 16 K temperature deviation at the jet-
pump output. The mixing flow is then injected into lower plenum
and then passes though the control rod guide tubes and core
supports. It is seen that 14 K temperature deviation still exists at
core inlet. Poor mixing in the lower plenum is quite apparent and
has been identified in this study.
Finally, the detail coolant temperature distribution at core inlet
can then be provided for system/neutronic codes, such as
TRACE/PARCS, to calculate three-dimensional thermal
hydraulic and neutronic parameters for the entire core or to
provide a basis for conservative evaluations of the hot-channel
safety analysis applications (RETRAN).
References
[1] ANSYS, FLUENT V12 Theoretical Manual, ANSYS Inc.,
2009.
[2] Yu-Ting Ku, Yung-Shin Tseng, Chih-Wei Su, Jong-Rong
Wang, Chunkuan Shih, "The Thermal Hydraulic Behavior in
Core Inlet Region of BWR with the Inadvertent Startup of
HPCI", Int. Top. Mtg. on Nuclear Thermal-Hydraulics,
Operation and Safety (NUTHOS-9), Kaoshiung, Taiwan,
Sept. 9-13, 2012.
[3] ANSYS, FLUENT V12 User Defined Function Manual,
ANSYS Inc., 2009.
[4] J.P. Vandoormaal and G.D. Raithby, "Enhancements of the
SIMPLE Method for Predicting Incompressible Fluid
Flows", Numerical Heat Transfer, 1984, vol.7,pp.147-163.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Recovery of Polyphenol in Water Using Microbubble Flotation

K. Terasaka1, T. Yamaguchi2 and S. Fujioka1

1
Department of Applied Chemistry
Keio University, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan
2
School of Science for Open and Environmental Systems
Graduate School of Keio University, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan

Abstract
Introduction
Microbubble flotation was utilized to recover polyphenol
compound dissolved in water. To compare the efficiency of Microbubbles having diameter of 20 - 60 m are utilized on
recovery, three kinds of aerators whose dispersed milli-bubbles, various fields such as medical treatment, waste water treatment,
submilli-bubbles and microbubbles were used. Although the agriculture, aquaculture, hydroponics and food industry. They
milli-bubbles and submilli-bubbles hardly remove polyphenol have unique characteristics, for example, very slow rising
from the aqueous solution, the microbubbles make it possible. velocity, long residence time, huge specific interface area, rapid
dissolution into liquid and negative electrification in water.
Therefore, the microbubbles make a novel technology realize
The fractional recovery increased with increasing residence time under safety for human being and environmental good for life.
of microbubble until the surface of the microbubble was not
completely occupied. When the increasing initial concentration Terasaka et al. [1] summarized several kinds of microbubble
of polyphenol was high, the fractional recovery presented the generators which have been used industries. When the
maximal value. Therefore, the solubility of polyphenol in water microbubble aerator was used instead of normal aerators, the
influenced on the fractional recovery. The smaller the solubility, performance of aerobic waste water treatment was improved.
the larger the fractional recovery became. Moreover, the
fractional recovery was improved up to 40% by addition of salt in One of useful application of microbubbles is flotation, which
polyphenol aqueous solution, i.e. salting out. separates particles from liquid by using bubbles. The flotation
can be enhanced by microbubbles because of large specific
In this study, the novel microbubble flotation technology was surface area and small rising velocity. In many fields,
developed to separate hydrophobic natural polyphenol microbubble flotation is utilized for water purification.
compounds from extract.
Terasaka, Aoki and Kobayashi [2] developed the microbubble
flotation to separate iron oxide particulates from industrial waste
Nomenclature water, which is a novel water purification technology. The iron
oxide particles adsorbed electrically on the huge microbubble
C Polyphenol concentration [mg/L] surface were lifted up to the free surface without exfoliation due
CS Surfactant concentration [mg/L] to very small rising velocity of microbubbles. By separating the
CSalt Salt concentration [mol/L] foam layer from the bulk liquid, the iron oxide particles were
C0 Initial polyphenol [mg/L] recovered.
concentration Serizawa et al. [3] utilized microbubble flotation to separate oil
dave Mean bubble diameter [m] components from oil polluted soil powers suspended in water.
dB Bubble diameter [m] The microbubbles adsorbed hydrophobic surface of oil droplets
DT Column diameter [mm] and then the oil drop coated by microbubbles has the smaller
F Dimensionless surfactant [-] apparent density than water. The oil droplets coated by
concentration microbubbles rose slowly without separating microbubble from
g Gravitational acceleration [m/s2] droplets. Terasaka and Shinpo [4] applied the microbubble
h Liquid height [mm] flotation for separation of fine carbon powders from suspended
ka Adsorption coefficient [s-1] water. The carbon particles are hydrophobic as well as oil
kf Release coefficient [s-1] droplets so that the separation using microbubble flotation was
H Column height [mm] done successfully. For the separation of suspended particles in
N Removal rate [mg/(Ls)] water using microbubble flotation, the electrical interaction
QG Gas flow rate [L/min] and/or hydrophobicity are essential.
QL Liquid flow rate [L/min]
R Fractional recovery [%] Polyphenol is widely added as a good antioxidant agent in food
S Saturated solubility [wt%] and beverage industry and medical field. In the industrial process,
t Aeration time [min] polyphenol compounds were recovered from botanical extraction
T Liquid temperature [C] liquid (Li et al. [5]). When they use as additives in food,
uG Superficial gas velocity [m/s] cosmetics and medicine, however, the extraction solvent never
VL Liquid volume [L] mix into the extract of polyphenol compounds. The several kinds
w Removed polyphenol [g] of polyphenols have some hydrophobic parts in their molecules
Interfacial tension [mN/m] so that the microbubble flotation may be possible to apply for the
separation of some kinds of polyphenols as shown in Figure 1.
 Table 1 Solubilities of polyphenols in water

Polyphenol Solubility S [wt%]

Foam
Rutin 0.015
Gallic acid 1.5
Caffeine 2.2
-glucosyl rutin 46

The structure affects to hydrophobic or hydrophilic on the gas-

liquid interface. Rutin, -glucosyl rutin, gallic acid and caffeine
were dissolved in ion-exchanged water, respectively. Those
initial concentrations, C0, were prepared between 25 and 200
mg/L.
Polyphenol
Table 1 shows the solubilities of polyphenols in water used in
this study. Rutin dissolved little in water. On the other hand, -
glucosyl rutin could dissolve relatively well. Gallic acid and
caffeine have middle solubilities in this study.
The foaming compounds were a little bit involved in the natural
botanical extraction liquid, which acts to keep polyphenol in the
foam layer on the free surface of liquid. Therefore, the artificial
Microbubble surfactant that is Tween20 was slightly added into the polyphenol
aqueous solutions in this study. The concentration of Tween20
Fig. 1 Microbubble flotation was kept 50 ppm, which is 5% of critical micelle concentration,
that is a factor F = 0.05.
Figure 3 shows the schematic diagram of experimental apparatus
In this study, therefore, the microbubble flotation technology was and its photo. Table 2 summarizes the experimental conditions.
applied for the recovery of polyphenols from aqueous solution. The flotation column whose height h and diameter DT were 450
The polyphenol was not suspended but dissolved in water so that mm and 78 mm was made of transparent acrylic resin. The
the recovery mechanism was different from the adsorption of polyphenol aqueous solution was filled up to the specific liquid
solid particles on the microbubble surface. The effects of the height h = 200 400 mm. The volume of the polyphenol aqueous
operating conditions such as bubble diameter, liquid height and solution VL was 1.91 L. Air as used as gas in this study. The
initial concentration of polyphenol on the polyphenol recovery aeration was done under the volumetric flow rate QG = 3.910-3
were investigated. L/min for 30 minutes from the three kinds of aerators set on the
bottom plate of the flotation column. The superficial gas velocity
uG was kept at 3.410-5 m/s.
Experimental
The microbubbles were produced using a pressurized dissolution
Rutin, -glucosyl rutin, gallic acid and caffeine were used as type microbubble generator (Type OM4-MDG-045(OG), Auratec.
polyphenol compounds in this study. Figure 2 shows their Co. Ltd.), which used a circulating liquid flow QL = 1.53 L/min.
chemical structures. To compare the performance of polyphenol recovery, a single
nozzle and a sintered glass cylindrical distributor, which did not
use circulating liquid flow, were tried as well as a microbubble
generator. The single nozzle and the sintered glass cylindrical
distributor formed mainly millimeter-sized bubbles and submilli-
meter bubbles, respectively. By analysing a lot of photographs of
dispersed bubbles, the mean bubble diameter dave and the bubble
size distribution were measured.
Glc
By accompanying with the microbubbles or the other kinds of
Rha bubbles by hydrophobic adsorption, the polyphenol compounds
Rutin Gallic acid rose through the solution and then were accumulated in the foam
layer at the top of solution. By skimming the foam layer and
liquefying the foam, the concentrated polyphenol solution was
recovered from the bulk of liquid in the flotation column. The
concentration of polyphenol in the bulk of liquid C was
quantitatively measured using a HPLC (Luna 5u C18(2)100A) as
referred Minami, Kitabayashi and Ujihara [6]. By the mass
Glc Glc-n balance of the polyphenol in the flotation column, the recovery
weight of polyphenol w was evaluated as follows:

-Glucosyl rutin Caffeine

w = (C0 C)103VL (1)
Fig. 2 Polyphenols used in this study
To evaluate the recovery of polyphenol, the fractional recovery and bubble size distribution under same conditions, ion-
of polyphenol R was defined as follows: exchanged water without additives was used as liquid phase.

R = (C0 C) / C100 (2)

10mm
In this study, the effects of the physical properties of polyphenols
and operating conditions on the fractional recovery R were
investigated.
Moreover, when the salt is dissolved in water, the saturated
concentration of the other solutes reduces, that is salting out
effect. To improve the fractional recovery R, the addition of
magnesium chloride as salt into polyphenol aqueous solution was
investigated.
Single nozzle, Sintered glass B generator
dave=6720m cylinder, 428m 36.5m
B generator
Flotation column Fig. 4 Aerations from three types of gas bubble distributors
Sampler


The bubble size formed from a single nozzle was between 5 mm
and 10 mm as shown in Fig. 5(a). The milli-bubbles had spherical
cap shape and rose fast with oscillation or zigzag motion through
Air
water.

35
Percentagefrequency[%]

Gasdistributor:Singlenozzle
30 Liquid:tapwater

25
Fig. 3 Scheme and photo of experimental apparatus 20
15
Table 2 Experimental conditions 10
Columndiameter DT [mm] 78 5
Columnheight H [mm] 450
0
Liquidheight h [mm] 200400
4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000
Superficialgasvelocity uG [m/s] 3.4105
Gasflowrate QG [L/min] 9.8103 Bubblediameterd [m]
Liquidflowrate QL [L/min] 1.53
Fig. 5(a) Bubble size distribution from a single nozzle in water
Initialpolyphenolconcentration C0 [mg/L] 25200
Surfactantconcentration CS [mg/L] 50
F [] 0.05 In a sintered glass distributor, submilli-bubbles were produced.
Aerationtime t [min] 030 The produced submilli-bubbles were ellipsoidal or a little bit
deformed spherical. Their distribution range was so wide, i.e.
between 300 and 700 m as shown in Fig. 5(b), that the bubble
rising velocity of each submilli-bubble was much different each
Results and Discussion other. Therefore, the coalescence and breakage of bubbles often
Figure 4 shows the typical photographs of bubble distribution occurred due to collision of bubbles.
from the three kinds of bubble generators into water in the The microbubble generator dispersed microbubbles whose
flotation column. From the single nozzle, the milli-bubbles diameter was between 20 and 65 m as shown in Fig. 5(c). The
whose mean diameter dave is 6.72 mm were distributed. The shape of microbubbles was spherical. The size profile of
sintered glass cylindrical distributer dispersed submilli-bubbles microbubbles dispersed in water looked a normal distribution.
whose mean diameter is 0.428 mm. The mean diameter of the The coalescence and breakage of microbubbles were hardly
microbubbles disperse in the flotation column was 36.5 m. observed.
Although the volumetric feed rate was constant, the liquid phase
looked milky under the microbubble aeration. In the cases of the Figure 6 shows the effect of dissolved components in water on
milli-bubble and submilli-bubble aerations, the liquid phase was the mean bubble diameter dave and interfacial tension . The
almost clear. mean diameter of microbubbles was the largest in ion-exchanged
water as blank. By adding a little of surfactant (Tween20), the
Figures 5(a), 5(b) and 5(c) show the bubble size distribution interfacial tension reduced. When each polyphenol was
from a gas distributor into tap water. To compare the bubble size additionally dissolved in the aqueous solution, however, the
interfacial tension hardly changed. The bubble size depended Figure 7 shows the recovery of rutin as a polyphenol with
strongly on interfacial tension. Therefore, the addition of aeration time t. The microbubble flotation could separate the
surfactant reduced bubble size, but the addition of polyphenol polyphenol much greater than the other aerations. The milli-
compounds did not influence the bubble size. bubbles and submilli-bubbles hardly recovered polyphenol. The
microbubble flotation caused by not only increasing absorption
area due to reducing bubble size but also inhibition of exfoliating
polyphenol on microbubbles due to reducing rising bubble
50
velocity of bubble. The removal rate of polyphenol was gradually
Percentagefrequency[%]

Gasdistributor:Sinteredglassdistributor
reduced. The concentration of the polyphenol in liquid C
Liquid:tapwater
40 decreased with aeration time t. The removed polyphenol
accumulated in the foam layer, where polyphenol concentration
30 was Cf. A part of the accumulated polyphenol in foam layer
came back to liquid phase.
20

0.06
10 Polyphenol:Rutin

Removedpolyphenolw[g]
C 0=100mg/L
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0.04
t =30min
h =400mm Keyd ave[m]
Bubblediameterd [m]
36.5
Fig. 5(b) Bubble size distribution from sintered gas distributor in 428
water 0.02
6720

25 0
Percentagefrequency[%]

Gasdistributor:B generator
0 10 20 30
20 Liquid:tapwater
Aerationtimet [min]
15 Fig. 7 Effect of dispersed bubble size on polyphenol removal

10
The differential equation in term of the polyphenols material
5 balance in the liquid bulk was expressed to estimate the
polyphenol removal rate N as follows.
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
N dC dt ka C k r Cf (3)
Bubblediameterd [m]
Fig. 5(c) Bubble size distribution from microbubble generator in
water where ka and kr are an adsorption coefficient and a release
coefficient, respectively. The adsorption rate of polyphenol is kaC
and the release rate of polyphenol from foam layer is expressed
50 80
as krCf.
Meanbubblediameterdave [m]

Meandiameter
By integrating the removal rate of polyphenol, Eq. (3), the mass
Interfacialtension[mN/m]

Interfacialtension
of the recovered polyphenol w was evaluated as follows.
40 Solvent:Ionexchangedwater 60
S:Surfactant (Tween20)F=0.05
t
30 40 w Ndt 10 3 (4)
0

20 20 After 30 minutes microbubble aeration, the foam layer was

disappeared. The present microbubble flotation was operated
semi- batchwise so the concentration of the surfactant was lost
10 0 with skimming foam. Therefore, the removal rate of polyphenol
decreased significantly. To operate steadily, the supplement of
fresh surfactant into the system is necessary.
Polyphenol component Figure 8 shows the effect of liquid height h on the removed
polyphenol w. The mass of the removed polyphenol w increased
Fig. 6 Effect of additives on mean bubble diameter
linearly with increasing liquid height h. The microbubbles neither
coalesce nor separate during their rising. The rising velocity is
very slow and almost constant. Therefore, the microbubbles can
adsorb any more polyphenol while the surface of microbubbles is hydrophobic interaction since the microbubble flotation could
not completely covered by polyphenol compounds. The residence separate selectively hydrophobic polyphenols.
time or the contact time between rising microbubbles and
dissolved polyphenol was enlarged with increasing liquid height
h.
0.06

Removedpolyphenol w[g]
t=30min Key C0[mg/L]
h=400mm 50
0.2 100
Removedpolyphenolw[g]

0.04

0.02
0.1

Rutin C0: 100mg/L 0

t:30min 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
0 SaturatedsolubilityS[wt%]
Fig. 10 Effect of solubility in water of polyphenol
100 200 300 400 500
Liquidheight h [mm]
Figure 11 shows the effect of the concentration of MgCl2 as
Fig. 8 Effect of liquid height on removed polyphenol
added salt on CSalt polyphenol removal w and fractional recovery
R. Not only the mass of removed polyphenol w but also the
fractional recovery R increased with increase of the concentration
Figure 9 shows the effect of initial concentration of polyphenol of the added salt CSalt. By adding some electrolytes such as
C0 on the mass of removed polyphenol w and the fractional MgCl2, the apparent solubility of polyphenol in water reduced so
recovery R. For C0 100 mg/L, the removed polyphenol w that the adsorption of polyphenol on hydrophobic surface of
increased with increasing C0 due to increasing probability for microbubbles was promoted.
contact of microbubbles to polyphenol in liquid. On the other
hand, the removed polyphenol w was almost constant for C0
100 mg/L. The surface of the microbubbles was completely 0.1
absorbed by polyphenol compound in high concentration of 40
Removedpolyphenolw [g]

polyphenol aqueous solutions so that the anymore polyphenol

FactionalrecoveryR [%]
0.08
could not be absorbed on the microbubbles.
30
At C0 = ca. 100 mg/L, the fractional recovery R achieved the 0.06
maximum value. The absorbable surface area of microbubbles
Rutin 20
balanced the contactable polyphenol in the solution at the C0 0.04
100 mg/L under the operating condition. C 0=100mg/L
t =30min 10
0.02
h =400mm
0.06 40 0 0
Removedpolyphenol w[g]

FractionalrecoveryR[%]

0 0.005 0.01
Conc.ofaddedsaltC Salt[wt%]
30
0.04 Fig. 11 Effect of added salt on polyphenol recovery and
fractional recovery.
20

0.02
Polyphenol:Rutin
t=30min
h=400mm
0 0
0 100
InitialconcentrationC0 [mg/L]
Fig. 9 Effect of initial concentration of polyphenol recovery on
polyphenol removal
Figure 10 shows the effect of saturated solubility of four kinds of
polyphenols in water S on the removed polyphenol w. A
hydrophobic polyphenol, i.e. rutin, could be recovered more than
hydrophilic ones, i.e. gallic acid, caffeine and -glucosyl rutin.
The absorption of polyphenol on microbubble derived from
10 Conclusions
Polyphenol absorbed on microbubbles much better than submilli-
bubbles and milli-bubbles. The microbubble flotation proposed in
200 this study was able to successfully recover maximum 40% of
polyphenol dissolved in water. The fractional recovery of
polyphenol increased with increasing aeration time while foam
layer was maintained. While the available surface of floating
microbubbles remained, the adsorption of polyphenol proceeded.
When the concentration of polyphenol in solution exceeded the
available surface area of microbubbles, the fractional recovery
decreased. By comparing some kinds of polyphenols such as
rutin, -glucosyl rutin, gallic acid and caffeine, it was found that
the hydrophobicity of polyphenol governed the absorption
between polyphenol and bubbles.
To improve the fractional recovery, the addition of salt, i.e.
salting out, was available.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (B) No. 22360332.

References
[1] Terasaka, K., Hirabayashi, A., Nishino, T., Fujioka, S.,
Kobayashi, D., Development of Microbubble Aerator for
Waste Water Treatment Using Aerobic Activated Sludge,
Chemical Engineering Science: doi: 10.1016/
j.ces.2011.02.043, 2011.
[2] Terasaka, K., Aoki, S., Kobayashi, D., Removal of Iron
Oxide Fine Particles from Waste Water Using Microbubble
Flotation, Progress in Multiphase Flow Research, 3, 43-50,
2008.
[3] Serizawa, A., Goto, Y., Eguchi, T., Tanaka, H., M. Itsumi,
Oil-Polluted Soil Processing and Oil Separation by Micro
Bubble Injection, Japanese J. Multiphase Flow, 20(1), 39-49,
2006.
[4] Terasaka, K., Shinpo, Y., Separation of Fine Particles
Suspended Water Using Microbubble Flotation, Japanese J.
Multiphase Flow, 21(1) , 77-83, 2007.
[5] Li, P., Y. Wang, R. Ma, and X. Zhang; Separation of tea
polyphenol from green tea leaves by a combined CATUFM-
adsorption resin process, Journal of Food Engineering, 67,
253-260, 2005.
[6] Minami, M., H. Kitabayashi, and A. Ujihara; Quantitative
Analysis of Rutin in Buckwheat (Fagopyrum sp.) by High
Performance Liquid Chromatography, Journal of the
Faculty of Agriculture Shinshu University, 34(2), 91-95,
1998.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Investigation of water behavior on the operation characteristics of PEFC
by using micromachined current collector
Y. Ochiai1 and K. Fushinobu1
1
Department of Mechanical and Control Engineering
University of Tokyo Institute of Technology,
2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Abstract
Water management is on of the most important factors for the
research and development of polymer electrolyte fuel cells
(PEFCs). The water flooding phenomena, one of the water-
related issues, prevents the operation at high current density
region, and it has to be properly managed for the performance
improvement. The water flooding causes the clogging in gas
diffusion layer (GDL) or gas flow channel and prevents gas
diffusion to the catalyst layer (CL). In this research, we have
used micromachined Ti-current collector (Ti-CC), instead of
regular GDL, and investigated the relationship of the water
behavior on the surface of Ti-CC and PEFC performance. Ti-CC
is fabricated by using a ND:YAG laser. In the experimental, at
relatively high current density region, water emerge from the CL
by the reaction of hydrogen oxidation reaction, and water flood
between the CL and Ti-CC. The Ti-CC is relatively hydrophilic
to gas flow channel (GFC), and the water tends to stay on the CL.
Change of wettability of Ti-CC therefore change the
characteristics of water behavior. A simple theoretical analysis
and visualizing experiment are employed to understand the
characteristics.
Nomenclature
B half width of the channel, m
c Chord length of droplet, m
Fdrag Drag force, N
FST Surface tension force, N
Fshear Shear force, N
FP Pressure force, N
h Droplet height, m
U Average velocity in channel, m s-1
Inter facial tension, N m-1
Difference between advancing and receding contact
angle, rad
Viscosity of the air, kg m-1 s-1
A Advancing contact angle, rad
Introduction
Polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEFC) is a promising candidate for
energy conversion applications including stationary, portable and
automotive devices. For large-scale introduction to commercial
use, however, there are many technical barriers to overcome. For
using potable or automotive devices, downsizing is a crucial
issue, and it requires the improvement of the power output per
volume or weight for the cell stacks. Increase of the power output
needs the increase of output current density, and the increasing
current density produces more water from the cathode side of
catalyst layer (CL) due to the higher rate of electrochemical
reaction. The higher rate of water production then causes a
phenomenon called flooding where the water floods over the
gas flow channel and some portion of the water clogs in the gas
flow channel (GFC) and gas diffusion layer (GDL). Flooding is
known as one of the key factors of performance degradation at
high current density operations, and thus the water management
inside of PEFC is necessary for performance improvement. In
PEFC, drainage pass of the produced water due to the
electrochemical reaction is through CL, GDL and GFC either as
liquid or vapor. CL and GDL have nanometer-scale or
micrometer-scale structures, and large effective driving force is
expected as capillary pressure. Capillary pressure depends on the
contact angle of the surface. Based upon these fundamental
knowledge associated with the water droplet behavior on solid
surfaces, there are many examples changing contact angle of
GDL and GFC [1]. In order to predict water behaviour inside of
GDL and CL, complex theoretical models have been developed
for numerical simulations [2-5]. Since GDL and CL have very
complex structures, these simulations either recreate a certain
example of structures or require geometrical fitting parameters,
and they as a whole need large amount of computational costs.
Various simplified model are therefore suggested [6,7]. These
models however have not been verified with experimental
evidence of operating PEFC. On the other hand, there are many
examples of visualization in operating or non-operating
conditions of PEFCs, and various visualizing techniques have
been developed [8-14]. One thing we might need to consider is to
experimentally examine the influence of the water droplet
behaviour at GDL and GFC level, and to verify with an simple
and comprehensive theoretical model without using empirical
fitting parameters. The authors have proposed using titanium (Ti)
thin film of typical thickness of several to several tens of m to
fabricate micro-through hole drilled current collectors to control
the water behavior or to simplify the theoretical understanding of
the complicated conjugate problems by excluding one of the
most complicated factors, the geometrical structure of GDLs [15-
17].
In this research, PEFC using titanium current collector (Ti-CC)
instead of regular carbon GDL has been shown and examined.
Ti-CC is microfabricated from titanium foil by using ns-pulse
laser, and the wettability of the Ti-CC surface is controlled by
using water repellent. Simple theoretical model and visualization
experiment are employed for the further understanding of the
experimental results.
Experimental
Figure 1 shows the laser-based microfabrication set-up. The
system consists of a ns-pulse laser, optical set-up, stage and
controllers for precision positioning. A ND:YAG laser with the
wave length of 1064 nm and typical pulse width of 5 7 ns is
used. Previous works of the authors used photolithography
technique, and very few examples of laser fabricated fuel cell
components has been reported [18-20]. Use of laser processing is
low cost in general and can reduce the process time compared
with the photolithography technique due to the enhanced etching
rate. In addition, the geometrical parameters of the through holes
can be simply changed by changing the optical parameters, while
the photolithography technique requires to prepare extra, high
cost optical masks. Due to these backgrounds, laser-based
microfabrication is employed in the present work.
Titanium foil is perforated by laser ablation, and the thickness is
5 m. Figure 2 shows a typical SEM image of the fabricated Ti-
CC. The hole diameter of the Ti-CC is about 50 m in this case,
the pitch of the holes is 80m, and the porosity of Ti-CC is about
0.21. Regular carbon GDL has thickness of about 200m, mean
pore diameter of about 20-30m, and the porosity of about 0.7-
0.8 [21]. It is noted here that although the thin structure with
larger pore size can enhance the gas diffusion, the smaller Figure 3. Test cell structure
porosity, on the other hand, reduces the mass flow rate.
Figure 3 shows the test cell structure. The GFC has five straight
and parallel channels, having the width and the height of 1mm, Operation condition
the length of 10mm, and CL-coated geometric area of 1010 mm The fuel cell test station consists of a mass-flow controller,
same with the perforated area of Ti-CC. CCM is also fabricated backpressure regulator, AC m-ohm tester (3566-05, Tsuruga
in the lab by using Pt Catalyst (TEC10E80E, Tanaka kikinzoku Electric Co.) and Galvanostat (HZ-5000, Hokuto denko). The
kogyo), Nafion solution (5% Nafion DE520 CS type, Wako Pure cell is operated in a room temperature at 25 C. Pure H2 is
Chemical Industries), and Nafion212 membrane. supplied to the anode, and pure O2 is supplied to the cathode.
Each of the anode and the cathode inlet gas flow rate is
controlled at 10 - 120 ml/min and humidified at 0-100%RH.
Current density is kept at constant value for 3 min, and voltage is
measured during the next 3 min to obtain the polarization curve.
As previously mentioned, the reactive area is 1 cm2.

Experimental result

Effect of Ti-CC fabrication technique

Figure 4 examines the effect of Ti-CC fabrication technique. In

this experiment, both H2 and O2 are 0 %RH. There is no
significant difference of I-V curve with different fabrication
technique as can be seen from the figures. It is confirmed that the
laser micromachining can be used for the CC in the present case.
It is recently reported that the elemental composition of the ns-
pulse laser ablation based drilling of micro-through holes on SiC
can be controlled to reduce the oxygen by introducing liquid
Figure 1. Experimental set-up of the microfabricatoin of Ti-
immersion ablation technique [22]. Further investigations can be
current collectors.
important for introducing laser-based fabrication of fuel cell
components.

Figure 2. SEM image of micromachined Ti-current collector

(a) H2, O2: 10 ml/min

 (b) H2, O2: 50 ml/min (a) H2, O2: 10 ml/min

(c) H2, O2: 120 ml/min (b) H2, O2: 120 ml/min
Figure 4. Effect of Ti-CC fabrication technique Figure 5. Effect of wettability, 0%RH

Effect of wettability
In this experiment, we changed the wettability of Ti-CC surface.
By applying water repellent on the surface of Ti-CC, the surface
is changed from hydrophilic to hydrophobic. Static contact angle
of bare titanium is measured to be 78, and is 96 on the surface
with water repellent, while it is measured to be 84 on the
separator side of GFC walls excluding the perforated Ti-CC
surface.
Figure 5 shows the I-V curve for 0%RH case. In both flow rate
cases, the measured I-V curves are almost identical despite of the
difference of the static contact angle of Ti-CC. However, there is
a significant difference observed in Fig. 6 where the supply gas is
humidified at 100%RH. At higher gas flow rate, as shown in Fig. (a) H2, O2: 10 ml/min
6(b), the cell voltage drops at higher current density. For lower
gas flow rate case, the difference of I-V curve due to the static
contact angle difference becomes more significant.
The results clearly show the influence of the wettability of the
current collector. Water droplet tends to move to hydrophilic
surface due to the surface tension. Relatively hydrophilic Ti-CC
to the GFC tends to keep the water on Ti-CC rather than on the
GFC wall to prevent the gas supply to the CL. While, the
hydrophobic Ti-CC try to remove the water from Ti-CC surface
to the GFC walls. Since the gas humidity is increased in the cases
shown in Fig. 6, this effect becomes apparent to decrease the cell
voltage.

(b) H2, O2: 120 ml/min

Figure 6. Effect of wettability, 100%RH
Theoretical discussion
Theoretical modeling
Previous work [17] has shown the existence of water droplets in
GFC and the relation between the water and the cell performance.
It is therefore expected that the cell performance can be
controlled by changing the Ti-CC wettability and can be
predicted by modeling the water behavior combined with simple
theoretical model without introducing empirical parameters by
virtue of the simplicity of Ti-CC.
In order to understand the characteristics of water droplet
drainage, we modeled the relationship between the gas flow
velocity and surface contact angle on the surface of Ti-CC as the
first step. Figure 7 shows the schematic of the model. The model
considers the force balance of the surface tension force (FST),
pressure force (FP), and shear force (Fshear) as [13]
FP + Fshear + Fdrag = 0
where Fdrag is the total drag force exerted on the droplet (equal to
the opposite of the surface tension force for a static droplet in
equilibrium). Each term in Eq. (1) is written as
" # sin(! " # A ) " sin(# A ) sin(! " # A ) " sin(# A ) &
Fdrag = ! lv c % + (
2$ !"" !+"
2 2 2
24 B U h
FP =
(B- h 2) 2 (1! cos(! A )) 2
12 BUh 2
Fshear = (4)
(B- h 2) 2 (1! cos(! A )) 2
where lv is surface tension, c is chord length of droplet, is
the difference of advancing and receding contact angle, A is
advancing contact angle, is viscosity of the flow gas, B is half
width of the channel, U is gas velocity, and h is droplet height.
From the force balance, water droplet balancing gas velocity can
be obtained. Figure 8 shows the relationship between the gas
velocity and the equilibrium contact angle. The results show
large gas velocity to remove the water droplet. For instance, gas
flow rate of 120 ml/min corresponds to the gas velocity of 0.4
m/s., and the water droplet height of 0.4 mm corresponds to the
droplet volume of 1.1310-10 m3. This means that the gas velocity
is not big enough to remove the water droplet until the droplet
surface touches the side wall of GFC.
Figure 7. Water droplet drainage from gas flow model
Figure 8. Equilibrium contact angle vs gas velocity, water droplet
volume is 1.1310-10 m3
Visualization
(1) In order to understand the characteristics of water removal,
visualization experiment has been carried out. As shown in Fig.
11, part of the cathode side of the separator is replaced with a
PMMA plate to allow visualization with a CCD camera. A high
resolution CCD camera (PCO AG, pco.4000) with up to
4008x2672 pixel is used to visualize the behavior to allow
reaction-area wide visualization with several m of lateral
(' resolution. The cell used in the visualization has a single straight
channel with the same dimension as described in the previous
(2) experiment to have the same dimension and structure employed
in the modelling part of the present manuscript. Both the CL
(3)
geometric area and the area of perforated Ti-CC are chosen as
1x10 mm to have the same dimension with the CL side of the
GFC wall. Only the cathode side is visualized because of the
importance of the flooding on the cathode side. On the anode side,
a regular GDL is used.
Visualization condition
The fuel cell test station, temperature, humidity, and the suplly
gases are same as previously noted in experimental section. Each
of anode and cathode inlet gas flow rate is controlled at 100 and
400 ml/min. The set of gas flow rate is chosen so that water
droplet can stay in GFC based upon the analysis in previous
section. Current density is kept at 30 mA/cm2 for 180 min, and
the reactive area is 0.1 cm2.
Visualization result
Figure 12 shows an initial result of visualization experiment. As
described in Fig. 11, the CCD camera visualizes the surface of
Ti-CC that is the CL side of the GFC wall. Bigger droplets are
marked with red circle, and these droplets have diameter of
around 0.1-0.3 mm. These droplets stay on the surface of Ti-CC
during the visualization experiment, and the result can be
explained by the theoretical model. Further investigations are
needed to identify the water removal behavior from the
wettability controlled Ti-CC of PEFC.
Figure 11. Visualization experimental device
 [15] K. Fushinobu, D. Takahashi, K. Okazaki, J. Power Sources,
158, 1240-1245 (2006)
[16] T. Miura, T. Hatakeyama, K. Fushinobu, K. Okazaki,
Thermal Science and Engineering, 17(2), 75-81 (2009)
[17] K. Fushinobu, H. Shiozaki, K. Okazaki, J. Thermal Science
and Technology, 5(1), 99-108 (2010)
Figure 12. Visualizing the water droplets on the surface of Ti-CC
in operating [18] K.G. Stanley, Q.M. J. Wu, T. Vanderhoek, S. Nikumb, Z.M.
Walker, and M. Parameswaran, Proc. 2002 IEEE Canadian
Conclusions Conf. on Electrical and Computer Eng., 450-454 (2002)

Ti-CC fabricated by means of ns-pulse laser ablation shows [19] S.H. Chan, N.-T. Nguyen, Z. Xia, and Z. Wu, J. Micromech.
identical performance with the photolithography-based Ti- Microeng., 15, 231-236 (2005)
CC. [20] M.P. Manahan, M.C. Hatzell, E.C. Kumbur, M.M. Mench, J.
By controlling the relative wettability of Ti-CC, from Power Sources 196 (2011) 5573-5582
hydrophilic to hydrophobic, the cell performance improves [21] G. Park, Y. Sohn, T. Yang, Y. Yoon, W. Lee, C. Kim,
at higher RH case. It is expected that the increased J.Power Sources 131 (2004) 182187
hydrophobicity of Ti-CC pushes away the liquid water to
the rest of the GFC walls to enhance the supply gas to CL. [22] N. Iwatani, H.-D. Doan, K. Fushinobu, Proc. 49th Natl Heat
Transfer Symp. Japan, 545-546 (2012)
Calculation of the gas velocity to remove the water droplet
from Ti-CC surface and the initial results of water droplet
visualization confirm that the water droplet cannot be blown
away by the supply gas in the present conditions, suggesting
the motion of liquid water due to the wettability patterning.

Acknowledgement
Part of this has been supported by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research from MEXT/JSPS.

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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Numerical Analysis on Effectiveness-NTU of Microchannel Heat Exchangers

K. Koyama1 and H. Arima1

1
Institute of Ocean Energy, Saga University
1-48 Kubara-aza, Hirao, Yamashiro-machi, Imari, Saga 849-4256, Japan

Abstract z coordinate
effectiveness
Heat transfer characteristics of parallel-, counter-, and cross-flow f thermal conductivity of the working fluid
microchannel heat exchangers are investigated numerically. The kinematic viscosity
heat exchangers are modeled as a three-dimensional conjugate density
heat transfer problem. The working fluid is air and substrate of
the heat exchangers is stainless steel. The fluid flow is assumed Introduction
to be steady and incompressible. The governing equations are
discretized by the finite volume method and SIMPLE algorithm Microscale devices have been developed in recent decades since
is used to calculate the velocity field. The numerical results show Tuckerman and Pease [1] manufactured a heat transfer equipment
that heat conduction in the partition wall affects heat transfer which consists of microchannels. A microchannel heat exchanger
phenomena of the microchannel heat exchangers. The relations of is one of the microscale devices. Research and development of a
effectiveness-NTU are compared among the heat exchangers. microchannel heat exchanger is greatly expected in various
Heat conduction in the partition wall deteriorates effectiveness of engineering fields such as mechanical, chemical, aerospace,
the microchannel heat exchangers. Especially, effectiveness of cryogenics, etc.
the counter-flow microchannel heat exchanger is more likely to Bier et al. [2] have manufactured a cross-flow microchannel heat
be affected by heat conduction in the partition wall. Conventional exchanger by precision cutting. They tested the heat exchanger
effectiveness-NTU method yields a negative or infinite heat with water as a working fluid. Friedrich and Kang [3] have
transfer coefficient on the cross-flow microchannel heat fabricated a micro cross-flow heat exchanger with trapezoidal-
exchanger under a certain condition. The authors conclude that shaped channels. Alm et al. [4] have manufactured ceramic
conventional effectiveness-NTU relationship cannot be employed counter-flow and cross-flow microchannel heat exchangers. The
for microchannel heat exchangers due to heat conduction in the experimental results were compared with estimated ones by
partition wall. A new effectiveness-NTU relationship is required standard heat exchanger correlations and numerical simulations
for microchannel heat exchangers. using a porous body approach. Bier et al. [5] have tested cross-
flow microchannel heat exchangers using nitrogen, helium, and
Nomenclature argon gases. To estimate overall heat transfer coefficient, they
proposed a homogeneous model used in a packed bed. Miwa et al.
a thermal diffusivity [6] have conducted numerical computations on gas-to-gas
A heat transfer area parallel- and counter-flow microchannel heat exchangers with
Ac cross sectional area of the channel no-thickness partition wall. They discussed effects of
cp specific heat at constant pressure compressibility of gaseous flow. Hasan et al. [7] have carried out
Dh hydraulic diameter numerical simulation to evaluate the effect of size and shape of
f friction factor the channels on performance of a counter-flow microchannel heat
h channel height exchanger. They found that circular channels gave the best
L channel length thermal and hydraulic performance among various channel
m& mass flow rate shapes. Kang et al. [8] have developed a theoretical model to
NTU number of transfer units predict thermal and fluidic characteristics of a micro cross-flow
Nu Nusselt number heat exchanger. They showed that the average temperature of the
p pressure hot and cold side flow significantly affects the heat transfer rate
qw heat flux on the partition wall surface and the pressure drop at the same effectiveness. Kee et al., [9]
Rc capacity ratio have manufactured and evaluated ceramic compact counter-flow
Re Reynolds number microchannel heat exchanger. They achieved the tests of the heat
t partition wall thickness exchanger using inlet airflow up to 750 C.
T temperature
Tb bulk temperature Most microchannel heat exchanger consists of stack of a sheet-
difference between bulk temperature and partition wall like heat transfer plate. The heat transfer plate, or partition wall,
Tbw of a microchannel heat exchanger is thick compared with a
temperature
Tw partition wall temperature channel dimensions since the channel is narrowed. Thermal
Tw averaged temperature of the duct energy is exchanged via heat conduction in the partition wall.
Heat conduction in the partition wall on a conventional-sized heat
u velocity component in x-direction exchanger is neglected because the wall is thin. In contrast, heat
U overall heat transfer coefficient conduction in the partition wall should not be neglected on a
v velocity component in y-direction microchannel heat exchanger since the wall is thick.
w velocity component in z-direction
W channel width Earlier works have revealed that heat conduction in a partition
x coordinate wall affects thermal performance of a heat exchanger. Gupta et al.
y coordinate [10] have conducted numerical calculations of counter-flow
microchannel heat exchangers considering the effect of heat leak is an order of 10-4 (dimensions of the microchannel heat
and longitudinal conduction. Al-Bakhit et al. [11] have conducted exchangers are presented in Table 1). This value assures that the
numerical calculations of a parallel-flow heat exchanger. They fluid flow in the heat exchangers can be treated as continuum.
pointed out that three-dimensional simulation is required for Constant thermophysical properties are assumed since change of
microchannel heat exchangers because thin wall approximation is the properties depending on temperature variation is small in the
not satisfied. Stief et al. [12] have conducted simulations to temperature range of this study. Heat generation or absorption
determine optimal thermal conductivity of a micro heat does not exist in the heat exchanger. Gravitational force, or
exchanger. Peterson [13] has examined a micro counter-flow heat buoyancy, is neglected since forced convection dominates the
exchanger which includes axial heat conduction. He suggested transport phenomena. Based on the assumptions governing
using very low thermal conductive material for micro counter- equations, mass, momentum, and energy conservation equations
flow heat exchangers. for the fluid flow, and heat conduction equation for the partition
wall, are as follows:
A microchannel heat exchanger is classified into parallel-,
counter-, and cross-flow one with respect to direction of working
fluid. Thermal performance differs among the three modes of u v w
+ + =0 (1)
heat exchangers. Especially, for a microchannel heat exchanger, x y z
effect of heat conduction in a partition wall on thermal
performance will depend on the types of heat exchangers since a
partition wall is thick. An investigation of an effect of heat (uu ) (uv ) (uw) 1 p 2u 2u 2u
conduction in a partition wall of microchannel heat exchangers is + + = + 2 + 2 + 2
x y z x x y z
required for its development and adequate utilization. The
objective of this study is to investigate effect of heat conduction (2)
in a partition wall of parallel-, counter-, and cross-flow
microchannel heat exchangers.
(uv ) (vv ) (vw) 1 p 2v 2v 2v
+ + = + 2 + 2 + 2
x y z y x y z
Numerical Analysis
Analytical Model (3)

A heat exchanger consists of a hot fluid flow passage, cold fluid

flow passage, and solid partition wall which separates the (uw) (vw) (ww) 1 p 2w 2w 2w
+ + = + 2 + 2 + 2
passages. A sheet-like heat transfer plate with channel array is x y z z x y z
often stacked for a microchannel heat exchanger. However, the
simplest configuration is suitable to investigate fundamental (4)
characteristics of a heat exchanger.
Figure 1 shows an analytical model of a parallel- and counter- (uT ) (vT ) (wT ) 2T 2T 2T
+ + = a 2 + 2 + 2 (5)
flow microchannel heat exchanger, which consists of two x y z x y z
rectangular microchannels and a partition wall. The working fluid
is supplied with uniform velocity and temperature at inlet of the
heat exchanger. Heat is transferred through the partition wall by 2T 2T 2T
heat conduction. For the counter-flow mode, the fluid flow is + + =0 (6)
supplied in opposite direction. Therefore an analytical model is x 2 y 2 z 2
the same as parallel-flow mode except the fluid flow direction.
Numerical Procedure
For the cross-flow mode, the working fluid flows in
perpendicular direction each other. The lower channel in Figure 1 The governing equations are discretized by the finite volume
is turned 90 degrees. An analytical model of the cross-flow method and SIMPLE algorithm [14] is used to calculate velocity
microchannel heat exchanger is essentially same as the parallel- field. The differential schemes are as follows; power low scheme
and counter-flow modes except the fluid flow direction. The for the convective term, 2nd order central difference scheme for
cross-flow microchannel heat exchanger in this study is classified the diffusive term. The no-slip boundary condition is applied on
as that in which both streams are mixed. the partition wall and channel surface. The outer surface of the
heat exchanger is adiabatic. The working fluid is air and substrate
Governing Equations
of the heat exchangers is stainless steel. Table 1 lists numerical
The microchannel heat exchangers in this study are modeled as a conditions.
three-dimensional conjugate heat transfer problem. The fluid
flows are assumed to be steady and incompressible. For the Code Validation
microchannel heat exchanger used in this study, Knudsen number
Numerical code is validated before conducting numerical
calculations for the microchannel heat exchangers. Fluid flow
and heat transfer problem of a peripherally-heated single square

L (mm) W (mm) h (m) t (m)

h
L 20 20 200 200
t
z h Inlet velocity(m/s) Inlet Temperature(K)
y
0 W Hot passage Cold passage Hot passage Cold passage
x
4.3-20.1 4.3-20.1 350 300
Figure 1. Analytical model of the parallel- and counter-flow Note; Rc = 1.0.
microchannel heat exchangers. Table 1. Numerical conditions.
duct is addressed for a preliminary calculation. The duct is
subjected to uniform heat flux. Governing equations are the same
as those for the microchannel heat exchangers except heat
conduction equation (equation (6)). Heat conduction equation is
not included in this case. Numerical procedure is the same as that
for the microchannel heat exchangers. The cross sectional
dimensions are 1 cm 1 cm while the duct length is 50 cm. This
size gives fully developed flow at the exit of the duct. Friction
factor and Nusselt number are checked to validate the numerical
code used in this study.
Figure 2(a) shows the product of friction factor and Reynolds
number of the duct. The friction factor f is defined by
2pDh
f =
Lv 2
The value of fRe decreases rapidly in the developing region. Then
fRe takes a constant value since the flow is fully developed. The
solid line in Figure 2(a) shows fRe obtained by Shah and London
[15] for fully developed flow in a square duct. The numerical
result of fRe is somewhat smaller than that obtained by Shah and
London [15]. However, the numerical result is calculated by
using coarse grids (xyz = 112111). Authors have concluded
that the numerical result reasonably agrees with conventional
result.
Figure 2(b) shows Nusselt number variation along the flow
direction of the duct. Nusselt number Nu is defined by
qw Dh
Nu =
(
f Tw Tb
factor becomes a constant since the flow is fully developed.
Figure 3 also shows fRe obtained by Shah and London [15] for
fully developed flow in the duct of which the dimension is the
same as the microchannel heat exchanger investigated in this
study. The fRe obtained by the numerical calculation is
approximately three times as large as that obtained by Shah and
London [15].
The friction factor, or fRe, of the counter- and cross-flow
microchannel heat exchangers are the same as those of the
parallel-flow mode shown in Figure 3. In this study the velocity
field is independent from the temperature field. Thermophysical
properties are assumed as constant and buoyancy driven flow is
neglected. The velocity fields of the three modes of the heat
exchangers are the same except fluid flow direction.
(7)
Temperature distribution
Overall temperature distribution of the heat exchangers is
discussed in this section. Figure 4 shows the temperature
distribution of the microchannel heat exchangers. The numerical
conditions are: The inlet velocities in both channels are 10 m/s,
inlet temperature of the hot passage is 350 K while that of the
cold passage is 300 K.
The working fluid temperature in the hot passage decreases
gradually while that in the cold passage increases gradually in all
modes of the heat exchangers. In the parallel-flow mode the
temperatures of the working fluids are nearly the same as that of
the partition wall at the outlet. This means that the thermal
energy is completely exchanged in the heat exchanger. In the
counter- and cross-flow modes the partition wall temperature
near the inlet of the hot passage is hotter while that near the inlet
) (8)

600
The value of Nu decreases rapidly in the developing region. Then fReH

Nu takes a constant value since the flow is fully developed. The fReC

solid line in Figure 2(b) shows Nusselt number obtained by Shah Shah and
London(6)
400
and London [15] for fully developed flow in a square duct. The
fully developed Nusselt number obtained by the numerical
fRe

calculation reasonably agrees with Shah and Londons results.

200
From above results the authors have concluded that the numerical
code for this study is validated.
0
Results and Discussion 0 5 10 15 20
y (mm)
Friction factor Figure 3. Product of friction factor and Reynolds number of
In this section friction factor of the microchannel heat exchanger the parallel-flow microchannel heat exchanger.
is discussed to explore its hydrodynamic characteristics. The inlet
velocities of the hot and cold fluid flow are 10 m/s and this
results in Reynolds number Re = 256. Figure 3 shows the product
of friction factor and Reynolds number fRe, where the friction
factor is defined by equation (7). The friction factor decreases
rapidly near the inlet of the heat exchanger. Then the friction

150 20
Numerical Numerical
Shah and
London [15]
15
Shah and
London [15] (a) Parallel-flow. (b) Counter-flow.
100
fRe

10
Nu

50
5
300 310 320 330 340 350
Temperature [K]
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
y (mm) y (mm)

(a) Product of friction factor (b) Nusselt number. (c) Cross-flow.

and Reynolds number.
Figure 4. Overall temperature distribution of the microchannel
Figure 2. Code validation using a square duct.
heat exchangers.
of the cold passage is colder than that of the entire part of the qw Dh
partition wall. The effect of heat conduction on heat transfer Nu = (10)
characteristics should differ among the modes of the f Tbw
microchannel heat exchangers.
where Tbw is the difference between bulk temperature of fluid
Bulk temperature flow and temperature of partition wall surface: for the hot
passage
In this section bulk temperature of the microchannel heat
exchangers is discussed. The numerical conditions are the same
as discussed in the previous sections. Bulk temperature Tb is Tbw = Tb Tw (11)
defined as:
for the cold passage

A vTdAc Tbw = Tw Tb (12)

Tb = c
(9)
A vdAc c
Figure 5(a) shows the bulk temperature variation of the parallel-
flow mode. The temperature of the hot fluid decreases gradually
while that of the cold fluid increases gradually. The bulk
temperatures approach intermediate of the inlet temperatures.
The variation rates of increase and decrease are the same since
the mass flow rates of both working fluids are balanced.
Figure 5(b) shows the bulk temperature variation of the counter-
flow mode. The temperature of the hot fluid decreases linearly
while that of the cold fluid increases linearly. For a conventional-
sized counter-flow heat exchanger with balanced flow rates the
bulk temperatures vary in parallel. The microchannel heat
exchanger in this study shows similar trend as conventional-sized
one. In the counter-flow microchannel heat exchanger heat
conduction in the partition wall does not affect the trace of the
variation of the bulk temperature.
Figure 5(c) shows the bulk temperature variation of the cross-
flow mode. The temperatures vary along the channel as well as
those of other configurations. However temperature variation rate
is less than that of the counter-flow mode. It is well known that a
conventional-sized counter-flow heat exchanger shows the best
efficiency whereas parallel-flow one shows the lowest efficiency.
Figure 5 implies that an order of efficiency of the microchannel
heat exchangers in this study is the same trend as that of
conventional-sized one.
Nusselt number
In this section Nusselt number of the microchannel heat
exchangers is discussed. Nusselt number Nu is defined as:
Figure 6(a) shows Nusselt number variation along the channel of
the parallel-flow mode. Nusselt number decreases rapidly near
the inlet. This is due to the effect of developing region. Nusselt
number becomes constant after the flow is developed. Figure 6(a)
also shows Nusselt number with constant wall temperature NuT
and that with constant wall heat flux NuH1 based on Shah and
London [15]. Nusselt number of the microchannel heat exchanger
obtained by numerical calculation is larger than that obtained by
Shah and London [15]. Figure 6(b) shows Nusselt number
variation along the channel of the counter-flow mode. Nusselt
number increases slightly near the outlet of the microchannel heat
exchanger. Figure 6(c) shows Nusselt number variation along the
channel of the cross-flow mode. Comparing Nusselt number for
three modes of heat exchangers, similar trend of Nusselt number
is obtained.
Effectiveness-NTU method
In this section effectiveness-NTU method is discussed. This
method is used to express heat transfer characteristics of a heat
exchanger. NTU is the number of transfer units defined as
UA
NTU =
(
m& c p min ) (13)
According to Mills [16], relations between effectiveness and
NTU for conventional-sized parallel-, counter-, and cross-flow
heat exchangers are expressed as follows:
1 exp[ NTU (1 + Rc )]
= (14)
1 + Rc

350 350 20 20
Tb,H Tb,H NuH NuH
Tb,C Tb,C NuC NuC
340 340 NuH1
15 NuH1 15
NuT NuT
330 330
Tb (K)

Tb (K)

10 10
Nu

Nu

320 320

5 5
310 310

300 300 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
y (mm) y (mm) y (mm) y (mm)

(a) Parallel-flow. (b) Counter-flow. (a) Parallel-flow. (b) Counter-flow.

350 20
Tb,H NuH
Tb,C NuC
340
15 NuH1
NuT
330
Tb (K)

10
Nu

320

5
310

300 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
y (mm) y (mm)
(c) Cross-flow. (c) Cross-flow.
Figure 5. Variation of the bulk temperature of the microchannel Figure 6. Variation of Nusselt number of the microchannel
heat exchangers. heat exchangers.
 1 exp[ NTU (1 Rc )] increases even though mass flow rate is doubled (the value of
= (15) heat transfer coefficient is not presented here). Consequently
1 Rc exp[ NTU (1 Rc )] NTU decreases as mass flow rate increases.

1
1 Rc 1 between the channels and partition wall. This means that heat
= +
1 exp( NTU ) 1 exp( RcNTU ) NTU
where Rc is capacity ratio defined as:
(m& c p )min
Rc =
(m& c p )max
This study results in Rc = 1 since balanced heat exchangers are
investigated. Before discussion, note that effectiveness-NTU of
the cross-flow microchannel heat exchanger is separately
discussed from those of parallel- and counter-flow modes.
Figure 7 shows effectiveness-NTU relation of the parallel- and
counter-flow microchannel heat exchangers. The solid line in the
figure is -NTU obtained by equation (14, 15). The effectiveness
calculated is somewhat smaller than that based on equation (14,
15). This discrepancy expresses the effect of heat conduction in
the partition wall because equation (14, 15) neglects a partition
wall whereas the numerical calculation includes the wall.
The ratio of sim to th is presented to clarify the discrepancy in
Figure 7. Figure 8 shows the sim/th of two heat exchangers as a
function of NTU, where sim is an effectiveness obtained by the
numerical calculation and th is that obtained by equation (14, 15).
Note that sim includes the effect of partition wall whereas that of
th neglects the wall. This means that sim/th shows inconsistency
Increase in heat transfer coefficient enhances heat transfer
(16) conduction in the partition wall significantly affects heat transfer
process of the microchannel heat exchanger for small NTU.
Therefore sim/th decreases as NTU decreases as shown Figure 8.
The value of sim/th of the counter-flow mode is less than that of
the parallel-flow one. This means that the counter-flow
(17) microchannel heat exchanger is strongly subjected to the effect of
heat conduction in the partition wall. On the parallel-flow mode
the inlets of fluid flow are located at the same end. The partition
wall temperature near the exit of passages approaches average
temperature of inlets as shown in Figure 4(a). Therefore
temperature gradient along the fluid flow direction is small. In
contrast, on the counter-flow mode the inlets of fluid flow are
located at the opposite end. This configuration increases
temperature gradient between both ends compared to that of
parallel-flow mode as shown in Figure 4. The effectiveness of the
counter-flow microchannel heat exchanger is more likely to be
affected by heat conduction in the partition wall.
In some cases of the cross-flow microchannel heat exchanger,
negative NTU has been obtained. The heat transfer coefficient is
calculated based on the equations as follows: For the hot passage
350
Tb,H
Tw,C

of a model for the microchannel heat exchangers. Namely, the 340

conventional model which neglects the effect of heat conduction
T (K)

in the partition wall can be employed for sim/th = 1. In contrast

the effect of heat conduction cannot be neglected for sim/th < 1. 330

As expressed in equation (13) NTU is a function of overall heat

transfer coefficient, or heat transfer coefficient, and mass flow 320
rate. Heat transfer coefficient increases as mass flow rate 0 5 10 15 20
y (mm)
increases. However, overall heat transfer coefficient slightly
Figure 9. Bulk temperature and partition wall temperature of
1.0 1.0 the hot passage at x = 18 mm of the cross-flow microchannel
Numerical
Eq. (15)
heat exchanger.
0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

300 310 320 330 340 350

0.4 0.4 Temperature [K]

0.6 0.6
0.2 0.2 Numerical
0.4 0.4
z (mm)

z (mm)

Eq. (16)
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
NTU NTU x (mm) x (mm)
(a) Parallel-flow. (b) Counter-flow.
(a) y = 0 mm. (b) y = 4 mm.
Figure 7. Effectiveness-NTU of the microchannel heat
exchangers. 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4
z (mm)

z (mm)

0.2 0.2
1.05
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
x (mm) x (mm)
1.00
(c) y = 8 mm. (d) y = 12 mm.
0.95
sim/th

0.6 0.6
0.90 0.4 0.4
z (mm)

z (mm)

0.2 0.2
Parallel-flow
0.85
Counter-flow 0
0 5 10 15 20
0
0 5 10 15 20
x (mm) x (mm)
0.80
0 1 2 3 4 (e) y = 16 mm. (f) y = 20 mm.
NTU
Figure 10. Cross-sectional temperature contour of the cross-
Figure 8. Effectiveness degradation as a function of NTU.
flow microchannel heat exchanger.
 hH = qw, H (Tb, H Tw, H ) (18)
for the cold passage
hC = qw,C (Tw,C Tb,C ) (19)
Figure 9 shows the variation of bulk temperature and the local
temperature of the partition wall along the hot passage at x = 18
mm, which are used for calculation of heat transfer coefficient of
the hot passage. The bulk temperature and local partition wall
temperature are crossing. This result gives not only negative heat
transfer coefficient but also infinite one.
Figure 10 shows cross-sectional temperature contours at y = 0, 4,
8, 12, 16, and 20 mm of the cross-flow mode. The area from z = 0
to 0.2 mm is the cold passage, from z = 0.2 to 0.4 mm is the
partition wall, and from z = 0.4 to 0.6 mm is the hot passage,
respectively. The hot working fluid flows in perpendicular to the
figures while the cold working fluid flows from left to right.
The negative or infinite heat transfer coefficient appears near the
corner of x = 20 mm and y = 20 mm in the hot passage. The bulk
temperature is calculated by using temperature at any cross
section of the passage. The left end of the hot passage is
remarkably cooled down because the left end is adjacent to the
inlet of the cold working fluid. The temperature distribution of
the hot passage as shown in Figure 10 unexpectedly decreases the
bulk temperature. Locally-distributed low temperature region in
the passage delivers the temperature crossing and therefor
negative or infinite heat transfer coefficient is obtained. This
phenomenon is attributed to configuration of the cross-flow
microchannel heat exchanger. This result implies that a new
method to calculate heat transfer coefficient and NTU of a cross-
flow microchannel heat exchanger is required.
Conclusions
Heat transfer characteristics of parallel-, counter-, and cross-flow
microchannel heat exchangers have been investigated
numerically. The heat exchangers are modeled as three-
dimensional conjugate heat transfer problem including thick
partition wall which separates the fluid flow passages. Numerical
calculations are conducted for the case where the mass flow rates
of hot and cold working fluid are balanced.
Friction factor of the microchannel heat exchangers investigated
is approximately three times as large as that of a conventional
duct. More pumping power is required for the microchannel heat
exchangers. Heat conduction in the partition wall deteriorates
effectiveness of the microchannel heat exchangers, especially the
counter-flow microchannel heat exchanger rather than parallel-
flow one. Conventional effectiveness-NTU method yields
negative or infinite heat transfer coefficient on the cross-flow
microchannel heat exchanger under a certain condition. A new
method to calculate NTU is required for the cross-flow
microchannel heat exchanger.
References
[1] Tuckerman, D. B. and Pease, R. F. W., High-performance
Heat Sinking for VLSI, IEEE Electron Device Letter, Vol.
EDL-2, 5, 1981, 126-129.
[2] Bier, W., Keller, W., Linder, G., Seidel, D., and Schubert, K.,
Manufacturing and Testing of Compact Micro Heat
Exchangers with High Volumetric Heat Transfer
Coefficients, ASME Dynamic Systems and Control Division
(Publication) DSC, 19, 1990, 189-197.
[3] Friedrich, C. R. and Kang, S. D., Micro heat exchangers
fabricated by diamond machining, Precision Engineering,
16, 1, 1994, 56-59.
[4] Alm, B., Imke, U., Knitter, R., Schygulla, U., and
Zimmermann, S., Testing and simulation of ceramic micro
heat exchangers, Chemical Engineering Journal, 135S, 2008,
S179-S184.
[5] Bier, W., Keller, W., Linder, G., Seidel, D., Schubert, K.,
and Martin, H., Gas to gas heat transfer in micro heat
exchangers, Chemical Engineering and Processing, 32, 1993,
33-43.
[6] Miwa, J., Asako, Y., Hong, C., and Faghri, M., Performance
of Gas-to-Gas Micro-Heat Exchangers, Journal of Heat
Transfer, 131, 5, 2009, 051801-1-0.1801-9.
[7] Hasan, M. I., Rageb, A. A., Yaghoubi, M., and Homayoni,
H., Influence of channel geometry on the performance of a
counter flow microchannel heat exchanger, International
Journal of Thermal Sciences, 48, 8, 2009, 1607-1618.
[8] Kang, S. W., and Tseng, S. C., Analysis of effectiveness and
pressure drop in micro cross-flow heat exchanger, Applied
Thermal Engineering, 27, 5-6, 2007, 877-885.
[9] Kee, R. J. et al., The design, fabrication, and evaluation of a
ceramic counter-flow microchannel heat exchanger, Applied
Thermal Engineering, 31, 11-12, 2011, 2004-2012.
[10] Gupta, P. and Atrey, M. D., Performance evaluation of
counter flow heat exchangers considering the effect of heat
in leak and longitudinal conduction for low-temperature
applications, Cryogenics, 40, 2000, 469-474.
[11] Al-Bakhit, H. and Fakheri, A., Numerical simulation of heat
transfer in simultaneously developing flows in parallel
rectangular ducts, Applied Thermal Engineering, 26, 2006,
596603.
[12] Stief. T., Langer, O-U., and Schubert, K., Numerical
Investigation of Optimal Heat Conductivity in Micro Heat
Exchangers, Chemical Engineering and Technology, 22, 4,
1999, 297303.
[13] Peterson, R. B., Numerical Modeling of Conduction Effects
in Microscale Counterflow Heat Exchangers, Microscale
Thermophysical Engineering, 3, 1, 1999, 17-30.
[14] Patankar, S. V., Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow, 1,
McGraw-Hill, 1980.
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Convection in Ducts, Advances in Heat Transfer Supplement
1, Academic Press, New York, 1978.
[16] Mills, A. F., Heat Transfer, Irwin, 1992.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Computational Quantum Mechanics of the Oxygen Reduction Reaction
at the Fuel Cell Cathode
C. T. Liu, C. H. San and C. W. Hong*
Department of Power Mechanical Engineering
National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
*cwhong@pme.nthu.edu.tw
Abstract
The most critical process in the low temperature fuel cells is the
oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) at the cathode of these
electrochemical power sources. The rate-limited mechanism of the
catalytic reaction is extremely important in the nanoscale transport
phenomena. This paper uses computational quantum mechanics to
simulate the detailed processes, including oxygen molecule
absorption, water molecule interaction, and hydroxyl production,
near platinum atoms which are doped on the surface of a carbon
nanotube (CNT) to increase the catalytic reaction area of the
cathode. An alternative catalyst with nitrogen atoms bonded with
the CNT (to replace Pt atoms) is also investigated using the same
quantum simulation technique. The catalytic performance of the
novel catalyst is evaluated in the paper.
Introduction
This paper is a summary of two papers, which are First Principles
Computations of the Oxygen Reduction Reaction on Solid Metal
Clusters [1] and Quantum Analysis on the Platinum/Nitrogen
Doped Carbon Nanotubes for the Oxygen Reduction Reaction at
the Air Cathode of Lithium-Air Batteries and Fuel Cells [2]. Both
were carried out at the Green Energy & Molecular Engineering Lab
National Tsing Hua University, led by Prof. Che-Wun Hong.
The oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) mechanism at the cathode of
low temperature fuel cells has been a major research topic in the
improvement of the power conversion efficiency. The slow rate of
the ORR is a major influencing factor that causes a higher over-
potential leading to a reduction of the electrochemical performance.
Platinum (Pt) clusters or its nanoparticles are considered as the
most commonly used materials for oxygen reduction. In order to
understand the oxygen reduction and hydrogen oxidation kinetics
on Pt clusters, some researches focused on particular reaction
orientations. Nowadays, although Pt is still the best catalyst for the
ORR, the search for alternatives to the rare metal is still in
progress. In previous study results, the copper particles provided
sites for oxygen reduction, which may achieve high rates of mass
transport. However, in the above literature survey, none of them
considered the hydroniums involved in the ORR. Since hydronium
ions cross the proton exchange membrane and arrive at the cathode
catalyst, we intend to study the complete four electrons transfer
processes beginning from the O2 reduction to the production of
water molecules. The objectives are to know how an oxygen
molecule is adsorbed on the Pt and Cu clusters, why the reductive
cleavage of the O-O bond occurs, and the phenomena occurring
during the proton transfer on the previously adsorbed oxygen
molecule. The detailed proton transfer mechanisms can be
observed through the computational technique described in the
following sections. The Pt-deposition and Pt-doped in the carbon
nanotube (CNT) electrodes were widely practiced and discussed
before. Thermal effects were also proved to have a great impact on
the Pt-doped CNTs. Even though Pt-containing CNTs have
supremacy in catalytic performance, their price is still a barrier.
That motivates the search for alternative catalyzers which must also
equip the ability to promote the ORR mechanism. Among the
candidate materials, nitrogen (N) is one of the most promising
options because of its universal existence and competitive price.
The better electrocatalytic activity is caused by the incorporation of
the electron-accepting nitrogen atoms which enable a relatively
high positive charge density on carbon atoms. It was found that the
electrocatalytic activity of N-doped CNTs showed a positive
correlation between the nitrogen concentration and the ORR
activities; a result that will be exploited in this paper.
Since all the catalytic mechanisms involve atomic cleavage and
adsorption, computational quantum mechanics techniques have to
be employed. In this work, a first-principles calculation using the
density functional theory (DFT) was adopted to investigate the
mechanisms that occur in the aforementioned ORR pathways.
Density functional theory (DFT) and adsorption energy
DFT is an alternative approach to solve the Schrdinger equation in
computational quantum mechanics. It is based on the electronic
structure modelling to investigate the quantum effects of interest,
such as breaking bond and recombination in the catalytic reaction,
in this study. The density functional theory (DFT) is one of the
analytic methods which based not on the wavefunction directly, but
rather on the electron probability density function, designated by .
For a system of n electrons, (r) represents the total electron
density at a particular position r in space. The electronic energy,
denoted by E[], is considered as a functional of the electron
density. There is a single corresponding electronic energy E[] for
a given function (r). The approximate functional E[] can be
partitioned into four components as shown below:
(1)
where ET indicates the kinetic energy term resulting from electron
motion; EV describes the potential energy of the nuclear-electron
attraction and the repulsion between pairs of nuclei; EJ is the
electron-electron repulsion; and EXC represents the exchange-
correlation term which includes the remaining part of the electron-
electron interactions. The detailed description of this DFT
modeling and the first principles calculation are explained in the
textbook [8] and in our previously published papers [3-7].
To calculate the adsorption energy between the oxygen molecules
and the catalyst surface, we can treat the surface as a slab. The
adsorption energy of molecules on the slab surface, Eads, is
calculated from the energy balance as:
(2)
where Eslab is the energy of the slab; Emolecule is the molecular
energy; E(slab+molecule) is the total energy of the adsorbed molecules
onthe slab surface. A commercially available code, Gaussian09 [9],
was employed to carry out the above computation job. A positive
value of the adsorption energy indicates a stable adsorption; the
greater the more stable.

Results and analyses

Oxygen adsorption on the metal clusters

Oxygen adsorption on the metal surface is regarded as the first step
in the oxygen. The cases is to study a realistic oxygen adsorption
condition by using several clusters such as: Cu_9 (9 Cu atoms),
Pt_9 (9 Pt atoms), Cu_18 (18 Cu atoms), and Pt_18 (18 Pt atoms).
Geometry optimizations of the oxygen adsorption on the Cu_9 (9 Figure 1. The optimized geometry of the oxygen adsorption on the
Cu atoms), Pt_9 (9 Pt atoms), Cu_18 (18 Cu atoms), and Pt_18 (18 (a) Cu_9(100),(b) Pt_9(100), (c) Cu_18(100) and (d) Pt_18(100)
Pt atoms) are determined by using the DFT computation. Figure 2 cluster surface.[1]
shows the process of how the oxygen molecule is adsorbed and
cleaved on two Cu atoms according to the scan of the total energy
variation. As shown in this figure, the total energy has the highest
value before the oxygen molecular adsorption. When the oxygen
atoms bind to the Cu atoms, the bond between the oxygen atoms
starts to cleave until these two oxygen atoms are separated to a
distance of 1.65 . The lowest energy location represents the most
stable oxygen adsorption energy. Figure 3 represents the stabilized
condition for Pt_18 and Cu_18 clusters. In both cases, it can be
seen that the total energy is monotonously decreased when both
oxygen atoms are adsorbed on the much larger Pt_18 cluster.
The oxygen molecule approaches the catalyst surface with different
angles when the actual oxygen adsorption process takes place.
Essentially, the angle of incidence in which that the oxygen
molecule approaches the catalyst should have an effect on the Figure 2. The process of how the oxygen molecule is adsorbed and
adsorption process. To test this hypothesis, three approaching cleaved on two Cu atoms according to the scan of the total energy
(orientation) angles are considered in the computation. Figure 4 variation. [1]
shows the adsorbed oxygen molecule on the Pt_18 cluster with
different orientation angles; 0o, 45o, 90, respectively. The left side
of each sub-figure is an un-optimized oxygen adsorption structure,
while the right hand side shows its optimized counterpart. Using a
geometrical analysis, the optimized structure is almost the same in
all three computed cases. The O-Pt length is 2.05 and the distance
between the two oxygen atoms is stretched to a final length of
1.48 in all three cases. Table 2 shows a comprehensive collection
containing adsorption energies (all are around 53.70kCal-mol-1)
and geometric data of the optimized structure after oxygen
molecules are adsorbed on the Pt_18 cluster with different
orientation angles. A similar case was studied on the adsorbed
oxygen molecule on the Cu cluster with different orientation angles
(0o, 45o, 90) and shown in Fig. 7. Table 3 shows that the O-Cu Figure 3. The scan of the total energy variation due to the
bond lengths, O-O bond lengths, and adsorption energies are 1.91, adsorption and cleavage of the oxygen molecule on the Pt_18
1.63, and 54.59 kCal-mole-1 respectively, in the different cluster. [1]
orientation conditions.

Table 1. adsorption energies and associated bond distances for

oxygen molecules adsorbed on the surface of Cu and Pt clusters

Figure 4. Oxygen molecule is adsorbed on Pt_18 cluster with

different orientation angles; (a) 0, (b) 45 and (c) 90, respectively.
[1]
 first hydronium molecule has entered and reacted with the oxygen
atom to produce OH-: At this time, the OH- radical leaves the Pt
surface. It is noted that an O atom is presently adsorbed on the Pt
surface. In the next step, shown in Fig. 7(b), the second hydronium
ion enters and separates into three H protons and one O atom. At
this point, the bond between the Pt surface and the single O atom
still exists. Afterwards, as the third hydronium arrives, the O
adsorbed on the Pt surface reacts and departs form the catalyst
surface to become OH-, as shown in Fig. 7(c). In the last ORR
mechanism, a fourth hydronium molecule enters (see Fig. 7(d))
causing the OH- radical to react and form six H2O molecules to
complete the oxygen reduction reaction written in Eq. (6).
Similarly, the ORR process described for the Pt surface can be
applied to the Cu surface (see Fig. 8(a) to Fig. 8(d)).

Figure 5. Oxygen molecule is adsorbed on Cu_18 cluster with

different orientation angles; (a) 0, (b) 45 and (c) 90,
respectively.[1]

Table 2. Adsorption energies and geometric data of the optimized

structure after oxygen molecules are adsorbed on the Pt_18 cluster
from different orientation angles.[1]
Figure 6. The proton transfer process of the first hydronium ion
approaches (a) the O2 adsorbed Pt_18 cluster and (b) the O2
adsorbed Cu_18 cluster. A hydroxyl radical is formed in both cases
and the bond length between the OH- and the metal surface all
stretches to a longer distance. [1]

Table 3. Adsorption energies and the geometry data of the

optimized structure after oxygen molecules are adsorbed on the
Cu_18 cluster from different orientation angles. [1]

Hydroniums involved in the ORR

A further investigation on the proton transfer mechanism is now
presented in detail. Since hydronium ions (H3O+) cross the proton
exchange membrane and arrive at the cathode catalyst, we intend to
study the complete reaction from the O2 reduction to the
production of water molecules step by step. The desired reaction is
the four electron reduction to water which is expressed as below:
(6) Figure 7. The stabilized molecular structures of (a) the 1st and
The DFT calculation on the adsorption of the first hydronium on subsequently (b) the 2nd, (c) the 3rd, and (d) the 4th hydronium
two metal cluster models (Pt_18 and Cu_18) is performed and ions approach the O2 adsorbed Pt_18 surface. The last one shows
shown in Figure 6. When one of the three hydrogen protons in the that six water molecules are generated and complete the oxygen
hydronium ion starts to bind with one of the oxygen atoms in the reduction reaction.[1]
oxygen molecule, a cleavage between the Pt-O bond takes place
with a newly formed hydroxyl radical (OH-), as shown at the right
hand side in Fig. 6(a). In the case of the Cu_18 surface (see Fig.
6(b)), the proton is also transferred from the hydronium to the
adsorbed oxygen atom forming a hydroxyl radical. The parameter
which determines whether the hydroxyl radical is able to move
away from the catalyst surface or not depends on the distance
between the metal and the O-H radical. The farther the distance is,
the greater the chance for the hydroxyl to move away. Figure 6(a)
shows that the Pt-O bond length stretches from 2.05 to 2.50;
and similarly Cu-O bond length stretches from 1.93 to 2.08 in
Fig. 6(b). Therefore, it is now possible for another oxygen atom,
which is not bound to the proton, to come into action and force the
hydroxyl radical to move away from the catalyst surface.
The subsequent 2nd, 3rd, and 4th hydronium ions that approach the Figure 8. The stabilized molecular structures of (a) the 1st and
O2 adsorbed Pt_18 and Cu_18 surfaces are shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. subsequently (b) the 2nd, (c) the 3rd, and (d) the 4th hydronium
8, respectively. Figure 7(a) displays the following steps after the ions approach the O2 adsorbed Cu_18 surface. The last one shows
that six water molecules are generated and complete the oxygen
reduction reaction. Note that one of the hydrogen protons is shaded
by an oxygen atom. [1]

Figure 9. (a) Top views and (b) corresponding side views of Pt(n)-
adsorbed CNTs where n = 1, 2, 4, 6. [2]

Table 4: Calculation of the total energy at each step and the energy
difference between each step of the O2 reduction at Pt_18 and
Cu_18 clusters. The bold letters indicate that the step at which the
highest reaction rate may take place. [1]

ORR at the Pt-Adsorbed CNTs and Pt-Doped CNTs

Figure 9 shows the top views and corresponding side views of
finite-length Pt(n)-adsorbed CNT and Pt(n)-doped CNT structures,
each with a fixed number of n = 1, 2, 4, 6.
Now we start to add O2 molecule to the surfaces of the Pt(1)-
adsorbed CNT, Pt(2)-adsorbed CNT, Pt(1)-doped CNT and Pt(2)-
doped CNT to study the ORR mechanism, as shown in Fig. 10. The
DFT computation results show that the O=O double bond length is
1.16 in the beginning. However, when O2 reacts with the Pt atom
adsorbed on the CNT surfaces, theO2 bond length extends to
1.33in the case of Pt(1)-adsorbed and 1.345 in the case of
Pt(2)-adsorbed. One of the initial O=O bonds cleaves and one of
the oxygen atoms bonds with the Pt atom nearby. In the case of Pt Figure 10. Add O2 molecule to the surfaces of the (a) Pt(1)-
(1)-doped CNT and Pt(2)-doped CNT, upon reacting with the Pt adsorbed CNT, Pt(2)-adsorbed CNT, (b) Pt(1)-doped CNT and
atom, the O2 double bond breaks up resulting in the breakage of the Pt(2)-doped CNT to study the ORR mechanism.[2]
O2 molecule into individual O atoms. These individual O atoms are
separated by a distance of 1.48 in the case of Pt(1)-doped and
1.34 in the case of Pt(2)-doped. Comparing these results, the O
O bond lengths are extended longer by Pt-doped CNTs than that of
the Pt-adsorbed cases. A better RR performance is expected from
the Pt(n)-doped CNTs than from heir adsorbed counterparts.
The scan of the total energy will give more insight of the ORR
mechanism when O2 reacts with a Pt-doped CNT. Figure 11 shows
the scan of the total energy variation due to the adsorption of the
oxygen molecule on a Pt(12)-doped CNT. The lowest total energy
point represents the most stable structure. Red circles indicate the
areas where some bonds are broken and cleaved. Initially, the O2
molecule exhibits a double bond and all the adjacent Pt atoms
conjugate with each other (see Fig. 11a). It can be observed that
two Pt bonds cleaved in Fig. 11b and two more Pt bonds are broken
up in Fig. 11c. The O=O bond changes to a single conjugation can
be observed in Fig. 11c. Finally, the construction of the OO bond
plus the Pt(12)-doped CNT has reached its stable state in Fig. 11d.
An addition of a water molecule to the adsorbed oxygen molecule
on the Pt(12)-doped CNT is studied by the scan of the total energy
variation as shown in Fig. 12. Three Pt-Pt bonds are cleaved in the
areas circled in red. When the ORR equilibrium state has been
reached, an individual O atom and two OH ions are produced. One
of the OH ions is adsorbed on the CNT surface while the other one
departs from the CNT surface. The oxygen molecule is reduced to
an oxygen atom in the whole ORR processes.
Figure 11. The scan of the total energy variation due to the
adsorption of the oxygen molecule on a Pt(12)-doped CNT. The
lowest total energy point represents the most stable structure. Red
circles indicate the areas where some bonds are broken and
cleaved.[2]
 Figure 13. Top views and side views of N(n)-doped CNTs, where n
= 1,2,4,6. [2]
Figure 12. The scan of the total energy variation due to the addition
of a water molecule to the adsorbed oxygen molecule on the
Pt(12)-doped CNT. Three Pt-Pt bonds are cleaved in the areas
circled in red. One adsorbed OH ion, one detached OH ion and
one reduced oxygen atom are produced in the final state. [2]

Comparison between the ORRs at the N-Doped CNTs and Pt-

Doped CNTs
Figure 13 shows the top and side views of N(n)-doped CNTs where
n = 1, 2, 4, 6. The DFT calculation results indicate that CNTs
deformed seriously after heavier doping of nitrogen atoms. Figure
14 shows the DOS of a pristine CNT, a Pt(1)-doped CNT, and
N(1)-doped CNT. Note that the Pt(1)-doped and N(1)-doped CNTs
have lower energy gaps than the pristine CNT. It is observed that
significant peaks exist between the HOMO and LUMO states in the
case of the N(1)-doped CNTs. They provide steps in the band gap
to promote the electrons from the HOMO to the LUMO easier than
Pt-doped and pristine CNTs. The main physical/chemical
mechanism involved is to match the perfect electronic cloud to
provide an environment to carry out the four-electron reduction for Figure 14. DOS diagram of a pristine CNT, a Pt(1)-doped CNT,
the oxygen molecules. Figure 15 shows molecular orbital diagrams and a N(1) doped CNT. Note that significant peaks exist between
of N(n)-doped CNTs, where n=1, 2, 4, 6. Blue color balls are N the HOMO and LUMO states in the case of the N-doped CNT,
atoms, green color indicates spin-up electrons and brown color which allows an easy promotion of electrons to overcome the
means spin-down electrons. The regions where electron clouds energy gap. [2]
exist indicate the areas where the ORR is easier to take place.
Comparing the HOMO and LUMO states, some of the electrons
tend to move along the CNT wall, and most electron clouds
distribute around the N atoms. Figure 16 displays the ORR
comparison between a Pt-doped CNT and an N-doped CNT after
reaching their respective equilibrium states. The results indicate
that the Pt-doped CNT and the N-doped CNT elongated the OO
bond length from 1.16 originally to 1.48 and 1.31 ,
respectively. This result suggests that the oxygen molecules may be
more easily cleaved in Pt-doped CNTs than with N-doped CNTs.
Supporting evidence indicating a better ORR performance in Pt-
doped CNTs than in N-doped CNTs is provided by an adsorption
energy comparison which can be found quantitatively in Table 5. A
higher adsorption energy promotes a better oxygen adsorption on Figure 15. Molecular orbital diagrams of N(n)-doped CNTs, where
the CNT surface, which benefits in an improved ORR. It is n = 1,2,4, 6. Blue color balls are N atoms, green color indicates
commonly thought that the oxygen reduction is a type of spin-up electrons and brown color means spin-down electrons. The
exothermic reaction, and the thermal effect that it conveys affects regions where electron clouds exist indicate the areas where the
the structural stability. The specific thermal capacities of Pt and N- ORR is easier to take place. [2]
doped CNTs were calculated and the results are displayed in Fig.
16. The DFT computation results indicate that the specific thermal Material Pt-O() N-O() OO() Adsorption energy
capacities of both cases increase with higher Pt or N-doped Pt(1)-doped
concentrations. However, even though Pt-doped CNTs with CNT 2.104 1.480 28.88 eV
increasing Pt atoms show increasing thermal capacities, their N(1)-doped
3.911 1.305 6.57 eV
values are still lower than that of pristine CNT. On the contrary, the CNT
N-doped CNTs with increasing N atoms significantly enhance the Table 5: Bond lengths and absorption energies of a Pt(1)-doped
structural stability when compared to that of the pristine CNT. CNT and a N(1)-doped CNT. [2]

Figure 16. The comparison of ORR between a Pt-doped CNT and
an N-doped CNT after reaching their respective equilibrium states.
[2]
Conclusions
In most low temperature fuel cells, the ORR mechanism at the
cathode plays the key role to limit the reaction rate of the fuel cell,
and thus the performance. This research has used the first-
principles calculations to investigate the characteristics of several
types of Pt and N-containing CNTs (Pt-adsorbed, Pt-doped, and N-
doped), with a specific focus on the ORR mechanism present in the
fuel cells. The quantum simulation results in this research indicate
that: (a) the Cu surface is more beneficial to the oxygen adsorption
than the Pt surface; (b) the O-O bond within the oxygen molecule is
broken more easily on the Cu cluster surface than on the Pt surface;
(c) a hydroxyl radical can be formed on the catalyst surface when
the first hydronium comes near the oxygen adsorbed cluster; (d) the
hydroxyl radical departs from the Pt cluster surface more easily
than from the Cu cluster; (e) in the Pt_18 case, the highest reaction
rate occurs at the arrival of the third hydronium ion (step 5).
However, in the Cu_18 case, the fastest ORR rate takes place when
the first hydronium is involved (step 3). Based on the present
model study, it can be concluded that the O2 adsorption is the
slowest step in the ORR mechanism. The highest reaction rate may
occur at the arrival of the third hydronium ion (step 5) on the Pt
cluster, and at the first hydronium arrival on the Cu cluster. Once
the four-electron reduction is complete, the final product contains
six water molecules. They can be displaced by incoming oxygen
molecules, so that the ORR cycle can be repeated. Our work has
identified the pathway of the ORR process in hydrogen fuel cells,
further experimental verification is necessary.
The N-doped CNTs are proposed because of their potential
substitution for Pt-doped CNTs in order to lower costs and provide
an enhanced thermal stability. It was observed that Pt-containing
CNTs promote the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) by elongating
the OO bond and then cleaving OO conjugations to reduce the
oxygen molecules on the CNT surfaces. The Pt-doped CNTs
revealed a better ORR performance than that of Pt-adsorbed CNTs
mainly because the former lengthened the OO bond by a higher
degree. This longer bond elongation permits an easier cleavage of
the OO conjugation in the ORR. The OHformation processes, at
the air cathode, were also calculated by a DFT approach in this
work and permitted a detailed observation of all the ORR steps
involved. The results indicated N doped CNTs dramatically shorten
the energy gaps by providing extra steps between the HOMO and
the LUMO. Judging from the elongated OO bond lengths, our
results show that the catalytic activity of Pt-doped CNTs is higher
than that of N-doped CNTs. However, N-doped CNTs outperform
both pristine and Pt-doped CNTs on the specific thermal capacity
which can yield a higher structural stability in the ORR operation.
It is reasonable to believe that the N-doped CNTs should be a
potential metal-free catalyst to replace the current precious
platinum in the future.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the financial support from the National
Science Council of Taiwan and the Chung-Hsin Electric &
Machinery MFG Corp under Contract No. NSC 101-2622-E-
007-005-CC2 and NSC 101-2221-E-007-051-MY3. The computer
facilities provided by the National Center for High-Performance
Computing is also acknowledged.
References
[1] C. H. San, C. P. Chiu, C. W. Hong, First Principles
Computations of the Oxygen Reduction Reaction on Solid
Metal Clusters, CMC- Computers, Materials, & Continua, 26,
2011, 167-186.
[2] C. H. San, C. W. Hong, Quantum Analysis on the
Platinum/Nitrogen Doped Carbon Nanotubes for the Oxygen
Reduction Reaction at the Air Cathode of Lithium-Air
Batteries and Fuel Cells, Journal of The Electrochemical
Society, 159, 2012, 116-121.
[3] C. W. Hong, W. H. Chen, Computational Quantum Chemistry
on the Photoelectric Characteristics of Semiconductor
Quantum Dots and Biological Pigments, CMES-Computer
Modeling in Engineering & Sciences, 72, 2011, 211-228.
[4] C. W. Hong, C. Y. Tsai, Computational Quantum Mechanics
Simulation on the Photonic Properties of Group-III Nitride
Clusters, CMES-Computer Modeling in Engineering &
Sciences, 67, 2010, 79-94.
[5] C. H. San, C. W. Hong, Molecular Design of the Solid
Copolymer Electrolyte- Poly(styrene-b-ethylene oxide) for
Lithium Ion Batteries, CMC- Computers, Materials, &
Continua, 23 (2), 2011, pp. 101-117.
[6] W. H. Chen, C. W. Hong, Nano-Array Solid Electrode Design
for Photoelectrochemical Solar Cells, CMC- Computers,
Materials, & Continua, 21 (2), 2011, 147-170.
[7] W. H. Chen, A. G. Miranda, C. W. Hong, Parametric Studies
on the Photovoltaic Performance Improvement of a Novel
Nanotube Photo-electrochemical Solar Cell, Journal of The
Electrochemical Society, 158 (5), 2011, 57-64.
[8] I. N. Levine, Quantum Chemistry, 6th Edition, Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 2009.
[9] M. J. Frisch et al., Gaussian 09 Revision A1, Gaussian Inc.,
Wallingford CT, 2009.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Multi-scale Transport Phenomena Simulations in Fuel Cells Design

C.W. Hong1*, H.S. Liou1, C.H. Cheng2 and K. Fei2

1
Department of Power Mechanical Engineering
National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
2
Renewable Energy R&D Center
Chung-Hsin Electric & Machinery MFG Corp., Taoyuan, Taiwan
*cwhong@pme.nthu.edu.tw

Abstract

This paper presents some design simulation techniques on the

multi-scale transport phenomena inside low temperature fuel
cells, such as proton membrane exchange fuel cells (PEMFCs),
direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), and high temperature solid
oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). Computational techniques integrate
quantum mechanics, molecular dynamics, lattice Boltzmann
dynamics, computational fluid dynamics, and system dynamics
into one design tool to study the transport phenomena inside
electrolytes, diffusion layers, flow channels and fuel cell stack
systems. This multi-scale simulation tool is capable of screening
conceptual design ideas, from nano-scale materials to meso-scale
components to the macro-scale fuel cell stack, before a prototype
is fabricated. It can be applied to the renewable energy industry
for both performance improvement and new system design.

Introduction Figure 1. Computational multi-scale transport phenomena

This paper is a review of the multi-scale simulation and design of
various fuel cells (both low temperature and high temperature
fuel cells) carried out in the Green Energy & Molecular
Engineering Lab in the National Tsing Hua University in the past
25 years. All the figures are extracted from previously published
journal papers by the corresponding author and his research team
in references [1-20] and many other keynote speeches.
Fuel cells have been recognized as the most promising green
power generator provided that fuels (such as hydrogen, methanol
and some other hydrocarbon gases) are produced in a green way.
This paper reviews some techniques and fundamental theories
developed in our Green Energy & Molecular Engineering to
design the fuel cell stack system, from powder to power and from
quantum to system. We start from the electrolyte materials design,
mainly on the low temperature proton exchange membranes and
high temperature solid oxide ceramics, based on the molecular
dynamics (MD) technique. Subsequently we need the quantum
mechanics technique to set up the molecular structure and also to
evaluate the potential functions between each atom. The
computational quantum mechanics (CQM) technique is
employed to deal with the catalytic process which plays the
major role to promote the electrochemical reaction. When we
deal with the porous catalyst layers and diffusion layers in the
cell assembly, it comes out the meso-scale transport phenomenon,
which can be simulated by the lattice Boltzmann modelling
(LBM) from the academic viewpoint. Computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) plus electrochemistry are employed to predict
the fuel cell I-V performance. Figure 1 shows the schematic flow
chart of the computational multi-scale transport phenomena
simulation of fuel cells design via integration of quantum
mechanics, molecular dynamics, and computational fluid
dynamics with mass transfer plus electrochemistry.
simulation of fuel cells design via integration of quantum
mechanics, molecular dynamics, and computational fluid
dynamics with mass transfer plus electrochemistry
Fundamental theory
Computational multi-scale transport phenomena simulation starts
from the single electron flow simulation, which is described by
the Schrodinger equation as
r
h2 2 r ih (r , t )
2 + V (r , t ) = 2
(1)
8 m t
where is the wavefunction, m is the mass of the electron, h is
the Plancks constant, and V is the potential field. For a multi-
electron flow, which is the realist case, we prefer to use density
functional theory (DFT) to solve the electron density instead of
r
the wavefunction. For a system of n electrons, (r ) represents
r
the total electron density at a particular position r in space.
(2)
The electronic energy, denoted by E[], is considered as a
functional of the electron density. There is a single corresponding
r
electronic energy E[] for a given function (r ) . The
approximate functional E[] can be partitioned into four
components as shown below:
E[] = ET [] + EV [] + EJ [] + EXC[] (3)
where ET indicates the kinetic energy term resulting from
electron motion; EV describes the potential energy of the nuclear-
electron attraction and the repulsion between pairs of nuclei; EJ is
the electron-electron repulsion; and EXC represents the exchange- distribution which makes the most stable structure at the
correlation term which includes the remaining part of the minimum energy as shown in Figure 3. In the catalyst layer, the
electron-electron interactions. oxygen reduction and the proton transfer take place here, which
is a nano-scale reaction. Figure 4 shows the quantum simulation
The density functional theory can be employed to calculate the of the catalytic reaction.
charge distribution of each atom and the potential function
between atoms or molecules. When the molecular structure is
optimized and stabilized, we can employ some semi-empirical
potential functions to replace the time-consuming quantum
computation. This is called molecular dynamics, which treats all
atoms as particles with mass and hence within the range of
Newtonian dynamics. The molecular dynamics technique is
based on the Newtons 2nd law and the Hamiltonian dynamics.
The potential function employed can be described as below:

U total = U int er + U int ra + KE (4)

U int er = U VDW + U elec (5)

U int ra = U bond + U angle + U dihedral (6)
Figure 2. Charge distribution of a model Nafion fragment [1]
When we deal with the micro-channel problem or porous
medium flow, we can treat them as a meso-scale transport
phenomenon simulation (Knudson number Kn>1). The Lattice
Boltzmann modelling (LBM) can be applied in this flow regime.
The general form of the lattice-Boltzmann equation can be
expressed by:
1
f i ( X + e i t , t + t) f i ( X , t ) = [ f i ( X , t ) f i ( eq ) ( X , t )] (7)

where f(X, t) is the distribution function which is a function of
the position vector X and time t. ei is the lattice velocity vector in
the i direction. The superscript eq refers to the equilibrium state
and is the dimensionless collision time. Figure 3. Molecular structure of the model Nafion fragment used
For macro-scale transport phenomena taken place at the manifold in the molecular simulation (F: fluorine; C: carbon; S: sulfur; O2:
and flow channels (including some porous media) in the fuel cell ether-like oxygen atoms in the side chain; O3: oxygen atoms in
stack design, we can use the fundamental laws in the the sulfonic-acid group) [2]
computational fluid dynamics which are expressed by the mass
continuity, momentum transport, species transport, and energy
conservation equations, respectively.
r
+ ( V ) = 0
t (8)
r
V r r v
+ V V = f B
t (9)
i r
+ ( iV Di i ) = mi
t (10)
T r
c v + c v V T ( k T ) = 2 C 2 + q B
t (11)
r Figure 4. Simulation of the O2 reduction and the proton transfer
In which is the density; V is the velocity vector; is the stress process of the first hydronium ion approaches the Pt cluster [3]
r
tensor; f B is the body force; i is the density ratio of specie i
w.r.t. bulk; Di is the mass diffusion coefficient for specie i; m is
the mass generation rate; cv is the specific heat at constant
volume; T is temperature; k is the heat conductivity; is the fluid
viscosity; C is the shear rate; qB is the specific rate of heat
generation per unit volume. In which heat conductivity and fluid
viscosity can be calculated from the molecular dynamics, if a
novel material is designed before fabrication.

Multi-scale simulations
Quantum Simulation (Quantum Scale)
In order to set up the most stable structure of a polymer
membrane, we need to calculate the charge distribution of an
example Nafion model. We can use a semi-empirical quantum
model (e.g. AM1) or the detailed DFT model to calculate the
electron cloud distribution. Figure 2 shows the charge
Figure 5. Snapshots of the Nafion membrane morphology and
hydronium transport ((light blue balls are hydroniums) from the
MD simulation [4]
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the initial doped ceria (or
zirconia) structure. The Ce4+ (or Zr4+) ions were assigned to the
positions according to the FCC lattice; some of the ions were
randomly substituted by Sm3+ (or Gd3+ or Y3+) ions. The
oxygen ions were assigned to the center surrounded by the Ce (or
Zr) tetrahedron; and some of them were randomly substituted by
vacancies [5]
Figure 7. (a) Density field diagram at each instant of the bubble
flow in the micro-channel (0.1 1.0 g/cm3); (b) corresponding
temperature distribution diagram (simulation conditions are set at
inlet velocity: 250 lm/s; inlet temperature 298 K; outlet
temperature 333 K; the wall temperature varies from 298 to 333
K linearly from the inlet to the exit); (c) an enlarged view of the
velocity vectors superimposed on the bubble density diagram [6]
Molecular Dynamics Simulation (Nano Scale)
The ionic conduction properties of the membrane are closely
related to the internal structure such as the spatial distribution of
ionic sites in the membrane. The snapshots of the membrane
morphology from the MD simulation can be seen in Figure 5.
The hydrated Nafion membrane forms the phase separation in the
hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts. The hydrophobic region is
constituted by the backbone (green cloud) of the polymer, while
the hydrophilic region contains water molecules (gray cloud),
hydronium ions (light blue balls) and sulfonic-acid groups
(yellow and red balls).
Another case is the high temperature fuel cell, such as an SOFC,
which uses different solid structure electrolyte. Figure 6 shows
the schematic diagram of the initial doped ceria (or zirconium)
structure. The Ce4+ (or Zr4+) ions were assigned to the positions
according to the FCC (face centered cubic) lattice; some of the
ions were randomly substituted by Sm3+ (or Gd3+ or Y3+) ions.
The oxygen ions were assigned to the center surrounded by the
Ce (or Zr) tetrahedron; and some of them were randomly
substituted by vacancies. This basic principle and molecular
structure generate the oxygen ion flow across the ceramic
electrolyte and can be visualized from the MD simulation results.
Lattice Boltzmann Simulation (Meso Scale)
When we deal with the porous medium region (catalyst layer and
diffusion layer) or microchannel flow in the flow channels of the
fuel cells (e.g., at the anode of a micro DMFC), it is a two-phase
flow with gas (CO2) and liquid (CH3OH) phases. Figure 7 shows
the density field diagram at each instant of the bubble flow in the
micro-channel (0.1 1.0 g/cm3). The corresponding temperature
distribution diagram (simulation conditions are set at inlet
velocity: 250 lm/s; inlet temperature 298 K; outlet temperature
333 K; the wall temperature varies from 298 to 333 K linearly
from the inlet to the exit) is also displayed. An enlarged view of
the velocity vectors superimposed on the bubble density diagram
shows the detailed flow field within the bubble itself.
Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation (Macro Scale)
The fuel cell stack design is an excise in macro-scale, which uses
computer aided design package incorporated with a
computational fluid dynamics simulation. Figures 8 and 9 show
that at different flow channel designs (e.g., co-flow, counter-flow,
and cross-flow) in a single cell SOFC, the velocity field,
concentration field, and temperature distribution all show
different characteristics.
Figure 9 shows the most important temperature distribution of the
solid electrolyte. The co-flow design generates a hot area near the
outlet portion, and the max temperature difference is 33 K. The
counter-flow design has a uniform temperature gradient with a
larger temperature difference of 55 K from the inlet to the outlet.
The cross-flow design has the most non-uniform temperature
distribution, and the hot spot is at the corner. We can conclude at
this stage that flow channel configuration has significant
influence on the control of macroscopic temperature distribution
and co-flow design provides the most uniform temperature
distribution for this example YSZ (Yttria stabilized Zirconia)
electrolyte.
Figure 10 shows an example design of a 5-cell SOFC stack,
which includes a hydrogen inlet pipe and an air preheat chamber
with pipes as well. The pressure, velocity, concentration, and
temperature fields can be predicted using the CFD technique.
Figure 11 shows the current density distribution generated at the
electrode surface of the anode and the cathode in the 5-cell stack.
The current can be collected in all 5-cells and the I-V
performance can be calculated and compared with an experiment,
which was conducted on an YSZ SOFC.
Figure 12 shows that the prediction agrees reasonably with the
experiment and if we use SDC (Sm doped Ce) electrolyte to
replace the traditional YSZ, the power density at the same current
can be increased by 33% at the same temperature (873K).
Although YSZ can also achieve a good performance at higher
temperature, we prefer the low (or intermediate) temperature
electrolytes to prevent thermal loading and also to reduce the
start up lag due to high working temperature.
Figure 8. Flow velocity field, concentration field, and
temperature distribution of a co-flow channel design SOFC stack

Figure 10. Grid generation and pressure distribution diagrams of

a 5-cell SOFC stack, including the hydrogen inlet pipe and the air
preheat chamber [8]

Figure 9. Temperature distribution of the electrolyte at (a) co-

flow, (b) counter-flow, and (c) cross-flow designs in an SOFC [7]
Figure 11. Current density contours at the electrode surface of (a)
anode and (b) cathode in the 5-cell stack [8]
 Figure 14. Bond graph of the electrochemical reaction and the
electrical system of the PEMFC [9]

Figure 12. Comparison of the voltage-current density and power-

current density diagrams from multi-scale simulation and from an
experimental measurement [8]

System Dynamics Simulation (System Scale)

Fuel cell systems alone cannot work, normally they are always
equipped with an air compressor, hydrogen supply, cooling
system and start up by a battery (and helped with super-
capacitors), and controlled by a central control unit., especially as
the power-plant for a electric vehicle. Figure 13 shows an
example fuel cell vehicle power-plant system. We can use a
unified bond graph approach to simulate the multi-disciplinary
system, which includes the electrochemical system, gas flow,
mechanical, electromagnetic systems.
Figure 14 shows a typical bond graph simulation of the
electrochemical reaction and the electric system of the PEMFC.
The effort and flow symbols are used to represent the electric
circuit analogy of the multi-domain system. Figure 15 shows the
start-up simulation (a step response) of: (a) the anode pressure, (b)
the cathode pressure, (c) the anode temperature, and (d) the
cathode temperature. This figure indicates that the PEMFC
system can start up in 2-3 seconds, but stabilized after 25 seconds. Figure 15. Start-up simulation a step response of: (a) the anode
A frequency response test of the PEMFC system can also be pressure, (b) the cathode pressure, (c) the anode temperature, and
studied. Figure 16 shows its Bode diagram result, which indicates (d) the cathode temperature [9]
that the bandwidth in this system is around 2 rad/s. That means a
supercapacitor is in need to accelerate the whole system for
vehicle acceleration purpose.

Figure 16. Bode diagram of frequency-response simulation of a

model PEMFC [9]
Figure 13. An example of a fuel cell vehicle power plant system
Conclusions
This paper summarizes the past research carried out at the Green
Energy & Molecular Engineering Lab, led by Prof. Che-Wun
Hong, on the various fuel cells design. We start from the
electrolyte materials design, mainly on the low temperature
proton exchange membranes and high temperature solid oxide
ceramics, based on the molecular dynamics technique.
Subsequently we need the quantum mechanics technique to set
up the molecular structure and also to evaluate the potential
functions between each atom. The computational quantum
mechanics technique using DFT theory has been employed to
deal with the catalytic process which plays the major role to
promote the electrochemical reaction. When we deal with the
porous catalyst layer and the diffusion layers in the fuel cells, it
comes out the meso-scale transport phenomenon, which can be
simulated by the lattice Boltzmann modelling due to the Knudson
number (Kn) is always greater than one in these cases. An
example has been given to the micro-channel flow in a DMFC.
This computational multi-scale transport phenomena simulation
of fuel cells design via integration of quantum mechanics,
molecular dynamics, and computational fluid dynamics with
mass transfer plus electrochemistry, has been carried out to
predict the final I-V, I-P performance of a 5-cell SOFC stack as
an example. The prediction has been proved to agree with the
experimental measurement conducted on the same stack. A
system dynamics simulation, using bond graph approach, to show
the step response and frequency response of the PEMFC has been
demonstrated. All examples show that this multi-scale technique
is a versatile and feasible technology to further improve the fuel
cell performance in the near future.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the financial support from the
National Science Council of Taiwan and the Chung-Hsin
Electric & Machinery MFG Corp under Contract No. NSC
101-2622-E-007-005-CC2 and NSC 101-2221-E-007-051-MY3.
The computer facilities provided by the National Center for
High-Performance Computing is also acknowledged.
References
[1] C. H. Cheng, C. W. Hong, Investigation of Atomistic Scale
Transport Phenomena of the Proton Exchange Membrane
Fuel Cell, J. of Fuel Cell Science and Technology, 4, 2007,
474-480.
[2] P. Y. Chen, C. W. Hong, Nanoscale Transport Dynamics
inside a Hydrated Nafion Membrane with Electric Field
Effects, Fuel Cells, 10(1), 2010, 17-25
[3] C. H. San, C. P. Chiu, C. W. Hong, First Principles
Computations of the Oxygen Reduction Reaction on Solid
Metal Clusters, CMC- Computers, Materials, & Continua,
26(3), 2011, 167-186
[4] P. Y. Chen, C. P. Chiu, C. W. Hong, Molecular Structure
and Transport Dynamics in Nafion and Sulfonated
Poly(Ether Ether Ketone Ketone) Membranes, J. of Power
Sources, 194, 2009, 746-752.
[5] S. F. Lee, C. W. Hong, Computer Modeling of Ionic
Conductivity in Low Temperature Doped Ceria Solid
Electrolytes, CMC-Computers, Materials, & Continua, 12
(3), 2009, 223-235
[6] K. Fei, W. H. Chen, C. W. Hong, Microfluidic Analysis of
CO2 Bubble Dynamics Using Thermal Lattice-Boltzmann
Method, Microfluidics and Nanofluidics, 5, 2008, 119-129
[7] C. H. Cheng, Y. W. Chang, C. W. Hong, Multi-Scale
Parametric Studies on the Transport Phenomenon of a Solid
Oxide Fuel Cell, J. of Fuel Cell Science and Technology, 2,
2005, 219-225
[8] S. F. Lee, C. W. Hong, Multi-scale Design Simulation of an
Intermediate-Temperature Planar Micro Solid Oxide Fuel
Cell Stack, Int. J. of Hydrogen Energy, 35, 2010, 1330-1338
[9] Y.H. Hung, P.H. Lin, C.H. Wu, C. W. Hong, Real-Time
Dynamic Modeling of Hydrogen PEMFCs, Journal of The
Franklin Institute, 345(2), 2008, 182-203
[10] C. H. Wu, Y. H. Hung and C. W. Hong, On-Line Dynamic
Models of Supercapacitors for Energy Conversion and
Management, Energy Conversion and Management, 53,
2012, 337-345
[11] P. H. Lin, C. W. Hong, Cold Start Dynamics and
Temperature Sliding Observer Design of an Automotive
SOFC APU, J. of Power Sources, 187, 517-526, 2009
[12] P. Y. Chen, C. P. Chiu, C. W. Hong, Molecular Analysis on
Methanol Diffusion in a Model Nafion Membrane, Journal
of The Electrochemical Society, 155(12), 2008, B1255-1263
[13] C. P. Chiu, and C. W. Hong, Magnetic Field Effect on the
Hydronium Diffusivity at an Enzymatic Biofuel Cell Anode
via Atomistic Analysis, J. of Fuel Cell Science and
Technology, 7, 2010, 210031-210035.
[14] C. H. Cheng, P. Y. Chen, C. W. Hong, Atomistic Analysis
of Hydration and Thermal Effects on Proton Dynamics in
the Nafion Membrane, Journal of The Electrochemical
Society, 155(4), 2008, B435-B442
[15] C. H. Cheng, K. Fei, K., C. W. Hong, Computer Simulation
of Hydrogen Proton Exchange Membrane and Direct
Methanol Fuel Cells, Computers and Chemical Engineering,
31, 2007, 247-257
[16] C. H. Cheng, S. F. Lee, C. W. Hong, Ionic Dynamics of an
Intermediate Temperature Yttria-Doped Ceria Electrolyte,
Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 154(10), 2007,
E158-E163
[17] K. Fei, C. W. Hong, Allangle Removal of CO2 Bubbles
from the Anode Microchannels of a Micro Fuel Cell by
Lattice Boltzmann Simulation, Microfluidics and
Nanofluidics, 3, 2007, 77-88
[18] Y. H. Hung, C. W. Hong, Bond Graph Modelling of Fuel
Cell and Engine Hybrid Electric Scooters, International
Journal of Vehicle Design, 45(4), 2007, pp.533-541
[19] P. H. Lin, C. W. Hong, On the Start-up Transient Simulation
of a Turbo Fuel Cell System, J. of Power Sources, 160, 2006,
pp. 1230-1241
[20] K. Fei, C. H. Cheng, C. W. Hong, Lattice Boltzmann
Simulations of CO2 Bubble Dynamics at the Anode of a
DMFC", J. of Fuel Cell Science and Technology, 3, 2006,
180-187
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
LES Analysis of Mixture Formation and Ignitability
in an Unsteady Methane Jet
H. Kawanabe1, T. Senoo1 and M. Shioji1
1
School of Energy Science
Kyoto University, Yoshida Hon'machi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
Abstract
Flow and mixture formation of a natural-gas jet with
impingement on a cavity wall were calculated using a large eddy
simulation. The calculations were performed for varying wall
shapes and the nozzle-to-wall distance. In addition, the spark
ignitability is discussed based on the distributions of flow and
fuel concentration. The result shows that flow and shear stress
are suppressed and fuel concentration increases in a cavity and
the flammable mixture is widely distributed. Here, a distribution
of the turbulent Karlovitz number Ka is estimated based on the
velocity and equivalence ratio. When the mixture is spark-ignited
at the point of Ka<50, stable combustion is achieved.
Introduction
Direct-injection spark-ignition (DI-SI) is considered to be a
promising system for the higher output and higher thermal
efficiency for a natural gas(NG) engine, and have therefore been
widely studied[1]-[3]. However, it is difficult to start combustion
by SI in NG unsteady jet stably because NG has a narrow
flammable range. Therefore, in order to achieve measures for
stable ignition and combustion control, fundamental researches
by using constant volume vessel has also been widely studied,
and investigated about the case of igniting in jet after the injection
end and the case of very low injection pressure[4]-[6]. However
DI-SI is used in the practical engine, high injection pressure is
needed because fuel-air has to be mixed quickly. And a cause of
difficulties of stable combustion have to be clarified in detail.
In order to stable combustion by the spark ignition in a methane
unsteady jet, authors have applied impinging jet on a bluff-body
or cavity wall. The results show that the stable combustion is
achieved with the ignition in the wake flow from the bluff-body
or at edge of the cavity. In these regions, the fluid motion and
shear flow would be suppressed and flammable mixture would
be formed properly. However, the details have not fully clarified.
Here, in order to investigate the mixture formation in detail, it is
useful to use a large eddy simulation technique, which is able to
predict the unsteady fluid motion and nonhomogeneous mixture.
In the present study, flow and mixture formation processes of a
high-speed unsteady methane-jet at a cavity wall are calculated
using a large eddy simulation in order to investigate the fluid
motion and distribution of flammable mixture by simulating the
previous experiment[7]. And the effects of the wall shape and
the distance between the nozzle exit and wall are investigated.
In addition, distributions of the turbulent Karlovitz number
are estimated from the calculation result. The result shows the
ignition probability is well described by the Karlovitz number.
Numerical Scheme and Methods
Methods
Development of a fuel jet and its mixture formation in a constant
volume vessel are calculated. The shape of the calculation
domain is a rectangular pipe with parallel walls with a cavity
wall. Figure 1 shows the schematic of calculation area with the
constant volume vessel, which was used for previous experiment
work. The distance between the nozzle of gas injector and the
wall represents xw. The width and depth of the cavity represent W
and D, respectively. Figure 2 shows a calculation area in a three-
dimensional x-y-z coordinate system. The calculation domain was
subdivided into 2.6106 graded cell grids that are concentrated
around the jet axis and near wall region.
Gas Injector Gas Injector
Calc. Area
xw
xw
xs
Cavity
r Wall
Electrode
D
44mm
Figure 1 Schmatic of calculation area
In this study, the fuel is assumed to be methane. The vessel is
filled with air, which is set to the pressure of pa = 1MPa and
the temperature of Ta = 300K. Then, methane is injected at the
pressures of p j = 8 MPa from a single-hole nozzle with the
diameter of d0 = 0.4mm , located on the center axis of the upper
face. Here, the inlet condition is set by use of the pseudo nozzle
to ambient pressure is defined as the diameter of the pseudo-
nozzle dn, which can be calculated from injection pressure pj and
ambient pressure pa, assuming that the velocity at the nozzle exit
uj is equal to the speed of sound at pj and that the velocity at the
pseudo nozzle un is equal to the speed of sound at pa.
+1

concept [8]. Due to the large pressure gradient in the vicinity p 2 2( 1) (1),
dn = d0 Cd j
of the nozzle exit, the diameter of the jet expands quickly just pa +1
downstream of the nozzle exit, such that adiabatic expansion
from the nozzle condition to the ambient condition may occur
in this region. Here, the jet diameter after a notional expansion

Table 1 Calculation conditions

Ambient Pres.: pa [MPa] 1.0

Ambient Temp.: Ta [K] 300

Nozzle Diam.: d0 [mm] 0.4

Inj. Pres.: pj [MPa] 8

Wall Position: xw [mm] 15, 25

Wall Shape: Wall (W, D) [mm] Wall (20, 9), Wall (20, 3.5)

Calc. Region: (x y z) [mm] (18.5 44 44) ~ (34 44 44)

Grid Number: (nx ny nz) (102 207 99) ~ (143 207 99) Figure 2 Grid system for calculation

t=0.4ms 0.9ms 1.2ms 2.0ms 5.0ms

~
u 50

[m/s]
5 mm

|u|
~
25

f 0.2
f

0.1

~
|S| 20
104 [1/s]

10
|S|
~

Figure 3 Change of distributions of velocity vector u , mixture fraction f and local stress S
 t = 5ms 5mm
1.2<
0.5<<1.2
7ms
10ms
15ms
(a) Wall(209), xw=25mm (b) Wall(209), xw=15mm
Figure 4 Distributions of flamable mixture for various wall conditions
where Cd is the coefficient of discharge, set here to Cd = 0.86.
Based on this assumption, the pseudo nozzle diameter is assumed
to be 0.80mm when pj = 8MPa, pa = 1MPa and d0 = 0.40mm, and
un in methane at 1MPa is assumed to be 451.1m/s.
Schemes
The LES computation technique used here is based on spatial
Favre-filtered continuous Navier-Stokes and scalar transport
equations. These equations are computed numerically by the
finite volume method. The x-axis coincides with the jet axis
and the component of velocity in this direction is u. The y and
z components of velocity are defined as v and w, respectively.
The sub-grid scale stress is given by the Smagorinsky model.
The model constant CS is fixed to 0.11 [9]. The gradient diffusion
model and the diffusion coefficient are given by e/Sct. Here, e is
the turbulent viscosity and Sct is the turbulent Schmidt number;
Sc and Sct are assumed to be unity [9]. A staggered system is
employed. A second-order central difference scheme is applied
(c) Wall(203.5), xw=25mm (d) Wall(203.5), xw=15mm
to the convection and diffusion terms of the momentum equation
and the diffusion term of the mass transport equation. For the
convection term of the mass transport equation, the QUICK
scheme is applied. A third-order Adams-Bashforth method is used
for the temporal integration and the time-step is determined so
that the maximum Courant number does not exceed 0.14. The
HSMAC method is applied for pressure correction.
Slip walls are assumed for the side boundaries (y, z = 10 mm).
The non-slip boundaries are assumed for the cavity walls. Here,
fine grid are used for the near wall regions, and Lilly's function
is applied to reduce the SGS viscosity near wall field. The SGS
viscosity is calculated based on a modified filter size f, described
as follows;
f = min ( l yw , ) (2)
Here, l = 0.42 and yw represents the distance from the wall.
 Results and Discussions

By means of the numerical procedures described above, the

Figure 5 Changes of SL and L agains
methane jet development and mixture formation are calculated.
Figure 3 shows the typical result of the temporal changes for the
grid-averaged distributions of velocity u , fuel mass fraction f,
shear stress S . The jet is developing with entraining surrounding
air. After the impinging at the cavity wall, the flow curls up along
the wall, then after t = 5.0ms, the mixture is entrained by the
main jet flow again. Eventually, the mixture, for the concentration
of f = 0.05, distributes along the cavity wall. Here, f = 0.05 is
approximately the equivalence ratio of unity. Also, the values of
u and S are relatively low along the walls.
In order to achieve the stable ignition combustion, it is necessary
to become the flammable mixture at the ignition point. Figure
4 shows the distributions of the flammable mixture, which is
defined by equivalence ratio between 0.5 and 1.2[11]. A black
hatching region represents the flammable mixture and a grey

t = 5ms 5mm

Ig Ig

7ms

Ig Ig

10ms

Ig Ig

0 50 100 ~
Ka
15ms

Ig Ig

(a) Wall(209), xw=25mm (b) Wall(209), xw=15mm (c) Wall(203.5), xw=25mm (d) Wall(203.5), xw=15mm

Figure 6 Distributions of Ka for various wall conditions

 L urms
Ka = (3)
(a) Wall(209), SL g
xw=25mm,
(x, y)=(20, 7.5)[mm]
g and urms represent Talor's micro scale and the standard deviation
of fluctuation velocity. Next, Ka is estimated by obtained data by
the LES calculation. The ratio of urms and g is described by the
local dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy and kinematic
(b) Wall(209),
xw=25mm, viscosity based on the assumption of the isotropic turbulent
(x, y)=(20, 6)[mm]
flow[12].
2
u
rms = (4)
g 15
(c) Wall(209),
xw=25mm,
Most of the dissipation of the turbulent kinetic energy occurs in
(x, y)=(20, 9)[mm] the sub-grid scale region, if the Reynold's number is enough high
and the calculation filter for the LES is enough big compared
with the micro-scale of flow, a following equation is led.
= GS + SGS SGS (5)
(d) Wall(209), Here, when local equilibrium of the turbulent kinetic energy, is
xw=15mm,
(x, y)=(10, 7.5)[mm] expressed by the Smagorinsky model.
2 3
SGS = (CS ) S (6)

CS represents the Smagorinsky constant. When the equations of

(e) Wall(203.5),
xw=25mm,
(x, y)=(20, 7.5)[mm]
(f) Wall(203.5),
xw=15mm,
(x, y)=(10, 7.5)[mm]
Figure 7 Relation between Ka and
hatching region corresponds the richer mixture. The flammable
mixture is formed from the bottom of the cavity wall, then it
widely distributes by following with the vortex flow in the cavity.
Based on the experimental data by the previous study, the stable
ignition is achieved by igniting at the cavity edge. The flame
propagates into the vortex region because of the flammable
mixture existence. In the case of the (c) shallow cavity and xw =
25mm, the flammable mixture is quickly formed, which enables
early timing of stable ignition. However for the (d) shallow
cavity and xw = 15mm case, the mixture in the cavity becomes
over rich so that the stable ignition is not achieved in the previous
experimental data.
Generally, ignition probability would be affected by the local
concentration of the fuel and fluid motion at the ignition point.
Flame development just after the ignition depends on the local
burning velocity and stretch of the flame due to the gradient
of velocity. Here, the ignition probability is estimated by the
turbulent Karlovitz number Ka. Ka is defined using the laminar
burning velocity SL and the flame thickness L as follows;
(4), (5) and (6) are substituted in the equation (3), Ka will be
calculated as follows;
32
L CS S
Ka = (7)
SL 15
SL and L changes with the temperature , pressure and equivalence
ratio, so that SL and L are calculated by the PREMIX code of the
CHEMKIN package Ver 3.7 with GRI-Mech 3.0. The pressure
and temperature of the calculation condition are set to 1.0MPa
and 300K, respectively. The results of SL and L are shown in
Figure 5.
Firstly, the spatial distributions of Ka are shown in Figure 6.
The calculation condition for this figure corresponds to that for
Figure 3. Also, Ka is displayed only in the flammable mixture
region. The flammable mixture is formed after jet impinging on
the cavigty wall. After that, Ka becomes relatively low (Ka<50)
in the center of vortex generated in the cavity. When the mixture
of low Ka is spark-ignited, the combustion would stably progress
in the experimental result. On the other hand, when the mixture is
ignited in the early timing at the edge of cavity, combustion does
not occur due to higher Ka. Furthermore, temporal changes of
Ka at the ignition point in the expeiment are shown in Figure 7.
The ignition probability measured by the previous experimental
work is also displayed in the figure. For all condition, Ka
becomes higher just after the injection start, then decreases with
large fluctuation. Here, the decrease of Ka and the increase of
are the same timing, then reaches unity when Ka decreases
below 50 for these conditions. For the case (c), the ignition point
is located at the outer edge of the vortex. The value of Ka keeps
relatively high and becomes small. On the other hand for the
cases of (a) and (b), Ka becomes small after t = 10ms and stable
ignition achieved in this period. Based on these data, the ignition
stability could be estimated by the turbulent Karlovitz number.
Conclusions
Flow and mixture formation of a natural-gas jet with
impingement on a cavity wall were calculated using a large eddy
simulation. The calculations were performed for varying wall
shapes and the nozzle-to-wall distance. In addition, the spark
ignitability is discussed based on the distributions of flow and
fuel concentration. The result shows that flow and shear stress
are suppressed and fuel concentration increases in a cavity and
the flammable mixture is widely distributed. Here, a distribution
of the turbulent Karlovitz number Ka is estimated based on the
velocity and equivalence ratio. When the mixture is spark-ignited
at the point of Ka<50, stable combustion is achieved.
References
[1] Ishiyama,T., Shioji,M., Tanaka, H. and Okumura, K.,
Transactions of Japan Society for Automotive Engineers, 33-4,
2002, 39-44.
[2] Honjo, F., et al., Proc. World NGV2002, CD-ROM(2002).
[3] Taniguchi, S., et al., Transactions of Japan Society for
Automotive Engineers, 36-6, 2005, 31-37.
[4] Mohammadi,A., Shioji, M., Matsui, Y. and Kajiwara, R.,
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power,130,2008,
062801-1-7.
[5] Kidoguchi, Y., et al., Transactions of Japan Society for
Automotive Engineers, 36-1, 2005, 15-20.
[6] Kidoguchi,Y., et al., Transactions of Japan Society for
Mechanical Engineers B, 74-743, 2007, 1655-1661.
[7] Shioji,M., Suganuma,H. and Sasaki,M., Transactions of Japan
Society for Automotive Engineers, 40-1, 2009.
[8] Birch, A. D., et al, Combustion Science and Technology, 36,
1984, 249-261.
[9] Kawanabe, H., Kawasaki, K., Seno, T., Kondo, C. and Shioji,
M., Heat Transfer Asian Research, 36-5, 2007, 303-313.
[10] Lilly, D. K., NCAR manuscript, No. 123, 1966.
[11] Kitagawa, T., Transactions of Japan Society for Automotive
Engineers, 37-1, 2006, 7-12.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Mixing of density stratified fluid with jet flow

Shogo Shakouchi1 and Tomomi Uchiyama2

1
Graduate School of Information Science, Nagoya University,
Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan
2
EcoTopia Science Institute, Nagoya University,
Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan

Abstract visualization. The width and depth of the tank are 305 mm and
170 mm respectively, while the height is 230 mm.
The mixing phenomena of a density stratified fluid by a jet flow
in a tank are experimentally investigated. The jet issues vertically The upper fluid is the water, and the lower one is the salt water of
upward from a circular nozzle mounted at the bottom of the tank which salt concentration is 2 percent, as depicted in Fig. 2. The
into the density stratified fluid composed of water and 2 percent height for the upper water is 38.6 mm, and that for the lower salt
salt water. The jet Reynolds number Re ranges from 420 to 3160. water is 67.5 mm. The diameter of the nozzle for the jet is 10 mm.
This study classifies the jet behavior into three patterns according The length is set at 100 mm to ensure enough inlet length. The
to Re and highlights the mixing of the density stratified fluid by nozzle exit is set at the height of 20 mm from the bottom of the
the jet at Re=420. tank. The origin of coordinates is the nozzle exit center. The -axis
is horizontal, and y-axis is vertical. The salt water in the lower
layer of the tank is circulated by the jet from the nozzle. This
circulation maintains the thicknesses of the upper and lower
1. Introduction layers.
Density stratified fluid exists in various environmental and
Acrylic transparent tank
industrial situations. The typical example is found in ocean, and
one can also observe in LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) storage
tank. The density and components of LNG vary depending on the
producing area as well as the purification plant. Therefore, a Laser Sheet
density stratified fluid is formed in the storage tank when a LNG y
Upper layer Laser
is loaded into other LNGs. After the loading, the density ( Water )
stratified fluid frequently becomes unstable with the passage of
time. This is caused by the change in the density of LNG due to Lower layer Jet flow
the temperature and composition variations. When the density of ( 2% Salt Water ) x
the lower fluid is smaller than that of the upper one, a sudden
mixing, which is called Rollover, occurs. The rollover
generates a large amount of vaporized gases in the tank, Flow Nozzle
Pump
damaging the tank. To prevent the rollover, the LNG is forced to Meter
be mixed in the tank by a mixing pump.
Mixing phenomena of density stratified fluid have thus far been
studied. Turner [1] heated the bottom of a tank of a stratified Water paint
fluid and observed the resultant convection flow. The observation
clarified the transport phenomena penetrating the heat and Fig. 1 Experimental set-up
density boundaries. Ansong et al. [2] classified the fluid motion
around an interface of stratified fluid after a jet penetrates the
interface. They also examined theoretically the height which the Laser Sheet
jet flow reaches and compared the result with the experimental Acrylic transparent tank
one. But the mixing of density stratified fluid by a jet flow has
not been fully investigated. In this study, the mixing phenomena
are experimentally investigated so as to acquire fundamental Upper layer 38.6 High Speed Camera
knowledge on the mixing of LNG in the storage tank. ( Water )

Lower layer Jet flow 67.5

( 2% Salt Water )
2. Experimental Set-Up and Method 20
(1) Experimental set-up
Figures 1 outlines the experimental set-up. A density stratified Nozzle
fluid, composed water and salt water, is contained in a (Inlet diameter d=10mm)
rectangular tank. A jet is issued vertically upward from a circular
nozzle mounted at the bottom of the tank to mix the fluid. The Fig. 2 Tank and density stratified fluid
tank is made of transparent acrylic resin to allow the flow
The jet behaviour and the mixing phenomena are visualized by a jet behaviour in the upper layer becomes more complicated and
laser light sheet, of which power, wavelength and thickness are the mixing is more promoted.
100 mW, 532 nm and 1 mm respectively. A small amount of
white water paint is added to the jet for the visualization. The c. In case of Re2110
images in the vertical plane passing through the centre of the The jet flow penetrates the interface and reaches the upper water
nozzle axis are captured by a high-speed video camera. The surface. The jet spreads along the water surface, because it has
spatial resolution, the frame rate and the shutter speed are still velocity energy there. The jet hardly falls in the upper region,
640x480 pixels, 200 fps and 1/200 s respectively. The though the density difference exists.
experiments are conducted for the jet Reynolds number ranging
from 420 to 3160. Figures 6 and 7 depict the flow patterns at Re=2110 and 3160
respectively. One can confirm the penetration at the interface and
the spread along the water surface.
(2) Measurement of concentration distribution
To measure the concentration distribution, a small amount of
white paint is added to the jet flow. The mixing of the jet flow
with the paint-free water causes the brightness distribution on the
image captured by the camera. As the brightness almost
corresponds to the concentration of the corresponding fluid, one
can measure the concentration from the brightness. This study
assumes that the concentration of the jet at the nozzle exit is unity
and that the concentration is proportional to the brightness.
The image is divided into square grids as shown in Fig. 3, and the
mean brightness in each grid is estimated. The side length of the
grid is the half of the nozzle diameter d. The density interface and
the upper water surface locate at the heights of 4.75d and 8.61d
respectively from the nozzle exit.

Fig. 4 Flow pattern at Re=420

Fig. 3 Grids to measure concentration

Fig. 5 Flow pattern at Re=1050

3. Experimental Result
(1) Classification of jet behaviour and flow pattern
It is found that the jet behaviour and the surrounding fluid motion
depend on the jet Reynolds number Re. They are classified into
three patterns as follows:
a. In case of Re<420
The jet flow does not penetrate the density interface. It produces
a convection flow only within the lower layer. The mixing
between the upper and lower layers scarcely occurs.
b. In case of 420Re<2110
The jet flow penetrates the density interface. But it does not reach
the upper water surface, being lowered to the interface.
Figure 4 shows the visualized flow pattern in the case of Re=420.
Fig. 6 Flow pattern at Re=2110
Some lumps of fluid are released from the top of the jet in the
upper layer, and they fall. The release and the fall promote the
mixing between the jet and the upper fluid. Figure 5 presents the
result at Re=1050. When compared with the result at Re=420, the
 Fig. 7 Flow pattern at Re=3160 Fig. 8 (c) Jet behaviour at Re=420 t=t0+2 s

(2) Jet behaviour and flow pattern at Re=420

Figure 8 shows the behaviour of the jet flow in the case of
Re=420. The time at which the jet reaches its maximum height is
set at t0, and the flow patterns at every 1 second are presented.
When the time at Fig. 8 (a), some lumps of fluid are released
from the top of the jet, and they fall. When the time at Figs. (b),
(c), (d) and (f), they also spread sinuously along the density
interface.
Such spreading behaviour was also reported by Ansong et al. [2].

Fig. 8 (d) Jet behaviour at Re=420 t=t0+3 s

Fig. 8 (a) Jet behaviour at Re=420 t=t0

Fig. 8 (e) Jet behaviour at Re=420 t=t0+4 s

Fig. 8 (b) Jet behaviour at Re=420 t=t0+1 s Fig. 8 (f) Jet behaviour at Re=420 t=t0+5 s
(3) Concentration distribution at Re=420
Figure 9 shows the concentration distribution of the flow at
Re=420. The distributions on four horizontal sections at t=t0+5 s
are compared with the results in a tank without a density interface.
On the sections of y=1.25d, 3.25d and 5.25d, the concentration is
almost unity around the jet centreline (x=0) in the tank without
the interface. The density interface lies at y=4.75d. The
concentration in the density stratified fluid is also unity at
y=1.25d and 3.25d. But it is higher at the periphery of the jet on
the section of y=5.25d, demonstrating the active mixing of the jet
with the surrounding fluid.
The vertical distribution for the concentration at the same time
points as Fig. 9 is plotted in Fig. 10, where Re=420. On the
vertical sections of x=d, 3d and 5d, one can observe the increase
of the concentration at 3< y<8, indicating the mixing of the fluids
around the density interface at y=4.75d. The concentration at x=d
is higher than those at x=3d and 5d.
The time variation for the concentration is presented in Fig. 11, (a) x=d
where Re=420. Figure 11 (a) shows the vertical distribution on
the section of x=d around the jet centre line. Though the
concentration is higher near the density interface at y=4.75d
when t=t0 and t0+1 s, it decreases in the subsequent time points.
The time variation induced by the lumps of fluid released from
the top of the jet is reconfirmed. The concentration on the section
of x=3d away from the jet centre line distributes as shown in Fig.
11 (b). The variation is not so large, indicating the decay of the
mixing.

(b) x=3d
Fig. 11 Time variation of concentration at Re=420

Fig. 9 Horizontal distribution of concentration when Re=420
4. Conclusion
The mixing phenomena of a density stratified fluid by a jet flow
in a tank are experimentally investigated. The jet issues vertically
upward from a circular nozzle mounted at the bottom of the tank
into the density stratified fluid composed of water and 2 percent
salt water. The jet Reynolds number Re ranges from 420 to 3160.
It is found that the jet behavior is classified into three patterns
according to Re. In this study, the flow pattern and the mixing
phenomena at Re=420 are studied in detail. The jet flow
penetrates the density interface. But it does not reach the upper
water surface, being lowered to the interface. Some lumps of
fluid are released from the top of the jet in the upper layer, and
they fall. The release and fall promote the mixing between the jet
and the upper fluid.

5. References
[1] J. S. Turner, The coupled turbulent transports of salt and
heat across a sharp density interface, J. Heat Mass Transfer.
Vol. 8, 1965, pp759-767.
[2] J. K. Ansong, P. J. Kyba and B. R. Sutherland, Fountains
impinging on a density interface, J. Fluid Mech. Vol. 595,
2008, pp. 115-139.
Fig. 10 Vertical distribution of concentration when Re=420
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
A New Approach to Liquid Food Flow Monitoring and Measurement
Mohadeseh Sharifi1, Brent Young1
1
Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, The University of Auckland,
Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
Abstract
Electrical Resistance Tomography (ERT) is a novel, simple, and
robust method of process imaging which uses non-invasive
sensors located on the periphery of vessels to reconstruct a cross-
sectional image of the vessel interior. This method of imaging
when conducted on two adjacent planes on a pipe provides the
ability to extract flow information. Previous studies have
investigated this application on multi-phase flows in which the
secondary phase provided the required pulse conductivity
variation. In these studies the velocity profile and flow regime
were identified using the common cross-correlation technique.
This study investigates the novel application of ERT to single
phase flow and velocity profile measurement. For this purpose a
new measurement technique is also developed which excludes
the limitation of pulse conductivity change in the cross-
correlation technique. This new technique has been applied to
saline flow and velocity profile measurement using a step
change in the flow conductivity. The effects of flow speed, ERT
measurement frequency, secondary solution conductivity and
addition volume have also been investigated and the optimum
settings selected. The optimum settings for this experimental
setup resulted in an average accuracy of 97.0% for a secondary
solution with conductivity more than twice the primary solution
conductivity and 94.8% for a secondary solution with
conductivity ~67% more than the primary solution conductivity.
This application and accuracy level has been further confirmed
through 13%, 24% and 47% total solids content whole and skim
milk experiments which resulted in an average accuracy of over
98%.
Introduction
Process tomography, a new generation of process variable
measurement, provides fresh methods for inspecting the internals
of an industrial system. Electrical Resistance Tomography (ERT)
is one of the most common modalities of Process Tomography
and has greatly progressed since it was invented in the 1980s.
ERT, due to its various advantages such as high speed, low cost,
no radiation hazard, and non-intrusiveness, has become a
promising technique in monitoring various existing industrial
ows providing the ability to measure some ow parameters such
as velocity distribution and flow regime identification [1, 2].
However, until now, there has rarely been research regarding the
application of ERT to monitoring the velocity and flow profile of
a single phase flow. Although single-phase flow meters for total
flow measurement and control have been available for many
years, they are only able to provide single point information
about the flow. The single point information provided by these
instruments may no longer be sufficient with the increasing
demands of process control and optimization and especially when
operating conditions change away from the required situation. In
such cases a more distributed and multi-dimensional vision of the
dynamic state of the process is required for automatic process
control [3, 4]. Also, in the case of traditional flow meters, the
selection of an appropriate flow meter for an application is
dependent on various factors, with flow profile being amongst
the most important factors. Flow profiles are dependent on the
fluid velocity and viscosity and are currently determined
theoretically.
Following on the investigation of the various beneficial
applications of ERT to the dairy industry from the authors
previous work [5-8], the results of this research suggests that
Electrical Resistance Tomography (ERT) may have the potential
to provide the reliable multidimensional velocity and flow
information required for the advanced process control of systems
with single phase flows.
Bentley and Dawson [9] proposed the method of temperature
disturbance cross-correlation for the measurement of single-
phase flow in a pipe. Later ERT was applied for the first time to
this subject by Henningsson et al. [10] who determined the flow
profile of yogurt using the addition of NaCl to a small portion of
the yogurt positioned between two valves to cause the conductive
contrast. As explained in this work and also all research on ERT
applications on multiphase flows, the measurements of the two
ERT planes are cross-correlated during a conductivity variation
passing through the planes. For the cross-correlation technique to
develop desirable velocity measurements, the conductivity
variation (second phase in the case of multi-phase flows and
salted yogurt in the case of yogurt flow research) has to cause a
pulse change in conductivity of the primary solution.
The cross-correlation methodology is explained in detail in
various publications, e.g. Fangary et al. [11] and Henningsson et
al. [10]. In order to achieve a desirable flow analysis using this
measurement strategy the conductivity contrast must cause a
pulse change in the conductivity of the primary solution. This
is due to the fact that the cross-correlation methodology consists
of multiplying the conductivity of the corresponding pixels in the
two planes with various time delays while the primary solution
conductivity changes to sense the conductivity contrast
(additional/secondary solution) and return back to the original
conductivity. The summation of the multiplied values over the
cross-correlation window (during the passage of the secondary
solution through the ERT planes) neutralizes the values and
therefore in the case of a step change in conductivity where the
primary solution conductivity does not return to the original
conductivity the summation does not return a correct correlation
value resulting in very high errors in velocity calculation.
The aim of this work is to develop and validate a methodology
for the novel application of ERT to flow and velocity profile
measurement of single phase flows. For this purpose a new
measurement technique was developed in correlating the two
ERT measurement planes. This measurement technique does not
necessitate a pulse conductivity which may be difficult to
establish in single phase flows. The proposed methodology was
validated via flow measurement of saline as a single phase
solution. The effects of ERT measurement frequency, primary
solution flow rate, and secondary solution conductivity and
addition volume were investigated and optimum settings
selected. For confirmation of the application to other single phase
flows, the validated methodology and optimized settings were
applied to various milk solutions commensurate to milk solutions
in various stages of the concentration process to produce milk
powder; 13% total solids content as the raw milk entering the
concentration process, 24% total solids content as the
concentrated milk leaving the second effect of the evaporator,
and 47% total solids content as the concentrated milk leaving the
third evaporation effect. A different concentration milk solution
was used as the secondary solution causing the required
conductive variation for flow measurement.
Calculation Methodology
The common cross correlation methodology applied to date for
application of ERT to flow analysis is limited to pulse changes in
conductivity. This methodology was especially suited for the
applications it had been applied to, multiphase flows, in which
the secondary phase provided a pulse change in conductivity. The
need for a pulse conductivity change for the purpose of single-
phase flow analysis causes a limitation for this novel and
promising application, due to the fact that implementing pulse
conductivity change may require modifications to existing
process designs. On the other hand step changes in
conductivity are much easier to establish. The novel calculation
methodology proposed in this work for the application of ERT to
single phase flow analysis eliminates this limitation and can be
applied to pulse or step changes in primary solution
conductivity. Figure 1 shows a sample experiment of saline flow
with a step change in conductivity
Figure 1: Step conductivity change, showing the area of focus
The fundamental idea of the proposed methodology is similar to
the cross-correlation methodology, which is to find the time
delay in which the conductivity contrast passes from the first
plane of ERT sensors to the second plane of ERT sensors. For
this purpose and in order to avoid limitations on the type of
conductivity variation, the focus of the calculation is only on the
first part of the process in which the conductivity variation is first
sensed by the ERT sensing planes. This area of focus is circled in
Figure 1. The area of focus is the region in which the
conductivity of the flow changes and tries to reach the
conductivity of the secondary solution; starting from the first
frame sensing the conductivity change until the final frame in
which the conductivity starts to tend towards the original state.
Figure 2 shows a zoomed in view of this area for one sample
pixel.
Figure 2:Area of focus in proposed calculation methodology for a
sample pixel. Points A and B and the distance between them (time
delay) illustrate a sample calculation
In this area of focus, starting with pixel 1 and measurement frame
1, the conductivity of plane 2 at the corresponding pixel is
compared to plane 1 with various time delays to find the smallest
time delay in which the conductivity of the second plane (for
example point B in Figure 2) reaches the conductivity of the first
plane (for example point A in Figure 2). This comparison is
conducted on all measurement frames in the area of focus (for
example points A2 and B2, A3 and B3 and so on in Figure 2) and
the mean of these values is concluded to be the time delay at
pixel 1. The flow velocity in that specific pixel can then be
calculated easily as the distance between the two planes is known
(in this setup 10 cm). The flow rate in each pixel can then also be
calculated as the area of each pixel is also known (in this case
8.4810-6 m2).
Due to the relatively high conductivity of the experimental
medium and the very small cross-sectional area of the electrodes,
noisy data are unavoidable. The small distance between the
electrode planes and the noise in the data together cause
problems in the calculation as the measurements of the two
planes overlap and produce error in time delay measurements. To
overcome this problem a data filtering strategy was applied in
which each measurement frame was replaced by the average of
the 9 neighbouring frames. As shown in Figure 3, although this
strategy filters the noise out and eliminates the overlapping issue,
it does not time shift the data to cause error in measurements.
Figure 3:Data filtering effect
The two tanks in the rig are connected via piping and two
identical centrifugal pumps (Little Giant TE-3-MD-HC); one
pumping from the holding tank through an automatic Fisher
control valve to the jacketed tank and the other from the jacketed
tank through another automatic Fisher control valve, ERT
sensors, a Micromotion DL-65 Coriolis meter (providing
accurate reference flow measurements) and a manual valve, back
to the holding tank. The ERT sensor is placed after 3.0 metres of
straight pipe for fully developed flow to reach the ERT sensor in
order to obtain accurate and reliable ERT flow measurements.
The ERT sensor is a 2 inch diameter pipe section with 2 electrode
rings of 16 invasive but non-intrusive electrodes positioned
equidistantly around the boundary at fixed locations. The
distance between the electrode rings is 10cm. The electrodes are
made of stainless steel with a contact area of 0.07 cm2. Data
acquisition is via an ITS P2000 ERT system with a cross-
correlation current injection strategy in which the two sets of 104
voltage measurements are inter-leaved. In this measurement
strategy the first voltage measurement is made at plane 1
followed by the first voltage measurement at plane 2, then the
second voltage measurement is made at plane 1, followed by the
second voltage measurement at plane 2 and so on [12]. The
inbuilt modified sensitivity coefficient back-projection algorithm
(SBP) [13, 14] is used for reconstruction of the conductivity
measurements.

A METTLER TOLEDO SevenEasy local conductivity probe was

A Matlab code was developed to repeat the calculations above
for every pixel and produce the velocity and flow profile /
distribution information. The code also demonstrates a colour-
coded cross-sectional view of the velocity / flow distribution
using the velocity / flow data calculated for each pixel through
the proposed methodology. The total flow rate is calculated as the
sum of the flow rates at each pixel.
Experimental Equipment and Materials
The experimental setup of the flow rig designed for the purpose
of this research is illustrated in Figure 4.
Jacketed
Tank
E-7
used to gather reference conductivity and temperature data from
the various saline and milk solutions.
The primary flow medium was 30 kg of 0.3% NaCl solution at
room temperature for each experimental run. The conductivity
variation was caused by the addition of 300 ml, 500 ml, 1000 ml
and 2000 ml of 0.5% and 1% NaCl solutions.
The milk solutions prepared for the tests were 13%, 24.55% and
47% total solids content reconstituted skim milk and whole milk
solutions at room temperature commensurate with raw and
concentrated milk solutions after second and third evaporation
effects in the concentration process to produce milk powder,
respectively. Milk powders were kindly provided by Fonterra
Cooperative Group Ltd. For the conductive contrast required for
flow analysis, a different concentration milk solution which
would provide the largest conductivity difference with the
primary solution for each milk type was used.

Experimental Procedure
10 cm Metal Electrodes

Holding For the application of ERT to single phase flow analysis the
Tank conductivity contrast can be achieved by the addition of a
secondary solution of different conductivity to the primary
solution. Using the proposed calculation methodology in this
research, the addition of the secondary solution can be a simple
manual addition ahead of the ERT sensing planes. The additions
3.0 meters
P-21 P-22
of the secondary solutions in this experimental system were
V-7 ERT Flow sensor
manual additions to the solution in the jacketed tank. In order to
find the optimum settings with which the best flow analysis
results could be achieved, various settings such as measurement
frequency, secondary solution addition volume and conductivity
were optimized.
4.1 Comparison of the proposed measurement methodology
Micromotion Drain with the common cross-correlation methodology
Flowmeter F

I-1

In order to demonstrate the effect of the applied measurement

Figure 4:Schematic diagram of the experimental rig / setup strategy on flow measurement accuracy, five repetitions of 500
ml step change additions of 1% NaCl solution to the primary
solution (30kg of 0.3% NaCl) were conducted. The resulting data
were imported into both the common cross-correlation 4.5 Application to various concentration whole and skim milk
measurement strategy and the novel proposed measurement flow
strategy, and compared to the online flow meter reading.
4.2 The effect of measurement frequency & flow rate In order to demonstrate the applicability of the proposed
methodology to other single phase solutions, the proposed and
As the fundamental idea of the application of ERT to flow validated methodology and the selected optimized measurement
measurement is based on the calculation of time delay for the settings were next applied to 13%, 24% and 47% total solids
flow travelling the distance between the two sensing planes, the content milk as primary solutions. A different concentration milk
frequency of the frame measurements during this movement solution was used as the secondary solution causing the
becomes critical. A higher measurement frequency should conductive contrast for each experiment. According to whole and
logically increase the accuracy of velocity measurements, but on skim milk conductivity-concentration-temperature correlations
the other hand a higher noise level is also unavoidable. obtained in a previous research [5, 7], for each primary milk
solution a secondary milk solution was chosen to have the
In order to establish the most accurate measurements and least highest conductivity difference with the primary solution. These
measurement noise for an experimental system it is important to selections are shown in Table 1.
find the optimum current injection settings for that system [5, 7].
The current injection amplitude most suitable for the conductivity
range of the primary solution in this research (~4.5 mS/cm) was
18mA. The current injection frequency for the stated conductivity
range resulting in tolerable noise was 9600Hz-19200Hz. An
increase in current injection frequency would provide higher
measurement frequency and frames per second which in turn
should improve velocity calculation accuracy, but on the other
hand it also increases the measurement noise. Therefore it is
important to find the optimum current injection frequency for the
system. As increase in ERT measurement frequency is limited
due to the Data Acquisition System capabilities and measurement
noise level, a decrease in primary solution flow rate may be an Table 1: Secondary milk solution selection for each experiment
alternative option. A slower flow rate allows more time for
measurements to be taken while the conductivity change front
passes through the sensors.
According to the optimized settings chosen previously all
To understand the effect of increasing current injection frequency experiments were conducted at an injection frequency of 9600 Hz
and reducing flow rate on flow measurement accuracy and to find and secondary solution addition volume of 1000 ml.
the optimum settings for this experimental system, the addition of
1000 ml of two different conductivity solutions (0.5% NaCl & Results and Discussions
1% NaCl) at two different flow rates (~0.905 (m^3hr) & ~
0.450(m^3hr) ) to the primary solution (30kg of 0.3% NaCl) at Figure 5 compares the results of the flow measurements resulting
room temperature were examined using each current injection from the cross correlation technique and the proposed technique,
frequency (9600Hz & 19200Hz). The Micromotion DL-65 compared to the online flow meter reading.
Coriolis meter flow readings were used as a reference flow
measurement throughout the experiments as according to the
manual it provides an accuracy of 0.2%.

4.3 The effect of secondary solution addition

For the application of ERT to single phase flow analysis, the
required conductivity contrast can be established by the addition
of a secondary solution with a different conductivity. In this
addition the conductivity difference between the primary solution
and additional solution and also the volume of addition become
two important factors to be optimized as although large
conductivity changes in the primary solution may improve
velocity measurement accuracy, they will not be desirable from a
product consistency point of view.
Therefore, using a current injection of 18mA amplitude and
9600Hz frequency the addition of 300 ml, 500 ml, 1000 ml and
2000 ml of each secondary solution (0.5% NaCl and 1% NaCl) to
the primary solution (30kg of 0.3% NaCl) at room temperature
were evaluated to find the optimum additional solution
characteristics.
4.4 Repeatability of flow measurements
In order to find the repeatability of the flow measurements using
the optimized settings, each experiment (500 ml addition of 1% Figure 5: Comparison of flow measurement error using the
NaCl and 1000 ml addition of 0.5% NaCl) was repeated 6 times common cross-correlation measurement strategy, the proposed
and the results compared. measurement strategy and flow meter readings
This Figure shows the fact that when the conductive variation
required for flow measurement using ERT does not provide a
pulse change in the primary solution conductivity, the common
cross-correlation measurement strategy is not applicable due to
high flow measurement errors (~65%). On the other hand for the
same experiments, the proposed measurement strategy produces
comparable results with the Micromotion flow meter with an
average bias of ~2.5%.
Figure 6 shows the effect of measurement frequency and flow
rate on flow measurement accuracy.
Figure 6: Effect of ERT current injection frequency on total flow
rate measurement error
From Figure 6 it is obvious that the increase of measurement
frequency from 9600 Hz (with 6.59 frames per second) to 19200
Hz (with 11.53 frames per second) decreases flow measurement
accuracy extensively due to the high increase in measurement
noise. The detrimental effect of higher noise level exceeds the
beneficial effect of higher frames per second. The average flow
measurement error for the different experimental settings at 9600
Hz was 2.1% while the same settings at 19200 Hz produced an
error of 27.9%. This extreme error difference rules out the option
of higher current injection frequency for this experimental set up.
Figure 7 shows the effect of lowering the flow rate at 9600 Hz in
order to allow more time for frame measurements during the
passage of the conductive contrast through the ERT sensors.
Figure 7: Effect of lower flow rates on total flow rate
measurement error @ 9600Hz
This modification also has two contradictory effects. By lowering
the flow rate, the passage of the conductive contrast through the
ERT sensor requires more time and therefore allows more time
for frame measurements and therefore higher accuracy in flow
rate measurement. On the other hand lower flow rates do not
provide for a fully developed flow to reach the ERT sensors. The
average flow rate measurement error for the different
experimental settings at 0.905 m^3hr was 1.3% while the same
settings at 0.450 m^3hr produced an average error of 2.9%. The
detrimental effect of undeveloped flow surpasses the beneficial
effect of more measurement frames. Therefore decreasing the
flow rate will not be beneficial in flow rate measurement in this
experimental set up.
Figure 8 shows the effect of the addition of different volumes and
conductivities of the secondary solution on the flow measurement
accuracy.
Figure 8: Effect of secondary solution addition volume on flow
measurement error
Each experimental setting was repeated 3 times and the
measurement error mean and standard deviation of the 3
repetitions are shown in Figure 8. In the case of adding 1% NaCl
solution (15.8mS/cm) to the 0.3% NaCl primary flow (4.4
mS/cm) with an increase of addition volume (from 300 ml to
higher volumes) a decrease in measurement error is obvious. The
500ml and 1000ml reached the same mean error of 4.1% and the
error standard deviations were 3.3% and 3.1% respectively. In
this case, in which the measurement accuracy is the same for the
two volumes, it is desirable to select the lower volume (500ml) as
the optimum addition volume as it would cause less change in the
overall primary solution conductivity. In the case of adding 0.5%
NaCl (8.2mS/cm) to the 0.3% NaCl primary flow (4.4 mS/cm),
with an increase of addition volume a decrease in measurement
error is again obvious. A 300 ml addition volume was not viable
as it resulted in very high measurement error. Increasing the
addition volume to 500 ml lowered the error and resulted in an
average error of 7.8% but 1000ml and 2000ml reached the same
mean error of 3.2% and the error standard deviations were 2.2%
and 3.6%. The same optimum volume selection criterion applies
here with the lower volume of 1000ml being the best volume for
such systems. Therefore depending on the conductivity
difference between the possible secondary solution with the
primary solution conductivity, the optimum addition volume can
be selected. If higher conductivity difference additions are
possible, lower volumes will be required, while lower Figure 11 shows the cross-sectional velocity distribution of one
conductivity differences will require higher volumes. example experiment of the 0.905 m^3hr flow obtained using the
proposed methodology and the addition of 1000 ml 0.5% NaCl
The optimum experimental settings obtained in previous solution to the 0.3% NaCl primary solution.
experiments were tested for repeatability by performing 6
identical experimental runs of 500 ml 1% NaCl additions and
1000 ml 0.5% NaCl additions at 9600Hz injection frequency and
0.905 m^3hrflow rate. The results are shown in Figure 9.

Figure 11: Cross-sectional velocity distribution of 0.905 m^3hr

Figure 9: Flow measurement error of 6 repetitions of 500 ml 1% flow using 1000ml of 0.5% NaCl addition
NaCl additions and 1000ml 0.5% NaCl additions

The 1% NaCl additions resulted in an average error of 3.0 % and

Both velocity distributions demonstrate a fairly flat profile across
a standard deviation of 2.8%, while the 0.5% NaCl additions
the cross-section of the pipe which is in agreement with
resulted in an average error of 5.2% and a standard deviation of
theoretical expectations as the flow conditions provide a
4.2%. Obviously, higher conductivity differences between the
turbulent flow.
primary solution and the secondary solution results in better flow
measurement accuracy.
Figure 12 confirms the application of this methodology to other
single phase flows such as milk and presents the ERT flow
Figure 10 shows the cross-sectional velocity distribution of one
measurement bias from flow meter reading for each milk type
sample experiment of the 0.905 m^3hr flow obtained using the
and concentration.
proposed methodology and the addition of 500 ml of 1% NaCl
solution to the 0.3% NaCl primary solution.

Figure 12: ERT flow measurements for various milk solutions

Figure 10: Cross-sectional velocity distribution of 0.905 m^3hr flow

using 500ml of 1% NaCl addition

The proposed methodology in this work provides milk flow
measurements with an average bias of 2.5% compared to the
Micromotion flow meter measurement. Generally with the
increase of milk concentration ERT flow measurement error
increases due to the fact that for higher milk concentrations the
experimental rig pump could only provide for much lower flow
rates and consequently lower flow rates could not provide a
developed flow to reach the ERT sensors.
Conclusions
This research has successfully applied ERT to flow and velocity
profile measurement of a single phase flow in a horizontal pipe.
The methodology proposed in this work provides accurate,
dynamic and multi-dimensional information on the process flow
and velocity distribution of single phase flows meeting the
increasing demands of detailed process control. For this novel
application a new calculation methodology has been developed
with the same fundamental idea as the cross-correlation
technique but with no limitation on the type of conductive
contrast (step or pulse change) required for velocity
measurements. The methodology was validated by experiments
on saline as a single phase solution. The effect of measurement
frequency, flow speed, additional solution conductivity and
volume on flow measurement accuracy and the measurement
repeatability were also investigated. The optimum experimental
settings for this application have been selected depending on flow
measurement accuracy and applicability. The application of the
proposed methodology to other single phase flows and the
accuracy level of this application were further confirmed with
various concentration skim and whole milk solutions providing
high accuracy flow measurements.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge the support of Fonterra
Cooperative Group for providing the required milk powder and
also Mr. Reza Barzin for his valuable suggestions and comments.
References
[1] Lucas, G.P., et al., Measurement of the solids volume
fraction and velocity distributions in solids-liquid
flows using dual-plane electrical resistance
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[2] Ma, Y., et al., Application of electrical resistance
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[3] Scott, D.M. and H. McCann, Process Imaging for
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[4] Williams, R.A. and M.S. Beck, Process Tomography;
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[5] Sharifi, M. and B. Young. The Potential Utilisation of
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[6] Sharifi, M. and B. Young, 3-Dimensional spatial
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[8] Sharifi, M. and B. Young, Qualitative visualization
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[9] Bentley, B.A. and D.G. Dawson, Fluid Flow
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[12] ITS, ERT P2000 Manual. 2009.
[13] Geselowitz, D.B., An application of
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[14] Kotre, C.J., A sensitivity coefficient method for the
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Clinical Physics and Physiological Measurement,
1989. 10(3): p. 275-281.
   
 

 
 
 

  
 
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Boiling Heat Transfer and Efficiency for a Cross-flow Microchannel Heat
Exchanger with Gas Heating
W. L. Huang1, T. L. Liu1, B. R. Fu1, and C. Pan1, 2, 3 *
1
Department of Engineering and System Science
2
Institute of Nuclear Engineering and Science
3
Low Carbon Energy Research Center
National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan, ROC
*corresponding author
Abstract
The microchannel heat exchanger (MCHE) is a vital device,
which is suitable for many thermal and chemical processes with a
relatively high heat flux, with many applications, such as
microelectronics cooling, automobile radiators, recovery of
energy of miniature hydrogen production systems etc. To utilize
the exhausted heat produced from a methanol reformer (a part of
a reformed methanol fuel cell) effectively, the development of a
highly effective microchannel heat exchanger (MCHE) is of
critical importance. This design could not only reduce the
temperature of the hydrogen released from a reformer but also
transfer the heat to the liquid methanol. Following our previous
researches on the co- and counter-flow MCHEs, the two-phase
flow boiling heat transfer characteristics in a cross-flow MCHE is
investigated in the present work. The MCHE is made from 4-
inches silicon wafer prepared through microfabrication processes
with a dimension of 20 mm 20 mm. Eighteen microchannels
are etched on each side. The channel depth on both cold- and hot-
side is 200 m, and the thickness of the wall between is the same
of 200m. To make the boiling flow more stable, the
microchannels in the cold side employ a diverging design, as
suggested in our previous studies. Liquid methanol is used as the
boiling fluid, while hot helium gas is employed to simulate
hydrogen. From the experiment results, it indicates that in the
efficiency with methanol boiling in the cold side gradually
increases with an increase in hot-side thermal power. Moreover,
the efficiency increases significantly with an increase in the mass
flux. The highest efficiency in the present study with cross-flow
MCHE could achieve is about 0.87, which is slightly lower than
that of a counter-flow MCHE with the same helium and methanol
flow rates [1].
Nomenclature
G mass flux (kg/m2s)
m mass flow rate (kg/s)
Q heat transfer rate (W)
q '' heat flux (W/m2)
T temperature (C)
constant in eq.(4) (W/K)
a ambient
he helium
in inlet
loss heat loss
me methanol
out outlet
sys test section average
Introduction
With the advance of the Microelectromechanical systems
(MEMS) technology, the applications of the MEMS have been
widely adopted in industries, such as communications,
biomedical engineering, photonics, and aerospace technologies.
In 1981, Tuckerman and Pease [2] first proposed the concept of
using the silicon-based heat sink for electronic cooling, which
resulting in intense interests in heat transfer in microchannels.
Hasan et al. [3] numerically simulated a 3D conjugate heat
transfer of a counter-flow MCHE to evaluate the effect of
channel sizes and shapes on the performance of MCHE. They
found that the effectiveness and channel pressure drop were
increased with the increase of the number of channels, and the
circular channels gave the best overall performance among
various channel shapes (circular, square, rectangular, iso-
triangular and trapezoidal). Garca-Hernando et al. [4]
experimentally studied the hydrodynamic and heat transfer
performance of MCHEs with 100 100-m and 200 200 -m
square cross-sections with a single-phase flow. Their
experimental results were well predicted by classical theories of
viscous flow and heat transfer. Their study revealed no effects of
heat transfer enhancement or pressure drop increase as a
consequence of the small scale of the microchannels. However,
the plate thickness and material were found to be critical in the
design of an MCHE because the convection coefficients are
extremely large on a small scale. Harris et al. [5] designed a
cross-flow heat exchanger to maximize heat transfer from a
water-glycol liquid to air gas while the pressure drop across the
heat exchanger was held for a given frontal area. The predicted
performance for these plastic, ceramic, and aluminium MCHE
were compared to the car radiators. The best heat transfer
performance is aluminium based MCHE. Their results showed
that the heat exchanger designed in micro-scale can enhance the
heat transfer ability and cost down. Brandner et al. [6] studied
various cross-flow heat exchangers with microchannel and
microcolumn arrays (aligned and staggered) and compared their
thermal performances. They found that decreasing the hydraulic
diameter of the microchannels can enhance the heat transfer, and
the staggered array of microcolumns exhibited the best
performance. Kang and Tseng [7] developed a theoretical model
to illustrate the fluidic and thermal characteristics of a cross-
current MCHE. The model was validated by comparing it with
experimental data from literature. Their results showed that the
heat transfer rate and pressure drop were influenced significantly
by the average fluid temperature on both the hot and cold sides.
They also examined the effect of different materialscopper and
siliconon the performance and found that the material exerts a
small influence only on the efficiency due to the thinness of the
fins. Cao et al. [8] investigated the pressure drop and heat transfer
rate of the co- and counter-flow MCHE. The MCHEs were
stacked with two or ten 0.4-mm-thick stainless steel plates by
vacuum diffusion bonding. The maximum heat transfer
coefficient of their experimental results is 5.8 kWm-2K-1 and the
system heat efficiency is reaching 0.8. They then developed the
correlations of the average Nusselt number and pressure drop as a
function of the Reynolds number in the microchannels.
Studies on MCHEs with boiling two-phase flows are much more
limited than that of single-phase flows. Longo and Gasparella [9]
investigated the effects of heat flux, mass flux, saturation
temperature, outlet conditions, and fluids properties on the heat
transfer and pressure drop for the vaporization of HFC-134a,
HFC-410A, and HFC-236fa inside a small brazed-plate heat
exchanger. Their results showed that the HFC-410A exhibits the
highest heat transfer coefficient and lowest frictional pressure
drop. Moreover, the experimental heat transfer coefficients were
compared with literature and a correlation for frictional pressure
drop was proposed. Furberg et al. [10] studied the performance of
a standard plate heat exchanger (PHE) evaporator, both with and
without a novel nano- and microporous copper structure that is
used to enhance the boiling heat transfer mechanism in the
refrigerant channel. The results showed that the refrigerant
channel with the enhancement structure improved the overall
heat transfer coefficient by more than 100%. Hsieh and Lin [11]
studied the saturated-flow boiling heat transfer and frictional
pressure drop of the refrigerant R-410A flowing in a vertical
PHE. The results indicated that the heat transfer coefficient and
frictional pressure drop of R-410A increased almost linearly with
the heat flux. Furthermore, a significant effect of the refrigerant
mass flux on the boiling heat transfer appeared only in the high
heat-flux region. They proposed the empirical correlations for the
saturated boiling heat transfer coefficients and friction factor
based on their own data.
The cross-flow MCHE was developed in the present study that
followed our previous research on co- and counter-flow MCHE
[1]. The objective of this study is to develop MCHEs for the
application in the reformed methanol fuel cell system. Helium
and liquid methanol are employed as the working fluids of the
MCHE in hot and cold sides, respectively. The MCHE become
two-phase flow as the heating input is higher enough to initiate
nucleate boiling of the liquid methanol in the cold side; while
single-phase flow prevails in MCHE if no boiling occurs. The
heat transfer characteristics in both single- and two-phase flow
regions are studied. Moreover, two-phase flow patterns, and the
efficiency of MCHE are also investigated.
Experimental details
Fig. 1 shows a schematic diagram of the experimental setup,
which consists of the test section with a MCHE, a high
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) pump (Dionex
HPG-3200P), a pressure transducer (Huba 692), a flow
visualization system, a helium gas cylinder, a mass flow
controller (Tokyo Keiso NM1500), a heating tube, a vacuum
pump, and a data acquisition system (YOKOGAWA MX100).
The HPLC drives the liquid methanol into the cold-side inlet.
Helium is heated via the electrical heating tube, and its flow rate
is controlled by the mass flow controller. The data acquisition
system records the signals from four T-type thermocouples and
the differential pressure transducer. The four T-type
thermocouples are located at the inlets and outlets of both cold
and hot sides of the MCHE, and the pressure transducer measures
the differential pressure between the inlet and outlet chambers on
the cold side. The vacuum pump is installed in order to remove
the dissolved gas from the liquid methanol container. The
margins of error for the temperature measurements are 0.2 C
for the T-type thermocouples and 0.5 % for the accuracy of the
pressure transducer. The uncertainties for the flow rate
measurement of methanol and helium are 1 % and 2 %,
respectively. The flow visualization system includes a high-speed
digital camera (PHOTRON FASTCAM-ultima APX), a monitor,
and a computer. A micro-lens (OPTEM Zoom 125) is mounted
on the digital camera to observe the two-phase flow patterns in
the microchannels. Moreover, an xyz mechanism was installed
with the visualization system to hold the lens and provide an
accurate position on the test plane (xy plane) and focusing (z
plane). The typical frame rate used was 1000 frame/s, and the
exposure time was 1/20,000 s. A 250W fiber optic illuminator
(TECHNIQUIP FOI-250) was employed as the light source.
The test section was a silicon strip (20 mm 20 mm) with 18
microchannels on each side, which are covered with Pyrex 7740
through anodic bonding on both sides. The accomplished chip is
showed in Fig. 2 (a). To be noted that, the microchannels in the
cold-side flow plate are designed with diverging cross-section,
which may enhance the stability of flow boiling and the heat
transfer efficiency [12-14]. Fig. 2(b) showed the SEM photo of
the cross-flow MCHE side view. Each microchannel is 200 m in
depth and 10.5 mm in length, and the silicon plate thickness
between the bottom surface of the cold and hot sides is 200 m.
The widths of the inlet and outlet of each microchannel on the
cold side are 250 and 350 m, respectively, resulting in a
diverging design with a diverged angle of 0.55. Whereas for the
hot side, a uniform cross section with a channel width of 300 m
is employed. The mean hydraulic diameter of the microchannel is
about 240 m. The inlets and outlets of MCHE were etched by
laser drill technology, and then connected to the straight tee glass
tube by fusion bonding. To minimize the heat loss and strengthen
the test section, the MCHE was packaged by high temperature
endurable silicone and placed into the Teflon mold. The
transparent silicone, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) was coated
on the top surface of MCHE with a thickness of 5 mm to enable
two-phase flow visualization of the methanol.
Fig. 1. The experimental setup.
Data reduction
The efficiency of the MCHE in the single- and two-phase regions
is analysed following a methodology developed in our early
works [1]. The heat transfer rate on the hot side of MCHE can be
obtained from the temperature difference between the inlet and
outlet
Q he = m heCphe (The ,in - The , out ) (1)
Similarly, the heat transfer rate to the single-phase liquid
methanol on the cold side can be expressed as
Q me = m meCpme (Tme , out - Tme ,in )
(2)
The energy balance for the MCHE requires that the hot-side heat
rate is equal to the sum of cold-side heat absorption rate and the
heat loss from the MCHE to the ambient.
=
Q Q loss + Q me
he (3)
Under the single-phase flow conditions, the heat loss, Q , is
loss
found to be linearly proportional to the difference of the system
average temperature and ambient temperature (Fig. 3.), which
can be expressed as
Q loss = (Tsys - Ta )
(4)
Where is a constant of 0.0134 (W/K), Ta is the ambient
temperature, and Tsys is the average temperature of both inlets
and outlets of the MCHE. The linear fitting for the heat loss is
extrapolated to evaluate the heat loss under the two-phase
conditions. Consequently, the rate of heat absorption of the
cold side under the two-phase conditions can be obtained as:
outlet temperatures at cold and hot sides increase linearly with an
increase in the hot-side thermal power. On the other hand, in the
two-phase region, the outlet temperatures for both hot and cold
sides show non-linear increase but both near the boiling
temperature of methanol (64.7C). Finally, the outlet temperature
of the cold side increases linearly with an increase in the thermal
power of the hot side, which suggests that the liquid methanol in
the cold-side outlet is vaporized completely and superheated, i.e.,
the cold-side fluid entered the dry out zone. To be noted that, the
dryout does not appear in the case of cold-side mass flux at Gme =
9 kg/m2s. Its due to system temperature limit that below the
300C.
Comparing the profiles of the cold-side inlet temperature for the
different mass flux of MCHE, we can find that both the values
are close to the same during the single-phase zone with similar
hot-side thermal power, as shown in Fig. 4. However, in two-
phase zone, the cold-side inlet temperatures are gradually
increasing with the hot-side thermal power until approaching the
boiling point of methanol. It is suggested that the boiling two-
phase instability induces the back-flow fluid that resulted in the
increased inlet temperature. Moreover, the lower the cold-side
mass flux has the faster temperature increments. It is because of
the reverse-flow intensity is increased with the lower mass flux
for the same hot-side thermal power [1].

Q me,t = Q he - (Tsys - Ta )
(5)
Thus, the efficiency of single- and two-phase regions of MCHE
can be evaluated as

Q me ,( t )
(t ) =
Q he (6)

Fig. 3. The heat loss as a function of the system temperature of

MCHE.

(a) (b)
Fig. 2. (a) Top view of the MCHE (b) SEM side view photo of
the MCHE.

Results and discussion

Flow regimes of MCHE
In this study, the mass flux of helium was kept constant at 10
kg/m2s and the inlet temperature was varied from 25-250 C;
three different cold-side mass fluxes of 3, 6, and 9 kg/m2s of
liquid methanol were tested. Fig. 4 shows the comparisons of the
inlets and outlets temperature function of heat transfer rate from
helium with different mass flux of methanol. The dotted lines in Fig. 4. The profiles of inlet and outlet temperatures of cross-flow
fig. 4 divided the temperature profile into three different zones, MCHE with different hot-side thermal power for cold-side mass
namely single-phase zone, two-phase zone, and dry out zone. flux from 3 to 9 kg/m2s.
Moreover, dotted lines with different colours in black, blue, and
red are used by different methanol mass fluxes, from Gme = 3 to 9 Boiling curve
kg/m2s, respectively. In the single-phase region, the inlet and
Fig. 5 illustrates the boiling curve with respect to the temperature
difference between the average helium temperature on the hot
side and the saturation temperature of methanol corresponding to
the atmospheric pressure, for various methanol mass fluxes. The
"
y-axis label of this chart is the cold-side heat flux, qme , which
means the methanol absorptive heat flux based on the area of the
bottom and side walls of the channels. In the single-phase region,
the heat fluxes increase slowly with the hot-side fluid average
temperature but fast after boiling begins and enters the two-phase
zone. When approaching the dryout zone, the cold-side fluid heat
flux gradually achieves a limit value, i.e., critical heat flux (CHF),
even with a high average helium temperature increase.
Furthermore, the CHF is proportional to the cold-side mass flux,
around 20 kW/m2 for Gme =3 kg/m2s and 40 kW/ m2 for Gme =6
kg/m2s, respectively.
The experimental data circled and labeled (a), (b), (c), and (d) for
the boiling curve of Gme =6 kg/m2s in Fig. 5 are selected to
further discuss the two-phase flow patterns in the following
section.
(d)
(c)
(b)
(a)
Fig. 5. Boiling curves for various methanol mass fluxes (Gme = 3,
6, 9 kg/m2s) and a constant helium mass flux (Ghe = 10 kg/m2s)
Two-phase flow pattern
If the hot-side fluid temperature is high enough, liquid methanol
achieves the onset of nucleate boiling condition, after that a
widespread flow boiling condition appears. Fig. 6 shows the two-
phase flow patterns corresponding to the data circled and labelled
in Fig. 5 at mass flux Gme = 6 kg/m2s. The direction of the helium
flow is from right to left, and the cold-side fluid is from top to
down facing the screen. To facilitate the discussion on boiling
two-phase phenomena the 18 channels are divided into three
blocks, each block contain in six channels, namely left,
middle and right, as shown in Fig. 6(a). single-phase region, the efficiency increases with methanol mass
Fig. 6(a) shows the two-phase flow pattern near the incipience of
the boiling. Owing to the helium flow from right to left and
helium is relatively low volumetric specific heat, the wall
temperature for these channels locate in the right region is
higher than that in the other regions, Thus, it can be interestingly
found that the three different two-phase flow patterns appear in
channels: long-slug flow appears in the right region, bubbly-
slug flow in the middle region, and non-boiling, single-phase
liquid appears in most of the left region. For a giving higher
heat flux of 15 W/m2, the intermittent partially dryout appears in
the right region, and the bubbly-slug flow start to be observed
in the left region, as shown in Fig. 6(b). Fig. 6(c) displayed the
flow pattern for the case with hot-side thermal power added to
"
7.2 W, i.e., qme =32 W/m2. The downstream part of the right
region has already dryout and no liquid may reach the outlet
plenum. In the middle region, the two-phase flow pattern has
developed from annular flow pattern (Fig. 6(b)) to the liquid film
breakup pattern, and the left region has developed from
bubbly-slug flow to annular flow. Fig. 6(d) shows the liquid
dryout taken place in all channels. It can clearly be seen that the
length of the liquid film fully dryout region is increased from
right to left channel. Interestingly, the dryout region appears
approximately in the lower right triangular region.
The four images of flow patterns for the four different heat fluxes
of Fig. 6 demonstrates clearly the non-uniform two-phase flow in
the cold side, as the methanol flow from top to bottom. The
boiling of liquids near the inlet of helium flow will take away
much amount of heat from the helium. And in combination of
methanol flow from top to bottom, the dryout zone appears in the
lower right triangular region.
helium flow
methanol flow
left middle right
liquid intermittent
slug
partially dryout
(a) Qhe = 1.2 W (b) Qhe = 3.6 W
liquid film
annular flow
breakout
liquid film
breakout
dryout dryout
(c) Qhe = 7.2 W (d) Qhe = 8.7 W
Fig. 6. Two-phase flow patterns with different hot-side thermal
power at cold-side mass flux Gme = 6 kg/m2s.
Efficiency analysis
For a heat exchanger, the efficiency or effectiveness is a key
parameter in evaluation of the systems performance. Fig. 7
shows the correlations of efficiency with the thermal power on
the hot side, using methanol mass flux as a parameter. In the
flux but shows insignificant effect of the helium thermal power.
In the two-phase region, the efficiency also increases with
methanol mass flux, but less significantly than that in the single-
phase region, and increases with hot-side heat power until the
CHF condition is approached. The highest efficiency is about
0.87 for the present study. This result indicates that the boiling
heat transfer can greatly improve the efficiency of the systems
heat recovery.
Conclusion
This study experimentally explored the silicon-based, cross-flow
MCHE with diverging microchannel having hydraulic diameter
of 240 m. Two-phase flow patterns, boiling curve, and
performance analysis were investigated. The following
conclusion may be drawn from this study:
1. Owing to the relatively small volumetric specific heat of
helium flow, the two-phase flow patterns in the cold side is
quite non-uniform. The interaction of methanol flowing
from top to bottom and helium flowing from right to left
resulting in the dryout in the lower right triangular region at
a given helium thermal power.
2. The efficiency increase with methanol mass flux in two-
phase region but is less significant in the single-phase region.
In the single-phase region, the efficiency shows insignificant
effect of thermal power. However, when operating the
MCHE in the two-phase zone, the efficiency increases with
the increase of the hot side thermal power, until dried out
appears in the cold side. .
3. The highest efficiency for the present study with cross-flow
MCHE could achieve about 0.87, which is slightly lower
than that of a counter-flow MCHE with the same helium and
methanol flow rates [1].
Fig. 7. Efficiency versus hot-side thermal power for cross-flow
MCHE.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the National Science Council of
Taiwan under contract No. NSC101-3113-E-007-002-.
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Biocompatibility and Micro-fabrication for Polymer-MEMS Micro-pump
K. Cui1, S. Torii2, L. Cheng1
1
Institute of Thermal Science and Technology,
Shandong University, 17923 Jingshi Road, Jinan, 250061, China
2
Department of Mechanical System Engineering
Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan
Abstract
The recent development of micropump with application in
biology and chemistry are reviewed in this article. Instead of
classifying micropump by actuation scheme, the biocompatibility
and microfabrication issues for micropump are given special
significance and used as a new criterion for micropump
categorization. Polymer-based materials, among which
Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and Polymethylmethacrylate
(PMMA) are the most prevailing ones, are surveyed with
reference to their biocompatibility and microfabrication
technique, and followed by newly reported micropump
respectively. Although new biocompatible material and its
fabrication technique have brought substantial breakthroughs in
micropump, they still remain the most forefront and fertile
research area in the future.
Introduction
As integrated circuits and microelectronics revolutionarily
changed the computation and information technology,
microfluidics is believed to possess the same potential for
chemistry and biomedical engineering. Micropump, so-called
beating heart of microfluidics, has been gaining more and more
attention due to demanding requirement for robustly pumping
precise doses of fluid in a controlled and energy-saving way.
The development of biomaterials and micro/nanofabrication
technology has made it possible for MEMS micropump to find
applications in implantable drug delivery system, bioassay and
micro total analysis system (TAS), and PCR and other lab-on-a-
chip systems.
Although precise dosing and transport capability are the main
goals for micropumps, biocompatibility is becoming increasingly
important and regarded as the key requirement for drug delivery
systems, which is defined as the ability of a material to perform
with an appropriate host response in a specific application [1].
Silicon and silicon-based materials, including silicon nitride,
silicon dioxide etc., have been widely and successfully used in
micropump in the past few decades, owing to their moderate
biocompatibility and mature method in fabrication [2-11].
However, polymers, including Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS),
SU-8TM, Parylene, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and other
promising polymers, due to their better biocompatibility and
convenience in fabrication and availability, are raising more and
more interests, especially after the invention of soft lithography
technology. More than 400 papers were published in the past
three years, most of which used polymer as substrate and/or
membrane.
Various reviews have already covered the development and
optimization of micropumps, focusing on the classification of
micropumps with respect to actuation schemes, including
displacement-based actuation such as piezoelectric,
thermopneumatic, electromagnetic, and dynamic actuation such
as electrophoresis, electrokinetic and so on, and comparison of
performance parameters between them [12-18], while
biocompatibility is not attached with its deserved attention.
Precise and controlled pumping is not enough as for in vivo
applications, biofouling is a long time suffered problem, and for
bioassay, the reaction between reagent and micropump body
severely interfere with the accuracy of the test [19-20].
This review, focusing on the material and its corresponding
fabrication technique used in bioMEMS micropumps, aims to
serve as a reference for material and fabrication techniques
selection for different applications. A thorough review of
biocompatibility of silicon- and polymer-based materials would
be given, followed by an introduction of their microfabrication
technology. And then recent development in bioMEMS
micropumps of different applications is classified with reference
to the combination of biocompatibility and fabrication.
PDMS-based micropump
PDMS Biocompatibility and Microfabrication
PDMS is one kind of the silicone elastomer, with optical
transparency, high elasticity, and ease to fabrication. Detailed
physical and chemical properties of PDMS are given in reference
[21]. The biocompatibility of PDMS has been studied in several
literatures. Figure 1 depicts a scheme for rapid prototyping of
PDMS. PDMS is one of the primary reference materials used as
discriminatory tools for validation of novel in vivo and in vitro
test for evaluating biomaterials [22]. Various studies have
tested the biocompatibility of PDMS. Lee et al [23] from the G.
M. Whitesides Group tested the influence of PDMS composition
on the attachment and growth of mammalian cell and proved the
availability of PDMS as substrate for culturing mammalian cells,
although extra curing agent may cause variability in cell growth
and attachment rate depending on different kinds of cells.
Professor Whitesides group designed the soft lithography
technique, which is easy and cheap and doesnt need clean room
environment [21, 24]. The PDMS prepolymer is comprised of
the base and the curing agent.
PDMS Micropump
Fadl et al [25] developed a novel valveless rectification
micropump based on bifurcation geometry (Fig. 2). The
material for the substrate is PDMS and PDMS replica molding is
used for fabrication. The detailed manufacturing process is
shown in figure X. Single-generation and double generation
bifurcation design were tested with 5 Hz increments in actuation
frequency. The optimal performance reached by the circular
piezoelectric transducers (PZT) actuated micropumps with the
hybrid bifurcation design include highest flow rate of 137l/min,
maximum back pressure of 2.86 kPa, and pump efficiency of
23.25%.
Figure 1. Scheme for rapid prototyping
Figure 2 The fabrication procedure of the valve-less rectification
micropumps based on bifurcation geometry (Fadl et al [10])
Koch et al [26] designed and characterized novel PDMS and
tubing-based micropumps based on direct-actuation. The silicon
masters used in the PDMS replica molding are made by maskless
lithography system with SU-8 2050 (Microchem) as the negative
tone photoresist and MX5050 (Dupont) as dryfilm resist. A
geared miniature DC motor served as central actuator. A
polycarbonate back-wall piece is used to support the thin PDMS
layer and minimizing the dampening force caused by elastomer.
Flow response tests demonstrated the wide range of flow rate
allowed by adjusting percent compression, channel/tubing
dimensions, RPM, and roller size.
A disposable thermo-pneumatic micropump an integrated biochip
is developed by Ha et al [27] (Fig. 3). A PDMS micropump
with microvalves, which is the disposable part, is built on the
glass substrate. Also deposited on the glass substrate is the
Cr/Au (20/100 nm) thin film microheater. As demonstrated in
the simulation, an interesting result is that the deformation of
PDMS is negligible until 40C and showed exponential increase
after that. Experiment result showed that high frequency may
not lead to high flow rate owing to the nonlinearity of increasing
and decreasing heater temperature. Duty ratio was another
important factor impacting flow rate. When the duty ratio
reached about 33% and frequency 0.1 Hz, the disposable
micropump reached the stable and optimum performance with
approximately linear relation with the increase of input power.
Figure 3 Configuration of the micropump with microvalve: (a)
cross-sectional view and (b) schematic of detachable microfluidic
device [27]
PDMS could be easily integrated with the actuator due to its
automatic bonding between layers. Shen et al [28] developed a
high-efficiency active-valve magnetic-actuated micropump.
Two microfabrication processes are employed: powder blasting
for the glass substrate and a molding for magnetic PDMS
membrane. Liquid PDMS is used as adhesive layer for bonding
between the permanent magnets and the glass substrate. Three
permanent magnets actuated this micropump with six phases.
Experiment results showed that this micropump possessed the
maximum flow rate of 2.4mL/min and highest backpressure up to
6.6kPa while consuming 50mW. This low power consumed and
ease to fabrication make it promising for microfluidics
application.
Figure 4 Adhesive bonding process for PDMS-glass stack (Shen
[28])
Zangeneh Kazemi et al [29] designed two types of
electrohydrodynamic (EHD) micropumps with symmetric
micropillar emitter and collector electrodes and asymmetric
micropillar emitter and planar collector electrodes to study the
impact of their spacing. Experimental results showed that the
asymmetric distribution could generate a higher pressure and
consumed lower power per unit pressure compared with
symmetric spacing, with a maximum pressure head of 2240 Pa at
an applied voltage of 900 V. According to the numerical
simulation, the better discharge characteristic and lower pressure
losses of asymmetric electrodes may be the reason of the higher
pressure generation.
Figure 5 Schematic of microfabrication process for EHD
micropump (Kazemi [29])
Spieth et al [30] developed a disposable drug delivery system
using the thermal expansion of PDMS as actuator, called
neuromedicator, which could transport 16 discrete liquid portions
of 0.25 L directly into neural cell tissue. As shown in figure 6
(i), the microfabrication process is composed of three steps,
including micromilling on the PMMA and replica moulding of
PDMS. Then with oxygen plasma, the microfluidics structure is
bonded to the PDMS expandable material, which is spin coated
on the the PCB board and the heater. Experimental results
showed that with 225 mW heating, all the working fluid is
delivered within three seconds.
(i) (ii)
Fig. 6(i) Three-step fabrication process of the PDMS (a)Milling
of a positive PMMA master, (b) casting of a negative epoxy mold,
and (c)PDMS replica molding of the fluidic structure, (ii)
Assembly of different component (Spieth [30])
Yang et al [31] developed a peristaltic pneumatic micropump,
which has high pumping rate of 900 L/min at a driving
frequency of 90 Hz and at 20 psi applied pressure. The
micropump consists of three peristaltic pneumatic air chambers,
resilient PDMS membrane structures and a PDMS-based floating
block structure as a normally closed valve, which is shown in Fig.
7. Soft lithography technique is used for fabrication which makes
this micropump easy to integration with microfluidics system. As
shown in Fig. 8, SU-8 negative thick photoresist and a dose of
600 mJ/cm2 ultraviolet exposure are used for lithography. And
then the inverse images is replicated on the PDMS
Figure 7 Schematic of the working principle of the normally
closed microvalve [31]
Figure 8 Simplified fabrication process of the micropump based
on SU-8 lithography and PDMS replication [31]
Hu et al [32] investigated the PDMS micropump with moving
characteristics of glass ball check valves in different working
fluid. An interesting result is that the glass ball valve could move
freely in the PDMS channel when methanol and ethanol is
introduced. It would adhere to the channel when deionized water
or cell culture media was introduced. This is ameliorated by
coating of a biocompatible hybrid inorganic/organic polymer
(HR4). This ball check valve moving characteristic showed a
promising application in biological systems.
Park et al reported a [33] new polymer sealing method for
rectangular channel PDMS microvalves and micropumps. As
shown in figure X, after the PDMS microfabrication, the
prepolymer trimethylolpropane triacrylate (TMPTA) is filled in
the fluidic channel. Then the mercury lamp is used to generate a
UV pattern for photocure with gas pressure applied. The uncured
prepolymer is washed out with 1 ml ethanol. This method could
has negligible flow leakage and at the same time the ease to
fabricate rectangular channel membrane microvalves.
PMMA shape of membrane deformation allowed a larger deflection,
which made it suitable for pneumatic actuation.
PMMA is a transparent, thermoplastic and shatter-resistant
polymer widely used in biomedical implants. Researches on the
biocompatibility of PMMA can be traced back to last century.
Reviews of biocompatibility of PMMA can be found in [34].
Microfabrication and Bonding Technique
Romoli et al. [35] developed a rapid fabrication method with CO2
laser machining. The basic principle is that the removal
mechanism of amorphous polymers, such as PMMA, is generated
by vaporization with the minimum amount of chemical
degradation, hence high-quality cut edges without channel
blockage. Figure 9 shows the schematic of CO2 laser machining
set-up. The first step is to evaluate all the dimensions and
parameters using a CAD software model. Then the PMMA work
piece was placed on an adjustable platform. Depth ranging from
50 to 600 m and width from 150 to 400 m could be achieved
by adjusting the laser power and scanning speed. Also a pure
thermal bonding process is developed with bonding strength up
Figure 10 PDMS-based hot embossing setup. (a) components
to 1 MPa.
before assembly and before embossing, (b) assembled
components before embossing, (c) assembled components after
embossing, (d) disassembled components after embossing and (e)
PDMS mold (left) and embossed polystyrene slide replica (right)
[36]

Figure 9 Schematic diagram of the laser set-up: (a) CO2 laser

source, (b) beam expander, (c) mirror-equipped head, (d)
telecentric f-theta lens, (e) adjustable platform, (f) PMMA
workpiece and (g) suction probe [35]

The latest report by Goral et al [36] presented a PDMS-based hot
embossing process for plastic microfluidics devices. As the
PDMS molds involved could be reused, the fabrication is low-
cost and rapid. Detailed fabrication procedure is shown in Fig.
10. The PDMS molds are fabricated using soft lithography. Then
wide binder clips are used to clamp the sandwich of two
microscope glass slides, and the PDMS mold and the polystyrene
slide. The assembly was heated under 155C for 15 min. This
interesting result would significantly decrease the cost of hot-
embossing technique and its fabrication difficulty.
Bonding technique between different materials is drawing more
attention due to it allowance of the combination of the
advantages, and also the technical challenges of sealing and
different surface property. Tan et al [37] introduce a reliable yet
simple technique for bonding between PDMS and PMMA with
an adhesive film layer, instead of using expensive surface
modification technique such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
etc. Figure 11 shows the detailed fabrication process of the
PMMA/PDMS bonding. This structure contained a hybrid
membrane formed by pre-cured PDMS mixture spin-coated on
the adhesive film, which is laminated on the PMMA layer.
Characterization tests showed that the bonding quality between
PDMS and PMMA would stay intact at the maximum pressure of
20kPa, under which the membrane would burst. And the balloon
Figure 11 Fabrication process of the PMMA/adhesive/PDMS part
and the peristaltic micropump [37]
PMMA micropump
Section and subsec Wang et al [38] designed a new valveless
micropump with an acoustic resonator style pumping chamber
which serves as both pumping chamber and flow rectification.
The micropump consists of two PMMA layers with thicknesses
of 1 and 5 mm, fabricated by lamination technology [39]. This
new design could work well at frequencies of 20-100 Hz, with
optimal performance occurring around 70 and 80 Hz depending
on different configurations, according to both experimental and
numerical analysis. The pumping frequency could be modified by
adjusting the pump dimensions and thus showed a promising and
suitable characteristic for microfluidics integrations.
Hsu et al [40] developed two PMMA peristaltic micropumps with
different microchannel configuration, the first one with uniform
width and depth microchannel, called conventional type, while
the second one with tapered microchannel serving as diffuser
valves called diffuser type. The maximum flow rates could reach
262.4 L/min and 114.8L/min for the convention and diffuser,
respectively. And the diffuser-type pump showed a much larger
back pressure of 9.2 kPa, compared with 3.9 kPa for the
conventional type. Both types reach the maximum flow rate at
around 400 Hz, according to experimental and numerical analysis.
To get the optimal performance, sometimes more than one
material are used. Nguyen et al [41] developed a peristaltic
bioMEMS micropump composed of two PDMS layers covered
by two PMMA plates to increase the stiffness of the micropump.
Mini LIPCAs (lightweight piezo-composite actuators) are used to
actuate the fluid flow. The structure and microfabrication process
are shown in figure 12. In addition to the spin-coating and cure
process for fabricating the first PDMS layer, photolithography
and SU-8 are used to make the second PDMS layer. The optimal
performance of this micropump is with a maximum flow rate of
900 L/min and maximum back pressure of 1.8kPa.
(a)
(b)
Figure 11 Schematic of structure and microfabrication process
Yamahata et al[42] reported a PMMA valveless micropump with
a PDMS membrane using integrated composite magnet. With a
membrane deflection up to 200 m by electromagnetic actuation,
the water flow rate could reach 400 L/min and the back pressure
12 mbar. The experimental study of 12 and 200Hz resonance
frequency operation performance also validated the model
proposed by Olsson et al [43] and Pan et al [44].
Shen et al [45-46] reported a reciprocating PMMA ball-valve and
PDMS membrane micropump actuated by a miniature cylindrical
electromagnetic circuit. With 2 W electromagnetic actuation
power at the resonant frequency of 20 Hz, the micropump
showed a back pressure up to 35 kPa and water flow rate 6.0
mL/min. Powder blasting technique [47-50] is used for
fabrication of PMMA thin layers and the bonding between them
uses hot press at 70C.
Conclusion and future challenges
This review surveys development of polymer-MEMS
micropumps in recent two years, focusing on two prevailing
materials, PDMS and PMMA. While pure polymer micropumps
are still booming, the new research into modified biomaterials is
needed. Based on this development, it is certain that
microfluidics and nanofluidic will bring a revolutionary change
to chemistry and biomedical engineering.
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

23 rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena:

Investigation of Combustor Concepts for Micro Gas Turbine Jet Engines
A. Hupfer1, 2, W. Erhard1 and H.-P. Kau1
1
Institute for Flight Propulsion
Technische Universitaet Muenchen, 85747 Garching, Germany
2
Supervisor of research group Hummingbird TUM GT
Technische Universitaet Muenchen, 85747 Garching, Germany

Abstract competing piston engines a gas turbine generally has an excellent

Gas turbine technology offers propulsion devices with excellent
thrust-to-weight ratio for a broad range of flight Mach numbers
and altitudes. Turbojet engines in the 1.000 N thrust class and
below (Micro Gas Turbine Jet Engines) are often developed by
converting turbo-superchargers in combination with an adapted
combustor. The latter should provide reliable and efficient
combustion for the whole operating range. The design and
optimization of the combustor play an important role in achieving
and improving the overall performance characteristics of the
turbojet.
At the Institute for Flight Propulsion of Technische Universitaet
Muenchen (TUM) a gas turbine test stand was designed for
investigating small gas turbine technologies. In particular a
transparent combustor casing permits optical access to obtain
information from inside the combustion chamber. The paper
presents experimental and numerical results of preliminary tests,
e.g. temperature distribution in the liner material, flow direction
at the combustor inlet and the influences of different combustor
designs like a variation of the number of vaporizer sticks. The
influence of overall engine performance, like pressure drop,
combustion efficiency, pattern factor and specific fuel
consumption, together with results from experimental and
numerical investigations will be introduced and discussed.
Nomenclature
Identifier
F Thrust [N]
LHV Lower heating value [J/kg]
pi Pressure [kPa] (for i see indices)
Ti Temperature [K] (for i see indices)
SFC Specific fuel consumption [g/kNs]
pcc Combustor pressure loss ( ) [%]
C Combustion efficiency [%]
i j Pressure ratio [-] (for i, j see indices)
Air mass flow [kg/s]
Fuel mass flow [kg/s]
Actual heat release of combustion [J/s]
power-to-weight ratio and compactness, a good adaptability and
operational flexibility. In spite of higher fuel consumption and
manufacturing costs the need for and acceptance of small
turbojets increase continuously and a number of suppliers have
been able to establish themselves in this market.
Small, low cost turbojet engines are often developed by the
conversion of turbo-superchargers in combination with an
adapted combustor, which should provide reliable and efficient
combustion for the whole operating range. For small turbojets the
aerodynamic design of turbo components is guided by
turbochargers and the classic scaling from larger gas turbines [1].
In contrast to the turbo components, it has become necessary to
develop specific combustion systems. Over the last past years a
lot of new combustor and fuel injection concepts have been
published (e.g. [2] and [3]) but almost all current micro gas
turbine jet engines are still using vaporizer sticks in different
shapes and numbers. There are only few computational studies
for configurations with such vaporizer sticks (e.g. [4] and [5])
and far fewer detailed experimental data for validation [6]. But
both numerical and experimental data are required for better
understanding the fundamental processes, for optimization and
for developing new technologies. This publication presents a
summary of different investigations at the Institute for Flight
Propulsion of Technische Universitaet Muenchen.
Design of Micro Gas Turbine Jet Engines
Figure 1 shows the general setup of a micro gas turbine jet
engine.
Combustor
Compressor Turbine
Impeller Vanes Outer Inner Vaporizer Vanes
Liner Liner Sticks
Engine
intake Exhaust
Nozzle

Indices
s static
t total (= static + dynamic)
0,2,3,4,5,8 Airflow station numbering (see Figure 1)
0 2 3 4 5 8
Introduction 0 - Ambient Conditions 3 - Combustor Inlet 5 - Turbine Exit
2 - Compressor Inlet 4 - Turbine Inlet 8 - Exhaust nozzle
In this paper Micro Gas Turbine Jet Engines means small
turbojets in the 1000 N thrust class and below, the analyses Figure 1. Micro gas turbine jet engine design and station
presented were carried out with jet engines of about 100 N thrust. designation.
They have been developed and designed to power remotely
piloted vehicles and autonomous flight systems. Compared to
Coming from ambient (station 0) the airflow enters the
compressor at station 2, is compressed by a centrifugal
compressor and flows into the diffusor-shaped entry of the
combustor at station 3. The air supplied by the compressor is
decelerated and flows around the inner and outer liner through
several holes into the combustion chamber, see Figure 2. A small
part of air is guided to the vaporizer sticks at the rear side of the
combustor. Inside the sticks this air is mixed with added fuel
which vaporizes at the hot wall of the sticks. After leaving the
sticks the fuel-air-mixture is burned. At station 4 the exhaust gas
enters the turbine which takes work from the hot gas to power the
compressor. Downstream of the turbine (station 5), the exhaust
gas is accelerated when passing the convergent nozzle and leaves
the engine at station 8.
Requirements for Micro Gas Turbine Jet Engine Combustors
Combustor improvements of current large turbine engines cannot
contribute appreciably to fuel efficiency because at take-off and
at flight conditions the energy conversion level in the combustor
and hence the combustion efficiency is virtually 100%. Against
this background, the main focus of designing new combustors for
larger aero engines lies on reducing emissions, lower costs and
better durability. However, all new features and improvements
must not compromise basic combustion requirements (efficiency,
operational reliability, re-ignitability) or have any significant
effect on engine performance. Further details are given in [7] and
[8].
Scaling techniques for combustor design to smaller size are
limited or not feasible, due to negative effects of [9]:
Lower temperature and pressure at combustor inlet increase
time for evaporation and reaction.
Dome height reduction increases the effects of wall
quenching.
Ratio of surface area to volume increases and therefore more
cooling air is necessary.
Lower fuel flow rate requires a minimum number of
injectors.
Increased effect of leakage gaps and cooling air on pattern.
As a consequence of these limitations, alternative combustor
configurations are being developed especially for small turbojets.
In summary, it can be stated that for the development of micro
gas turbines, particular attention has to be paid to design, test and
optimization of combustors. In the field of this engine size the
current state of combustor designs are primarily driven by a small
volume, low manufacturing cost and low complexity.
Important Combustor Parameters
Combustion Efficiency
Combustion efficiency is defined as the ratio of the heat released
in the combustor to the heat available in the injected fuel:
turbine material temperature capability. In case of micro gas
(1)
turbine jet engines the turbine components are uncooled and
An incomplete combustion leads to low combustion efficiency
and is caused by fuel that is not fully reacted. The reason for this
can be an insufficient evaporation of liquid fuel, mixing of
evaporated fuel and reaction of the mixed fuel.
priority, see Figure 3. The highest overall local temperature
(2)
Because the time available for combustion is inversely
proportional to the airflow rate (AR) and depending on rates of
fuel evaporation (ER), of mixing (MR) and of reaction (RR), the
combustion efficiency may be expressed [7] as a function of:
1 1 1 1
[( )( + + )] (3)
3 Vaporizer Stick
Air
Fuel
e
Fuel-Air-Mixtur
Combustion Hot Exhaust Gas
4
Figure 2. Typical combustor setup with fuel vaporisation sticks.
The fuel in use, the injection method and the air throughput have
an important influence on those rates. In case of small turbojets
the low pressure and combustor inlet temperature have a
significant negative effect on combustion efficiency, because ER,
MR as well as RR decrease and therefore fuel preparation and
reaction need additional time. Against this background in the
majority of small turbojet combustors so called vaporizer sticks
are used, see Figure 2.
Advantages of vaporizer sticks are:
Nearly doubling of the flow path Additional residence
time of fuel-air-mixture in the combustor increases
combustion efficiency .
Combustion heats up the vaporizer sticks Rising
temperature of fuel-air mixture speeds up the rate of
evaporation (ER).
Modest fuel-pump pressure requirements A simple and
low cost low pressure design is possible.
Major drawbacks of vaporizer systems are:
Starting behavior Sticks are too cold to vaporize the fuel.
A separate igniter is needed to initiate combustion.
Behavior at rapid engine acceleration Sudden addition of
more fuel can overcool the sticks.
Behavior at rapid engine deceleration Sudden drop of
fuel can overheat fuel-cooled sticks.
Strong dependency of combustion efficiency from fuel and
air flow rate Lower evaporation rate leads to reduced
combustion efficiency.
Additional pressure losses See chapter Pressure Loss.
Radial and Circumferential Temperature Profile
Turbine inlet temperature (Tt4) is a very important cycle
parameter. For high specific thrust and good overall efficiency
Tt4 has to be high. But limitation is given by restrictions of
therefore the maximum temperature has to be lower than
1000 C. It has to be considered that Tt4 means the average
temperature of the overall mass flow at the end of the combustor,
but the maximum temperature is limited by local maxima Tt4,max.
Therefore, temperature distribution has been given a high design
Tt4,max is highly relevant for the surrounding vane. For the
rotating turbine blades the maximum temperature Tt4(r),max of
circumference-averaged profile is limited. The Overall
Temperature Distribution Factor (OTDF) and Radial
Temperature Distribution Factor (RTDF) characterize the
temperature distribution:
and
( )
(5)
Outer liner ro
Deviation of local maximum
(from total averaged)
Temperature
Tt4,max
(global averaged)
r
Tt4(r)
(circumference averaged)
Inner Liner r i
T t4 Tt4(r),max
Figure 3. Typical temperature distribution at combustor exit
Another problem associated with temperature distribution is the
lack of possibility of direct experimental determination of Tt4.
Therefore, in most cases Tt4,max dictates the maximum fuel flow
and the heat release of combustion.
Pressure Loss
Combustor pressure losses are caused by skin friction and
turbulence effects generated by the flow in the diffuser, the sticks
and inside and outside the liner. This cold pressure loss is
augmented by the so-called fundamental or hot pressure loss due
to temperature increase in the combustion section in the liner. For
good mixing and combustion efficiency, high turbulences are
necessary. But pressure loss based on non-uniformity and swirl-
affected inflow contributes nothing to the combustion mixing
process and is therefore completely wasted.
Overall losses can be described as total pressure difference
between compressor exit and turbine inlet. Combustor pressure
ratio is defined as
Usually combustor pressure loss is given as
1 (1 ) 1
Typical values of pressure loss in combustion chambers of
modern commercial turbofan engines range from 6 to 7% of the
combustor inlet pressure [7]. For small turbojet engines a detailed
investigation of the relationship between , combustor inflow
Mach number and heat release rate is given in [10]. But
compared to this conventional straight flow combustors with
direct injection micro gas turbine jet engines with vaporizer
sticks show significantly higher . This is due to the facts that
inside the combustor the air-fuel mixture enters in opposite
direction to the main flow and the vaporizer sticks form flow
obstacles and generate increased friction and swirling flow. For
combustor designs with vaporizer sticks a wide range of pressure
has been published, from 4% [1] up to more than 10% [11].
Because uncertainties and limits of the experimental
determination of real turbine inlet temperature and efficiency,
knowing the accurate combustor pressure loss is important to
identify potentials for improvement of overall gas turbine
efficiency. Moreover, as will be explained later, an inaccurate
pressure loss can lead to false interpretations of other cycle
(4) parameters like turbine efficiency.
Experimental Investigations
At the Institute for Flight Propulsion of Technische Universitaet
Muenchen a test stand for experimental investigations on micro
gas turbine jet engines has been built up. Extensive pressure and
temperature measurements at different stations can be carried out
and provide data for validation of thermodynamic cycle
calculation. At the nozzle exit the distribution of exhaust
temperature Tt8, pressure pt8 and gas composition (O2, CO, CO2,
NOx and unburned hydrocarbons) can be measured by an
adjustable water-cooled probe and a combination of different
analysis systems. For visualization of heat release distribution
and the thermal load of combustor components the engine can be
equipped with an optically accessible combustion chamber (see
Figure 4). The results presented are based on recent
investigations at modified engine models of Frank Turbine TJ-70
and TJ-74. The basic combustor configuration contains 6
vaporizer sticks. A design peculiarity is the lubrication system.
Ensuring effective lubrication, a pipe inside the engine guides a
few precent of the fuel-oil mixture to the front and afterward to
the rear bearing. After passing the rear bearing this part of fuel
enters the main flow downstream of the combustor and the
turbine vanes. Due to a lack of time for burning completely, this
fuel part contributes significantly to reduced overall combustion
efficiency.
Figure 4. Test engine with the optically accessible combustion
chamber.
(6)
Measurements of important thermodynamic cycle data
From ambient (station 0) to compressor exit (station 3), reliable
temperature and pressure values can be experimentally obtained.
(7) Because of non-uniform temperature profiles at the turbine inlet,
a local temperature measurement at station 4 has only a limited
significance. In most cases turbine inlet temperature Tt4 is
estimated from calculations of heat released, see equation (1).
However, the used combustion efficiency which cannot be
measured directly is also an assumption. In conclusion, one can
say that temperature and therefore cycle parameters at station 4
cannot be determined directly by experiment.
At the exhaust nozzle (8) the static pressure ps8 is equivalent to
the ambient pressure p0 because of a non-choked flow. Total
temperature Tt5 and pressure pt5 at the turbine exit can be either
measured or back-calculated by using measured thrust. However,
because of inhomogeneous combustion and Tt4 distribution, the
input of fuel from lubrication and other effects the exhaust nozzle
flow is usually non-uniform in composition, temperature and
pressure distribution.
In a first step detailed measurements of the thermodynamic data 2,5%
at different engine ratings have been carried out. With this data 2,0%

pt8 (Pressure Deviation from Average)

an overall gas turbine performance simulation is possible. 1,5%
Table 1 and Table 2 show the relevant parameters of performance 1,0%
and cycle stations taken from experimental tests described in
0,5%
[12]. Figure 5 shows the thermodynamic cycle that describes the
energy flow of the gas turbine engine. 0,0%
-0,5%
Parameter Operating point -1,0%
Rotation speed [min-1] 55 000 110 000 -1,5%
-2,0% @ 100% rpm
Net thrust [N] 18.0 98.8 @ 80% rpm
-2,5%
Air mass flow [g/s] 125 284 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Fuel mass flow [g/s]* 3.08 5.00 Circumferential Position of Measurement

SFC [g/kNs]* 88 50,6 Figure 6. Total Pressure distribution at nozzle exit (pt8).
* including mass flow for lubrication

Table 1. Performance and design parameters (turbojet engine 10%

Tt8 (Temperature Deviation from Average)

Frank TJ-74). 8%
6%
Pressure pt Temperature Tt 4%
Station
[kPa] [K] 2%
0 - Ambient 96.90 279
0%
2 - Compressor Inlet 94.96 279 -2%
3 - Compressor Exit 251.93 391 -4%

4 - Turbine Inlet 216.66 946 -6%

-8% @ 100% rpm
5 - Turbine Exit 122.26 848 @ 80% rpm
-10%
8 - Nozzle Exit 121.04 848 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Circumferential Position of Measurement
Table 2. Engine cycle parameters at rpm = 110,000 (turbojet
engine Frank TJ-74). Figure 7. Total temperature distribution at nozzle exit (Tt8).

15%
CO2 - Content (Deviation from Average)

10%

5%

0%

-5%

-10%
100% rotation speed
80% rotation speed
-15%
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Circumferential Position of Measurement

Figure 8. CO2 distribution at nozzle exit.

Figure 5. Brayton cycle at rpm = 110,000 (turbojet engine Frank
100%
TJ-74). average
@ 100% rpm
local
95%
Investigation of circumferential distribution at nozzle exit average
Combustion Efficiency [%]

@ 80% rpm
local
It is noticeable that compared with larger engines the combustor 90%
pressure loss shows clearly higher values and combustion
efficiency is lower. One reason may be the inhomogeneous 85%

distribution of heat release in the combustor. Therefore, a series

of investigations to the circumferential deviations of pressure, 80%

temperature and combustion efficiency was carried out.

75%
Unfortunately, a direct measurement at combustor exit was not
feasible because spatial positioning range and accessibility for
70%
probes are limited and the temperature is too high. For this reason 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
measurements were taken at the nozzle exit at every 30 in the Circumferential Position of Measurement
middle of the nozzle flow area. The results are given in Figures 6
to 9. Figure 9. Distribution of combustion efficiency, local data are
taken from unburned hydrocarbon measurement at nozzle exit.
The maximum deviations from average pressure exceed 2% and 18%
several peaks are noticeable. Due to large gradients between two

Combustor Pressure Loss pcc

16% Pressure Loss:
measurement points a correlation with the number of sticks (6 6-Stick
14% 9-Stick
stick configuration) is not clearly visible. However, the 12-Stick
distributions of temperature and CO2 show similar positions and 12%
characteristics as the pressure peaks. High CO2-concentration as 10% 100%
a product of combustion results from a high heat release rate.

Thrust [% of Max. Thrust]

8% 80%
Therefore the temperature distribution follows the CO2-
concentration. Another interesting result is the low combustion 6% 60%
efficiency between 60 and 180. This is assumed to be caused 4% Thrust: 40%
by the lubrication fuel part which enters in sections with the 6-Stick
2% 9-Stick 20%
lowest total pressure.
12-Stick
0% 0%
CO2-peaks and temperature deviation of more than 8% are 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
probably caused by inhomogeneous fuel injection and Engine Rating [% of max. RPM]
distribution in the combustor. It shows there is room for
improvement in combustor designing. Figure 11. Combustion pressure loss and thrust for different
stick configurations.
Investigation of stick number dependency
Based on the thermodynamic cycle, higher pressure losses lead to
It had been presumed that pressure loss and combustion higher exhaust temperature in combination with lower pressure
efficiency are affected significantly by stick number and design. for generating thrust. Figure 12 shows the relevant stations in the
The original configuration included 6 vaporizer sticks, see h-s-diagram as has already been shown in Figure 5. With the
Figure 10. reference configuration (red color) and pcc = 14% a net thrust of
nearly 100 N can be generated. Without any pressure loss in the
combustor (green color) the net thrust rises theoretically by more
than 20%. In contrast, higher pressure losses lead to thrust
deterioration, at pcc = 25% the thrust decreases to about 65 N
(blue color) and at pcc > 35% no thrust can be obtained. On the
other hand, poorer turbine efficiency leads to the same result
(dotted red line). To identify the component with most
improvement potential sufficient knowledge about combustor
pressure loss, turbine inlet temperature and turbine efficiency is
essential.

Figure 10. View from the rear into combustor configurations

(top) and radiant heat colors (bottom) of investigated combustor
configurations.

Modifying with 9 and 12 sticks equally distributed

circumferentially the stick number influence on pressure loss and
engine thrust was investigated. For the 12 stick configuration
position and number of cooling holes are slightly different from
6- and 9-stick configurations. In addition to the standard
instrumentation three total pressure probes (pt4) were installed at
turbine inlet in the middle between two turbine vanes. In the
lower picture row in Figure 10 different radiant heat colors of the Figure 12. Effects of combustor pressure loss on
outer combustor liner can be seen. For the 6-stick configuration thermodynamic cycle.
the hottest part of the liner is located in the range of the rear
cooling holes. A signature depending on number of sticks is Numerical Investigations
visible. With 9 sticks the hottest regions move upstream to left
side and with 12 sticks the glowing of the outer liner already To enable a better and more detailed insight into the combustor,
starts at the first cooling holes. CFD calculations have been started. First results for the 6-stick
configuration are given in Figure 13 and 14.
As can be seen from Figure 11, only small deviations in pressure
loss and no significant dependency of thrust were measured. As Calculations were carried out for a segment of 60 degrees. A
expected, the pressure loss increases from 6 to 9 sticks, but swirl-free inflow with a total pressure of pt3 = 252 kPa and total
surprisingly with 12 sticks the pressure loss shows a similar temperature of Tt3 = 388 K was set as inlet condition. Because of
behavior as with 6 sticks. This led to the assumption that the convergence problems the outlet static backpressure was defined
interaction of cooling holes and stick number has a stronger instead of the mass flow.
influence on the pressure loss than the number of sticks.

Figure 13. Temperature distribution at different planes.
Figure 14. Velocity distribution at different planes.
Despite the use of simplified boundary condition and reaction
mechanisms for the oxidation of hydrocarbon fuels the results
present a good insight of the complex flow mechanism. At the
exit of the sticks (see section plane C in Figure 14), several
vortices are generated in interaction with air from cooling holes.
Thus, in the front part of the combustor the reaction zone and
regions of high temperature are shifted downward (see section
planes A and C in Figure 13). Comparing the radiant heat
colors from Figure 10 numerical results show a similar
temperature pattern but the hottest regions are displaced
upstream. This can be a result of many different factors,
including fuel evaporation enthalpy and heat transfer which are
not fully implemented. More detailed and accurate investigations
are planned for the near future.
Conclusions
At the Institute for Flight Propulsion of Technische Universitaet
Muenchen experimental and computational studies related to
micro gas turbine jet engines have been started. Research is
focused on finding potentials which contribute to improvements
in thermal gas turbine efficiency. Relating to combustor section
most critical parameters are combustion efficiency, temperature
distribution at the exit, overall pressure loss over the combustor
and their interaction between themselves.
Initial results revealed that pressure loss values in combustors
typically used in micro gas turbine jet engines are higher than
those usually reported. This might be caused by several reasons,
particularly by the specific design of fuel injection with vaporizer
sticks. Therefore the influence of the injection design on
thermodynamic cycle parameters was investigated by varying the
number of vaporizer sticks. However, the presented findings are
not able to show a clear correlation between stick number and
other parameter like pressure loss and thrust.
Results of measurements of circumferential temperature and
pressure distribution at nozzle exit confirm the presumption that
interactions of a number of parameters influence the efficiency.
It has been shown that relating to the thermodynamic cycle the
effect of higher combustor pressure loss is the same as lower
turbine efficiency. To identify the influence of a single parameter
separately a more detailed investigation is necessary.
For the future, it is planned to build up a component test rig for
combustor stand-alone operation. This enables a separation from
other external factors like compressor and turbine influences and
a more extensive instrumentation than in a full engine test bed.
With such data, a validation and more detailed and accurate CFD
calculation is possible. Both experimental and numerical results
will be used to design new combustors for micro gas turbine jet
engines with lower pressure loss and higher combustion
efficiency.
Acknowledgments
Part of the experimental research work was carried out by the
research group Hummingbird in collaboration with a number
of students. The authors are grateful for this support.
References
[1] Kamps, T., Model Jet Engines, 3rd edition, Traplet
Publications Ltd, 2005.
[2] Shih, H.-Y. and Liu, C.-R., Combustion Characteristics of a
Can Combustor With a Rotating Casing for an Innovative
Micro Gas Turbine, J. Eng. Gas Turbine Power 131, 041501,
2009.
[3] Hupfer, A., Spyra, N., Erhard, W., Kau, H.-P., Schmidt, M.
and Simon, M., A new fuel/air premixing system for gas
turbines and its influences on the performance and emission
characteristics, ISTP-21-29, The 21st International
Symposium on Transport Phenomena, Kaohsiung City,
Taiwan, 2-5 November, 2010.
[4] Cameretti, M. C. and Tuccillo, R., Comparing Different
Solutions for the Micro-Gas Turbine Combustor, GT2004-
53286, Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo, 14-17 June,
Vienna, Austria, 2004.
[5] Gonzalez, C. A., Wong, K. C. and Armfield, S.,
Computational study of a micro-turbine engine combustor
using large eddy simulation and Reynolds averaged
turbulence models, ANZIAM Journal, Vol. 49, C407-C422,
2007.
[6] Mayer, A., Naubert, M. and Hupfer, A., Konstruktion und
Inbetriebnahme einer glsernen Brennkammer in einer
Modellgasturbine, Technical Report, LFA-2011-007,
Institute for Flight Propulsion, Technische Universitt
Mnchen, 2011.
[7] Lefebvre, A. H. and Ballal, D. R., Gas Turbine Combustion:
Alternative Fuels and Emissions, 3rd edition, CRC Press,
2010.
[8] Penner, J. E., Lister, D., Griggs, D. J., Dokken, D. J. and
McFarland M.,Aviation and the Global Atmosphere: A
Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, Cambridge University Press, 1999.
[9] Rodgers, C., Airturbojet or turbojet for small tactical missile
propulsion, AIAA 96-0378, American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1996.
[10] Fear, J. S.: Performance of an annual combustor designed
for a low-cost turbojet engine, NASA Technical
Memorandum, NASA-TM-X-2857, 1973.
[11] Gieras, M. and Stankowski, T., Computational study of an
aerodynamic flow through a micro-turbine engine
combustor, Journal of Power Technologies 92, pp. 68-79,
2012.
[12] Weber, M. and Erhard, W., Experimentelle Untersuchungen
an einer Modellgasturbine zur Bestimmung der
Betriebseigenschaften, Technical Report, LFA-2011-100,
Institute for Flight Propulsion, Technische Universitt
Mnchen, 2011.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Numerical Study on the Performance Characteristics of a Cascade

Water Heating Heat Pump according to Operating Parameters

J. Song1, H.W. Jung1, J.W. Park1, H. Kang2 and Y. Kim2

1
Graduate School of Mechanical Engineering
Korea University, Seoul 136-713, Korea
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Korea University, Seoul 136-713, Korea

Abstract
Previous studies on the cascade system have mostly focused on
Heat pump systems have been widely adopted in the buildings the cascade refrigeration system only. Alberto et al.[1] analyzed
for cooling and heating due to its higher energy efficiency. the optimum intermediate temperature theoretically in the
Recently, the demand for hot water supply has been increasing in CO2/NH3 cascade refrigeration system. Bingming et al.[2]
the heat pump system. The heap pump water heater adopting compared the performance of a single cycle using NH3 with that
single-stage cycle has a limit to maximum supply water of a cascade cycle using CO2/NH3.
temperature. To increase the supply water temperature yielding
higher system efficiency and reliability, the heat pump water The objective of this study is to develop a simulation program
heater adopting cascade cycle was investigated in this study. The for the design of a cascade water heating system using
cascade heat pump water heater consisted of a low-stage cycle R410A/R134a. The simulation program was validated by
using R410A and a high-stage cycle using R134a. The system comparing with the experimental data. Based on the developed
consists of plate heat exchangers, a fin-tube heat exchanger, simulation program, the performance characteristics were
compressors and electronic expansion valves. The simulation analyzed by changing operating parameters.
program was developed to evaluate the performance of the
system. The program was validated by comparing simulation
results with experimental data, showing the maximum deviations
of 8.23%. The operating characteristics and COP of the cascade
water heating system were investigated analytically varying
water flow rate and inlet temperature. In addition, the effects of
these operating parameters on the system performance were
analyzed and optimum control methods were also suggested.

Nomenclature
COP coefficient of performance
EEV electronic expansion valve
m mass flow rate [kg/h]
Q heating capacity [W]
T temperature [oC]
W power consumption [W]

Subscripts

act actual data

c condenser
e evaporator
map map data
out outlet
w water

Introduction

In recent year, environmental concerns about global warming and

fossil fuels have become an important subject. Therefore, the
development of eco-friendly and more efficient heating system
have been conducted. The commercial heat pump system has
been applied to air-conditioners and water heaters in domestic
and commercial buildings due to its higher energy efficiency. A
cascade heat pump could maintain a smaller compression ratio
and higher compression efficiency compared to single-stage heat Figure 1. Schematic of the cascade heat pump water heater.
pump system. However studies on the cascade heat pump water
heater are limited in the open literature.
Simulation Modeling until the energy of the evaporator outlet and compressor inlet
were balanced. After the mass and energy balance of the high-
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of experimental setup. The stage were satisfied, the calculation of the low-stage was iterated
cascade heat pump water heater consists of a low-stage cycle by changing condensing and evaporating temperatures until the
using R410A and a high-stage cycle using R134a. The low-stage mass and energy balance of the low-stage were satisfied. If the
cycle consists of a evaporator, a rotary compressor, a low-stage balance of the low-stage was not satisfied, the calculations of
EEV and an intermediate heat exchanger. The low-stage cycle high-stage and low-stage were iterated, repeatedly. After the
and the high-stage cycle are connected by the intermediate heat mass and energy balance of high-stage and low-stage were totally
exchanger. The high-stage cycle consists of an intermediate heat satisfied, the simulation results were stored and the program was
exchanger, a reciprocating compressor, a high-stage EEV and a terminated.
condenser. The evaporator is a fin tube type heat exchanger and
the intermediate heat exchanger and the condenser are plate type Compressor
heat exchangers.
In this study, the reciprocating and rotary type compressors were
Simulation Overview used. Based on the map-based model, an analytical model of the
compressor was developed using the performance curves of the
This simulation program was coded on visual basic 6.0, and the compressor, which were proposed by Fischer and Rice[4]. The
thermodynamic properties of refrigerants were calculated by related equations of the mass flow rate and the input power are
REFPROP 7.0[3]. The program was developed based on the presented in equation (1) and equation (2).
ORNL[4] method. Figure 2 shows a flow chart of the simulation
program. As a first step, condensing temperatures, evaporating
2 2
temperatures and superheats of the high and low-stage were m map 1 2Te 3Tc 4Te 5TeTc 6Tc
assumed. And then the simulation was conducted orderly for the 3 2 2 3 (1)
7Te 8TcTe 9TeTc 10Tc
high-stage and the low-stage.

2 2
At high-stage, the simulation was conducted orderly for the W map 1 2Te 3Tc 4Te 5TeTc 6Tc
compressor, the condenser and the EEV. The calculation was 3 2 2 3 (2)
7Te 8TcTe 9TeTc 10Tc
iterated by changing condensing temperatures until the mass flow
rate of the compressor and the EEV were balanced. The next
calculation was iterated by changing evaporating temperatures In equation (1) and equation (2), the superheat was fixed at a
constant value. For the variable superheats, additional correction
equations are required. In this study, the superheat correction
equations of Dabiri and Rice[5] were applied, which are given in
equation (3) and equation (4).

map
m act 0.75 0.25 m map
act (3)

m act hisen,act
W act W map
(4)
m map hisen,map

Heat Exchanger

In this study, the two plate and one fin tube type heat exchangers
were used. Heat exchangers were analyzed by the tube-by-tube
method, which divided the heat exchanger tube into multiple N
segments, and each segment was treated as a single heat
exchanger. Each segment was assumed to be occupied entirely by
either single-phase or two-phase of the refrigerant. In each
segment, the each heat transfers and pressure drops of the
refrigerant-side, air-side and water-side were sequentially
calculated. The heat transfer rate of the condenser and the
evaporator was calculated by the -NTU method, and that of the
intermediate heat exchanger was calculated by the LMTD
method. The exit conditions of each section were calculated by
using the heat transfer coefficients and inlet conditions of each
section. The coefficients of a heat transfer and a pressure drop
presented by Friedel[6] , Yan et al.[7], Yan et al.[8], Kuo et al.[9]
were used.

Expansion Valve

Figure 2. Flow chart of the cycle simulation. The expansion device is used to control the refrigerant mass flow
rate and balance the system condensing pressure. In this study,
 Experimental Numerical
Variables Error
Data Data
W [W] 1306.96 1340.67 2.58 %
Q [W] 5345.10 5785.15 8.23 %
o
Tw, out [ C] 59.00 60.76 1.76 oC
COP 4.09 4.32 5.62 %

Table 1. Comparison of the numerical data with the experimental

data.

the EEV was used. The dimensionless correlation equation

presented by Park[10] was used for the simulation of the EEV.

0.0102 0.0190
Cd 0.08076 1
0.0554
2 3 4
0.2046
5
0.0017
6
0.6612
(5) Figure 4. Variations of mass flow rate and power consumption
with water inlet temperature.
D 2
m Cd 2f (Pin Pd )

4 (6) the high-stage compressor increased with the increase of the
water inlet temperature. The compressor suction pressure was
The six dimensionless -groups were derived by combining in also increased due to increasing compressor discharge pressure.
the variables in equation (5). And then the mass flow rate of the The suction pressure varied from 340 kPa to 497 kPa, while the
EEV was calculated from equation (6). discharge pressure varied from 1213 kPa to 2465 kPa. The
compression ratio was increased from 3.56 to 4.96 due to the
higher increase of the discharge pressure compared to the
Results and discussion
increase of the suction pressure. The discharge pressure of the
low-stage compressor slightly increased due to the increase of
In this study, the simulation model of the cascade heat pump suction pressure of the high-stage compressor. However the
water heater was designed and simulated. Also, the verification suction pressure of the low stage compressor remained almost a
experiments were conducted. constant level. The discharge pressure of the low-stage
compressor varied from 2567 kPa to 2713 kPa, while the suction
Simulation Validation pressure remained about 828 kPa. The compression ratio of the
Table 1 shows the comparison of the simulation results and the low-stage showed a very slight increase due to the small increase
measured data. As shown results, the compressor power of the discharge pressure of the low-stage compared to that of the
consumption, the heating capacity, the outlet water temperature high-stage.
and COP were agreed with the experimental data within 2.58%,
8.23%, 1.76C and 5.62% deviation, respectively, and the Figure 4 shows the variations of mass flow rate and power
maximum deviation is 8.23%. consumption of the high-stage, low-stage and total system. The
mass flow rate of the high-stage (R134a) varied from 94.9 kg/h to
Analysis of the Performance Characteristic 113.8 kg/h with the increase of the water inlet temperature. The
The analytical study was conducted by varying the water inlet mass flow rate of the high-stage increased due to the increase of
temperature of the condenser. The water inlet temperature was the suction pressure. Because of the increased compression ratio,
varied from 20oC to 50oC. the power consumption increased from 1066 W to 1520 W.
Because the suction pressure of the low-stage compressor
Figure 3 shows the variations of pressure and compression ratio maintained at a constant level, the mass flow rate of the low-
of the high-stage and low-stage cycle. The discharge pressure of stage (R410A) also remained almost constant. The power consu-

Figure 3. Variations of pressure and compression ratio with Figure 5. Variations of heating capacity, water outlet tempera-
water inlet temperature. ture and COP with water inlet temperature.
mption was almost constant due to the constant mass flow rate
and the relatively constant compression ratio. Finally, total power
consumption increased due to the increase of high-stage
compressor work.
Figure 5 shows the variations of heating capacity, water outlet
temperature and COP. The heating capacity increased slightly
and the water outlet temperature increased from 40oC to 71oC
with the increase of the water inlet temperature. The total COP
decreased from 3.18 to 2.53 while the water inlet temperature
increased from 20oC to 50oC.
Conclusions
The simulation model of the heat pump water heater was
developed and validated. The simulation models for compressors
were made by the map-based model, the heat exchanger models
were made by the tube-by-tube method, and an empirical
correlation was used for the simulation of the EEV. The
simulation program was validated by comparing with the
experimental data, and showed the maximum deviation within
8.23%.
Also, the analytical study was conducted by varying the water
inlet temperature from 20oC to 50oC. The results showed that the
total power consumption increased 29.7% and the COP decreased
20.4% with the increase of the water inlet temperature.
Acknowledgments
This research was sponsored by the Korea Institute of Energy
Technology Evaluation and Planning (Grant No. 2010T100200-
474).
References
[1] Alberto Dopazo, J. and Fernndez-Seara, Jos., 2011,
Experi-mental evaluation of a cascade refrigeration system
prototype with CO2 and NH3 for freezing process
applications, Int. J. of Refrigeration, Vol. 34, pp. 257-267.
[2] Bingming, W., Huagen, W., Jianfeng, L. and Ziwen, X.,
2009, Experimental investigation on the performance of
NH3/CO2 cascade refrigeration system with twin-screw
compressor, Int. J. of Refrigeration, Vol. 32, pp. 1358-1365.
[3] Huber, M. Gallager, J., McLinden, M., and Morrison, G.,
2006, "NIST termodynamic properties of refrigerants and
refrigerant mixture(REFPROP), Version 7.0", National
Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO, U.S.A.
[4] Fischer, S.K. and Rice, C. K., 1980, The Oak Ridge heat
pump models;. A steady state computer design model for
air-to-air heat pumps, ORNL/CON-80/R1, Oak Ridge
National Lab.
[5] Dabiri, P. M. and Rice, C. K., 1981, A compressor
simulation method with corrections for the level of suction
gas superheat, ASHRAE Trans., Vol. 87, pp. 771782.
[6] Friedel, L., 1979. Improved friction pressure drop
correlations for horizontal and vertical two-phase pipe flow.
In: The European Two-Phase Flow Group Meeting at Italy,
E2.
[7] Yan, Y. Y., Lio, H. C. and Lin, T. F., 1999, Condensation
heat transfer and pressure drop of refrigerant R-134a in a
plate heat exchanger, Int. J. of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol.
42, pp. 993-1006.
[8] Yan, Y. Y. and Lin, T. F., 1999, Evaporation heat transfer
and pressure drop of refrigerant R-134a in a plate heat
exchanger, ASME Trans., Vol. 121, pp. 118-127.
[9] Kuo, W. S., Lie, Y. M., Hsieh, Y. Y. and Lin, T. F., 2005,
Condensation heat transfer and pressure drop of refrigerant
R-410A flow in a vertical plate heat exchanger, Int. J. of
Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 48, pp. 5205-5220.
[10] Park, C. S., Kim, Y. C., 2004, Experiments and modeling on
the performance of electr- onic expansion valves with R-22,
Procee- ding of SAREK, pp. 422-426
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Compact Heat Exchanger by Petal-Shaped Special Double Tube

T. Shakouchi1, Y. Oshima1, Y. Kawashima1, K. Tsujimoto1 and T. Ando1

1
Graduate School of Engineering
Mie University, Kurimamachiya-cho 1577, Tsu-shi, Mie, Japan

Abstract viewpoint of energy conservation and has been developed fin-

Heat exchanger is used widely in order to transfer the heat from
one fluid flow to the others, and has been developed various
kinds of heat exchanger for a passed long time.
But, recently, a high efficient heat exchanger is desired from the
viewpoint of energy conservation and has been developed fin-
tube type compact one, a double tube type one having the inner
pipe with a special geometry and others, and others. As examples
of special inner pipe for double-tube type there are ribbed-,
spiral- and petal-shaped ones.
In this study, the flow and heat transfer characteristics of petal-
shaped double tube with 6 petals (Fig.1), are examined
experimentally in order to use as a compact heat exchanger. Its
heat transfer characteristics will be fine because of the large
wetting perimeter.
tube type compact one, a double tube type one having the inner
pipe with a special geometry and others, and others [1]-[4]. As
examples of special inner pipe for double-tube type there are
ribbed-, spiral- and petal-shaped ones.
In this study, the flow and heat transfer characteristics of petal-
shaped double tube with 6 petals (Figs.1,2), are examined
experimentally in order to use as a compact heat exchanger. Its
heat transfer characteristics will be fine because of a large
wetting perimeter of 6 petal shaped inner tube.

Nomenclature
A cross sectional area of tube Fig.1 Concentric double tube and
Cf friction coefficient 6-petal shaped double tube
din,h hydraulic diameter of inner tube, = 4A/p
de equivalent diameter Experimental Apparatus and Procedure
G mass flow rate
k heat conduction coefficient Figure 2 shows the experimental apparatus. The petal-shaped
m Mass flow rate double tube made of copper, C1220T, is consisted of the 6 petal-
Nu Nusselt number shaped inner tube and the outer circular tube of diameter 22.0
P Pressure mm. The wall thickness is 0.9 mm and the inner and outer tubes
Q heat transfer rate are pressed. The length of double tube is 2.14 m and the position
Re Reynolds number of 230 mm downstream from the inlet of inner tube is the origin
R coordinate in radial direction of the test section. The x-coordinate is to the downstream of the
S heat transfer area inner tube and the r-coordinate is to the direction perpendicular
T Temperature to the x-coordinate.
Tb bulk temperature Shape and Size of 6 Petal Shaped Double Tube
U over all heat transfer coefficient
um mean velocity in pipe The cross sectional area, perimeter, circle equivalent diameter
V flow rate and hydraulic diameter of the 6 petal shaped inner tube are Ain =
x coordinate in axial direction of pipe 124 mm2, pin = 96.47 mm, din,a = 2 (Ain/pin)1/2 = 12.5 mm and din,h
pipe friction loss factor = 4 (Ain/pin) = 5.1 mm, respectively, and the each size of the outer
pipe is Aout = 108 mm2, pout = 120 mm, dout, a = 11.7 mm and
kinematic viscosity
dout ,h = 3.6 mm, respectively.
Density
Pressure Distribution, Pressure Loss
index
The pressure distribution along the tube was measured by the
c Centre
in inner pipe pressure holes of diameter 0.8 mm set on the positions of
out outer pipe in Fig.1. In this case the working fluid was air.
I, II area I, II (Fig.3) Heat Transfer

Introduction
Heat exchanger is used widely in order to transfer, remove or add,
the heat from one fluid flow to the others, and has been
developed various kinds of heat exchanger for a passed long time.
But, recently, a high efficient heat exchanger is desired from the
The hot water of 65 from the water tank was introduced into
the 6 petal shaped inner tube by pump after measuring the flow
rate, and is discharged from the exit. The cold water of 20 is
flowed as a counter-current flow in the outer pipe. The outer pipe
is covered with an insulator. The thermo couples of Cu-Co
 22.0

(b) Cross section

(a) Schematic diagram

Fig.2 Petal-shaped double tube

are set on the centre of inner and outer tube at the positions of Measurement point aout,II
(thermo-couple) ain,II
in Fig.2, and at the position of and more two aout,c
ain,I
thermo couples are set at different radius positions in order to aout,I
estimate the bulk temperature Tb (Fig.3). The bulk temperature ain,c
was estimate by
Tb = Tc(mc /mall) + T(m/mall) + T(m/mall) (1) 6
7.0
3 .5
5.5 8.38

Results and Discussion ain,c = 38.5 [mm2], min,c/mall = 0.37 aout,c = 26.4 [mm2], mout,c/mall = 0.25
Pressure Loss ain,I = 33.5 [mm2], min,I/mall = 0.26 aout,I = 28.8 [mm2], mout,I/mall = 0.26
ain,II = 52.0 [mm2], min,II/mall = 0.37 aout,II = 52.8 [mm2], mout,II/mall = 0.49
Figure 4 shows the pressure loss p between the position of
Fig.3 Position of thermo couples at and in Fig.1
and in Fig.1 in the fully developed flow region. The results
for the tube of equivalent circle diameter 12.5 mm are also shown 104
in Fig.3. The pressure loss of inner and outer tubes is larger than
: Inner pipe
that of circular tube, and they are about 2.5 and 4.3 times of that
P

: Outer pipe
for circular tube, respectively. This depends on that the wetting
perimeter of the inner and outer tubes are 2.5 and 3.1 times of
103
that of circular tube, respectively, and there are some longitudinal
vortices and increase of turbulence.
Friction Coefficient of Pipe
Figure 5 shows the friction coefficient of pipe derived by 102
Circular pipe, 12.5
hydraulic diameter. In the figure for laminar and turbulent by Blasius eq.
smooth pipe flows are also shown. The friction coefficientfor
turbulent flows of inner and outer tubes can be expressed by
10
in = 0.3318 Rein,h- 0.33 (2) 10 102 103
Vin or Vout [l/min]
out = 0.2969 Reout,h- 0.26 (3) Fig.4 Pressure loss (for circular tube of diameter 12.5 mm)

10-1
in for the inner tube takes a larger value thanout because of a : Inner pipe
larger wetting length. in and out are smaller than the : Outer pipe

Blasiuss Eq. because of a smaller hydraulic diameter.

Velocity Distribution
= 0.3164 Re-1/4,
Blasius eq.
It is very important to understand the velocity distribution in a
tube, but it was very difficult because the tube has a complex
configuration and a small size. In this research, the cross
sectional velocity distributions at the nozzle exit of the fully = 64/Re

developed jet flow issued from the 6 petal shaped nozzle were
measured by a single probe and hot wire anemometer, and the
working fluid was air.
10-2
Figure 6 shows the velocity distribution u/um. Since the profiles 103 104 105
Rein,h or Reout,h
were axis-symmetric only half region of the radius are shown in
Fig.5 Pressure coefficient
 A
2.0 B
: A-A'
: B-B'
u/um

1.5 60

Tc []
1.0
B' A'

0.5 40

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
r [mm]

Fig.6 Velocity Distribution at x = 2.0 mm 20
The jet flow of um = 25m/s from the 6 petal
0 1000 2000
shaped nozzle x [mm]

Fig.7 Temperature Distribution

the figure. This is regarded as the fully developed cross sectional (Rein,h = 0.75 104, Vout = 8 l/min)
velocity distribution approximately. The velocity distributions in
the center part is turbulent ones, but in the petal shaped tube it is
almost flat profile and about 70 % of the center velocity um

Nu /Pr 1/ 3
because of a large flow resistance by a narrow flow passage. This
velocity reduction would give a bad influence on a heat transfer
characteristics.
Heat Transfer
Nu/Pr1/3 = 0.03 Rein,h0.72
Heat transfer characteristics for the counter flow type heat
exchanger of the 6 petal shaped double tube (hereafter, we also
call it as 6p-double tube) were examined experimentally.
Figure 7 shows one example of the temperature distribution T on
the centerline of the pipe for Rein,h = 0.75 104 and Vout = 8 l/min.
The temperatures of the inner and outer pipes decreases and
increases as a result of heat exchange, respectively, and the Rein,h
temperature at the inlet of inner pipe is lower than that of the
outer pipe. Fig.8 Mean Nusselt number, Nu/Pr 1/.3 - Rein,h
Figure 8 shows the mean Nusselt number Nu [5] obtained by
Nu = U din,h / kin (4)
where,
U= Qin/(AinTm): overall heat transfer coefficient,
Qin : heat transfer rate between the position of and in
Fig.2,
Ain : heat transfer area of inner pipe,
Tm= (T1 T2) / ln(T1 /T1) : log mean tempera-
ture difference,
T1 =Th1 Tc2, T2 = Th2 Tc1,
Th1, Th2 : bulk temperatures at the position of and of
inner pipe, respectively,
Tc1, Tc2 : bulk temperature at the position of and of
outer pipe, respectively. Fig.9 Heat transfer rate (Vout = 8 l/min)
The mean Nu number increases with increasing Rein,h and can be
transfer characteristics becomes bad since a large decrement of
expressed by
the velocity in the flow direction. In the case of the 6p-double
Nu /Pr 1/3 = 0.03 Rein,h 0.72 (5) tube at the petal part a similar phenomenon occurs and then the
heat transfer rate per unit area becomes smaller than that for a
The dotted line in the figure is the results of Gnielinski [6] for circular tube.
turbulent heat transfer of concentric circular double tube. The Nu
number for the 6p-double tube is smaller than that for a circular Figure 9 shows the heat transfer rate Q between the position
tube in all ranges of Rein,h. and of the 6p-double tube for counter flow. The results Qp
Fukushima and Kasagi [7] studied the turbulent heat transfer and for circular double tube in the figure was derived by Gnielinskis
friction properties of a rhombic duct numerically. They said at experimental equation. The temperature difference was the log
the acute angle part of a rhombic duct Prandtls secondary flow mean temperature difference of the 6p-double tube. The heat
of the second kind occurs and the enhancement of heat transfer transfer rate of the 6p-double tube is much larger than that of
by it is smaller than that of momentum transfer and the heat circular double tube in all rages of Rein,h. For example, at Rein,h =
1.0 104 it is almost 3.7 times of Qp As mentioned before, mean
Nu number of the 6p-double tube is smaller than that of the
circular double tube but the heat transfer rate is much larger since
the heat transfer area of the 6p-double tube is very large of about
2.5 times of circular double tube. The heat transfer enhancement
of 6 petal shaped double tube is by the increment of heat transfer
area and a highly fluctuating flow.
The heat transfer rate of the 6 petal shaped double tube increases
with increasing Rein,h and can be expressed by
Q [kW/m] = 0.54Rein,h + 2245 (6)
In Fig.8, the results derived from Colburns analogy are also
shown with symbol . First, the friction coefficient Cf is derived
from the experimental results for the pipe friction loss factor,
and then the relation between mean Nu number and Cf by
Colburns analogy.
Nu = Rein,h Pr1/3 Cf /2 = 0.0841Reinh Pr1/3 (7)
The heat transfer rate Q can be obtained as follows by the log
mean temperature difference.
Q = h ATm (8)
The results Q are much larger than the others. This depends on
that the Colburns analogy gives the relation between the flow on
the flat plate or circular tube and heat transfer, but in the case of 6
p-double tube the flow stats are quietly different from others.
After modified it the heat transfer rate can be expressed by
Q [kW/m] = 1.58Rein,h- 0.095 (0.89Rein,h + 2658) (9)
Figure 10 shows the relation between the heat transfer rate Qin of
6 petal shaped inner tube and flow rate ratio Vout /Vin of outer tube.
Qin increase with increasing Vout linearly, but in the case of the
low flow rate of Vin = 4 [l/min] Qin does not have a large effect of
Vout.
Fig.10 Heat transfer rate (effect of Vout)
Conclusions
In this research, the heat transfer characteristic of the 6 petal
shaped double tube were examined experimentally. Major results
obtained are as follows.
(1) The friction coefficientderived by hydraulic diameter for
turbulent flows of the 6 petal shaped inner and outer tubes can
be expressed by
in = 0.3318 Rein,h- 0.33 and out = 0.2969 Reout,h- 0.26,
respectively.
in for the inner tube takes a larger value thanout because of a
larger wetting length. in and out are smaller than the
Blasiuss Eq. because of a smaller hydraulic diameter.
(2) The heat transfer rate of the 6 petal shaped double tube is
much larger than that of circular double tube in all rages of
Rein,h. For example, at Rein,h = 1.0 104 it is almost 3.7 times
of Qp The heat transfer enhancement of 6 petal shaped double
tube is by the increment of heat transfer area and a highly
fluctuating flow and the heat transfer rate of the 6 petal shaped
double tube can be expressed by
Q [kW/m] = 0.54Rein,h + 2245
Acknowledgement
The support provided for this work from the Tokai Shipbuilding
& Engineering Co., Ltd., Japan is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Srinivasa, V and Christensen, RN., Experimental investiga-
tion of heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of flow
through spirally fluted tubes, Exp. Therm Fluid Sci., 5, 1992,
820-827.
[2] Obot, NT., Esen, EB. And Snell, KH., Pressure drop and
heat transfer characteristics for air flow through spirally
fluted tubes, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, 19, 1992, 41-50.
[3] Zimparov, V., Prediction of friction factors and heat transfer
coefficients for turbulent flow in corrugated tubes combined
with twisted tape insert, Part 1 : friction factors, Int. J.. Heat
and Mass Transfer, 47, 2004, 589-599.
[4] Zimparov, V., Prediction of friction factors and heat transfer
coefficients for turbulent flow in corrugated tubes combined
with twisted tape insert, Part 2 : heat transfer coefficients, Int.
J.. Heat and Mass Transfer, 47, 2004, 385-393.
[5] JSME, JSME Data Book : Heat Transfer 5th Ed., Maruzen,
2009.
[6] Fukushima, N. and Kasagi, N., Heat transfer and friction
characteristics in turbulent rhombic duct flow, Proc. of 39th
National Heat Transfer Symp. Japan, 2002, 595-596.
[7] Gnielinski, V., New equations for heat and mass transfer in
turbulent pipe and channel flow, Int. J. of Chemical Eng.,
1976, 359-368.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Evaporating Microdroplet: Molecular Dynamics Study

M. Matsumoto1,2 and J. Tatsumi1

1 Department
of Mechanical Engineering and Science
Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
2 Advanced Research Institute of Fluid Science and Engineering

Kyoto University, Kyoto 615-8530, Japan

Abstract Several kinetic models have been developed for numerical treat-
ment of evaporation [5], but evaluation of evaporation and con-
Evaporating process from a micro-scale droplet into vacuum
centration rates require empirical or adjustable parameters, such
was investigated with a molecular dynamics simulation tech-
as the condensation coefficient. In this paper, we carry out
nique. After thermally equilibrating a droplet of Lennard-Jones
numerical simulations with a molecular dynamics (MD) tech-
model liquid, evaporation is initiated by removing vaporized
nique, which enables us to directly and microscopically investi-
molecules around the droplet. As the evaporation proceeds, the
gate the evaporation cooling process.
droplet is cooled due to latent heat loss. Since the droplet size
is small (typically 10 nm in diameter), the temperature is almost
uniform inside, and large supercooling is observed. Compari-
Simulation Method
son with a simple model is discussed. After a sufficiently long
run, solidification (crystallization) from the supercooled liquid We adopt a simple molecular dynamics (MD) simulation based
was observed. on classical mechanics to investigate the evaporation process.
To save the computational time, we use a single-component
simple monatomic fluid with a truncated Lennard-Jones (LJ)
Nomenclature 126 potential
[( ) ]
isobaric heat capacity [J kg1 ]
12 ( )6
cp 4 (r 3.5 )
J evaporation flux [kg m2 s1 ] (r) =
r r
(1)
heat of vaporization [J kg1 ]

L
m particle mass [kg] 0 (r > 3.5 )
N number of particles between particles of distance r. In this paper, all quantities are
R droplet radius [m]
with , , and particle mass m; the
expressed in reduced units
R0 gas constant [J K1 ] unit time is then = m/. MD simulations were executed
r distance between particles [m] using the leapfrog algorithm with time step t = 0.001 . Al-
T temperature [K] though the LJ potential is most suitable for simulation of simple
Tt triple point temperature [K] fluids such as argon, it can be used to roughly represent water
t time [s] and other fluid materials with properly chosen parameters; for
Lennard-Jones energy parameter [J] water, = 0.29 nm and = 0.67 ps.
interparticle potential
surface tension [J m3 ] First we prepare a liquid droplet consisting of Nini particles. Us-
density of saturated liquid [kg m3 ] ing a velocity scaling technique, the droplet was equilibrated at
Lennard-Jones size parameter [m] temperature Tini in a cubic simulation cell with periodic bound-
unit time [s] ary conditions for all three directions; the temperature is evalu-
ated from the mean kinetic energy of constituent particles. At
(Subscript) this step the liquid is in thermally equilibrium with the sur-
c critical point rounding saturated vapor. Next we started the evaporation into
ini initial value vacuum by putting the droplet into an infinite space, or just
l liquid by instantly removing the particles which leave the droplet sur-
v vapor face. During this main calculation, no temperature control was
imposed; thus the mean temperature of the droplet gradually
decreases as evaporated particles remove the energy as latent
Introduction heat.
Evaporation from droplets is a phenomenon relevant to many We carried out three types of simulation with different initial
fields of heat and mass transfer, such as inkjet printing, mist conditions, (Case 1) Nini = 64, 000 and Tini = 0.70, (Case 2)
cooling, spray dry technology, and various meteorological prob- Nini = 64, 000 and Tini = 0.75, and (Case 3) Nini = 166, 000 and
lems. We focus here on evaporating cooling of small droplets. Tini = 0.70. In this paper, we mainly present results of Cases
As evaporation from droplets proceeds, the surface temperature 1 and 2. Note that the triple point temperature Tt of LJ fluid is
drops, eventually leading to freezing under some conditions. A known to be 0.67 in the reduced unit, below which liquid can
number of experimental and theoretical studies have been re- exist only as a supercooled state.
ported ([1] and references therein), but inspections still con-
tinue, such as on solidification mechanism [2] and the so-called Several examples of the snapshot (sectional view) are shown in
Mpemba effect [3, 4]. Fig. 1 for Case 1; as the droplet is evaporated and cooled, it


Figure 1: Sectional views of the evaporating droplet; Nini = 64, 000 and Tini = 0.70.

shrinks in size partly due to the reduction of the number of liq- 64000
Tini=0.75
uid particles and partly by the increase of liquid density. After Tini=0.70

Number of Particles
a sufficiently long run, the whole droplet solidified (as shown
60000
later in Fig. 6); the simulation was continued till 107 steps or
10, 000 .
56000

Data Analysis
52000
We stored the particle data (positions, velocities, energies, etc.)
for later analysis. First, we evaluate the number of particles in
the droplet and the temperature as a mean kinetic energy of liq- 48000
uid particles for the early stage (t 6, 000 ), where the droplet 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
seems to have liquid structure. Time
Two cases with different initial temperature (Tini = 0.70 for
Case 1 and 0.75 for Case 2) are compared in Fig. 2. Since the 0.75
Tini=0.75
evaporation flux is larger at higher temperature, the number of Tini=0.70
Mean Temperature

particles (i.e., droplet size) decreases faster for Case 2. How- 0.70
ever, the temperature change for t 2, 000 is almost the same Triple point temperature
for both cases. Droplets reach a large supercooled state, with 0.65
temperature as low as T = 0.50 (corresponding to 200 K
for water), well below the triple point Tt 0.67. 0.60
Next we investigate structures of the droplet. Shown in Fig. 3
are the change of density profile and temperature profile as 0.55
functions of radial distance r from the center of the droplet,
where we assume the spherical symmetry. Although we ex- 0.50
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
pected some inhomogeneity, such as lower temperature near the
droplet surface due to the latent heat loss, both the density and Time
the temperature are essentially constant inside the droplet. We
suppose that the droplet size is so small (about 20 or 6 nm for Figure 2: (Top) Decrease of the number of particles constituting
water) that heat is rapidly transferred, leading to the homoge- the droplet and (bottom) change of mean temperature, for differ-
neous temperature distribution. ent initial temperature. The initial droplet size is Nini = 64, 000
for both cases.

One-Dimensional Model
We try to explain the change of droplet size and mean temper-
ature with a one-dimensional thermodynamic model as simple employed an empirical expression of Lotfi et al. [6] for l
as possible. By assuming a spherical droplet of homogeneous
temperature T , the change of its radius R is described by the l (T ) = c + 0.477 (Tc T )1/3 + 0.2124 (Tc T )
mass conservation law as
( ) 0.01151 (Tc T )3/2 (4)
d 4
l R = 4R2 J
3
(2) with the critical point temperature Tc = 1.310 and density c =
dt 3
0.314 as reference.
where l (T ) is the density, and J(T ) is the flux of evaporation
into vacuum; both are the functions of temperature. The energy Since we treat low temperature (that is, low vapor pressure) con-
conservation law gives an expression for temperature change as ditions, the evaporation flux J is evaluated with assumption of
( ) ideal gas for vapor and the evaporation coefficient being unity
d 4
c p l R3 T = 4R2 JL (3)
dt 3
T
where L(T ) is the latent heat of vaporization per unit mass, J(T ) = v (5)
2
c p (T ) the isobaric heat capacity.
where an empirical expression [6] is also employed for the sat-
We solve Eqs. (2) and (3) simultaneously for R(t) and T (t) with urated vapor density v , combined with the Kelvin equation to
appropriate expressions for l (T ), J(T ), c p (T ), and L(T ). We
 1.00
27 0.7
0.80

Temperature
Density

0.60
26 0.6

Radius
0.40
t= 0
t= 600
0.20 t=1500 25 0.5
t=4000
0.00
0 10 20 30 Radius
Radial Position Temperature
24 0.4
0.80 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
0.70 Time
Temperature

0.60
0.50 Figure 4: Comparison between the MD simulation and a simple
evaporative cooling model for the case of Nini = 64, 000 and
0.40 t= 0
t= 600 Tini = 0.70; (symbol) MD results, (curve) model.
0.30
t=1500
0.20 t=4000
0 10 20 30 Number of Particles 64000
(a) Tini=0.75
Radial Position 60000 Tini=0.70

Figure 3: Change of number density (top) and temperature pro- 56000

files (bottom) for the case 1 (Nini = 64, 000 and Tini = 0.70). 52000
Arrows indicate the change direction.
48000

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Time
take account of a surface curvature effect, as 0.75
(b) Tini=0.75
( ) 0.70 Tini=0.70
2
Temperature

v (T ; R) = v (T ; R ) exp (6)
l R0 T R 0.65

v (T ; R ) = c 0.477 (Tc T ) 1/3 0.60

+0.053333 (Tc T ) 0.55

+0.1261 (Tc T )3/2 (7) 0.50

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

where is the surface tension, R0 the gas constant. We need
Time
the temperature-dependent surface tension (T ), and a linear
function obtained by fitting to reported data [7] -5.50 (c) Tini=0.75
Potential Energy

Tini=0.70
(T ) = 2.470 2.046T (8)
-6.00
is extended to the supercooled states. Note that Eq. (7) is appli-
cable only for 0.67 T ; extension with special care was nec- -6.50
essary for the supercooled region. Also the Kelvin equation (7)
may fail for tiny a droplet [8], but we expect that the deviation -7.00
is negligible for low temperatures. 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Time
For the heat capacity, we assume a temperature-independent
value c p = 4.0 for the low temperature range [9]. An empirical
expression for the heat of vaporization (or the enthalpy differ- Figure 5: Change of properties for longer simulations, show-
ence) is also found in [6] ing the solidification transition. (Top) number of particles in
the droplet, (middle) average temperature, and (bottom) mean
L(T ) = 6.4925 (Tc T )1/3 + 2.9644 (Tc T )2/3 potential energy per particle.
1.8502 (Tc T )3/2 (9)

Putting them all together in Eqs. (2) and (3), we can trace the
change of R and T with appropriate initial conditions. Exam-
ples are shown in Fig. 4 in comparison with simulation results
of similar initial conditions. The overall agreement is amaz-
ingly satisfactory, considering that some of the empirical ex-
pressions may become questionable in the range of such large
supercooled state.
Solidification
When we continued the simulation, singular behaviors were ob-
served as shown in Fig. 5. In Case 1 (Tini = 0.70), the mean tem-
perature suddenly increased at t 6, 000 from T 0.50 up to
0.62, accompanied with recovery of evaporation and sudden fall
of potential energy. In Case 2 (Tini = 0.75), similar phenomena
 4
t=00000
t=02000
t=06000
3 t=06200
t=10000

RDF
2

6040 0
0 1 2 3
r

Figure 7: Radial distribution functions; time average is taken

for 100,000 steps (100 ). The shape little changes after the
solidification at t 6000 .

The solidification seems to proceed very rapidly; the whole

droplet becomes frozen in 300 (200 ps in the units of wa-
ter). The sharp reduction in the potential energy ( 0.25 ) cor-
6200
responds to the heat of crystallization, which causes the temper-

ature rise.
Since the state of supercooled liquid is essentially the same af-
ter t 2, 000 for Case 1 and Case 2, we speculate that the dif-
ference in the initiation time of freezing is purely of statistical
character.
A slow annealing process follows th very rapid solidification,
as shown in Fig. 6. Several grain boundaries seem to exist just
after the solidification, but they disappear after a long run. A
close-packed structure is apparent in the last image of Fig. 6. To
check the change of local ordering, a radial distribution func-
tion (rdf) was calculated for particles well inside the droplet,
7000 i.e., particles with its distance from the droplet center being less
than 16 . Results are shown in Fig. 7. The shape indicates a
liquid structure for early state t 6, 000 , but the second peak
suddenly split to show a typical fcc-type rdf; structural change
during the slow annealing for 6, 200 t 10, 000 (or more
than 25 ns for water) is not clearly revealed in the rdf shape.

10000
Figure 6: Sectional views of the evaporating droplet at later
stage, where solidification or crystallization proceeds; the con-
ditions are the same as in Fig. 1.
occurred at t 8, 900 .
From the potential energy change [Fig. 5 (bottom)], we specu-
late that a first-order phase change, i.e., solidification or crys-
tallization from supercooled liquid, took place. Snapshots in
Fig. 6 clearly indicate this.
Crystal Nucleation
It is interesting to know the spot where the solidification was
initiated; for experiments under normal situations, solidifica-
tion almost always starts from walls and boundaries, as seen in
[2]. In this sense, simulations provide an ideal setup without
boundaries.
There are various indices for inspecting the local crystalline or-
der. Here we adopt a simple and crude way of evaluating the
number of nearest neighbors, just to look at where the crys-
talline nucleus was born; a particle is judged to belong to a
crystal if it has exactly twelve neighbors within the range of
distance r 1.25 , which corresponds to the position of the
first minimum of rdf for a fcc crystal, shown in Fig. 7. Mutually
connected crystalline particles are supposed to be in the same
nucleus.
Examples are shown in Fig. 8, where crystalline particles are
shown with colored spheres; different colors indicate different
 swallowed other nuclei and prevailed in the whole droplet, in
accordance with Fig. 8.

Summary
We carried out molecular dynamics simulations with tiny
droplets of Lennard-Jones model liquid to study evaporation
into vacuum. As the evaporation proceeds, the temperature uni-
formly decreases due to the latent heat loss, reaching a large
supercooling. The changes of temperature and droplet size are
well explained by a set of simple one-dimensional model equa-
tions. After a sufficiently long run, the supercooled droplet
became crystalized. The process seems a typical nucleation,
where a nucleus rapidly dominates others, leading to a single
crystal.
The model potential adopted here is a short-ranged interaction.
We expect that a long-ranged Coulombic one may change the
situation. Inspections for water droplets, including ions, are un-
der way.

References

[1] Sirignano, W. A., Fluid Dynamics and Transport of

Figure 8: Examples of structure analysis. Crystalline parti-
cles are shown with spheres; different colors indicate different
nuclei.
nuclei. These snapshots suggest that (i) nuclei are generated si-
multaneously at many places, and no apparent preference (sur-
face or inside) exists, and (ii) once a nucleus starts to grow,
it rapidly develops and swallows other nuclei. These are typi-
cal characters in nucleation processes. The crystal growth is so
rapid due to the large supercool that we expected to observe a
polycrystalline, but the final configuration (the last in Fig. 6)
indicates a single crystal. We suppose that a single nucleus
Droplets and Sprays, Cambridge, 1999.
[2] Jung, S., Tiwari, M. K., Doan, N. V., and Poulilkakos, D.,
Mechanism of supercooled droplet freezing on surfaces,
Nature Commun., 3:615, 2012, 18.
[3] Vynnycky, M., The cooling of a water droplet and the
Mpemba effect, Proc. 21st ISTP, 2010, 14041410.
[4] Vynnycky, M. and Mitchell, S. L., Evaporative cooling
and the Mpemba effect, Heat Mass Transf., 46, 2010, 881
890.
[5] Pati, S., Chakraborty, S., and Som, S. K., Influenced of
ambient vapor concentration on droplet evaporation in a
perspective of comparison between diffusion controlled
model and kinetic model, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., 54,
2011, 54804584.
[6] Lotfi, A., Vrabec, J., and Fischer, J., Vapour liquid equilib-
ria of the Lennard-Jones fluid from the N pT plus test par-
ticle method, Molecular Phys., 76, 1992, pp. 13191333.
[7] Salomons, E. and Mareschal, M., Surface tension, ad-
sorption and surface entropy of liquid-vapour systems by
atomistic simulation, J. Phys.: Cond. Matt., 3, 1991,
36453661.
[8] Yaguchi, H., Yano, T., and Fujikawa, S., Molecular dy-
namics study of vapor-liquid equilibrium state of an ar-
gon nanodroplet and its vapor, J. Fluid Sci. Tech., 5, 2010,
180191.
[9] Boda, D, Lukas, T., Liszi, J., and Szalai, I., The isochoric-
, isobaric- and saturation-heat capacities of the Lennard-
Jones fluid from equations of state and Monte Carlo sim-
ulations, Fluid Phase Equil., 119 116.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Measurement of Hydrodynamic Structure of High-Speed Water Jet
by Using Laser Tomography Technique
K. Yoshida1, Y. Fukuhara1, H. Abe2, H. Yoshida2 and I. Kataoka1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Osaka University, 2-1 Yamada-Oka, Suita, Osaka, Japan
2
Chemical Grouting, Co. Ltd.
2-2-5 Toranomon, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Abstract
In this study, the Laser tomography method was applied to
measure the void fraction distribution of the high-speed water jet
in radial and axial direction. The continuous Laser beam emitted
by Nd:YAG green laser (wavelength is 532nm, beam diameter is
0.2mm) is introduced into the water jet normally to the flow
direction. The laser beam is emitted toward the photo detector,
which is located at the opposite side. The photo detector can
detect the time-averaged transmissivity of the laser beam passing
across the cross section of the jet. By traversing the laser and
photo detector on radial direction, we can get the time-averaged
transmissivity distribution in radial direction. From this
transmissivity distribution data, we can reconstruct the local
transmissivity distribution by the tomography method. By using
this technique, the void fraction distribution of extreme high
speed water jet can be evaluated..
Introduction
High pressure water jet is utilized in various industrial
applications such as cutting materials. In particular, the jet
grouting for soil improvement in civil engineering is one of the
most important application (Fig.1). The water jet used in the
grouting for soil improvements is with high pressure and high
flow rate. This technology is already in practical use for soil
improvement in civil engineering. However, according to the
recent environmental and ecological issue, it is necessary to
improve the efficiency and its performance. To achieve this, it is
very important to improve the jet property such as its impacting
pressure and cutting distance. In general, the water jet for
material cutting is usually used only just near part from the
nozzle exit. However, in civil engineering, it is necessary to cut
grounds about several meters far from the nozzle exit. So, in the
water jet utilized in civil engineering for cutting concrete, rock
and soil, the injection pressure is very high (200MPa at
maximum) and the jet speed reaches more than 500 m/s. The
nozzle diameter is relatively large that ranges from 2 to 6mm
compared with conventional water jets. To realize the efficient
soil cutting, it is very important to investigate the hydrodynamic
characteristics of the jets and to feed back the investigation to the
nozzle design. However, the fundamental researches on this
subject are quite insufficient both analytically and experimentally
because of its extreme large velocity and its structural complexity.
The water jet takes various hydrodynamic structures depending
upon its speed and applications. The water jet focused in this
study is injected into stagnant air. So, the flow pattern of the jet is
the water/air two-phase flow. The flow regime of the jet changes
as the distance from the jet nozzle increases. The continuous flow
Figure 1. Photograph of water jet utilized in jet grouting for
soil improvement. This is the straight type jet with high-
pressure and high-flow rate.
appears just after the nozzle exit, and changes to the droplet flow
far region from the nozzle exit.
Recently, the detailed analyses of hydrodynamic characteristics
of water jet based on two-fluid model [1-3] of two-phase
dispersed flow has been carried out [4] and the hydrodynamic
structure of high speed water jet was reasonably explained and
agreed with limited experimental data obtained so far [5]. On the
other hand, the experimental data on the hydrodynamic structure
of high-speed water jet are quite inadequate. Only some
empirical studies concerned with impact pressure of water jet as a
function of the distance from nozzle exit [6] were performed.
Recently, high-speed PIV technique has been available to
measure the jet velocity with extreme high speed [7] and
successfully measured the interfacial velocity of jets. However,
the experimental data on the hydrodynamic structure of high-
speed water jet are quite inadequate because of the difficulty of
measuring its properties due to extreme its high velocity and
pressure. Even the void fraction, which is one of the most
important and primitive properties of gas-liquid two-phase flow,
cannot be measured by using the ordinary probe such as electric
or optical void probe.
In this study, the laser tomography method was applied to try
measuring the void fraction distribution of the water jet in radial
direction and axial (flow) direction. The continuous laser beam
emitted by Nd:YAG green laser is introduced into the water jet
normally to the flow direction and passes through the cross
section of the water jet. The time averaged laser transmissivity
profiles were measured by the photo detector by traversing the
laser and photo detector on radial direction. From this
transmissivity distribution data, we can reconstruct the local
transmissivity distribution by the tomography method. For the
image reconstruction, ML-EM method (Maximum Likelihood
Expectation Maximization) was applied. Though there are still
some problems in translating the local transmissivity to local void
 (a) Diagram of experimental setup
(b) Photograph of experimental setup
Figure 2. Experimental apparatus.
fraction, the void fraction distribution of extreme high speed
water jet can be measured.
Experimental apparatus and procedure
Flow system for high-speed water jet
Figure 2 shows the schematic of the experimental set up. The
experimental set up consists of equipment for the jet injection
system and the optical measurement system. Figure 2 (a) shows
the schematic drawing of the experimental setup. The flow
system for jet injection is surrounded by the blue line, and the
measurement system by the laser tomography is surrounded by
the red line, respectively. The equipment for flow system are as
follows. The flow system consists of the catch tank, water storage
tank, flow controller, plunger pump, pressure gauge and jet
nozzle. The plunger pump, pressure gauge and jet nozzle are
sequentially connected by high pressure-resistant hose each other.
Tap water, as the working fluid, is pressurized by plunger pump.
The injection pressure can be set at any value by using flow
controller and pressure gauge. The injection pressure can be
reach 320 bar at maximum by this plunger pump. The jet nozzle
is horizontally arranged toward the catch tank, and the jet is
injected in horizontal direction into the stagnant surrounding air.
After the jet pass through the stagnant air, the jet is accumulated
into the catch tank. The work distance, which is the distance from
the nozzle exit and catch tank, is about 1.5m. In this experiment,
the nozzle of 2.5mm diameter was chosen, which is practically
used in jet grouting for soil improvement.
Laser tomography for measuring trasnmissivity of jet
Figure 3 shows the schematic of the optical setup for the Laser
tomography method. The experimental apparatus for laser
tomography consists of diode pumped CW Green Laser
(Crystalaser, wavelength is 532 nm), photo detector (EOT ET-
2030TTL, maximum frequency response is 1.2GHz), AD
converter (National Instruments, PCI-6251) and PC. The laser
and photo detector are arranged opposed direction each other.
The distance between the laser and photo detector is 500mm, and
the jet flows between the laser and photo detector toward the
normal direction of the laser light. The laser light is emitted
Figure 3. Optical setup for laser tomography
(a) Without droplet on laser beam path
(b) Droplet locates on laser path. Laser beam is shaded
Figure 4. Droplet passage detection by using CW laser and
photo detector
horizontally and directly incident into the detection area of the
photo detector. The beam diameter of laser light is 0.2mm and
the active area size of the photo detector is 0.4mm in diameter.
Prior to the experiment, the laser beam (beam diameter is 0.2mm)
is set to focus on the active area of the photo detector (active area
diameter is 0.4mm) by using precise x-y-z stage. Figure 4 shows
the schematic of the detection mechanism of the water droplet
passage by photo detector. If there were no droplets on the
continuous laser beam emitted from CW laser, the photo detector
detects the laser power directory without be shaded by water
droplet (Figure 4 (a)). On the other hand, if the droplets existed
on the laser beam, the laser beam cannot reach the active area of
the photo detector due to the reflection inside of the droplet or
refraction on the droplet interface. The laser power reached photo
detector is detected as the electrical signal. By using the AD
converter, the time series of this detection signal is accumulated
to PC. The sampling rate of AD converter is 1MHz which is fast
enough to detect the passing droplet flowing with estimated high
velocity. From the accumulated time series of signal from photo
detector, we can obtain the time-averaged time fraction of the
laser pass. We call this transmissivity.
As whole optical setup is set on the precise z-stage as shown in
fig.3, the laser and photo detector can be traversed vertically and

Figure 5. Measurement for transmissivity distribution in
radial direction of the jet
set to any vertical position. By traversing optical setup vertically,
we can get the transmissivity distribution of the water jet in
vertical direction. The sampling time for each vertical position
was 3 sec. The special interval of the transmissivity measurement
was set to 1mm from the central axis of the jet.
Methodology to get the local transmissivity of jet
As the preset water jet is supposed to be axisymmetric
structure, we can reconstruct the local transmissivity inside of the
jet from measured transmissivity distribution in vertical direction.
Figure 6 shows the laser beam passing through the axisymmetric
cross section of the jet. Due to the axisymmetric structure, the
local transmissivity distribution is located as an annual ring of a
tree as shown in fig.6 (a). Figure 6 (b) shows the reference area
that the laser beam passing surrounded by red box shown in fig.6
(a). This indicates the relation of the local transmissivity, the
detection probability and the local attenuation coefficient. In this
figure, i means the local attenuation coefficient of i-th region, Cij
is the detection probability of i-th region in j-th grid, and xj
indicates the special size of j-th grid, respectively. Here, the Cij is
defined as the area ratio of i-th region in j-th grid. The
transmissivity can be measured by the photo detector, which is
defined as I/I0. Where, I0 is the initial intensity of laser beam that
can be detected without droplets, and I is the attenuated laser
beam passed through the water jet. The transmissivity I/I0 is
expressed as
n n n n
I x1 ci 1 i x2 ci 2 i x3 ci 3 i xn cin i
= e i =1 e i =1 e i =1 e i =1 (1)
I0
Where, xj (j=1~n) is the unit length (uniformly 1mm), which is
corresponds to the spatial resolution of this measurement. The
value we want to know is the local transmissivity of i-th region
x jet, the value near the central axis is lower than that of outer side
expressed as e i .We can obtain n equations like Eq. (1) by
the experiment for each vertical position. As the number of
simultaneous equations and the number of unknown quantities,
local transmissivity, is the same, the solution must be
successfully calculated. By solving these simultaneous equations,
we can evaluate the local transmissivity distribution of the jet
inside. For solving the simultaneous equations, ML-EM method
(Maximum likelihood Expectation Maximization method) [8]
was applied.
(a) Cross section of the jet with axisymmetric structure
(b) Relation between the local transmissivity and the total
transmissivity
Figure 6. Laser beam passing through the axisymmetric cross
section of the jet
Results and Discussions
Measured transmissivity and transmissivity distribution inside of
the jet
The measurements were carried out by changing the injection
pressure and measurement position from the nozzle exit. The
injection pressure was changed as 2, 5, 10, 15, 25, 32MPa. The
measurement positions from the nozzle exit were changed as 50D,
100D, 220D, 300D, 400D and 500D. Where, D indicates the
nozzle diameter, 2.5mm.
Figure 7 shows the measured transmissivity distributions. (a)
~ (f) indicate the results for the case by changing the injection
pressure from 2MPa to 32MPa, respectively. The horizontal axis
means the normalized height of the measured position from the
central axis of the jet. The vertical axis indicates the measured
transmissivity data. In each figure, the measuring position from
the nozzle exit is identified by color. In these figures, R
indicates the nozzle radius 1.25mm, which is the half of the
nozzle diameter D (2.5mm). Figure 8 shows the results for the
local transmissivity distributions inside of the jet evaluated from
the transmissivity data shown in fig.7. (a) ~ (f) corresponds to the
cases of different injection pressure. The horizontal axis means
the normalized radial position from the central axis of the jet. The
vertical axis indicates the evaluated local transmissivity.
From these figures, followings are noted. In both of
transmissivity and local transmissivity distributions inside of the
of the jet. And as the distance from the jet nozzle exit increases,
distribution width increases. This means that the water droplets
diffuse from the core part of the jet toward outside, and the void
fraction increases as the axial position from the nozzle and the
radial position from the central axis of the jet increases. This
tendency becomes significant as the injection pressure increases.
Validation for relations between local transmissivity and local
void fraction
Firstly, we take the assumption that the local transmissivity had
the same value with the local void fraction. This assumption
 1 1 1 1
0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

Local transmissivity
Local transmissivity
0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Transmissivity

Transmissivity
0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

50D 50D 50D 50D
0.3 0.3 0.3 100D 0.3 100D
100D 100D
200D 200D 200D 200D
0.2 0.2 0.2 300D 0.2 300D
300D 300D
400D 400D 0.1 400D 0.1 400D
0.1 0.1 500D 500D
500D 500D
0 0
0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Radical position r/R Radical position r/R
Height from cental axis h/R Height from cental axis h/R
(a) Pinj=2MPa (b) Pinj=5MPa (a) Pinj=2MPa (b) Pinj=5MPa
1 1 1 1
0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

Local transmissivity

Local transmissivity
0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Transmissivity

0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6

Transmissivity

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

50D 50D 50D 50D
0.3 100D 0.3 100D 0.3 100D 0.3 100D
200D 200D 200D 200D
0.2 0.2 0.2 300D 0.2 300D
300D 300D
400D 400D 0.1 400D 0.1 400D
0.1 0.1 500D 500D
500D 500D
0 0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Height from cental axis h/R Height from cental axis h/R Radical position r/R Radical position r/R

(c) Pinj=10MPa (d) Pinj=15MPa (c) Pinj=10MPa (d) Pinj=15MPa

1 1 1 1
0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Local transmissivity

Local transmissivity
0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
Transmissivity

Transmissivity

0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
50D 50D 50D 50D
0.3 100D 0.3 100D 0.3 100D 0.3 100D
200D 200D 200D 200D
0.2 0.2 0.2 300D 0.2 300D
300D 300D
400D 400D 0.1 400D 0.1 400D
0.1 0.1 500D 500D
500D 500D
0 0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Height from cental axis h/R Height from cental axis h/R Radical position r/R Radical position r/R

(e) Pinj=10MPa (f) Pinj=15MPa (e) Pinj=10MPa (f) Pinj=15MPa

Figure 7. Measured transmissivity distributions for each position Figure 8. Evaluated local transmissivity distributions for each
from the nozzle exit position from the nozzle exit

seems quite rough. However, as the first step, a validation of the horizontal line indicated in the figure at the bottom drawn in dash
evaluated void fraction distribution is carried out as a trial. The line. However, there are large gaps from the ideal line. Especially,
validation is carried out as follows; the cross-sectional averaged in the cases of large injection pressure, the cross-section area of
total flow rate of water flowing in the jet is considered from the liquid phase increases rapidly as the distance from the nozzle exit
void fraction distribution. The cross-sectional averaged total flow increases. This means that the underestimation for void fraction
rate of water can be written by following integration. (overestimation for liquid) is significant especially in high
pressure condition. In previous our work [9,10], water mist
R
2r{1 (r )}u (r )dr (2) surrounds the jet core like a blanket. The water mist is generated
0 and atomized by droplet entrainment from the gas-liquid
interface of the jet core due to the strong shear stress acting on
Where, is the void fraction and u is the axial velocity of liquid
the gas-liquid interface and stagnant air. This water mist is the
phase. If the water jet was steady state and the velocity in radial
clustering of a large amount of small droplet. According to the
direction could be negligible, the cross-sectional averaged total
direct observation, the size of droplet seems smaller than the laser
flow rate should have specific constant value for each injection
beam diameter (0.2mm). If the size of droplets was much larger
pressure. Moreover, in previous work, followings were clarified
than beam diameter or reference grid in experiment, and the
that the flow velocity of the liquid phase hardly decreases by
droplets overlapping was negligible, the former assumption, the
600D from the nozzle exit and keeps constant, and the velocity
transmissivity has the same value with the void fraction, is
profile has nearly flat shape at any radial position. With
thought not so bad. However, this result shown in fig.9 suggests
considering this, the cross-section area of liquid phase expressed
that we have to consider the effect of partial transmission of laser
as eq. (3) should be constant regardless of injection pressure.
beam, and overlapping effect of the droplets on the beam path. In
R these cases, the local transmissivity no longer has the same value
2r{1 (r )}dr (3) with local void fraction.
0

Figure 9 shows the cross-section area of liquid phase calculated Next step, we tried to take into account the relation between the
by eq.(3) with the assumption of the local transmissivity had the local transmissivity and local void fraction considering the effect
same value with void fraction. The horizontal axis indicates the of partial transmission of laser beam and overlapping effects of
distance from the nozzle exit. The injection pressure is identified the droplets. Following assumption and model are considered.
by symbol. In ideal, these lines in this graph should be on one The water droplets flowing in the jet locate having the face-
center cubic (FCC) structure. The lattice length of the structure is
 Measured total amount of water [mm3]
80
Measured total amount of water [mm3]

80

60 60
2MPa 2MPa
5MPa 5MPa
10MPa 10MPa
40 15MPa 40 15MPa
edge of nozzle edge of nozzle

20 20

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Distance from nozzle [D mm] Distance from nozzle [D mm]

Figure 9. Cross-section area occupied by liquid phase with the Figure 12. Cross-section area occupied by liquid phase with
assumption of the local transmissivity had the same value considering the effect of partial transmission of laser beam
with void fraction and overlapping effect of the droplets

indicated as straight dash line. This shows that a certain validity

of this modeling can be confirmed. However, this modeling is
rough and more information concerned with the droplet diameter
and special interval between droplets (number concentration of
droplets) should be clarified for more accurate evaluation for
void fraction distribution.

Conclusion
The laser tomography method was applied to measuring the void
fraction distribution of the water jet with high injection pressure
and high flow rate. The time averaged local transmissivity
Figure 10. FCC structure of droplet location distributions were successfully evaluated by the tomography
using ML-EM method. However, there are still some problems in
1 translating the local transmissivity to the local void fraction in
(a)Cube relatively high-injection pressure case because of the effect of
0.9 (b)Face-centered cubic partial transmission of laser beam and overlapping effects of the
0.8
small droplets in mist surrounding jet core. The information
0.7 concerned with droplet diameter and spatial interval between
Transmissivity

0.6 droplets are quite insufficient and have to be clarified

0.5 experimentally or analytically for more accurate measurement for
void fraction distribution.
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1 References
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 [1] M. Ishii., Thermo-fluid Dynamic Theory of Two-Phase
Void Fraction Flow, Eyrolles, Paris, (1975).
[2] J.M. Delhaye, et al.,"Thermohydraulics of Two-Phase
Figure 11. Relation between transmissivity and void fraction System for Industrial Design and Nuclear Engineering,"
assuming the FCC structure of droplet location Hemisphere (1981).
[3] M. Ishii and T.C. Chawla, Local drag law in dispersed two-
uniformly fixed to 1mm. Figure 10 shows the FCC structure of phase flow, Argonne National Laboratory Report, ANL 79-
water droplets location. In this model, the void fraction and 105 (1979).
transmissivity are linked and changed depending on the droplet [4] M. Shibazaki , H. Yoshida, K. Yoshida, K. Horii and I.
diameter. Figure 11 shows the calculated relation between the Kataoka, Analyses Hydrodynamic Structure Of Cross
transmissivity and void fraction by changing the droplet diameter. Water Jet And Its Performance of Soil Improvement,
In this model, the droplet diameter is uniformly changed for all Proceedings of FEDSM2005, FEDSM2005-77383, (2005).
droplets. As shown in fig.11, this model translates the
transmissivity to higher value of void fraction. Figure 12 shows [5] Y. Yahiro and H. Yoshida, On the characteristics of high
the result for the cross- section area of liquid phase considering speed water jet in the liquid and its utilization of induction
the effect of partial transmission of laser beam and overlapping grouting method, Second Int. Symp. On Jet Cutting
effect of the droplets. As compared with the result of fig.9, the Technol. G4, Cambridge (1974).
estimated water flow rate decreases and close to the ideal line
[6] H. Yoshida, K. Uemura, K. Yoshida and I. Kataoka, Visual
observation and analysis of hydrodynamic structure of water
jet in application to jet grouting, Proceedings of
FEDSM2007, FEDSM2007-37009, (2007).
[7] T.Yoshida, K.Yoshida, H.Abe, H.Yoshida, I.Kataoka,
Structural Study of High Pressure Water Jet measured by
High Speed PIV, Proc.of ICJWSF-2008, (2008).
[8] K.Lange, R.Carson, EM reconstruction algorithms for
emission and transmission tomography, J. Compt. Assist.
Tomogr. Vol.8, 306-316, (1983).
[9] H. Abe, H. Yoshida, K. Yoshida, T. Yoshida, T. Otsuka and
I. Kataoka, Investigation of Velocity Profiles of High-
Speed Water Jet with Large Flow Rate, Proc.of ICJWSF-
2010, (2010).
[10] K.Yoshida, T.Otsuka, H.Abe, H.Yoshida, T.Yoshida and
I.Kataoka, Structural Studies on the Interfacial
Characteristics of the High-Speed Water Jet, Proc.of
ICJWSF-2010, (2010).
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Experimental study the effect of internal friction on Brazil-nut problem in a vertical
vibrated bed
Chun-Chung Liao, Shu-San Hsiau and Chi-Sou Wu
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Central University, Jhongli 32001, Taiwan
Abstract
Granular materials denote a collection of discrete solid particles
dispersed in interstitial air in such a manner that the gaseous
phase plays a negligible role in the flow mechanics. Granular
segregation is an important issue in many industrial processes.
We have studied experimentally the Brazil-nut problem in a
quasi-2D vertical vibrated granular bed with different surface
roughness of intruders. The motions of the intruder are
successfully measured with a high speed camera. The rising time
of the larger disk is determined by using particle tracking method
and image processing technology. The result shows that the
rougher intruder is more difficult to rise up in the bed due to the
higher energy dissipation. The penetration length and friction
drag force were determined in this study. The results demonstrate
that the friction coefficient of intruder plays a crucial role in the
rising dynamics of intruder. The penetration length is reduced
and the friction drag force is enhanced with the increase of the
friction coefficient of intruder. The exponential decay of
penetration length with vibration frequency is demonstrated in
this study. The results also show that the variation in the rise time
between the smooth and rough intruders is not significant at the
larger dimensionless vibration acceleration and the lower
vibration frequency.
Nomenclature
g gravitational acceleration
radian frequency
p glass bead density
p friction coefficient of intruder
d glass bead diameter
vibration amplitude
dimensionless vibration acceleration
f vibration frequency
Pl penetration length
friction drag force
vto the take off velocity of intruder
Introduction
The Granular materials are extensively found in nature and also
widely used in many industries. The segregation phenomenon of
granular materials is an important issue in industrial processes
and is also an interesting phenomenon that may occur in vibrated
granular beds. The well-known Brazil nut problems of a much
larger particle (the so-called intruder) which is immersed in the
group of smaller granular materials vibrated by a shaker had been
widely studied by the tools of theoretical model, computer
simulations and experiments in the past [1-11]. It is well-known
that segregation can be occurred when grains vary in size [3-4, 8,
10, 12], density [12-14, 17], friction coefficient [15-17], and
restitution coefficient [9]. It also occurs in several configurations
when an external driving force is applied to the system, such as
vibration bed, shear cell, and rotation drum systems. However,
the mechanism of the segregation of the granular material is very
complex and much is still unknown.
Friction-induced segregation is an important issue in many
industries and has been investigated in previous studies. Lai et al.
[18] theoretically found that radial segregation would occur due
to the difference of repose angles. The larger and smoother
particles has a smaller repose angle, therefore it results in the
segregation as the mixture is rotated in the tumbler. Srebro and
Levine [16] investigated the role of friction in the segregation of
granular materials by combining Edwards thermodynamic
hypothesis with a simple mechanical model. They found
segregation at compactivities in binary mixtures of grains with
differing frictional properties. Kondic et al. [19] demonstrated the
occurrence of segregation by friction in a container with a small
hill in the middle under horizontal shaking. Plantard et al. [15]
observed the occurrence of friction-induced segregation in a
granular slurry shear system. They found that rough circular
particles would behave similarly to smooth but larger circular
particles. Ulrich et al. [20] demonstrated experimentally the
transition from the reverse Brazil nut effect to the Brazil nut
effect when the particle friction coefficient increased due to
shaking for a long time. They also explained the occurrence of
this phenomenon due to sidewall-driven convection and
buoyancy. However, Pohlman et al. [21] demonstrated that
although the repose angles of the rough and smooth particles may
be different, radial segregation is still not found in the rotating
drum.
In the past few decades, the study of segregation
mechanisms of granular materials has received a lot of attention.
However, the effect of the surface roughness of the particles
(internal friction effect) on the segregation of granular materials
gets relative less attention and is still an open question. It is
difficult to investigate the influence of internal friction on the
segregation mechanism by conducting experiments. Hence, most
previous studies about the effect of internal friction on
segregation are investigated by simulation and theory. It is
interesting to understand the friction-induced segregation
mechanism in vibration granular systems where exist many
unknown physical mechanisms. In this study, we perform a series
of experiments to investigate the influence of internal friction on
the Brazil-nut problem with cylindrical intruders of the same size
and density, differing only in surface roughness in a quasi-2D
vertical vibrating bed. The effects of dimensionless vibration
acceleration and vibration frequency on the dynamics of the
intruder are also discussed.
Experimental setup
Figure 1 shows the schematic drawing of the experimental
apparatus. A Techron VTS-100 electromagnetic vibration system
was employed as the vertical shaker driven by sinusoidal signals
produced by a function generator (Meter Inc. DDS FG-503)
through a power amplifier (Techron Mode 5530). The vibration
frequency f and the vibration acceleration a were measured by a
Dytran 3136A accelerometer fixed to the shaker and connected to
an oscilloscope (Tektronix TDS 210). The radian frequency
and the amplitude of the vibration could be calculated by =
2f and = a/2, respectively. The dimensionless vibration
acceleration is defined as = a/g, where g is the gravitational
acceleration.
Figure 1 shows the schematic drawing of the experimental
apparatus.
The bed container had glass plates as the front and back
walls and plexiglass as the side and bottom walls. The height,
width, and depth of the inside of the container were 150.0 mm,
60.0 mm, and 4.0 mm, respectively. The surface friction along
the side walls is an important factor generating complex flow
phenomena. Thus the plates of the tank were carefully cleaned
and polished before every experimental test to reduce the
frictional effect of these walls. Smooth mono-sized glass spheres
with diameters d of 2 mm and a density p of 2.476 g/cm3 were
used as the background granular materials. There were three
cylindrical intruders with a diameter of 6.0 mm and a thickness
of 3.0 mm used in this study. The intruders were made of
stainless steel with density of 7.5 g/cm3. In order to obtain the
different surface roughness, the silica sand with the range of
425~500 m and 212~250 m were carefully glued on the side
surface of the cylinder intruders, respectively. The only
difference between the intruders was the surface roughness, one
being smooth and the others rough. The commercial Jenike
Shearing Tester was used to measure the friction of the intruders
to quantify the surface roughness of intruders. Due to the
difficulty of measuring the friction coefficient with only one
cylinder intruder by the commercial Jenike Shearing Tester, three
stainless steel plates, one smooth and the other two glued with
the range of 425~500 m and 212~250 m silica sands were used
to measure the friction coefficient between the wall and 2.0 mm
glass beads. By the way, we could determine the friction
coefficient of the 2.0 mm glass beads and the walls were 0.143
(smooth), 0.405 (glued the range of 212~250 m silica sands)
and 0.523 (glued the range of 425~500 m silica sands) from the
measurement using the commercial Jenike Shearing Tester. The
friction coefficient between the 2.0 mm glass beads and the walls
could also be regarded as that of the cylinder intruders and the
background glass beads in the bed container. In each
experimental test run, the same weight glass beads were carefully
poured into a bed container and the intruder was placed at the
center line 9 mm from bottom of the container in all experimental
runs [see Figure 1]. The bed container with granular materials
was driven by a vertical shaker. It has been found that rougher
side walls would induce stronger convection cells in a two-
dimensional granular bed [22-23]. In order to generate enough
shear in the flow field, emery paper (KA961 P60) was glued
to the sidewall. A high speed CCD camera (IDT X-3 plus) was
used to record the dynamic motions of the intruder. The CCD
camera was set up in front of the vibration container and the
relative position of the camera and the vibration container is
shown in Figure 1. The grabbing speed of 100 frames per second
was used in this study. Using a particle tracking method with the
help of an image processing system, the position of the intruder
could be measured [24-25]. A series of experiments was
performed with a vertical vibrating shaker under the different
vibration conditions. The detailed experimental parameters are
listed in table 1.
Vibration
frequency Filling height
(Hz)
(mm)
3.6
35 4.2 106
4.8
5.4
6
Table 1. Parameters used in the current experiments.
Results and discussion
Figure 2 shows the position of the intruder (size and density are
the same, the only difference being the surface roughness) plotted
as a function of vibrating time with dimensionless vibration
acceleration = 3, 4.2 and 4.8, vibration frequency f = 35 Hz.
The intruder rises gradually from the bottom of the container
until reaching the free surface of the granular bed due to the
Brazil-nut effect in each case [4]. It indicates that the rise time of
the roughest intruder (p = 0.523) is the longest than that of the
second rougher (p = 0.405) and the smooth one (p = 0.143).
Energy dissipation occurs during the binary collision of particles
due to friction effect [27-28]. In this study, the only difference
among experiment is the surface roughness of intruders. Hence,
friction effect between the intruder and background small
particles plays a crucial role in the dynamic behavior of the
intruder. More kinetic energy is dissipated for the roughest
intruder, resulting in the weakest motion and causing the longest
rise time to reach the surface of the granular bed, as shown in
Figure 2. On the other hand, the energy dissipation resulting from
the friction effect between the smoothest (p = 0.143) intruder
and the background small particles is the smallest, which leads to
the fastest rising time. Figure 2 also shows that the intruder has
two stages of rising process with smaller dimensionless vibration
acceleration. The intruder rises slowly in the lower part of
granular bed and then rises dramatically in the upper part of
granular bed. At smaller dimensionless vibration acceleration, the
external energy introduced to the system is smaller and the
compaction of particles is higher in the lower bed height due to
the less fluidized and shows the solid-like behavior. Hence, the
intruder is difficult to move up because of the relative small
fluidization in the lower part of granular bed, resulting in the
weaker percolation effect. The intruder rises significantly as it
enters to the convection region in the upper part of granular bed
and the convection mechanism becomes the dominant parameter
to affect the dynamic of intruder [3; 26]. The convection cell
becomes large and stronger with increasing the dimensionless
vibration acceleration. Therefore, the intruder rises easier from
bottom to the free surface and approximately linear rise up
process is found. In addition, the friction effect is reduced and the
variation of rising time is not significant with different surface
roughness intruders when the higher dimensionless vibration
acceleration is applied to system.
120
100
80
Height (mm)
60
40
=3
= 4.2
= 4.8
p = 0.523
20 p = 0.405
p = 0.143
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (sec)
Figure 2. Shows the position of the intruder plotted as a function
of vibrating time with = 3, 4.2 and 4.8, f = 35 Hz.
In this study, the rise time is defined as the period of the
intruder rises from the initial position (9 mm from bottom of the
container) to the bed height of 95 mm. Figure 3 shows the rise
time plotted as a function of dimensionless vibration acceleration
with different surface roughness intruders. It can be seen that the
rise time will be reduced with the higher dimensionless vibration
acceleration. From previous study [29] we know that the strength
of binary collision is higher and the granular bed becomes more
fluidized and the percolation effect is also increased (stronger
Brazil-nut effect), leading to a shorter rise time when the higher
dimensionless vibration acceleration is applied. It also shows that
the rough intruder takes a long time to rise up than that of smooth
ones and the variation increases with the decrease in the
dimensionless vibration acceleration. The strength of convection
and binary collisions of granular bed is enhanced with the
increasing dimensionless vibration acceleration. Thus, the
influence of friction between the intruder and the background
glass beads on the Brazil-nut effect is less important. This is why
the difference in the rise time between the smooth and rough
intruders is not significant with the larger dimensionless vibration
acceleration. Furthermore, the granular bed is denser and has
weaker particles motions and interactions when reduces
dimensionless vibration acceleration. The effect of friction
between the intruder and the background beads is more
significant, in which case the force of friction has a stronger
influence on the dynamic behavior of the intruder. As a result, the
difference in the rise time between the smooth and rough
intruders is enhanced with the smaller dimensionless vibration
acceleration, as shown in Figure 3.
250
p = 0.523
p = 0.405
p = 0.143
200
Rise time (sec)
150
100
50
0
3 3.6 4.2 4.8 5.4 6
Figure 3. Shows the rise time plotted as a function of
350
dimensionless vibration acceleration with the different surface
roughness intruders.
Figure 4 shows the variation of rise time ( t ) plotted as a
function of dimensionless vibration acceleration. The variation of
rise time t is determined from T(p = 0.523)-T(p = 0.143) and
T(p = 0.405)-T(p = 0.143), where T(p = 0.523), T(p = 0.405)
and T(p = 0.143) are represent the rise time of the roughest
intruder, the second rougher intruder and the smooth intruder,
respectively. It can be found that the difference of rising time
increases with decreasing the dimensionless vibration
acceleration. In the less fluidized granular bed (where the
convection is not formed), the Brazil-nut effect is dominated by
inertia mechanism [27, 30]. Nahmad-Molinari et al. [27] defined
penetration length Pl that the intruder penetrates by inertia into
the granular bed a small distance. They also suggested that the
kinetic energy of the intruder is dissipated due to the friction
effect during it penetrates into the granular bed on each cycle.
According to the physical arguments, they derived the model
based on the simple energy balance per cycle in the following
[27]:
1 2
mvto = Pl
2 (1)
where m is the mass of intruder, vto is the take off velocity of
intruder as the system reaches a negative acceleration a = -g, is
the friction drag force between the background beads and
intruder and Pl is penetration length. vto is the values of z& (t )
when z (t ) = g , and z (t ) = A sin(t ) . Hence,
&&
vto = [ A2 2 g 2 / 2 ]1/2 (2)
From Eg. (1), we could know that the main of kinetic energy
of intruder is dissipated by friction drag force existing between
the intruder and the background beads in each vibration cycle.
Therefore, the penetration length is shorter with the rougher
intruder causing the higher energy dissipation resulting from the
greater friction drag force. Hence, the difference of rising time
increases with the decrease of the dimensionless vibration
acceleration resulting in the stronger friction effect. In addition,
the convection in the bed becomes stronger with the larger
dimensionless vibration acceleration and the Brazil nut effect is
dominated by convection mechanism [2]. That is why the
difference of rising time is smaller as the larger dimensionless
vibration acceleration is applied to granular system as shown in
Figure 4.
0.2

p = 0.523
p = 0.405
p = 0.143

Penetration length, P l (mm)

120 0.15

100 T(p = 0.523)-T(p = 0.143)

T(p = 0.405)-T(p = 0.143)
0.1
80
t (sec)

60 0.05

40

20 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3

Vibration amplitude (mm)

0
3 3.6 4.2 4.8 5.4 6
Figure 6. Shows the penetration length is plotted as a function of
vibration amplitude with different surface roughness of intruders.

Figure 4. Shows the difference of rising time plotted as a function Figure 7 shows the plotted against the vibration amplitude with
of dimensionless vibration acceleration. three different surface roughness intruders.

The position of intruder is plotted as a function of vibrating cycle

(tw/2) at = 3, f = 35 Hz as shown in Figure 5. Hence, the
2.5
derivation of the curves is precisely penetration length not
velocity [27]. Only the lower part of cures is linear fitted to
reduce the convection effect. From the linear fits to the data, we 2
p = 0.523
p = 0.405
could determine the slop which represents the penetration length p = 0.143
at each vibration cycle [27].
1.5
(N)

1
30

25 0.5

20
Height (mm)

0
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3
Vibration amplitude (mm)
15

Figure 7 shows the plotted against the vibration amplitude with

10
5 p = 0.143
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Cycle
Figure 5. Shows the position of intruder plotted as a function of
vibrating cycle (tw/2).
The penetration length is plotted as a function of vibration
amplitude with different surface roughness of intruders shown in
Figure 6. It can be seen that the penetration length is reduced
with the larger friction coefficient of intruder at the same
vibration condition. It also indicates that penetration length is
enhanced with the increase of the vibration amplitude. According
to Eg. (1), the penetration length is inversely proportional to
friction drag force . The rougher intruder has the larger
resulting in the greater kinetic energy dissipation and causes the
smaller penetration length. To test our physical argument, we
also try to calculate according to Eq. (1) in this study.
three different surface roughness intruders.
p = 0.523
p = 0.405
It can be seen that is larger with the greater friction coefficient
of intruder at the same vibration amplitude. The higher friction
5000 6000 7000 coefficient intruder causes the larger friction drag force resulting
from the background smaller glass beads during the rise process
and generates the larger . In addition, decreases with the
increases of the vibration amplitude. The convection strength and
fluidization is enhanced as the larger vibration amplitude is
applied to system. The flow behavior also changes from the
quasi-static state to the dynamic state. The convection and binary
collision dominate the flow behavior in the dynamic state. The
effect of friction drag force of intruder is not significant during
the rising dynamics of intruder. Hence, the friction drag force
resulting from the friction between the intruder and the
background glass beads is also reduced with the increasing
vibration amplitude.
Conclusions
We have conducted a series of experiments to investigate the
influence of surface roughness of the intruder on the Brazil-nut
effect in a quasi-2D vertical vibrating granular bed. The motion
of the intruder is recorded by a high speed camera and the rise
dynamics of the intruder are determined and discussed in this
study. The result demonstrates that the Brazil nut effect could
be mitigated due to the larger friction coefficient of the intruder.
The results show that the rising time of the rough intruder is
longer than that of the smooth intruder due to the larger friction
coefficient resulting in the larger energy dissipation. We also find
that the penetration length increases with reducing the friction
coefficient of intruder. In addition, the friction drag force is also
calculated according to the theory model. The friction drag force
is enhanced with the increase of the friction coefficient of
intruder. The result is in agreement with our physical arguments
about the dynamics of intruder in this study.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the support from the
National Science Council of the R.O.C. for this work through
Grant NSC 100-2221-E-008-078-MY3.
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23 rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Particulate Contamination of a Flat Surface in a Parallel Airflow under the

Influence of Thermophoresis
Sang-Hee Woo, Won-Geun Kim and Se-Jin Yook*
School of Mechanical Engineering
Hanyang University, Seoul 133 -791, Republic of Korea
*
ysjnuri@hanyang.ac.kr

Abstract dynamic viscosity of air

p density of particles
Gaussian Diffusion Sphere Model (GDSM) was developed to i standard deviation
estimate the particle deposition velocity onto a flat surface in kinematic viscosity of air
parallel airflow. The influences of Brownian diffusion,
gravitational settling, and thermophoretic drift of particles on Introduction
particle behaviour were included. When the particle deposition
velocities predicted using the GDSM were compared with the Particulate contamination affects the product yield in
particle deposition velocities found in the literature, the semiconductor manufacturing with shrinking feature size, and it
is important to estimate the level of particulate contamination of
agreement was very good. The GDSM was found to predict the
wafers and photomasks. Particle deposition velocity is the ratio
particle deposition velocity onto the flat surface in parallel
of particle flux toward a surface to particle number concentration
airflow, not only correctly but also very quickly.
above that surface, and is used to assess the level of particulate
contamination of critical surfaces like wafers and photomasks.
Nomenclature
When a temperature gradient is established in the air, the airborne
Cc slip correction factor particles can drift in the direction of decreasing temperature. This
D particle diffusivity phenomenon is called thermophoresis. Since the particle
dp particle size
behaviour can b e i n fluenced by temperature gradient, many
g gravitational acceleration
studies have been performed to observe the effect of
H i,j gap between the GDS centre and the flat surface thermophoresis on particle deposition velocity onto wafers in
Kn Knudsen number vertical air currents [1,2]. In the meanwhile, not many studies
ka thermal conductivity of air
have been conducted to examine the particle deposition velocity
kp thermal conductivity of particles
onto the wafers in parallel air currents. Recently, Woo et al. [3]
L length of the flat surface
employed the statistical Lagrangian particle tracking model and
Nin number of injected particles investigated the influence o f thermophoresis on particle
N integer for determining the confidence interval deposition velocity onto a flat plate exposed to a parallel airflow,
nx number of grids in x-direction
using a commercial code, FLUENT. However, the simulation
p i,j probability of particle deposition
approach of solving thermo- flow field and calculating particle
Re Reynolds number trajectories usually require a lot o f t i me a n d computational
Ri radius of the GDS
resources.
Sc Schmidt number
Ta ambient temperature In this study, in an effort to greatly reduce the computational time
Ti,j local temperature of air over the flat surface and resources, the Gaussian Diffusion Sphere Model (GDSM)
Ts temperature of the flat surface [46] was improved to predict the particle deposition velocity
ti time onto the flat surface situated parallel to the airflow with the
flow residence time within concentration boundary consideration of Brownian diffusion, gravitational settling, and
tr
layer thermophoretic drift of particles.
U inf free-stream air velocity
mean flow velocity within concentration boundary Model Description
c
layer
vd deposition velocity Gaussian Diffusion Sphere (GDS) is defined as the spherical
vs terminal settling velocity space in which a particle can be displaced by diffusion in a time
vth,i,j local thermophoretic drift velocity (t i ). The centre of the GDS is the initial location of the particle at
initial height of the jth particle injected at the leading t i of 0. The radius of the GDS (R i ) is represented by multiples of
y0,j the root-mean-square net displacement by diffusion [6], or
edge of the flat surface
t time step
Ri N i N 2Dt i (1)
constant gap between neighbouring particles at the
y
leading edge of the flat surface where N is an integer for determining the confidence interval,
c concentration boundary layer thickness
i [=(2Dt i )1/2] is the standard deviation, and D is the diffusion
d diffusion boundary layer thickness
coefficient of particles. In other words, the probability of the
dimensionless variable
particle to be displaced by diffusion in radial direction within the
me an free path of air
GDS can be represented by the Gaussian distribution.

Figure 1. Overlap of the GDS with the flat surface.
Due to the dependence of particle diffusion on time, the root-
me an-square net displacement of particles by diffusion, i.e. the
radius of the GDS, becomes larger with elapsing time. I f the
particle diffuses near a wall and is exposed to external force
fields, then the particle may reach the wall and deposit on the
surface. Figure 1 illustrates the schematic for estimating the
probability of particle deposition on a flat surface. Each sphere
represents the GDS with the radius of R i . The location of the
GDS centre can be determined by considering the influences of
external forces, e.g. gravity and thermophoretic force. In this
study, the directions of external forces are assumed to be
perpendicular to the flat surface. In other word, the external
forces make the GDS move toward or away from the surface. As
a result of Brownian diffusion and external- force-induced drift,
the GDS can overlap with the flat surface as shown in Figure 1.
The distance between the GDS centre and the surface is denoted
as H i,j . The probability of particle deposition (p i,j ) can be
predicted by calculating the probability-weighted volume of the
GDS overlapping with the flat surface [4]:
If (H i,j > R i > 0), then
pi , j 0
general aerosol flow, the thickness of the concentration boundary
layer is much s maller than the thicknesses of velocity and
thermal boundary layers [7]. Therefore, the velocity profile
within the concentration boundary layer is considered to be linear.
In order to simplify the model, a plug-flow velocity profile is
assumed within the concentration boundary layer as depicted in
Figure 2. The thickness of the concentration boundary layer is
denoted as c . The uniform velocity ( c ) within the concentration
boundary layer is calculated as [6]
3
3 c U inf (3)
uc
10 L
where U inf is the free-stream velocity, is the kinematic viscosity
of air, and L is the length of the flat surface. Then, the flow
residence time (t r) within the concentration boundary layer can be
obtained as
L 10 L3 (4)
tr
uc 3 c U 3inf
As illustrated in Figure 3, many particles are injected at the
leading edge of the flat surface and drift toward the trailing edge
due to the parallel airflow. The coordinate in the direction
parallel to the flat surface is denoted as x, and the coordinate in
the direction normal to the flat surface as y. The number of
particles injected within the concentration boundary layer is Nin,
and the particles are initially placed at a constant spacing of
y(= c /Nin). The number of grids in x-direction is denoted as n x .
From the assumption of the uniform velocity of c within the
concentration boundary layer, the time for the GDS to reach each
x-grid, i.e. t i , is calculated as follows.
tr (5)
t i i t i
(2a) nx

If (0 < H i,j < R i ), then

1 R H
pi , j erf i erf i , j

2 2 i 2 (2b)
i
Ri Hi , j Ri2
exp 2
2
2
i i

Figure 2. Development of boundary layers over the flat surface in

If (H i,j = 0), then
parallel airflow.
pi , j 0. 5 (2c)

If (R i < H i,j < 0), then

R H
1 erf i , j
p i, j 1 erf i

2 2 i 2 (2d)
i

Ri H i , j 2

exp Ri
2 2 2
i i

If (H i,j < R i < 0), then

pi , j 1 (2e)

Figure 2 shows the development of velocity and thermal

boundary layers over the flat surface in parallel airflow. I f the flat
surface is exposed to aerosol flow, concentration boundary layer
develops due to particle deposition onto the flat surface. Since the
diffusional particle displacement and the particle drift in external Figure 3. Evolution of the GDS during the particle drift over the
force fields depend on time, it is necessary to estimate the flow flat surface in parallel airflow under the influences of gravity and
residence time within the concentration boundary layer. For thermophoresis.
While the particle drifts over the flat surface, the radius of the
GDS becomes larger due to diffusion and the position of the GDS
centre changes because of the gravity and thermophoresis. The
gravitational settling velocity of the particle (vs) is computed as
p d 2pC c g
vs
18
where p is the particle density, d p is the particle size, Cc is the
slip correction factor, g is the gravitational acceleration, and is
the dynamic viscosity of air. The airflow velocity within the
velocity boundary layer and the temperature within the thermal
boundary layer are determined by numerically solving the
mo mentum and energy equations represented by a dimensionless
variable {=y[U inf/(x)]} [8]. Once the local temperatures are
obtained, the thermophoretic drift velocity of the particle (vth,i,j ) is
calculated as follows.
2 .294Cc ka / k p 2. 20Kn
vth ,i , j
1 3.438Kn 1 2ka / k p 4.40Kn
Here, k a is the thermal conductivity of air, kp is the thermal
conductivity of particles, Kn(=2/d p) is the Knudsen number, is
the mean free path of air, and Ti,j is the local temperature of air.
The initial thickness of concentration boundary layer is assumed
to be the same as the diffusion boundary layer thickness
d[=5L/(Re1/2Sc1/3)], where Re(=U inf L/) is the Reynolds
number and Sc(=/D) is the Schmidt number. Nin particles are
injected within the concentration boundary layer and the
trajectory of the GDS corresponding to each particle is predicted
as illustrated in Figure 3. By considering the drift due to
convection in x-direction, i.e. c t, and the movement owing to
external forces in y-direction, i.e. (vs +vth,i,j )t, the trajectory of
the GDS centre can be simulated as depicted in Figure 3. In other
words, the value of H i,j at every time step can be computed as
follows.
i
Hi , j y 0, j v s vth,k , j t (i 1, 2, 3, , nx )
k 1
Here, y0,j is the height of the jth particle injected at the leading
edge of the flat surface. In addition, by taking the increase of the
radius of the GDS into consideration, the lower limiting
trajectory of the GDS at every time step can be solved and the
current value of the concentration boundary layer thickness is
obtained as follows [5].
c max y0, j Ri H i , j
The newly obtained value of c is saved as the previous value and
Nin particles are injected within c . Then, the GDS trajectories are
analysed for calculating new value c . This procedure of
computing the concentration boundary layer thickness is repeated
until the relative error of c becomes lower than 10 6.
With converged value of the concentration boundary layer
thickness, Nin particles are injected within the concentration
boundary layer as depicted in Figure 3 and the values of R i and
H i,j for each particle are calculated. The probability of deposition
of the particle injected at the height of y0,j is determined by
figuring out the maximum value of p i,j [5], or
p j max pi , j i 1, 2 , 3, , n x
Finally, the deposition velocity onto the flat surface in parallel
airflow is estimated as follows.
N
u c y in (11)
vd pj
L j 1
(6)
Ti , j (7)
Ti , j
Figure 4. Comparison of deposition velocity onto a flat surface in
parallel airflow, between the prediction by the GDSM of this
study and the data of the previous studies.
Results
Figure 4 compares the particle deposition velocities predicted
using the present GDSM with those found in the literature. The
length of the flat surface was L = 15.2 cm, which is the side
length of the extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) photomask.
The parallel airflow velocity was U inf = 50 cm/s. The density of
particles was assumed to be p = 19 g/cm3. The ambient pressure
was set as 101.3 kPa. The a mbient temperature (Ta) was
maintained at = 20 oC, while the temperature of the flat surface
(Ts) was varied as 10, 20, and 30 oC. The temperature difference
(8) between the flat surface and ambient air (T ) was defined as
follows.
T Ts Ta (12)
According to the concept of Liu and Ahn [9], the particle
deposition velocity at T of 0 K can be predicted by summing the
me an mass transfer coefficient and the terminal settling velocity
as follows.
(9)
v d , T 0 0 .664 Re1 / 2 Sc 1 / 3
D
vs (13)
L
When the surface temperature was the same as the a mbient
temperature, i.e. T = 0 K, the GDSM result agreed very well
with the prediction by equation (13). When the surface
temperature was different from the ambient temperature, i.e. T
= 10 K or T = 10 K, the particle deposition velocities were
compared with the numerical data of Woo et al. [3], and the
agreement was very good.
Conclusions
Gaussian Diffusion Sphere Model (GDSM) was developed to
predict the particle deposition velocity onto a flat surface exposed
(10) to parallel airflow, with the consideration of Brownian diffusion,
gravitational settling, and thermophoretic drift of particles. Woo
et al. [3] predicted the particle deposition velocity by simulating
thermo- flow field and particle trajectories, and it took one week
to obtain the particle deposition velocities for 20 particle sizes. In
the meanwhile, it took only a few minutes for the GDSM to
calculate the particle deposition velocities for about 300 particle
sizes. Therefore, the GDSM was found to predict the particle
deposition velocities not only correctly but also very quickly.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Basic Science Research Program
through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)
funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
(Grant no. 2010-0003452).
This work was also supported by the Second Brain Korea 21
Project in 2012.
References
[1] Opiolka, S., Schmidt, F., and Fissan, H., Combined Effects
of Electrophoresis and Thermophoresis on Particle Deposition
onto Flat Surfaces, J. Aerosol Sci., 25, 1994, 665671.
[2] Bae, G.N., Lee, C.S., and Park, S.O., Measurement and
Control of Particle Deposition Velocity on a Horizontal Wafer
with Thermophoretic Effect, Aerosol Sci. Technol., 23, 1995,
321330.
[3] Woo, S.H., Lee, S.C., and Yook, S.J., Statistical Lagrangian
Particle Tracking Approach to Investigate the Effect o f
Thermophoresis on Particle Deposition onto a Face-up Flat
Surface in a Parallel Airflow, J. Aerosol Sci., 44, 2012, 110.
[4] Yook, S.J., Asbach, C., and Ahn, K.H., Particle Deposition
Velocity onto a Face-up Flat Surface in a Laminar Parallel
Flow Considering Brownian Diffusion and Gravitational
Settling, J. Aerosol Sci., 41, 2010, 911920.
[5] Choi, W.J. and Yook, S.J., Deposition Velocity onto an
Inverted Flat Surface in a Laminar Parallel Flow, Aerosol Sci.
Technol., 44, 2010, 919929.
[6] Yook, S.J. and Ahn, K.H., Gaussian Diffusion Sphere Model
to Predict Mass Transfer due to Diffusional Particle Deposition
on a Flat Surface in Laminar Flow Regime, Appl. Phys. Lett.,
94, 2009, 191909.
[7] Otani, Y., Emi, H., Kanaoka, C., and Kato, K.,
Determination of Deposition Velocity onto a Wafer for
Particles in the Size Range between 0.3 and 0.8 m, J. Aerosol
Sci., 20, 1989, 787796.
[8] Cengel, Y.A., Heat Transfer: A Practical Approach,
McGraw-Hill, 2003.
[9] Liu, B.Y.H. and Ahn, K.H., Particle Deposition on
Semiconductor Wafers, Aerosol Sci. Technol., 6, 1987, 215
224.
23 rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Particle Sampling Characteristics of Balloon-borne Inertial Impactors at

Different Altitudes
Gyuho Kim1 , Se-Jin Yook1,* and Kang-Ho Ahn 2
1
School of Mechanical Engineering
Hanyang University, Seoul 133 -791, Republic of Korea
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Hanyang University, Ansan, Kyunggi-do 425-791, Republic of Korea
*
ysjnuri@hanyang.ac.kr

Abstract transported over a long distance by air currents in the atmosphere.

Collection efficiency of the inertial impactor was numerically
evaluated by employing the Statistical Lagrangian Particle
Tracking (SLPT) model. The present numerical approach was
validated by comparing the numerically predicted cut-off sizes
with the experimental data found in the literature, at the pressure
ranging from 10.0 kPa to 98.54 kPa. Then, the inertial impactors
having the cut-off sizes of 1 m and 2.5 m at the sea level were
designed for the balloon-borne measurements. When the
volumetric flow rate of sampling air remained unchanged, the
cut-off size at the altitude of 16 km was predicted to reduce by
52.0% for the PM1 impactor and 33.1% for the PM2.5 impactor,
compared to the cut-off sizes at the sea level. When the sampling
volumetric flow rate was adjusted using an equation, derived
from the definition of the Stokes number, the cut-off sizes of the
PM1 and the PM2.5 inertial impactors at the altitude of 16 km
were estimated to vary by the relative difference of less than
about 4%, compared to the cut-off sizes at the sea level.
In order to analyse the atmospheric aerosol, it is important to
efficiently sample the particles according to altitude. Tobo et al.
[1] loaded aerosol samplers in a balloon for collecting
atmospheric particles. The balloon-borne me asurements have
advantages of enabling continuous measurement or sampling of
atmospheric particles at a fixed altitude, compared to the aircraft-
borne measurements.
Inertial impactors are widely used for collecting aerosol particles
in the atmosphere, due to their simple geometries and easy
operation. In the inertial impactor, aerosol flow is accelerated
through a nozzle and impinges onto a flat plate which is called
the impaction plate. While the particles experience the curvy air
flow over the i mpaction plate, the particles of large inertia
deviate from the streamline and impact on the impaction plate, i.e.
the particles deposit on the impaction plate. In this way, the
particles larger than a certain size, i.e. the cut-off size
corresponding to 50% collection efficiency, are sampled on the
impaction plate.

Nomenclature In order for the aerosol samplers to be loaded on the balloon, the
samplers need to be light. Since the inertial impactors can be
Cc slip correction factor made small and light, they are appropriate as the balloon-borne
D impaction plate diameter samplers. However, the ambient temperature and pressure vary
dp particle size according to altitude. Then, the collection efficiency of inertial
fi fate of the particle impactors can alter due to the variation of the drag force exerting
g gravitational acceleration on the particles by air molecules and/or the change of volumetric
L nozzle throat length flow rate of the aerosol introduced into the inertial impactors. In
n number of tracked particles this study, in order to characterize the collection efficiency of
P pressure inertial impactors according to altitude, a numerical model is
Q in volumetric flow rate introduced into the impactor developed to correctly predict the impactor collection efficiency
R in radius of the impactor inlet and validated at various pressures by comparing the numerically
ri radial position of the particle at the impactor inlet simulated impactor collection efficiencies with the experimental
S nozzle-to-plate distance data found in the literature.
Stk Stokes number
T temperature
Numerical Approach
U average velocity of air through the impactor nozzle
V in average velocity of air at the impactor inlet The FLUENT, i.e. a computational fluid dynamics software, was
W impactor nozzle diameter employed to simulate the airflow, and the Discrete Phase Models
r spacing between neighbouring particles at the inlet (DPM), incorporated in the FLUENT, was used to calculate the
collection efficiency of inertial impactor particle trajectories.
dynamic viscosity of air
Figure 1 illustrates the schematic of the inertial impactor with a
density of air
round nozzle and a circular impaction plate. The diameter of the
p density of particles
nozzle was denoted as W , the length of the nozzle throat as L, the
distance between the nozzle and the impaction plate as S, the
Introduction diameter o f the impaction plate as D, and the radius of the
impactor inlet as R in. The airflow in the impactor was assumed to
Aerosol means the collection of liquid or solid particles be steady, two-dimensional, axi-symmetric, and laminar. The
suspended in a gas medium. Various kinds of atmospheric average velocity, volumetric flow rate, and mass flow rate of the
aerosol particles exist even at high altitudes, and they can be airflow introduced into the impactor inlet were denoted as V in, Q in,
and m in, respectively. If the Mach number, obtained from the Table 1. Comparison of the cut-off size of the electrical low-
average airflow velocity at the nozzle, was larger than 0.3, then pressure impactor (ELPI), between the present simulation results
the airflow in the impactor was assumed to be compressible. If and the experimental data of Marjamki et al. [4].
the Mach number was smaller than 0.3, then the airflow was
presumed to be incompressible. The continuity, momentum, and Cut-off Size ( m)
Relative
energy equations were iteratively solved, until relative errors Stage P out (kPa) Marjamki Present Error (%)
became smaller than 10 6. The number o f cells was determined et al. [4] Simulation
through the grid dependence test. 1 10.0 0.029 0.032 10.34
2 22.5 0.055 0.05 9.09
The influences of Brownian diffusion, gravitational settling, and 3 37.6 0.092 0.09 2.17
Stokes drag with slip correction were considered to analyse 4 66.8 0.154 0.14 9.09
particle behaviour. A plug flow velocity profile and a 5 86.9 0.261 0.232 11.11
homogeneous aerosol particle number concentration were 6 94.7 0.38 0.37 2.63
assumed at the impactor inlet. In other words, particles of the
7 96.96 0.61 0.58 4.92
same size and same density were introduced into the impactor
8 97.76 0.95 0.97 2.11
inlet with the velocity same as the airflow velocity V in, and
9 98.26 1.6 1.59 0.63
initially positioned at the impactor inlet with the same spacing in
radial direction. The density of the particles was assumed to be 10 98.41 2.4 2.45 2.08
1,000 kg/m3 for characterizing the impactor collection efficiency 11 98.48 4.0 4.03 0.75
based on the aerodynamic particle size. The particles were 12 98.51 6.7 6.3 5.97
assumed to be trapped once they touch any walls including the 13 98.54 9.9 9.2 7.07
impaction plate. The slip correction factor [2] was calculated by Table 2. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
taking the temperature and pressure at the impactor inlet. The atmospheric air properties.
impactor collection efficiency (), i.e. the ratio of the number of
particles deposited on the impaction plate (Nde ) to the number of
Altitude T P g
particles introduced into the impactor (Nin), was calculated by (10 6
(km) (oC) (kPa) (kg/m3) (m/s 2)
employing the Statistical Lagrangian Particle Tracking (SLPT) Ns/m2)
approach [3] as follows. 0 15.00 101.325 1.2250 17.894 9.8067
1 8.50 89.876 1.1117 17.579 9.8036
2 2.00 79.501 1.0066 17.260 9.8005
N de 2 r n
2 f i ri (1) 3 -4.50 70.121 0.90925 16.938 9.7974
N in Rin i1 4 -10.98 61.660 0.81935 16.612 9.7943
5 -17.47 54.048 0.73643 16.282 9.7912
6 -23.96 47.217 0.66011 15.949 9.7882
8 -36.94 35.651 0.52579 15.271 9.7820
10 -49.90 26.499 0.41351 14.577 9.7759
12 -56.50 19.399 0.31194 14.216 9.7697
14 -56.50 14.170 0.22786 14.216 9.7636
16 -56.50 10.352 0.16647 14.216 9.7575
Here, r[=R in/(n1)] is the constant spacing between
neighbouring particles initially positioned in radial direction at
the impactor inlet, R in is the radius of the impactor inlet, n is the
number o f tracked particles, r i [=(i1)r] is the initial radial
position of each particle at the impactor inlet, and f i is the number
for describing the fate of the ith particle, i.e. f i = 1 for the particle
captured on the impaction plate or f i = 0 for the particle not
captured. The number of tracked particles was selected as n =
500. Due to the random nature of Brownian diffusion, the
impactor collection efficiency was calculated five times for each
particle size and each simulation case, and averaged.

Figure 1. Schematic of the calculation domain for simulating the
collection efficiency of the inertial impactor with a round nozzle
and a circular impaction plate.
Results
The numerical approach employed in this study was validated by
comparing the impactor collection efficiency simulated using the
SLPT model, with the experimental data of Marjamki et al. [4]
who measured the collection efficiency of the 13-stage electrical
low-pressure impactor (ELPI). The pressure downstream of the
1st stage of the ELPI was 10.0 kPa, and that of the 13th stage of
the ELPI was 98.54 kPa. Table 1 shows the comparison of the
cut-off size, i.e. the particle size corresponding to 50% collection
efficiency, between the present simulation results and the
experimental data of Marjamki et al. [4]. The relative error was
found to be less than or equal to 11.11%, i mplying that the
numerical approach e mployed in this study could correctly
predict the impactor collection efficiency over a wide range of
operating pressure.
Table 3. Dimensions of the single-stage inertial impactors
designed in this study for the balloon-borne measurements.
Parameter PM1 Impactor PM2.5 Impactor
W (mm) 1.38 2.47
S (mm) 2.76 4.94
L (mm) 2.76 4.94
D (mm) 6.90 12.35
Table 2 lists the International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) atmospheric air properties according to altitude, where T
is the ambient temperature, P is the ambient pressure, is the
density of air, is the dynamic viscosity o f air, and g is the
gravitational acceleration. By considering the troposphere, the
altitude varied from 0 km to 16 km. The balloon-borne inertial
impactors were designed and their dimensions are listed in Table
3. The PM1 and PM2.5 inertial impactors were designed to have
the cut-off sizes of 1.0 m and 2.5 m, when the volumetric flow
rate introduced into the impactor was 4.0 L/min at the sea level,
i.e. at the altitude of 0 km.
Figure 2 shows the variation of the cut-off size of the inertial
impactors of which dimensions are listed in Table 3. The cut-off
sizes were numerically obtained by assuming the volumetric flow
rate of 4 L/min at different altitudes, i.e. by taking the
atmospheric air properties listed in Table 2. As shown in Figure 2,
the cut-off size o f t h e P M 1 i mpactor at the sea level was
estimated to be 0.98 m, and that of the PM2.5 impactor at the
altitude of 0 km was 2.48 m. However, the cut-off size
decreased as the altitude became higher. In case of the PM1
impactor, the cut-off size was predicted to vary from 0.98 m at
the sea level to 0.47 m at the altitude of 16 km, resulting in the
decrease of the cut-off size by 52.0%. Similarly, in case of the
PM2.5 impactor, the cut-off size was estimated to change from
2.48 m at the sea level to 1.66 m at the altitude of 16 km,
showing the reduction of the cut-off size by 33.1%. This is
mainly due to the fact that the slip correction factor becomes
larger with increasing altitude and the effect of the particle inertia
is enhanced.
In order to characterize the atmospheric particles according to
altitude, it is needed to keep the cut-off size o f the inertial
impactors constant at varying atmospheric temperature and
pressure. The Stokes number corresponding to the cut-off size, i.e.
Stk50, is defined as follows [5].
p d 2p 50 C c50U
Stk 50 (2)
9 W
Figure 2. Variation of the impactor cut-off size according to
altitude, with a constant volumetric flow rate of air introduced
into the inertial impactor.
Figure 3. Variation of the impactor cut-off size according to
altitude, with the sampling volumetric flow rate adjusted by
equation (3).
Here, p is the density of particles, d p50 is the cut-off size
corresponding to 50% collection efficiency, Cc50 is the slip
correction factor corresponding to the cut-off size, U is the mean
velocity of the airflow going through the impactor nozzle, is the
dynamic viscosity of air, and W is the diameter of the impactor
nozzle. By keeping the cut-off size unchanged and considering
the proportionality of the volumetric flow rate of air introduced
into the inertial impactor to the mean velocity of air going
through the impactor nozzle, the following relationship can be
obtained from equation (2).
Qin C c50,0
(3)
Qin, 0 C c50 0
Here, the subscript 0 means the altitude of 0 km, i.e. the sea
level. In other words, Q in,0, Cc50,0, and 0 are the volumetric flow
rate of sampling air, slip correction factor corresponding to the
cut-off size, and dynamic viscosity of air, respectively, at the sea
level. The sampling volumetric flow rate (Q in) required for
keeping the impactor cut-off size unchanged at varying altitude
can be calculated from equation (3), by taking the values of Cc50
and corresponding to a designated altitude.
Figure 3 shows the variation of the impactor cut-off size at
different altitudes, with the sampling volumetric flow rate
adjusted by equation (3). At the altitude of 16 km, the cut-off size
of the PM1 impactor was predicted to be 0.94 m and that of the
PM2.5 impactor 2.38 m. In other words, the cut-off sizes of the
PM1 and the PM2.5 inertial impactors were estimated to change
by about 4% in the troposphere, when the volumetric flow rates
of air introduced into the impactors were adjusted according to
altitude using equation (3).
Conclusions
The Statistical Lagrangian Particle Tracking (SLPT) model was
used to predict the collection efficiency of inertial impactors
according to altitude. The numerically determined cut-off sizes
were compared with the experimental data of Marjamki et al. [4].
The numerical approach employed in this study was proven to
correctly simulate the cut-off size of the inertial i mpactor with
the error of less than about 11% at the pressure ranging from 10.0
kPa to 98.54 kPa, which could cover the pressures in troposphere.
The PM1 and PM2.5 inertial impactors were designed, and their
collection efficiencies at different altitudes were numerically
simulated. By adjusting the volumetric flow rate of sampling air
using equation (3), the cut-off sizes of the PM1 and the PM2.5
inertial impactors were predicted to be kept nearly constant.
Acknowledgments
This subject was supported by Korea Ministry of Environment as
"The Eco-innovation project".
This work was also supported by the Second Brain Korea 21
Project in 2012.
References
[1] Tobo, Y., Iwasaka, Y., Shi, G.Y., Kim, Y.S., Ohashi, T.,
Tamura, K., and Zhang, D., Balloon-borne observations of
high aerosol concentrations near the summertime tropopause
over the Tibetan Plateau, Atmos. Res., 84, 2007, 233-241.
[2] Kim, J.H., Mulholland, G.W, Kukuck, S.R., and Pui, D.Y.H.,
Slip correction measurements of certified PSL nanoparticles
using a nanometer differential mobility analyzer (Nano-
DMA) for Knudsen number from 0.5 to 83, J. Res. Natl. Inst.
Stand. Technol., 110, 2005, 31-54.
[3] Kim, Y.J., and Yook, S.J., Enhancement of collection
efficiency of inertial impactors using elliptical concave
impaction plates, J. Aerosol Sci., 42, 2011, 898-908.
[4] Marjamki, M., Keskinen, J., Chen, D.R., and Pui, D.Y.H.,
Preformance evaluation of the electrical low-pressure
impactor (ELPI), J. Aerosol Sci., 31, 2000, 249-261.
[5] Hinds, W.C., Aerosol Technology: Properties, Behavior,
and Measurement of Airborne Particles, 2nd ed., John
Wiley, 1999.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Large Eddy Simulation of Cavitating Flows using a Novel Stochastic Field

Formulation

F. Magagnato1 and J. Dumond2

1
Department of Fluid Machinery
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
2
Institute for Nuclear and Energy Technologies
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany

Abstract numerical results have been compared to experiments of

Stutz/Reboud [3] and described below.
The basic ideas of the Stochastic Fields method for turbulent
reacting flows have been adapted to compressible cavitating Mathematical model
flows. A probability density function approach is applied to the
vapor mass fraction to simulate vapor bubble size distribution
Two-phase homogeneous equilibrium
and implemented into our finite volume compressible code. The
In this study a mathematical model based on a locally
water-vapor mixture is assumed in homogeneous equilibrium and
homogeneous model of a compressible gas-liquid two-phase
the vapor mass fraction is described by a set of pure Eulerian
medium proposed from Okuda/Ikhohagi [6], which belongs to the
transport equations with stochastic source terms.
two-phase models, is used to simulate cavitating flows. Water and
vapor are assumed to be in mechanical and thermal equilibrium.
With this novel technique, major two-phase flow parameters like Vapor and water evolution is described by the 3D compressible
vapor bubble radius, inter-facial area and volume can be Navier-Stoke vapor-water mixture conservation equations and the
captured. Also the source term non-linearity can be resolved at vapor mass fraction equation. Cast in integral cartesian form for
the sub-grid scale. No Lagrangian solver or equations for bubbles
clusters are required leading to a low computational cost and an arbitrary control volume V with surface V , the system of
simple implementation. The focus of this work is on the theory of equations reads:
the novel stochastic model and aspects of its implementation.

W dV F G d V H dV
Applications include sheet cavitation.

Nomenclature
t V V
V (1)
where
g gravitational acceleration
s specific entropy
thermal diffusivity 0 0
dynamic viscosity v vv pi 0
kinematic viscosity x x xi
v y v v y pj yi 0
Introduction W ,F , G , H
v z vv z pk zi 0
The Stochastic Fields method [1] has been successfully applied to
turbulent reacting flows or reacting plumes. In this method,
E v E pv ij v j qi 0

chemical species are described by a set of pure Eulerian transport Y v Y 0 S Y
equations with stochastic source terms. Each field represents an
individual realization, so that the set of fields approximates the
chemical species Probability Density Function (PDF). By a strict
asymptotic theory the equivalence between the evolution of and , v , E, p and Y are the density, velocity, total
stochastic fields and the PDF transport is proven. Thus, they energy per unit mass, pressure and mass vapor fraction of the
resolve the species repartition at a sub-grid scale and the highly mixture, respectively. The term is the viscous stress tensor and
non-linear source terms are automatically closed. In this paper
the Stochastic Field method is used for the first time for two- x xi yj zk is the position vector. S(Y) is the interfacial
phase flows. The pure Eulerian fields describing the vapor mass mass transfer between vapor and water. The modeling of this
fraction PDF are used to close the highly non-linear mass term will be described later in section mass transfer modeling.
exchange term between phases. This new concept in two-phase The pressure is obtained from the equation of state. The total
flows is implemented into our compressible code SPARC [2] stress tensor is a sum of laminar stress tensor plus the turbulent
which can handle large density ratios and Mach numbers as stress tensor according to the Boussinesq assumption. The total
encountered in compressible cavitating flows. Large Eddy heat flux vector q is obtained from the Fourier law with the
Simulations (LES) are performed for turbulence prediction. First constant Prandtl number hypothesis. For the LES the deviatoric
part of the sub-grid scale stress tensor is determined with the c (m/s)
High Pass Filtered Smagorinsky model of Stolz et al. [7].
1000
Equation of state:
Mass and energy balances for an arbitrary control volume
indicate that the mixture density is a linear combination of water
density l and vapor density g with the void fraction :

g 1 l ( 1)
100

and the internal energy a linear combination of water internal

energy el and vapor internal energy eg with the mass vapor

fraction: e Yev 1 Y el .
10 (-)
Water and vapor internal energy values are extracted from the
0 0,2 1 bar 0,4 500,6
bar 0,875 bar 1
IAPWS-97 thermodynamic tables and approximated as a function
of the temperature. 1 bar 50 bar 75 bar

The water Equation of State (3) has been derived by [4] and the Figure 1: Mixture sound speed for three pressures 1bar, 50bar and
vapor is modeled like an ideal gas (4): 75bar. Dashed lines: model of Jakobsen; plain lines: equation of
state used in the simulations
p pc l K T Tc for Y=0 ( 2)
The value for the constants pc and Tc for water in Eq. 3 have
p g RT for Y=1 ( 3) been estimated by Tamman [4] to be 1944.61 MPa and 3837 K,
respectively.
where p and T are the static pressure and temperature,
Mass transfer model:
pc , Tc and K are the pressure, temperature and liquid constants
for the liquid state, and R the gas constant. The mass transfer model according to Sone and Sugimoto[8]
The gas constant and the constant K have been modified for based on the theory of evaporation/condensation on a plane
Eq. 3 and 4 to fit vapor and water properties over large pressure surface is used:
and temperature ranges (until at least 75 bar):
S (Y ) if p p v
RT C 28.8 max Tc T , 0 92
T
S (Y ) -
Tc S(Y) otherwise

0.0016T 2 0.0578T 472.22 J/kg K if T 220C pv* p

K T C S (Y ) Ce A (1 ) l


2R T
0.9893T 315.61 J/kg K otherwise g g s

p p
*
S (Y ) Cc A (1 ) v
Following the work of Okuda/Ikohagi [6] the equation of state 2Rg Ts
(5) for a locally homogeneous gas-liquid medium can be
rewritten with Eq. 2, 3 and 4 in:
p p pc Probability density function:
The time evolution equation for the mass vapor fraction
K 1 Y pT Tc RY p pc T (4) probability density function PC

PC ; x , t is:
Pc P
The speed of sound of the mixture can be derived from this Ui c u'i | c Pc
equation. Heat capacities of water and vapor are required. They t xi xi
are expressed as a function of the temperature to approximate
2 c c Pc
S Pc
IAPWS-97 values. Mixture speed of sound obtained from this
equation of state is displayed exemplary for the three pressures 2 c Pc
1bar, 50bar and 75bar in fig. 1. The speed of sound obtained with xi xi xi xi
Jakobsen model is also represented in fig. 1 with dashed lines.
This model has been compared to experimental results and show
remarkable agreement. Where U is the mean velocity and u' c is the expected
value of the fluctuating velocity conditional on the scalar taking
the value . Two open terms needs modeling: the transport due
to fluctuating velocity and the molecular mixing term. The first
one is modeled by gradient diffusion and the second one with a
simple model, the Linear Mean Square Estimation. The transport
equation for the PDF becomes with the modeled terms:
Pc P Pc All the moments of the scalar field Y can be obtained by
Ui c averaging over the fields as appropriate. For instance, the mean
t xi xi xi value of Y is:


c 2 C Pc Pc S Pc (6) 1 N
xi xi Y
N

n 1
n

To obviate the difficulty of solving the PDF equation with

Lagrangian solvers, the stochastic field method developed by
Valino [1] has been extended to the vapor mass fraction. Numerical method
The density-based solver SPARC is used for the numerical
Stochastic Fields: simulations. It uses a 3D block-structured Finite-Volume-
Scheme, the full Multigrid-Method and is parallelized with MPI.
The two-phase homogeneous equilibrium formulation has been For the spatial discretization 2nd up to 4th order accurate cell
extended for the Stochastic Field method. Following Valino, centered schemes are available. 2nd order time accurate dual time
PC is stepping-scheme is implemented. Approximated Riemann solver
represented by an ensemble of N stochastic
and Artificial dissipation schemes can be selected for the flux

fields x , t ,
n calculations. Turbulence is predicted with a Reynolds Averaged
twice differentiable in space at the grid-size
Navier-Stokes (RANS - Algebraic, linear and non-linear two-
length scale:
equation turbulence models), LES (subgrid-scale models) or
1 N


Pc ; x , t n x , t x , t
N n1
Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS). Pre-conditioning yields
accurate results for very low as well as high Mach numbers.
.
Where represents the Dirac delta function. The transport In this simulation the Artificial dissipation scheme of Jameson et
equations for these fields can be deduced from the PDF transport al. [8] has been used. In contrast to the RANS simulation we
equation (6) by use of stochastic process techniques. Valino scale the amount of artificial dissipation down to a very low
proved that (6) value (about 5%) so that the vortical structure of the flow remains
almost unaffected. We stress here again that LES of cavitating
n n 1
n
dt 2' 2
flow is not possible without a little amount of artificial
d n U i dt ' dWi n
xi xi xi xi dissipation due to the large density variation of the flow field.

c 2 n C dt S ' n dt (7)
Additionally to the above mentioned scheme we pre-condition
the Navier-Stokes equations in order to apply a compressible
scheme to very low subsonic flows. The method used here is
gives the rule how the stochastic fields representing a PDF according to Choi and Merkle [9].
evolve whose (modeled) transport equation is (7).
The equations are filtered and the frequency c is taken to be
Results
the inverse of the sub-grid mixing time scale
sgs
sgs : c 1 Cd , Experimental setup
sgs 2

Experiments of Stutz/Reboud[3] and later Concalves /Patella
with the sub-grid scale constant Cd 2. [11] have been used to validate this novel method. In these
Thus, the mass fraction equation has been replaced with a set of experiments, an attached cavitation sheet develops in the venturi
N pure Eulerian transport equations with stochastic source terms: type test section CREMHYG (INPG Grenoble). The upper and
lower walls of the test section have been designed to reproduce
n n n
d n U i dt dt 2 dWi n cavitating flows on the blades of space turbopump inducers.
xi xi xi
x i
Cross sections are rectangular and their sizes at inlet and throat
n c
2 TLES

dt S dt n
are 43.7x44 mm and 50x44 mm, respectively. Convergence and
divergence angles are 4.3 and 4, respectively. Visualization of
cavitation sheet is possible through the transparent walls on the
side. The test section is equipped with pressure and temperature
where n 1,.., N ; n is the value of mass fraction in field n, sensors as well as double optical probe. The double optical probe
is used to evaluate void ratio and velocity fields inside the cavity
U i is the velocity, t is the combined molecular and turbulent at five horizontal positions. Fig. 2 shows a schematic picture of
the venturi profile and the location of measurement sensors.
diffusivity,Wi n is a Wiener process, independent for each spatial
component i but constant in space, c is the local mean of the
mass fraction over the N fields, TLES is the constant time used in

the LES and S n

the source term for cavitation. The last three
terms describe the effect of turbulent diffusion in the presence of
spatial gradients of vapor mass fraction, micromixing and
cavitation, respectively.

Figure 2: Schematic picture of the venture profile

The computational domain has been extent upstream by 6
times the channel height and downstream by 4 times the
channel
A free surface tank imposes the reference pressure in the
circuit and the flow rate is imposed by a circulating pump.
For the selected operating point, the pressure in the tank is
P=0.713bar and the mass flow rate is Q=0.02375 m/s.
Experiments indicate that a cavity whose length L ranges
between 70mm<L<85mm develops downstream of the
contraction in this case.
Numerical analyses from Goncalves et al. [11] among others
have been performed to reproduce this attached cavitation
sheet. In this numerical investigations vapor and water are
considered to be a compressible continuum. These two-
dimensional URANS simulations where done using the
Spalart/Allmaras turbulence model as well as the k--SST
model from Menter. They obtained acceptable agreement Figure 3: Void ratio in the symmetry plane
with the experimental findings.

The velocity profiles as well as the void ration profiles at the

Numerical setup five stations have been compared. In contrast to the
experiments our predictions showed a separation line
The computational domain has been extent upstream by 6 somewhat more downstream. While in the experiment the
times the channel height and downstream by 4 times the flow separated at station two (x=0.035m) we obtained a
channel height. We are using the full multigrid approach and separation at x=0.084 m (see Fig. 4).
therefore we were able to investigate three different meshes.
The comparison with the velocity profiles (Fig. 5-14) and the
The finest mesh contains about 10 million points, while the void ratio at the five measured stations reveals the above
coarser meshes uses 1.2 million and 0.16 million points. mentioned slight disagreement.
The meshes are refined at the contraction and downstream of
the contraction to capture accurately turbulent fluctuations
and cavitation sheet. The finest mesh has been refined at the
walls so that x+ 20, y+ 1 and z+ 25 values corresponds to
usual recommended values for LES calculations. The effect
of the turbulence at the inlet was investigated by means of the
Synthetic Eddy Method (SEM). This method was recently
extended for compressible flows by Magagnato et al. [10]
and implemented into SPARC. The incoming turbulence
level was assumed to be Tu=10% of the inlet velocity while
the turbulence length scale was chosen to be Lt =1mm.
At the inlet plane the following values have been set:
Uinlet = 10.8 m/s
Pinlet = 35.000 Pa
Tinlet = 293 K
Figure 4: Stream-wise velocity component in the symmetry
Reinlet = 2.7*106 plane
In order to obtain the measured inlet Cavitation number
inlet= 0.55 we had to adjust the outlet static pressure since it
is not measured in the experiment. Similar to the calculations
of Concaves /Patella [11] we were also not able to find a
suitable setup in order to adjust inlet accurately.

Calculation
The cavity length in the experiment showed quit stable
behaviour [11]. In our calculation we observed a similar
behaviour. Also our cavitation length was some 10% higher
(L=0.088m) compared to the experiment (see Fig. 3).

Figure 5: Velocity profile at station 1

Figure 6: Velocity profile at station 2 Figure 10: Void ratio profile at station 1

Figure 7: Velocity profile at station 3 Figure 11: Void ratio profile at station 2

Figure 8: Velocity profile at station 4 Figure 12: Void ratio profile at station 3

Figure 9: Velocity profile at station 5 Figure 13: Void ratio profile at station 4

Figure 14: Void ratio profile at station 5
Conclusion
The pure Eulerian fields yield the vapor mass fraction PDF at a
low computational cost since no Lagrangian solver or equations
for bubbles clusters are required. For our purpose a two-phase
flow homogeneous equilibrium model has been selected since
compressibility is crucial.
The Stochastic Field method implemented in our compressible
code has shown encouraging results. Also not fully satisfactory
results has been obtained compared with the experiments we feel
that also the experiments cant be fully trusted. In the near future
we plan to compare this novel approach with a variety of flow
configurations in order to fully understand the mechanism of
turbulence/two-phase flow interaction.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Eric Goncalves from University of Grenoble,
France for his cooperation related to the experimental setup.
References
[1] Valino, L., A field Monte Carlo formulation for
calculating the probability density function of a single
scalar in a turbulent flow, Flow Turbul. Combust., 60
157172.s.,1998.
[2] Magagnato, F., Pritz, B., Gabi, M., Prediction of the
Damping Characteristics of a Combustion chamber by
LES, The 20th International Symposium on Transport
Phenomena, Victoria BC, CANADA, 2009.
[3] Stutz, B., Reboud, J.-L., Two-phase flow structure of
sheet cavitation, Phys. Fluids, 9, No. 12, 3678-3686.
1997.
[4] Chen, H. T., Collins, R., Shock wave propagation past on
ocean surface, J. Comp. Phys., 7, 89-101. 1971.
[5] Shin, B. R., Iwata, Y., and Ikohagi, T., Numerical
simulation of unsteady cavitating flows using a
homogeneous equilibrium model, Comp. Mech., 30,
388-395. 2003.
[6] Okuda,K. and Ikhohagi, T., Numerical simulation of
collapsing behavior of hubble clouds, Trans JSME B
62(603), 3792-3797 (in Japanese), 1996.
[7] S. Stolz, P. Schlatter, D. Meyer and L. Kleiser, High-Pass
filtered Eddy-Viscosity Models for LES, Direct and
Large-Eddy Simulation, V.R. Friedrich, B.J. Geurts and
O. Metais, Eds. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 81-88.,2003.
[8] Jameson, A., Schmidt, W. and Turkel,E., Numerical
Simulation of the Euler equations by finite volume
method using Runge-Kutta time stepping schemes, AIAA
paper 81-1259, Proceedings of the 14th fluid and plasma
dynamics conference, Palo Alto, CA.,1981.
[9} Choi,Y.H. and Merkle,C.L., The application of
preconditioning to viscous flows. Journal of
Computational Physics 105, 207-23., 1993.
[10] Magagnato, F., Pritz, B., Gabi, M., Inflow Conditions for
Large-Eddy Simulation of Compressible Flow in a
Combustion Chamber, Proceedings of the 5th
International Symposium on Turbulence, Heat and Mass
Transfer, Dubrovnik, Croatia,2006.
[11] Concalves, E.,Patella, R. F., Numerical simulation of
cavitating flows with homogeneous models, Computers
& Fluids 38, 1682-1696., 2009.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Analysis of loss of heat removal accident in the spent fuel pools of Ignalina
Nuclear Power Plant
A. Kaliatka1, E. Uspuras1
1
Laboratory of Nuclear Installations Safety,
Lithuanian Energy Institute,
Breslaujos str. 3, LT-44403 Kaunas, Lithuania
Abstract
Safe storage of spent fuel assemblies in the facilities for
intermediate storage (spent fuel pools) is very important. These
facilities are not covered with a leak-tight containment, thus the
consequences of overheating and melting of fuel in the spent fuel
pools can be very severe. On the other hand, due to low decay
heat of fuel assemblies, the processes in pools are very slow.
Therefore, the accident management measures play a very
important role in case of some accidents in spent fuel pools.
This paper presents the analysis of possible consequences of fuel
overheating due to the leakage of water from a spent fuel pool.
Also the accident mitigation measure, i.e. the injection of water
was evaluated. The analysis was performed for the Ignalina NPP
Unit 2 spent fuel pool, using system thermal-hydraulic code
RELAP5/MOD3 and the code for severe accident analysis
ASTEC. The phenomena taking place during such accident are
discussed.
Abbreviations
INES International Nuclear Event Scale
NPP Nuclear Power Plant
Acronym for Russian graphite-moderated boiling
RBMK
water reactor type
SFA Spent Fuel Assemblies
SFP Spent Fuel Pool
Introduction
The Tsunami that followed the earthquake at the Fukushima
Daiici nuclear plants in Japan [1] showed that a loss of coolant
can occur with the resultant effect on the spent fuel in the spent
fuel pools. The consequences of such an event can be very
serious creating a possibility of significant amount of radioactive
material release to the environment. The consequences of such an
accident can possibly be equivalent to the Chernobyl accident,
which has been rated at 7 on the International Nuclear Event
Scale (INES), because spent fuel pools are in general not housed
in a containment with the same integrity as the containment
around the reactor core and primary pressure boundary.
The possible consequences of water loss due to the leakage and
water injection to the spent fuel pool after fuel heat up are
evaluated in this paper. The evaluation of this accident was
performed for Ignalina NPP Unit 2 spent fuel pool (SFP), but it
can be applied for SFP of other reactor types. In order to apply it
to other reactor type SFP, real characteristics of SFP, such as
water volume, possible leakage rate and decay heat of fuel
assemblies groups in SFP, etc. should be evaluated.
At the Ignalina NPP (Lithuania) both Russian design channel-
type graphite-moderated boiling water reactors (RBMK-1500)
are shutdown for decommissioning (in 2004 and 2009). All
assemblies of spent fuel are stored in the spent fuel pools and in
dry storage facility on-site of the Ignalina NPP.
The RBMK fuel assembly consists of two fuel bundles 3,5 m
long, placed one above the other (the core height of RBMK-1500
reactor is 7 m) [2]. Each fuel bundle includes 18 fuel elements
placed in two circles around the carrying rod. The outer diameter
of the fuel assembly is 79 mm. For safe disposal of spent fuel
bundles into the spent fuel pools and later in the dry storage
facility, the leak-tight fuel assemblies should be cut separating
the fuel bundles and placed in the shipping casks.
The main goal of this paper is to discuss the processes in SFP
during the loss of water due to leakage in pools and to describe
the accident mitigation measure, i.e. the water injection to the
spent fuel pool after fuel heat up.
Design of spent fuel pools at Ignalina NPP
The reloaded from the RBMK-1500 reactor fuel assemblies with
two fuel bundles remain in the pool for at least a year, after
which they may be removed to be cut in a hot cell. During this
procedure the fuel bundles are separated and placed into the 102
shipping casks. The shipping casks with spent fuel assemblies are
stored in the storage pools until they are loaded into the
protective casks CASTOR or CONSTOR to be further
transported to the dry spent fuel storage facility. The fuel
assemblies with fuel rods, which lose whey leak-tightness, are
placed in a special individual sheaths (for single assembly two
fuel bundles) and stored together with other non-cut fuel
assemblies [3, 4].
Each reactor unit at Ignalina NPP is equipped with a system of
spent fuel pools (Figure 1). All process of operations related to
the handling of the spent fuel are performed in the central hall or
in the spent storage pools hall. The spent fuel assemblies,
prepared to be cut in the hot cell, are accumulated in a separate
pool (Room 234). After cutting, the Spent Fuel Assemblies
(SFAs) are stored in shipping casks in shallow compartments of
the storage pool (Rooms 336, 337/1, 337/2, 339/1, and 339/2).
The non-cut SFAs are stored in deep compartments of storage
pool (Rooms 236/1 and 236/2). The loading of the shipping casks
is performed in two pools (Rooms 338/1 and 338/2). Also, there
is a transport corridor (Room 235) for the transportation of SFAs
and shipping casks between the pools and the transport corridor
(Room 157) for transportation of fuel assemblies between the
spent fuel hall and reactor hall. The whole complex of storage
pools of the spent fuel storage and handling system comprises 12
pools (Figure 1). The detailed description of spent fuel pools in
Ignalina NPP is presented in [3, 5].
 201, 202 and 203 models the water mixing in the pools.
Reactor Storage
hall
The bottom part of SFP below the fuel assembly in RELAP5
pools hall 236/2 336 337/ 1 337/2 339 /2

model is modelled by a branch element 100, the top part of

SFP is modelled by branches 301 and 302. To model the
24 m

157 157 235 338/ 1 338 /2 atmospheric pressure in SFP, the top part of the pools is
234
connected to a time dependent volume 400 with atmosphere air
625 627
conditions. The leakage of water through the rupture in the wall
339/1
513,
0101,
046,
236 /1 of SFP is modelled by a junction 011. In the severe accident
047
management guidelines of Ignalina NPP it was shown that the
6m water leakage in the case of SFP floor break is limited by the
18 m 42 m
capacity of drainage system and the maximal uncompensated
Figure 1. Layout of buildings in SFPs hall of Ignalina NPP Unit 2 leakage may not be higher that 21.1 kg/s [5]. The flow area and
[3, 5] flow energy coefficients of this junction are selected in such a
way that the maximal flow rate from the pools (when the water
level in pools is nominal) is 21.1 kg/s. The supply of water is
During the modelling of loss of water from SFP due to leakage modelled using a junction 021 ant volume 020 with the
accident, for the evaluation of worst possible consequences the steady state conditions. The temperature of water, which is
main assumptions were used: supplied to SFP, is assumed to be 50 oC.
The maximal amount of SFAs is placed in the spent fuel It was assumed that shipping casks with spent fuel bundles are
pools. Total mass of uranium in SFPs (in 7901 SFA) is equal placed in SFP in two layers one above the other, according to the
to 752,400 kg; real shipping casks loadings in the SFP [5, 7]. Therefore, in the
The maximal possible water leakage through rapture of model, Heat Structure 12221 is described in same way like
drainage pipe is assumed (21.11 kg/s) [3, 5]. non-cut SFAs (Heat Structures 12111, 12211 and 12121).
Elevations of the shipping casks loading in SFP are different
The analysis was performed for the two different power levels: from the non-cut SFAs, thus Heat Structure 12221 is placed
The maximal possible residual heat of SFAs during the higher, comparing to Heat Structures 12111, 12211 and
Ignalina NPP Unit 2 operation (4253 kW) was assumed. This 12121 (see Figure 2).
situation is similar to the case, which was at the accident in ATMOSPHERE
Fukushima Daiici NPP Unit 4. For the Ignalina NPP this 400 507

situation is related to the moment when the Unit 2 of the 26 .18 m

13022

10 m
Ignalina NPP was in operation (i.e. at the end of 2009). 301 302 505
Nodes
At present, more as three years after shutdown of Unit 2, the 16.18 m

1m
22 Water level 15.18 m
decay heat of spent nuclear fuel in SFP is decreased. 21 201 202
According Ignalina NPP data, the total decay heat in the SFP

Cooling by outside air

20 203
of Unit 2 is 810 kW [6]. 19
18 12221
11.08 m

POOLWALL
17
Developing of spent fuel pools models
Heat structure

16
15
6. 8 m

14
Analysis of loss of heat removal accident in the SFPs of Ignalina 13
12
12111 12211 12121
6 .8 m
NPP was performed using system thermal hydraulic code 11
Heat structure

Heat structure

10
Heat structure

503
9
RELAP5 Mod3.3 [7] and the code for severe accident analysis
12032
8 4 .28 m
7
6. 8 m

ASTEC [8]. RELAP5 model of Ignalina NPP Unit 2 spent fuel 6

5
pool consists of 3 representative spent fuel pools (201, 202 4
3
and 203 in Figure 2), which model the real rooms of SFP: 2 0 .0 m
1 -1.6 m
Element 201 is used for the modelling of the most energy -1.6 m

rated room of SFP (room 236/2). 100 - 1.723 m

011 021
Element 202 is used for the modelling of all the other SFPs 020
010
(Room 234 and Room 236/1 loaded with non-cut SFAs;
Room 235, Room 336, Room 337/1, Room 337/2, Room a) nodalization of SFAs and pools
338/1, Room 338/2, Room 339/1 and Room 339/2, where the
spent fuel bundles are loaded into the shipping casks).
203
In pool 201 two groups of non-cut SFAs: Heat Structure
Cooling by outside air

12111 and Heat Structure 12211 are modelled (see

POOLWALL

202
12032

Figure 2).
503

201
In pool 202 one group of non-cut SFAs Heat Structure
12121 and one group Heat Structure 12221 for spent
fuel bundles in the shipping casks are modelled.
By pool 203 the gap between SFA and SFP walls is
modelled.
Due to one-dimensional code specifics, it was assumed that pools b) pools and walls scheme
201 and 202 are in the concentric geometry as it is shown in Figure 2. SFP and SFAs nodalization scheme in RELAP5 model
Figure 2 b). It means that 201 does not have radial heat losses
to the SFP walls. 201 is connected only to 202 and 202 is The ring POOLWALL heat structure 12032 models the walls
connected to 203 by special connections, presented in Figure 2 of SFP from ferroconcrete. The outer ring channel 503
a) by arrows. These cross connections between the channels models the outside air, which is around the SFP. Total cross
sectional area equals to 201 + 202 + 203 = 30 + 240 + 30 = The decay heat of different SFAs groups, used in RELAP5 and
300 m2. Total volume of water in the SFP is 300 m2 * (15.18 + ASTEC modules, were assumed taking into account the storage
1.723) = 5070 m3. In the model, it was assumed that the area of time in the SFPs (see Table 1).
concrete walls (heat structure 12032) around the pools with
spent fuel assemblies (pool 203) is 1091 m2 from the inner side Groups Groups of SFAs Assumed SFA Amount Group
and 1145 m2 form the outer side. The top part of SFP, which is in RELAP5 and storage decay of SFAs power,
above elements 201, 202 and 203 models the volume filled ASTEC models time in heat, in kW
by air and consists of two volumes 301 and 302. The cross SFP kW group
sectional area of 301 equals 270 m2. This volume is modelled SFAs in Heat Structure
as branch element, which connects 201 and 202. The 236/2 12111; 8 days 5.21 166 864.9
volume 302 is above 203 with cross sectional area 30 m2. room ROD1
This volume 302 is modelled as branch, which connects SFAs in Heat Structure
203 and 301 with atmosphere and assures the constant close 236/2 12211; 137 days 1.281 1182 1514.1
to atmospheric pressure inside building of SFPs (the building is room ROD2
not leaktight). The height of volumes 301 and 302 is SFAs in
assumed 10 m. To model the area of the wall and roof in SFP Heat Structure
236/1
compartment above water, which are connected to the 12121; 2 years 0.489 892 436.2
and 234
environment, the heat structure 13022 was used. The area of ROD3
rooms
concrete walls around the top part of SFP building (volume SFBs in Heat Structure
302) is assumed to be 614 m2 from the inner side and 645 m2 shipping 12221; 3 year 0.254 5661 1437.9
form the outer side. The thickness of concrete wall is assumed to casks ROD4
be 0.5 m. Total: 7901 4253
To model processes during the reflooding of overheated fuel Table 1. Parameters of groups of SFAs in the RELAP5 and
rods, the analysis was performed using ASTEC computer code, ASTEC models, according situation at 2009
designed for the analyses of severe accidents in NPPs. ASTEC
code is developed for the analysis of reactor accidents with core Analysis of water leak from spent fuel pool at maximal
degradation and includes modules for the simulation of core possible residual heat by employing RELAP5 code
degradation, melting and relocation, release and transport of
fission product and aerosol, and behaviour of debris bed. ASTEC For the modelling of water leak accident at maximal possible
code is a source term code with modular structure [8]. A model residual heat, the following assumptions were made:
developed using DIVA module of ASTEC V1.3R2 code is used
initial water level is 15.18 m from the very bottom of the fuel
in this paper. DIVA module simulates the in-vessel core
degradation: the behaviour of in-vessel structures, the formation assemblies (15.18 + 1.723 m from the bottom of SFP - see
Figure 2 a);
and the evolution of liquid and solid mixtures, thermal
hydraulics, and chemical reactions between materials. initial water temperature in SFPs is 50 C;
In the ASTEC code analysis, the simplified single pool model air ventilation system in the SFP is switched off;
was created using DIVA module (Figure 3). DIVA module heat removal by outside air is not taken into account;
allows to model fuel assemblies in detail. So in the model, the maximal rate of water leakage from SFP is 21.1 kg/s;
zirconium and stainless steel grids were taken into account. The
initial volume of water, water level, initial water temperature and at the time moment t = 304,000 s (84.4 h) the leakage from
water leakage rate from the SFP in the ASTEC model of SFPs the SFP is terminated;
were assumed the same as in the above-described RELAP5 the supply of water into SFP starts at 400,000 s (111.1 h)
model. The fuel rod models ROD1, ROD2, ROD3 and after the beginning of an accident. The flow rate of the
ROD4 represent the same groups of SFAs as heat structures emergency injected water 27.8 kg/s was selected taking into
12111, 12211, 12121 and 12211 in RELAP5 model. account the capacity of water make-up system in Ignalina
NPP [5].
TO ATMOSPHERE
In the modelling it was assumed that the leakage in the SFP starts
at the time moment t = 0 s (Figure 4). Due to the water leakage
16.277
from the pools, the water level, the hydrostatic pressure of water
1m

15.277 Water level

column and flow rate through the junction, which models the
+24.6 m
rupture in SFP, decrease. As it is presented in Figure 5, at the
ROD 4 time moment t = 59,700 s (16.6 h), the uncovering of the fuel
11.177
bundles, placed into a higher level in the 102 shipping casks (in
the RELAP5 mode these fuel assemblies are modelled by heat
POOLWALL
6.8 m

ROD 1 ROD 2 ROD 3

6.9 structure 12221) begins. The uncovering of non-cut spent fuel
16.9 m

assemblies placed in the lower level (heat structures 12211,

4.377 12121) and fuel assemblies of the emergency unloading (heat
6 .8 m
6.8 m

6.8 m

Structure 12111) starts at t = 134,000 s (37.2 h). The water

level decreases down to the very bottom of SFA at t = 304,000 s
0.1 (84.4 h). After the start of water injection with flow rate 27.8 kg/s
0.0
+7.7 m
POOL LOWER
400,000 s (111.1 h), the water level in the SFP starts to increase
-1.623
(Figure 4). All fuel assemblies are re-covered by water after
approximately 33 hours from the beginning of water supply (at
Figure 3. SFP and SFAs nodalization scheme in ASTEC model time moment t = 519,000 s). All analysed time intervals can be
divided into five stages:
 1st stage water leakage up to the beginning of the The heat from the hot fuel rods by steam-air mixture is
uncovering of the bigger part of spent fuel assemblies in SFP transferred to the walls of SFP. The behaviour of SFP wall
(t = 0 59,700 s); within this stage the SFAs are still covered temperatures on the inner and outer surface of the wall is
by water; presented in Figure 7.
2nd stage dry-out of fuel bundles and start of fuel heat up (t SFP wall temperature (water side)
= 59,700 304,000 s); 500 SFP wall temperature (air side)

3rd stage fuel heat up and overheating in the empty SFP (t = 400
304,000 400,000 s); pool filled by water

Temperature, C
o
th 300
4 stage start of water injection and reflooding of
overheated fuel (t = 400,000 519,000 s);
200
start of water supply
5th stage final filling of SFP by increasing the amount of
water up to the initial level (t = 519,000 550,000 s). 100

0
30
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000
start of uncovering of fuel assemblies Time, s
Flow rate, kg/s

20 all SFA are flooded by water

10
start of water supply
0
0 100000
Figure 4. Water leak from SFP and feeding
As it is shown in Figure 6, within the 1st stage (t = 0 59,700 s)
the increase of fuel temperature is insignificant. After the start of
uncovering the fuel bundles, placed into the higher level in the
102 shipping casks (heat structure 12221), the temperature of
these fuel rods starts to increase (t = 59,700 134,000 s) during
the 2nd stage. The heat up of the remaining groups of fuel rods
starts at the time t > 134,000 s. The temperature increases much
faster in the heat structure 12111, which models the fuel
assemblies of the emergency unloading with the highest decay
heat.
20
Water level from pool bottom, m.
Figure 7. Behaviour of SFP wall temperatures
After the beginning of water injection in the 4th stage (t =
release 400,000 s), the slow process of fuel cooldown begins. The fuel
feeding rods, placed in the lower level, are cooled faster, the top part of
the fuel rods (heat structure 12221) is cooled the latest (Figure
6). The increase of water level within the 5th stage in SFP is
indicated by a fast decrease of the wall inner surface temperature
200000 300000 400000 500000
(Figure 7). The modelling shows that the significant part of the
Time, s
heat from the SFA is transferred to the concrete walls (Figure 8).
As it was mentioned, an assumption was made that in the
calculation the total area of concrete walls is 1091 + 2005 =
3096 m2 from the inner side and 1145 + 2068 = 3213 m2 form the
outer side of the walls; the thickness of concrete wall is assumed
to be 0.5 m. In the developed RELAP5 model the heat transfer
from the SFP wall to outside air is modelled using heat structures
12032, 13022 and air circuit elements 503, 505. The
heat transfer coefficient from outside surface of SFP walls to air
was assumed to be in the range 2.5 5.2 W/(m2-K). The maximal
calculated amount of heat, which can be removed from the walls
of SFP is approximately 1 MW (see Figure 8).
3.0 From water side
From air side

18 all SFA are flooded by water 2.0

start of uncovering of fuel assemblies
Heat transfer, MW

16
1.0
14
top of fuel assemblies in heat structure "12221"
12 0.0 start of water
10 supply
8 top of fuel assemblies in heat structures "12111", "12211", "12121" -1.0
6
4 start of water supply -2.0
2
0 -3.0
-2 0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000
Time, s
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000
Time, s
Figure 8. Heat transferred from the water-steam-air mixture to
Figure 5. Water level in SFP the concrete walls of SFP and from outside area of walls to the
1000
"12111" "12211" "12121" "12221" outside air
start of uncovering
of fuel assemblies As it is shown in Figure 6, in SFA with the highest decay heat the
800 "12111", "12211",
"12121"
maximal fuel temperature reaches 990 oC. At such high
Temperature, C

temperature, the steam-zirconium and zirconium-air reactions

o

600
start of
uncovering
should take place; however, they were not evaluated in this case.
400 of fuel The additional calculation was performed activating a special
assemblies option of RELAP5/MOD3.3, when water-metal reaction was
"12221"
200 evaluated. In this last case, the reaction of zirconium and steam is
start of water supply
treated using the correlation developed by Cathcart [7]. The
0
model assumes that there is an unlimited amount of steam
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000
available for the metal-water reaction. More detailed description
Time, s
of such modelling is referred in paper [9]. The comparison of
Figure 6. Behaviour of fuel temperatures in SFP maximal fuel temperatures calculated without evaluation of
steamzirconium reaction and when this exothermic reaction was
taken into account is presented in Figure 9. It can be seen that a
significant increase of the temperature starts after the fuel
cladding temperature exceeds 800 900 oC, when the exothermic
reaction starts. The RELAP5/MOD3.3 does not evaluate the
specific severe accident phenomena as fuel melting. Thus, in the
calculation, it is assumed that the released heat due to the steam-
zirconium reaction is used only for the heating of fuel. This
explains very high (not realistic) fuel temperatures in Figure 9.
As it is presented in Figure 11, the injection of water in the SFP
with the overheated SFAs leads to the exothermic steam-
zirconium reaction and fast increase of temperatures of fuel
claddings. Such reaction appears in all groups of SFAs (ROD1
ROD4). The maximal fuel temperatures exceed 2000 oC: in
such case all fuel claddings will be damaged, oxidised from both
sides and melting of claddings and stainless steel grids will
appear.

3000 2500
ROD 1
steam - zirconium reaction is
2500 taken into account ROD 2
2000
ROD 3 start of water supply
steam -
Temperature, C

Temperature, C
2000 ROD 4
o

o
zirconium
1500
reaction is not
1500 start of water supply evaluated
1000
1000

500 500

0 0
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000
Time, s
Time, s

Figure 9. Comparison of maximal fuel temperatures calculated Figure 11. Maximal fuel temperatures calculated using ASTEC
without evaluation of steamzirconium reaction and when this code
exothermic reaction was taken into account
In the ASTEC calculations the total amount of hydrogen
The generation of hydrogen and exothermic reaction starts in the generated due to the steam-zirconium reaction is about 8350 kg
3rd stage, before the emergency water injection. The calculated (Figure 12). Such total amount of hydrogen is very similar,
total amount of generated hydrogen is presented in Figure 10. As comparing to the RELAP5 calculation (Figure 10).
it is shown in the figure, the total amount of hydrogen generated
from 7901 SFAs is 8040 kg. The total hydrogen mass generated 8000
by the metal-water reaction is calculated by multiplying the mass
Total amount of generated .

7000
of zirconium reacted by the ratio of the molecular weight of 4 6000
hydrogen atoms to 1 zirconium atom [7]. Because the RELAP5
hydrogen, kg

5000
model assumes that there is an unlimited amount of steam
4000
available for the metal-water reaction, the start of hydrogen start of water supply
3000
generation and increase of fuel temperatures are not related to the
2000
moment when the supply of water starts.
1000
0
8000 0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000
Total amount of generated .

7000 Time, s
6000
Figure 12. Hydrogen generation due to Zr oxidation in the
hydrogen, kg

5000 ASTEC analysis

4000
start of water supply
3000
2000
1000
0
0 100000 200000
Time, s
Figure 10. Total amount of generated hydrogen, calculated using
RELAP5
Analysis of spent fuel pool dryout and reflooding using
ASTEC code
To understand the real processes during the overheating and
further reflooding of fuel rods, the analysis was performed using
ASTEC computer code. This code is designed for the analyses of
severe accidents in NPPs. The all initial conditions (geometry of
SFPs, initial volume of water, water level, water leakage and
injection of cold water) in the ASTEC model of SFPs were
assumed the same as in the above-described RELAP5 model. The
fuel rod models ROD1, ROD2, ROD3 and ROD4
represent the same groups of SFAs as heat structures 12111,
12211, 12121 and 12211 in RELAP5 model (see Table 1).
Influence of spent fuel pool compartments volume on the
results of analysis
In the above presented calculations it was assumed that the area
300000 400000 500000 of concrete walls around the pools with spent fuel assemblies is
1145 m2 and the area of concrete walls around the top part of SFP
building is 645 m2 form the outer side. The thickness of concrete
wall is assumed to be 0.5 m. During the accident, the heat
generated in the fuel assemblies is transferred by convection and
radiation to the structures of SFP building to the concrete walls.
Some part of heat is transferred through the walls (by thermal
conductivity) and dissipated in the outside air. The amount of
heat removed by air depends on the heat transfer area surface
area of walls of SFP building. From the other hand, as it can be
seen from Figure 1, the building of SFP in Ignalina NPP has very
big volume of air above the water level and significant areas of
outer walls. To model the volume above the water, the REPAP5
model of SFPs was modified, increasing the cross flow area of
branch 302 up to 530 m3 and the height up to 20 m (see Figure
13). Thus, the surface area of concrete walls in the top part of
SFP building increases up to 2005 m2 from inner side and up to
2068 m2 form the outer side. This situation is more realistic and
less conservative. The analysis of water leak from SFP accident
was performed for the maximal possible residual heat case, using
RELAP5 Mod 3.3 code. The initially, boundary conditions and
60
operators actions were assumed the same as for above case.

Total amount of generated .

50
As it is presented in Figures 14 16, the more realistic
(increased) volume of air above the water level in the part of SFP 40

hydrogen, kg
building significantly influenced the results of calculations. The
30
peak values of temperatures of fuel pellets in the SFAs are below
770 oC, temperatures of SFP wall from inner side below 300 oC, 20
outer side below 120 oC. The maximal possible amount of start of water supply
10
generated hydrogen reaches only 47 kg in this case. Thus, the
bigger volume of air in the top part of SFP building and increased 0
amount of concrete walls absorbed significant amount of heat, 0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000
which is generated in SFAs. Time, s

ATMOSPHERE Figure 16. Total amount of generated hydrogen, calculated using

400 507
36.18 m 13022 RELAP5
D 31.91 m

20 m
D 32.91 m Analysis of water leak from spent fuel pool at today level of
301 302 505
Nodes
residual heat
16.18m
1m

22 Water level 15.18m

Today the total decay heat of spent nuclear fuel in SFP of Unit 2
Cooling by outside air

21 201 202
203
20 decreased down to 810 kW. The decay heat of different groups of
POOLWALL

19
18
1222 SFAs, which are modelled in RELAP5 and ASTEC modules,
17.78 m

1 11.0 8 m
17
16 more as three years after shutdown of reactor, are presented in
Heat structure

15
Table 2.
6.8m

14 1211
13 12211 12121
12 1 6.8 m
11
10 The remaining parameters: assumed geometry of SFPs, initial
Heat structure

Heat structure
Heat structure

12032

9
8 4 .28 m
7 level and temperature of water in SFPs and etc. were assumed the
503
6.8m

6
5
4 same as in the first case analysis for theoretically maximal
3
2
1
0.0 m possible decay heat of spent fuel in SFPs. The volume of SFPs
-1.6 m
-1.6 m compartments was assumed conservatively the same as the first
100
011 021
- 1. 723 m
case analysis. The accident scenario was assumed the same also.
010 020 Taking into account this decreased level of decay heat of SFAs,
the calculation were repeated using RELAP5 model of spent fuel
Figure 13. SFP and SFAs nodalization scheme in modified pools. It was assumed the identical action of operators the
RELAP5 model injection of fresh water is started 400,000 s (111.1 h) after the
beginning of accident when all SFAs are already uncovered.
The flow rate of injected water 27.8 kg/s was assumed the same
"12111" "12211" "12121" "12221"
800
start of uncovering
as for theoretically maximal decay heat in SFPs.
of fuel assemblies
"12111", "12211", The behaviours of calculated temperatures of fuel and pool wall
600 "12121" temperatures are presented in Figures 17 and 18. As it is shown
Temperature, C
o

start of
in these figures, the peek temperature of fuel in the fuel pellets
400 uncovering centre is below 250 oC, the temperature of inner surface of SFP
of fuel wall is approximately 100 oC, when the temperature of outer
assemblies
200 "12221" surface of concrete walls is below 80 oC. Thus, the results of
start of water supply calculation showed that at low level of spent fuel assemblies
0 decay heat, no damage of fuel rods claddings would occur.
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000
Time, s
Groups Groups of SFAs in SFA Amount of Group
Figure 14. Behaviour of fuel temperatures in SFP RELAP5 and decay SFAs in power,
ASTEC models heat, W group kW
SFP wall temperature (water side) SFAs in
300 Heat Structure
SFP wall temperature (air side) 236/2 153 166 25.4
12111; ROD1
room
pool filled by water SFAs in
Temperature, C

200 Heat Structure

o

236/2 121.9 1182 144.1

12211; ROD2
room
start of water supply
SFAs in
100
236/1 Heat Structure
121.9 892 108.7
and 234 12121; ROD3
0
rooms
SFBs in
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 Heat Structure
shipping 93.9 5661 531.4
Time, s 12221; ROD4
casks
Figure 15. Behaviour of SFP wall temperatures Total: 7901 809.6
Table 2. Parameters of groups of SFAs in the RELAP5 and
ASTEC models, according situation at 2012
 "12111" "12211" "12121" "12221" The additional analysis performed with realistic volume of SFP
250 building (this volume is higher as assumed for base case
start of uncovering
of fuel assemblies calculation) showed that, the bigger volume of air in the top part
200 "12111", "12211",
"12121" of SFP building and increased amount of concrete walls absorbed
Temperature, C
o

150 significant amount of heat, which is generated in SFAs.

start of
uncovering
100
The performed analyses are useful for the evaluation of different
of fuel
assemblies accident mitigation measures. The modifications of SFP models
50 "12221" and benchmarking of calculations with different models,
start of water supply
developed using other codes, are planned in the future.
0
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 Acknowledgments
Time, s This research was funded by Ministry of Education and Science
as Lithuanian Energy Institute institutional long-term R&D
Figure 17. Behaviour of fuel temperatures in SFP
program Research of process during nuclear power plants
SFP wall temperature (water side) decommissioning and radioactive waste and spent fuel
120 SFP wall temperature (air side) management and analysis of radiation effects
100
pool filled by water References
Temperature, C

80
o

60
40 start of water supply
20
0 processes in spent fuel pools of Ignalina NPP in case of loss
0 100000 200000 300000
Time, s
Figure 18. Behaviour of SFP wall temperatures
Conclusions
This paper presents the calculation results of the most probable
severe accident in spent fuel pools, i.e. the loss of heat removal
due to water leakage in SFP. The analysis of this event, which
covers all possible phenomena in SFPs, was performed for SFP at
Ignalina NPP Unit 2.
For the analysis of the accident, the model of spent fuel pools
was developed using RELAP5 and ASTEC codes. The developed
models allowed to model different phenomena: uncovering and
heat-up of fuel rods, steamzirconium reaction, quenching of hot
fuel rods by water, etc. The results of the analysis showed, that
assuming the theoretically maximal possible residual heat of fuel
assemblies in SFP (4253 kW), the late operator actions: injection
of water in to SFP with overheated fuel rods can lead to the
generation of huge amount of hydrogen, failure of fuel claddings
and release of radioactive isotopes to the environment.
The analysis was performed also for the today situation of
Ignalina NPP more as three years after the permanent shutdown
of Unit 2 reactor. The total decay heat of spent nuclear fuel in
SFP of Unit 2 decreased down to 810 kW. In the case of low
level of spent fuel assemblies decay heat the increase of fuel
temperature is very slow, and assuming some operator actions no
damage of fuel rods claddings would occur.
[1] http://www.nei.org
[2] Almenas K., Kaliatka A., Upuras E., Ignalina RBMK-1500.
A Source Book. Extended and Updated Version, Lithuanian
Energy Institute, Kaunas, Lithuania, 1998.
[3] aliatka A., Ognerubov V., Vileiniskis V., Analysis of the
400000 500000 of heat removal, Nuclear Engineering and Design. ISSN
0029-5493, Vol. 240, 2010, 1073-1082.
[4] Institute VNIPIET, Additional to Ignalina NPP design safe
storage of uranium-erbium fuel with enrichment of 2.8 %.
No. 03-02499. TASpd-1299-70796 (in Russian), 2003.
[5] Kaliatka A., Ognerubov V., Vaisnoras M., Uspuras E.,
Trambauer K. Analysis of beyond design basis accidents in
spent fuel pools of the Ignalina NPP, Proceedings of ICAPP
08, 2008 International Congress on Advances in Nuclear
Power Plants, ISBN: 0-89448-061-8, Anaheim, CA USA,
June 8-12, 2008, CD, 1-10.
[6] Lithuanian national final report on Stress Tests. Republic
of Lithuania State Nuclear Power Safety Inspectorate,
Vilnius 2011.
[7] Fletcher et al., RELAP5/MOD3 Code Manual User's
Guidelines, NUREG/CR-5535, Idaho National Engineering
Lab., 1992.
[8] J.P. Van Dorsselaere, C. Seropian, P. Chatelard, F. Jacq, J.
Fleurot, P. Giordano, N. Reinke, B. Schwinges, H.J. Allelein
and W. Luther, The ASTEC integral code for severe
accident simulation, Nuclear Technology 165, 2009, 293
307.
[9] Kaliatka A., Vileiniskis V. Uspuras E., Analysis of
processes in spent fuel pools in case of loss of heat removal
due to water leakage, Proceedings of (HEFAT2011) 8th
International Conference on Heat Transfer, Fluid
Mechanics and Thermodynamics, Pointe Aux Piments,
Mauritius, 11-13 July 2011, CD, 136-142.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Evaluation of Several Narrow Band Approaches for the Approximate
Modelling of Radiative properties of Flames
F. Andr, D. Liu, C. Galizzi, S. Lamige, M. Khni and D. Escudi
Universit de Lyon, CNRS
CETHIL, INSA-Lyon, UMR5008, F-69621, France
Abstract
Accurate models for the radiative properties of gases in
nonuniform media are required to inverse emission spectra of
flames or hot gaseous flows. Three of them are investigated in
this paper: the usual Statistical Narrow Band (SNB) model, the
SNB model with the fictitious gas (SNB-FG) approach and the
Narrow Band k-moment (NBKM) model with the same spectral
decomposition (NBKM-FG) technique. All models are used to
infer temperature and species concentrations from emission
spectra, calculated from a Line-By-Line approach, whose role is
both to serve as a reference for the building of the model
databases and to simulate experimental data. If the agreement is
usually good for all models, only those based on FG techniques
are found to be reliable enough over a wide range of geometrical
configurations and thermophysical gas properties, to be selected
with confidence for inverting emission spectra. Indeed, only FG
models are able to treat with a good accuracy the reabsorption
phenomenon, which appears when the hot gas is observed by the
detection system after passing through a cold air layer.
Nomenclature
E lower state energy level of the radiative transition
I radiative intensity
first model parameter (band averaged absorption
k
coefficient)
P total gas pressure
s abscissa along the path
u optical path length
x gas molar fraction
X, Y abscissa along the path
second model parameter
absorption coefficient
transmission function
wavenumber, spectral
narrow band width
Introduction
Radiative properties of gases are strongly connected to their
thermophysical properties, i.e. their composition as well as their
temperature. Accordingly, some information can be expected to
be inferred from the measurement of the radiation emitted by hot
gaseous flows such as gas flares, flames or fires. Several
spectroscopic techniques based on this principle have been
reported in the literature [16,20]. However, the development of
accurate and reliable radiative transfer diagnostic techniques
requires dedicated models for the radiative emission of gases.
Such models are requested to be at the same time: 1/ accurate, to
estimate with a good precision the radiative properties of
molecular gases in uniform situations (homogeneous isothermal),
2/ robust, to treat radiative heat transfer in highly nonuniform
cases and to handle correctly the radiation reabsorption
phenomenon (in which radiation due to high energy levels or
hot lines of a hot gas layer is absorbed by the same gaseous
species at a lower temperature).
The most accurate model to treat this kind of problem uses the
so-called Line-By-Line (LBL) method which accounts for all the
absorption lines of the molecular gas. Nevertheless, due to the
huge number of lines that needs to be considered in this
approach, this technique is rarely used for practical applications.
However, it usually serves as a reference against which other
approximate models are assessed. LBL data provide high
resolution spectra (spectral resolution is usually around 10-3-10-2
cm-1). As a consequence, about 106 spectral calculations are
required to use the LBL approach for radiative heat transfer
calculations (i.e. to cover the [0 ; 10,000 cm-1] spectral range
over which the Planck function takes significant values for
temperatures lower than 3,000 K).
Approximate models can be put in several categories, which are
strongly connected with the widths of the spectral intervals over
which gas radiative properties are averaged. Spectral widths that
extend from a few cm-1 (narrow band models, NB) up to the full
spectrum (global models) are frequently encountered in the
literature. A compendium of the existing models is provided by
Modest [11]. From now on, only narrow band models will be
considered as they enable to take into account the spectral nature
of the radiative emission at a relatively high resolution
compatible with many usual spectroscopic techniques. NB
models provide gas radiative properties averaged over spectral
intervals over which the Planck function is almost constant. This
corresponds to bands a few cm-1 wide (the value of 25 cm-1 is
frequently used). Accordingly, those models usually require less
than 400 narrow band calculations for radiative heat transfer
applications. They provide a significant improvement in terms of
computation cost compared to LBL modelling (the spectral
integration cost is reduced by a factor 103).
Many NB models are available in the literature to approximate
the radiative properties of gases in uniform situations [6]. One of
the most reliable one is the Statistical Narrow Band (SNB) model
which uses the line intensity distribution proposed by
Malkmus [10] in 1967. This model was shown to be the most
accurate for calculations in uniform gaseous mixtures of CO-
CO2-H2O-N2 such as those encountered in combustion
applications [17]. Several improvements of this model have been
proposed to broaden its use to highly nonuniform gaseous
situations. The simplest ones use path averaging techniques to
derive model parameters in nonuniform situations from those in
uniform ones. Two of them, respectively due to CurtisGodson
[5] and to LindquistSimmons [9], have been widely studied.
They are described for instance in Ref. [21]. Those techniques
provide relatively simple and straightforward formulas to extend
uniform models to nonuniform situations. Moreover, their use
usually gives accurate results in weakly nonuniform situations.
Nevertheless, they fail to provide correct estimates when strong
temperature and/or species concentration gradients are In this case, the infrared radiative intensity that reaches the
encountered along the radiation path. For those more complicated detector can be written as the following solution (in discrete
cases, sophisticated techniques are required. Several of them formulation) of the Radiative Transfer Equation (RTE, [11]):
have been proposed to improve the quality of the modelling,
I s 1 s1 , s I 0 s1
when compared with usual NB approximation, while preserving
acceptable computational costs.
A
(1)
The fictitious gas (FG) approach [8] is one of the most widely
s1 , s s0 , s I 0 s0
used techniques to treat nonuniform situations. It consists in a B
spectral decomposition of the gas absorption coefficient in
several parts (each of them is associated with a fictitious gas) in which:
such that each component summarizes the contribution of all
absorption lines for which lower energy levels belong to the same - I s is the radiative intensity received by the
range of values. This modelling was originally proposed to treat
infrared detector averaged over the spectral interval
infrared plume signature situations by the correlated-k technique
[8,13]. A decade ago, it was applied together with the SNB ,
approach, providing the so-called SNB-FG modelling [18]. More - I 0 si is the radiation emitted by the blackbody at
recently, it was coupled with the k-moment method [1], providing temperature T si averaged over (see Figure 1 for
the Narrow Band k-Moment-FG (NBKM-FG) model [2].
details),
The aim of the present paper is to investigate which kind of - X , Y represents the transmission function of the
model should be used to infer flame temperature and species gas between points of abscissa X and Y along the path,
concentration from emission spectra. The analysis is performed averaged over .
in terms of the cold gaseous path length between the flame and
the infrared detector as well as of the source (flame) temperature.
As indicated in equation (1), I s is the sum of two terms.
LBL data are used to simulate real flame emission spectra.
They are inversed by coupling a model for the radiative The first one, A, characterizes the emission of cold gases. The
properties of gases (three of them, namely the SNB, SNB-FG and second one, B, represents the radiation emitted by the flame that
NBKM-FG models, were considered. They are briefly detailed in reaches the detector after passing through the cold air layer. It
the paper) with an optimization technique (based on an can be noticed that the path that is involved in the calculation of
evolutionary programming technique described in [3]). It is one of the transmission functions that appears in B ( s0 , s )
shown that when reabsorption of radiation is significant, which is contains information on the gaseous paths both in the cold and
the case when hot gases are at high temperature and when long the hot gas layers. This term is the one which is affected by the
paths in cold air are considered, only models based on spectral reabsorption phenomenon.
decomposition techniques (FG) are able to provide accurate
results.
The narrow band model considered in this work is the SNB
model with the inverse exponential tailed distribution function of
Benchmark test case: geometry and associated model linestrengths proposed by Malkmus [10]. It enables to estimate
The problem considered in this work is described on Figure 1. A the gas transmission function as:
flame (or more generally a flow of hot gases composed by a
mixture of CO2, H2O and N2) emits a radiation that is measured 1 Y
by an infrared detector after passing through a path in cold air. X , Y X x s P s s dsd
exp

Both the hot and cold gases layers are assumed to be uniform
(homogeneous isothermal). X , Y 2 ue X , Y ke X , Y
exp e 1 1
e X , Y

(2)
where the path averaged coefficients (index e indicates path
averaged equivalent) are obtained by the so-called Curtis-
Godson [5,21] approximation which provides the following
estimates:

ue X , Y x s P s ds
X


Y

ke X , Y ue X , Y x s P s k s ds

X
Y
e X , Y ke X , Y ue X , Y x s P s k s s ds
X
(3)
Figure 1. Schematic of the geometry studied - The infrared in which:
detector is located at abscissa s. The cold layer is at a uniform
temperature T s1 and the hot one is at T s0 . Species - k s is the band averaged absorption coefficient at
concentrations are constant over each layer. abscissa s along the path in the gas,
 - s is the second narrow band model parameter at
abscissa s along the path in the gas that takes distinct
meaning whether the model considered is SNB/SNB-
FG or NBKM-FG. Details about this particular aspect
of the models can be found in Refs. [6,18] for
SNB/SNB-FG and [1,4] for NBKM respectively.
SNB-FG and NBKM-FG models use almost the same set of
equations (see Ref. [2] for details). Nevertheless, those models
are based on really distinct approaches and assumptions which
explain why they are distinguished. As only two fictitious gases
are considered here, those models should be noted SNB-FG2 and
NBKM-FG2 respectively. Nevertheless, as no misunderstanding
is possible in the present paper, index 2 will be omitted in the
following sections.
LBL reference data and approximate model parameters
All the approximate model parameters used in this work are
based on the same set of LBL reference data. They were
calculated using the HITEMP2010 spectroscopic database [15]
for both CO2 and H2O. Line profiles were assumed Lorentzian.
Associated Half-Widths-at-Half-Maximum (HWHM) were kept
constant for all spectral lines. HWHM were calculated by the
correlations provided in the SNB code accompanying Ref. [19].
Conversion of the linestrengths, from the reference
thermophysical state used in HITEMP2010 database to the actual
computation temperature, uses an uncoupled harmonic oscillator
approach for the vibrational component of the partition function
and a rigid rotor model for the rotational one. This scheme, which
is very simple, was found to be accurate for a temperature up to
4,000 K as pointed out recently in Ref. [14]. No sub-Lorentzian
correction was taken into account in the LBL calculations.
From those high resolution absorption coefficient spectra,
Curves-Of-Growth (COG, gas transmission function as a
function of the path length inside the gas) were calculated and
averaged over 25 cm-1 wide narrow bands. Parameter k , which
represents the band averaged absorption coefficient of the gas,
was obtained directly from its k-moment definition [1]:
1
k
d (4) is formally the same as the Curtis-Godson one, but uses slightly
Another approach, used by some authors, employs the value of
the transmission function at the optically thin limit to define it
(see Ref. [18] for instance).
The second model parameter, , was optimized by a non
linear least square fitting technique to ensure the best achievable
agreement between COG obtained from LBL calculations and by
the approximate model. 1,000 path lengths logarithmically
spaced between 10-3 cm and 103 cm were used to estimate the
COG. Results of the optimization were then stored in files. Their
structure is the same as the one chosen in Ref. [19].
For the definition of the fictitious gases, a discretization of the
absorption spectra of the absorbing molecules (CO2 and H2O)
into two components, each of which is associated with a fictive
species, was chosen. Cuts-off between high and low energy
levels are given for each molecule in Table 1. They were taken
from Ref. [12], where they were used to construct ADF
(Absorption Distribution Function, global model)-FG2 and CK
(Correlated-k, narrow band approach) -FG2 model databases. The
fitting technique described previously in the case of the usual
SNB model was applied to each fictitious gas.
Gas Lower state energy cut-off
(in cm-1)
CO2 3,100
H2O 2,500
Table 1. Lower state energy cuts-off for the discretization into
two fictitious gases (from Ref. [12]).
The use of FG models requires to estimate two transmission
functions: one which corresponds to lines with lower energy
states below the cut-off, and one for which they are higher than
this value. As fictitious gases are assumed uncorrelated, as usual,
the transmission function of the gas is estimated as the product of
those of the two fictive species, each of which was derived from
equations (2,3). It should be noticed that due to the technique
used to build the model database, SNB-FG and NBKM-FG share
exactly the same input files.
Main differences between SNB, SNB-FG and NBKM-FG
models
The use of SNB and SNB-FG models has already been widely
discussed in the literature. Interested readers should refer to
Refs. [6,18] for an insight into them.
NBKM-FG model, in contrast, has only been proposed recently.
It uses the same database as the SNB-FG model but involves
distinct strategies to derive the model parameters (see Ref. [2] for
details). Indeed, in the SNB/SNB-FG models, parameters are
interpolated linearly between the values available in the
databases. In the case of the NBKM-FG, some non linear
theoretical formulations, based on a k-moment description of the
model parameters [1], are used to perform those interpolations.
Furthermore, fictitious gas spectra can be reasonably considered
as almost scaled. Indeed, all spectral lines that belong to a given
fictitious gas do not have exactly the same behavior as a function
of temperature (i.e. the same value of lower state energy level,
E), as many E values can be found in a given FG (this is
particularly true above the energy cut-off). Accordingly, FG
spectra are not rigorously scaled. Nevertheless, this assumption
was thought to be reasonably acceptable for the present work.
Following this assumption, the application of equation (24) of
Ref. [4] can be considered to treat nonuniformities. This equation
different assumptions (correlated absorption spectra instead of
line parameters, i.e. strengths and widths scaling).
Model comparisons
LBL calculations are used in the present work to simulate
experimental data. Their comparison with approximate models
exhibits two distinct sources of error. The first one (SE1) is due
to the use of the model itself. In fact, as model parameters are
adjusted on COG, nothing ensures a priori that for a given
geometry of the hot gas flow and cold gas layer system, the
model will be accurate. Indeed, optimizing model parameters on
a COG adjustment ensures a good overall behavior of the model
over the full COG, but not that it will be accurate at any
particular point along it. The second source of error (SE2) is
related to the way the various models handle nonuniformities.
Three kinds of tests have been performed with the purpose of
comparing the various models: T1/ inversion of the temperature
and species concentrations in the hot flow without cold gas layer.
This kind of comparison enables to estimate the order of
magnitude for the first source of error (SE1), T2/ the same
process is repeated several times with different lengths of cold
gas layers between the hot gases and the detector. This process
enables to estimate the order of magnitude of SE2, which is one
of the main quantities of interest for applications in nonuniform Gas Hot layer Cold layer
media, T3/ direct visual comparisons of emission spectra are H2O 4.9010-2 2.0010-2
performed to show signs of potentially problematic spectral CO2 2.4510-2 3.3010-4
regions.
Table 2. Gas molar fraction (methane flame surrounded by
The non linear fitting process, which is used in tests T1 and T2, is atmospheric air) in the hot/cold gas layers.
handled by a highly efficient algorithm based on an evolutionary
programming technique (Genetic Algorithm, GA) that uses the Case C1 Laboratory flame
following refinements compared to usual GA techniques (see Results of the inversion of emission spectra are provided in
Ref. [3] for more details): Tables 3-5. It should be noticed that in any case, species
concentrations are retrieved with a precision better than 10 % for
- Elements in the population (individuals) are real coded. both CO2 and H2O. An example of such result is provided in
The GA uses micro-generations (each generation Table 6 (which corresponds to a hot gas temperature equal to
contains 10 individuals, which minimizes the number 2,150 K).
of objective function calculations per iteration).
- No mutation is allowed. However, catastrophes (only
the best individual is maintained in the population after Cold
a prescribed number of generations. A new set of column SNB SNB-FG NBKM-FG
individuals is built from it by randomly modifying length (cm)
several of its genes) are used to maintain a wide
0 1337 1344 1349
diversity in the population.
5 1340 1346 1351
- A search space reduction technique is used, that allows
10 1344 1351 1355
to perform a global search at the beginning of the
optimization process, and a local one, close to the 50 1373 1381 1378
solution. 100 1368 1397 1391
500 1322 1443 1433
This algorithm provides the global minimum of the objective Table 3. Estimated temperature (in K) Exact temperature of the
function (sum of squares between the LBL intensity and the one hot gas layer is 1,350 K. Values in bold red indicate more than
calculated with the various approximate models). It was used for 10 % difference between the exact temperature and the one
the minimization of several well known multimodal obtained after optimization.
mathematical functions (Easom, Rosenbrock, Zakharov,..) and it
was found to be very efficient and reliable. Convergence
parameters (number of generation between two catastrophes, Cold
search space reduction speed,..) were estimated by trial and error column SNB SNB-FG NBKM-FG
to enable each model to revert itself satisfactorily (for a given set length (cm)
of inputs, the inverse model retrieves them exactly with a relative 0 1796 1774 1768
error lower than 10-4 10-5 for any parameter).
5 1795 1764 1759
10 1798 1762 1757
Outputs of the optimization process are the temperature and 50 1821 1758 1753
species concentrations in the hot gas layer. Results of several test
100 1798 1761 1756
cases are provided in the next section.
500 1699 1796 1789
Results and discussion Table 4. Estimated temperature (in K) Exact temperature of the
hot gas layer is 1,750 K. Values in bold red indicate more than
Two hot layer geometrical configurations have been considered 10 % difference between the exact temperature and the one
to compare models. The first one (Case C1) is representative of a obtained after optimization.
laboratory flame, as described for instance in Ref. [7]. The length
of the hot gas layer is fixed at 25 cm and the one of the cold air
varies logarithmically between 0 cm and 500 cm. 5 values were
selected between those extreme limits: 5 cm, 10 cm, 50 cm and Cold
100 cm. Three hot gas temperatures have been selected (1,350 K, column SNB SNB-FG NBKM-FG
1,750 K and 2,150 K) and cold gas temperature is fixed at 300 K. length (cm)
The second configuration (Case C2) is representative of a one 0 2175 2160 2155
meter flame. In this case, the only temperature considered for the 5 2174 2147 2144
hot gases is 1,550 K and 6 cold columns lengths (0 cm, 100 cm, 10 2176 2142 2139
200 cm, 500 cm, 1,000 cm and 20,000 cm) were investigated. 50 2202 2126 2124
The last case, for which the length of the cold column is 200 m, 100 2146 2123 2121
is representative of an IR plume signature test case. The other 500 2083 2165 2160
ones are representative of geometrical conditions encountered in
Table 5. Estimated temperature (in K) Exact temperature of the
pool fire problems.
hot gas layer is 2,150 K. Values in bold red indicate more than
For both cases (laboratory flame and pool fire), the species 10 % difference between the exact temperature and the one
concentrations in the hot and cold layers used as inputs for the obtained after optimization.
LBL calculations are those provided in Table 2. The cold gas
layer is assumed to be at 300 K.
 Cold Case C2 one meter hot gas layer: pool fire and infrared plume
column SNB SNB-FG NBKM-FG signature
length (cm)
Results of the inversion of emission spectra are provided in Table
5 2.34 / 4.67 2.42 / 5.03 2.43 / 5.05
7. In all cases, results provided by the various models are very
10 2.33 / 4.53 2.44 / 5.08 2.45 / 5.10
similar. However, errors due to the use of the FG models are
50 2.24 / 4.19 2.49 / 5.23 2.50 / 5.24 found lower than those obtained with the usual SNB model.
100 2.36 / 4.44 2.51 / 5.28 2.51 / 5.29
500 2.57 / 4.97 2.38 / 5.12 2.40 / 5.15 Cold
column SNB SNB-FG NBKM-FG
Table 6. Estimated species concentrations CO2/H2O Exact length (cm)
values are provided in Table 2. Gas temperature is 2,150 K. 100 1544 1543 1543
All models are suitable to retrieve temperature when no cold 200 1541 1544 1542
layer is involved in the calculation. Indeed, the maximum error is 500 1537 1540 1540
lower than SE1 ~ 20-30 K. One case (SNB at 1,750 K) yields an 1,000 1536 1539 1540
error around 50 K that may be due to a transfer of information 20,000 1518 1531 1531
between the gas temperature and the species concentrations
during the optimization process. Table 7. Estimated temperature (in K) Exact temperature of the
hot gas layer is 1,550 K.
In addition, the previous tables indicate that, in most cases, both
FG models are more accurate than the usual SNB one, when used On Figures 4-6, we have reported spectra associated with cases
to inverse emission spectra. Nevertheless, results reported in 100 cm, 1,000 cm and 20,000 cm. Again, but in this case from a
Table 3 are unexpected. Indeed, the SNB model seems in this spectral perspective, FG models are more capable than usual
case to provide more accurate results (maximum error is 28 K) SNB ones to treat reabsorption, as indicated especially on
than the two FG approaches (errors up to 93 K are observed). Figure 6 (infrared plume signature case), for which FG
Again, this result can be explained by a transfer of information approaches were originally developed. For shorter paths in cold
from the temperature to the species concentrations, as in this case air, the effect is less obvious, as was already pointed out by the
both parameters are fitted simultaneously. In order to check this results of Table 7. Nevertheless, due to the small increase in
assumption, we have fixed the species concentrations to their terms of computational cost beween the various models
exact values and fitted the temperature of the hot gas only. (computation time difference is a few seconds for 500,000
Results are reported on Figures 2-3. In those cases, it is clear that nonuniform path calculations on one core of an Intel Xeon
the SNB model fails to provide accurate temperature estimates. E5620 at 2.4 GHz), FG based ones appear to be the most relevant
Only the two FG models yield acceptable values for choices to analyse radiative emission spectra.
temperatures. Both FG models give very similar results.

Figure 4. Emission spectra of a one meter flame with

Figure 2. Estimated temperature (in K) species concentrations reabsorption by a one meter cold air column (see text for details).
are fixed to their exact values.

Figure 5. Emission spectra of a one meter flame with

reabsorption by a ten meters cold air column (see text for details).
Figure 3. Estimated temperature (in K) species concentrations
are fixed to their exact values.

Figure 6. Emission spectra of a one meter flame with
reabsorption by a two hundred meters cold air column (see text
for details).
Conclusion
In this paper, several approximate models for the radiative
properties of gases have been used to infer temperatures and
species concentrations in hot gaseous media from their radiative
emission spectra. The three models considered are the usual SNB
model with the Malkmus distribution function of linestrengths,
the SNB model with the fictitious gas (FG) approach and the
NBKM model with the same FG technique. Several test cases
have been studied. Some of them involve a significant
reabsorption of the radiation emitted by the hot gas by a cold air
layer located between the radiation source and the detector.
Experimental data were simulated by a Line-By-Line
approach. Model comparisons were principally made in terms of
the temperature values obtained after the application of an
inversion technique. It was found that FG approaches usually
provide more reliable temperature estimates than the usual SNB
one in this kind of applications. They are also more accurate over
narrow bands, especially when the length of the cold gas layer
increases. Accordingly, as the use of FG approaches does not
augment significantly the overall computational cost of the
inversion process, their use is recommended for this task.
Nevertheless, it can be noticed that the use of more FG should
improve the modeling and should be considered if a high degree
of accuracy is expected. Model databases (SNB, SNB-FG and
NBKM-FG), as well as some of the associated programs to use
them, are available on request (contact: F. Andr:
frederic.andre@insa-lyon.fr).
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Experimental study of flame-wall interaction:
Focus on the propagation of a premixed front near a wall
P. Vena, C. Galizzi, F. Andr, M. Khni and D. Escudi
Universit de Lyon, CNRS
CETHIL, INSA-Lyon, UMR5008, F-69621, France
Abstract
The interaction between a lean premixed methane/air turbulent
V-flame and a lateral wall is studied experimentally. Focus is
placed on characterizing wall effects on the topology of the
turbulent flame front and correlating such effects to temperature
variations along the surface of the wall. Laser tomography is
used to evaluate the topology of the flame front, in combination
with thermal diagnostics via infrared imagery and thermocouple
measurements. Results show variations in the wrinkling scales of
the flame front and turbulent brush thickness. Increases in
temperature were also observed in areas of high interaction,
suggesting the presence of local quenching along the wall.
Nomenclature
c mean progress variable
d flame holder-wall distance
d mean flame-wall distance
ywall thermocouple distance from wall surface
Tywall thermocouple temperature
U axial velocity
bl boundary layer thickness
T flame brush thickness
li integral length scale
emissivity
thermal conductivity
equivalence ratio
Introduction
Flame-wall interaction in premixed combustion draws significant
interest from industry because of its implications on the
performance of practical engineering devices such as spark-
ignition engines [8] and gas turbines [7]. While the physical
mechanisms governing the interaction between a flame front and
solid surfaces are not completely understood, flame behaviour is
strongly influenced, significantly altering flame front propagation
prior to, and potentially leading up to, extinction [14]. Complex
chemical and physical processes such as aerodynamics,
thermodynamics, and chemical kinetics are involved in the
interaction between a flame front and solid boundary [15]. The
dominating factors during the interaction are the boundary layer
[5], heat transfer [2], thermal quenching [3], flame extinction and
propagation [16], and aerodynamic strain [9]. Because the
evaluation of these mechanisms is inherently difficult in complex
industrial configurations, simplified academic setups in which
experimental conditions are better controlled lend themselves
well to characterizing the fundamental aspects of such
mechanisms.
Poinsot et al. [14] numerically studied the interaction between a
turbulent premixed flame and a lateral wall. They observed that
the interaction is characterized by three dominant effects: the
local conducto-convective heat transfer, the modification of
flame front topology, and the laminarization of the flow and
flame front in the vicinity of the wall. While laminarization
played a key role in the aerodynamic field within the interaction
zone, the solid boundary induced modifications in flame topology
and limited the spatial expansion of the flame brush. The
numerical work of Alshaalan and Rutland [1] further supported
the experimental results of Poinsot et al. [14] and reported a
smoothing of the turbulent wrinkling scales along the flame front.
Richard and Escudi [16] experimentally investigated the
interaction between a hydrogen-air flame and an adiabatic wall
for a mixture of Lewis number 0.3. They defined an interaction
parameter as the ratio of the flame brush to boundary layer
thickness. For a fixed turbulent intensity of 4 %, they studied the
evolution of the flame front length as a function of the interaction
parameter, and observed three distinct interaction regimes. In the
first regime, the flame was deviated due to the deflection of the
flow field by the wall. In the second regime, tongues of hot
products appeared in the boundary layer and led to an increase of
the length of the flame front. Finally, the flame extinguished in
the vicinity of the wall. Richard and Escudi [16] justified the
appearance of the tongues by an increase in the ratio of flame
speed to boundary layer velocity. In regions of high shear,
Kurdyumov et al. [11] numerically showed that the Lewis
number and the nature of the wall, adiabatic or isothermal, were
important parameters influencing the propagation of premixed
flames near walls.
Although many researchers have investigated the thermal aspect
of flame-wall interactions for transient flames ([7], [3], [4]), few
studies have focussed on stationary flames. Alshaalan and
Rutland [2] studied the interaction between a stationary V-flame
and a lateral wall in a Couette flow by three-dimensional Direct
Numerical Simulation (DNS). The turbulent flame and wall were
separated by a turbulent boundary layer. Results showed an
increase in flame stretch and that the wall heat flux decreased
with decreasing speed streaks. In addition, they confirmed the
results of Bruneaux et al. [5], who postulated that horseshoe
vortex structures pushed the flame towards the wall and increased
the wall heat flux. The authors further justified the appearance of
tongue-like structures by the deformation of flame wrinkles
caused by the coherent structures of the flow field, which are
commonly encountered in turbulent boundary layers.
Finally, the mechanisms defining the interaction between a flame
and solid boundary are complex and require further
understanding to accurately predict their behaviour. As such, the
purpose of the current study is to design and implement an
academic configuration that permits the evaluation of the
fundamental principles that govern the interaction between a
stationary flame and solid boundary. A turbulent V-flame
interacting with a quasi-adiabatic wall, on which a reactant
boundary layer is developed, is here studied. Two flame
conditions were investigated by varying the transverse distance d
separating the flame holder and solid boundary from d = 13 mm
to d = 16 mm. Laser tomography visualizations were first used to
characterize variations in wrinkling scales and turbulent flame
brush. Thermal diagnostics were then utilized for surface
temperature measurements before discussing the heat flux
through the boundary.
Experimental Setup
Figure 1 shows a schematic representation of the experimental
setup. A 2 mm diameter rod, set in the lateral z direction at the
exit of the burner (115 115 mm), stabilizes the flame in a V
configuration. While the left premixed branch of the V-flame
propagates freely, the right branch interacts with two
superimposed 200 260 mm vertical plates that are made of
calcium-silicate. The use of a second plate was deemed
necessary to avoid reattachment of the flame to the top edge of
the lower plate, which artificially altered the spatial temperature
distribution along the plate. The ceramic material of the plate
minimizes thermal losses through the wall due to its low thermal
conductivity = 0.4 W.m-1.K-1. Furthermore, the plate is coated
with a thermally resistant paint with an emissivity = 0.86,
which was characterized with a Perkin Elmer LAMBDA 900
spectrometer. The leading edge of the plate is set at x = 50 mm
downstream of the burner exit plane. The location of the
stabilizing bar may be adjusted for different flame settings.
Figure 1. Experimental setup of turbulent V-flame interacting
with a wall where d and d are respectively the distance between
the flame-holder and wall, and the distance between the mean
position of the flame front and the wall.
In the current experiments, the V-flame was stabilized in a lean
methane/air reactant flow with an equivalence ratio = 0.60,
which equated to a Lewis number Le = 0.98. The mean flow
velocity U = 5 m/s, turbulence intensity at the burner exit
u/U = 4 % and integral length scale li = 6 mm were characterised
with a DANTEC LDA system. Turbulence was generated by a
grid set upstream of the burner exit plane at axial position x = -
50 mm.
Flame tomography images were acquired with a Photron
FASCAM SA4 1024 1024 pixel high speed intensified CCD
camera, equipped with 50 mm and 105 mm lenses for general
and close-up images respectively. A 515 nm interference filter
(FWHM = 4nm 1 nm) was used to reject Rayleigh scattering
from the 514 nm laser sheet from a Continuous Wave Innova 70
4 W argon ion laser. Images had a spatial resolution ranging
from 0.38 to 0.14 mm/pixel. This resulted in effective analysis
regions of 80 310 mm for the evaluation of the overall structure
of the flame, and 70 100 mm for close-up views detailing the
localized propagation along the flame front. The reactant flow
was seeded with incense.
Two-dimensional surface temperature measurements were
obtained with a FLIR SC700 320 256 infra-red (IR) camera
with a 25 mm lens and a 1.18 mm/pixel spatial resolution.
Images were acquired at a frame rate of 100 Hz with a 125 sec
integration time. The temperature range was set between 200oC -
1000oC. The digital pixel count on the raw images was converted
to temperature readings assuming a constant surface emissivity
= 0.86 and 100% signal transmission between the plate and
camera CCD.
Heat flux was calculated using a five-thermocouple ceramic
probe shown in Figure 2 that was designed and fabricated in-
house.
Figure 2. Detailed schematic of five-thermocouple heat flux
sensor.
The five K-type thermocouples were hand soldered to a bead size
of approximately 25 microns. The thermocouples were located at
transverse positions ywall = 1, 0.5, 0, -2, and -4 mm from the front
plane of the plate. The probe was made of ceramic to match the
thermal properties of the plate, thus ensuring it provided an
accurate measure of the thermal behaviour of the plate.
Measurements were taken after two minutes of burning.
Following preliminary results, it was deemed that the location of
the flame front then remained fairly constant. After two minutes
of burning, the flame was extinguished by sharply closing both
the air and methane lines simultaneously. The apparatus was
allowed to cool for 30 minutes between test runs to ensure
consistent initial conditions for each test.
Flame-wall interaction: influences on flame characteristics
Flame-wall interaction was evaluated by laser tomography, infra-
red imagery, and thermocouple measurements. Individual
tomography images are first discussed before measurements of
turbulent brush thickness and flame surface density are presented.
The two-dimensional temperature distribution across the plate is
then evaluated. Lastly, heat flux measurements are discussed,
and a methodology for decoupling radiant and quenching based
heat transfer is proposed.
Flame Tomography
Individual images were acquired at 1 or 2 kHz sampling rates,
analogous to 1 or 0.5 ms intervals. The location of the
instantaneous flame front was determined by first correcting
images for background, followed by a 9 9 median filter
(3.5 x 3.5 mm). Images were then corrected for laser profile
variations (necessary given the low signal to noise ratio), before a
threshold was applied.
Instantaneous image description
Figure 3 shows three sample, randomly chosen instantaneous
images for flame holder location d = 13 mm. The bright and dark
shades correspond to the reactants and products respectively.
Flame brush orientation and thickness
Mean progress variable c maps were determined by ensemble
averaging the complement of the individual binary tomography
images. To ensure flame structures were not repeated in
subsequent images, one in every 50 images (equivalent to a
50 ms) was selected. Figure 5 shows the c maps for stabilizing
bar position d = 13 from the leading edge of the plate.

Figure 3. Three random instantaneous tomography images at

1 kHz sampling frequency for d = 13 mm.
Figure 4. Six instantaneous tomography images at 25 ms
The wrinkling scales along the left free branch increase intervals for flame stabilizing bar location d = 13 mm.
downstream of the flame holder, a trend generally observed for
turbulent V-flames [13]. Perturbations originating from the While the non-interacting branches of the V-flames displayed the
stabilizing rod propagate downstream, acting as an additional characteristic shape that fans out downstream of the anchoring
source of wrinkling along with turbulence [18]. point, the interacting front was significantly steeper. This resulted
in a skewed V-flame, contrary to the symmetrical shape often
The wrinkles on the right interacting branch appear to be reported in literature [10] for freely propagating V-flames.
dampened and do not expand to the same extent as those in the Additional deviation of the interacting front may also be
right free branch, in agreement with the experiments of Poinsot et observed near the leading edge of the plate in proximity to, and
al. [14] and numerical works of Alshaalan and Rutland [1]. slightly downstream from, the leading edge of the plate at axial
The temporal evolution of the turbulent structures in the position x = 50 mm.
interaction zone were evaluated by analyzing close-up, high
speed video with a sampling rate of 2 kHz, equivalent to 0.005
second intervals between images. The video revealed that as
flame wrinkles move downstream and closer to the solid
boundary, protruding tongue-like structures begin to form,
consistent with the observations of Richard and Escudi [16].
Figure 4 provides a close-up view of these structures in the
interaction region for d = 13 mm, with 6 flame images at 25 ms
intervals.
When the flame front is sufficiently close to the wall, it appears
that the velocity gradient, due to the viscous boundary layer,
slows the downstream displacement of the protruding structures
relative to that of the other wrinkles, effectively modifying the
topology of the flame front. This can be observed by following
the displacement of an individual flame wrinkle (indicated by the
white arrows in Figure 4).
Similar behaviour was reported in the numerical work of
Bruneaux and al. [5] in a three-dimensional turbulent boundary
layer. In this case, the deformation of the turbulent flame front
resulted from the horseshoe vortexes appearing in the turbulent
boundary layer. Eddies effectively pushed the hot products
toward the wall, ejecting the reactants in the boundary layer away
from the wall, leading to the formation of unburned gas tongues.
It may therefore be proposed that the velocity gradient plays a
key role in the deformation of the turbulent front.
Figure 5. Progress variable maps for d = 13 mm and d = 16 mm.
As the interacting flame front advanced further downstream, it
moved closer to the wall, crossed the boundary layer, and was
eventually quenched by the wall.
Significant variations in turbulent flame brush thickness T were
observed. For both branches, T generally increased
monotonically with x, with the left free branch consistently
thicker than the right interacting branch. This was confirmed by
the mean progress variable profiles (c = 0 in the reactants and
c = 1 in the products), as shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Axial variation in c profiles for both the left freely
propagating and right interacting branches for d = 16 mm.
The presence of the solid boundary thus caused a reduction in
brush thickness, as the right profiles were significantly steeper
than the left. This caused the right profiles to nearly overlap
despite differing axial positions, a trend not observed for the left
profiles. Results were consistent with the numerical simulations
of Poinsot et al. [14].
Flame surface density
The flame surface density (FSD) was calculated by applying a
gradient filter to the binary instantaneous images following the
definition outlined in Pope [15]. Individual FSD images were
then ensemble averaged and plotted as a function of progress
variable c, as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Flame surface density for flame conditions d = 13 mm
and d = 16 mm.
Both freely propagating branches had symmetrical FSD profiles
and were nearly identical with maximum FSD values at
approximately c = 0.5.
Wall effects were observed for the interacting branches as FSD
values increased with transverse position and were consistently
greater than for both freely propagating branches. The 13 mm
interacting branch is slightly skewed towards the reactants,
compared to the other profiles.
The increase in FSD may be expected given the damping of the
wrinkling scales observed in the individual images, in addition to
the reduced flame brush thickness. Similar results were reported
by Lee et al. [12].
Flame-wall interaction: thermal aspects
Temperature and heat flux
Temperature data were obtained from simultaneous infra-red and
thermocouple measurements. The distribution across the ceramic
plate is presented first, before discussing the temporal evolution
of temperature. The local heat flux was then calculated.
Two-dimensional temperature distribution
Figure 8 shows a sample IR image for flame setting d = 13 mm
after 2 minutes of combustion, just prior to flame extinction. The
temperature distribution is nearly symmetrical in the lateral
direction, with the edges of the plate cooler than the center. The
top of the image shows a very slight discontinuity at the interface
between the lower and upper plates, suggesting both plates can be
treated as one continuous wall. Lower temperature circles are
observed in the location of the thermocouple probe and hole
plugs.
Figure 8. Surface temperature distribution for flame condition
d = 13mm.
A crescent-like temperature distribution appears in the upper
section of the plate, which corresponds to the location of the
interaction region along the plate. Temperatures up to 550 oC are
observed, suggesting the presence of localized quenching along
the flame front, which results in higher rates of heat transfer.
Figure 9 compares the corresponding progress variable images to
the axial temperature profiles along the plate for lateral position
z = -5 mm, confirming that the increase in temperature occurs in
the same spatial location as the interaction region between the
flame front and solid boundary.

Figure 9. Correlation between surface temperature profile and
corresponding progress variable map for flame condition
d = 13 mm.
It is interesting to note that between axial positions x = 0-
120 mm, in which no quenching is observed based on the c
maps, the temperature of the plate increases almost linearly. It
may therefore be proposed that this increase in temperature is
caused by the radiant heat flux of the distant flame. This was
evaluated by conducting a series of sample tests at seven
different stabilizing bar distances d, after only one minute of
burning. Infra-red images were obtained with a temperature
range between 5 oC and 300 oC to ensure greater resolution in the
low temperature zone of the plate. The profiles are shown in
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Surface temperature distribution after 1 minute of pre-
heating for several flame conditions.
For all flame cases, the temperature initially increases linearly
from the leading edge of the plate at x = 50 mm. This increase is
a function of d, the distance between the mean front and wall,
which decreases downstream due to the fan-like shape of the V-
flame. As the stabilizing bar is moved closer to the plate, local
quenching begins to occur along the surface of the wall, and
temperature increases more rapidly. These results suggest that
the surface temperature increase due to radiation may be
decoupled from that due to quenching.
Transient temperature change
Thermocouple measurements were taken at five axial positions
x = 110, 150, 190, 230, and 270 mm along the lateral center z = 0
of the plate by manually inserting the five-thermocouple probe
into holes along the plate. Care was taken to ensure the leading
edge of the probe was flush with the surface of the plate to
minimize disruptions to the flow field. Ceramic plugs were used
to fill the remaining holes during experiments. Data collection
began just prior to ignition and continued for one minute after the
flame was turned off at a sampling rate of 50 Hz. Figures 11 and
12 compare the temperature variation for flame condition
d = 13 mm at positions x = 110 mm and x = 230 mm.
Figure 11. Transient temperature behaviour for flame setting
d = 13mm at axial position x = 110 mm.
Figure 12. Transient temperature behaviour for flame setting
d = 13mm at axial position x = 230 mm.
All profiles show an increase in temperature until the flame is
turned off at 2 minutes, after which the temperature decreases,
with the exception of Tywall = 1 and 0.5 mm at x = 110 mm. This
is caused by the sudden stoppage of cool reactant flow, which
allows the hot wall surface to heat the now quiescent reactant
mixture. Figure 11 a) further shows that the temperature on and
within the plate, Tywall = 0 and -2 mm, is greater than that within
the boundary layer, Ty = 1 and 0.5 mm, which is cooled by the
onset of cool reactants exiting the burner. Conversely, in Figure
11 b), the temperature of the boundary layer within the heated
products is greater than along the plate. Significant fluctuations
are also observed within the boundary layer which is caused by
the turbulent flow field and thickness of the turbulent flame
brush.
Heat flux
The local heat flux was determined from thermocouple
measurements at Tywall = 0 and -2 mm at the same five axial
positions. Calculations were made with Fouriers law assuming a
plane wall under one-dimensional, steady state conditions after
two minutes of burning. Figure 13 shows the total heat flux for
both turbulent flame conditions.
Figure 13. Total heat flux for both turbulent flame conditions.
Similar to the surface temperature distribution in Figures 9 and
10, the heat flux increases almost linearly in the lower part of the
plate. As the flame front begins to interact with the wall, heat
flux increases significantly, up to approximately 19 kW/m2.
Following the previous observations, which showed a linear
progression in temperature with distance d in areas dominated
by radiation, quenching induced heat transfer may be uncoupled
from the radiation heat transfer component. A linear fit was
therefore used to extrapolate the local radiation heat flux from the
total heat flux, which was then subtracted from the total heat flux,
as shown in Figure 12. As such, the heat flux values due to
quenching showed maximum values close to 11 kW/m2.
Conclusions
The effect of a solid wall on a turbulent stationary methane/air V-
flame was evaluated. Significant variations on flame topology
were observed as wrinkling scales were dampened, resulting in a
decrease in turbulent brush thickness. The 2D temperature
distribution along the surface of the plate was also studied,
showing a steep increase in temperature as the flame interacted
with the wall, causing local quenching along the flame front.
Increases in heat flux were also observed as the radiation and
quenching heat flux components were uncoupled.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the French National Research Agency
(Program INTERMAC - ANR-08-VTT-02-03) for the financial
support provided for this study.
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Attenuation of Fluid Temperature Fluctuations

with the Use of Phase Change Materials a Numerical Model
of a Fluid-PCM Heat Exchanger
L. Klimes1 , P. Charvat1 and T. Mauder1

1 Department of Thermodynamics and Environmental Engineering,

Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic

Abstract
The Phase Change Materials (PCMs) have found their use in
many applications. The paper describes a numerical study deal-
ing with the use of PCMs for attenuation of fluid temperature
fluctuations. The studied case was a fluid-PCM heat exchanger
that consisted of a circular tube, through which the fluid flowed,
surrounded by a phase change material. The PCM layer had
an annular cross section and it was thermally insulated on the
external side. A numerical model using effective capacity ap-
proach was established in MATLAB. Water was considered as
the fluid in the conducted study and the square wave oscillations Figure 1: The schematic representation of the attenuation
of water temperature at the inlet were used. An optimization al-
gorism was used to find out the optimal design in terms of PCM
mass. The results of the numerical study indicate that the length be purely stochastic. In order to attenuate the fluid temperature
of the tube plays a more important role than the thickness of the fluctuations, thermal storage and phase change materials can be
PCM layer surrounding it (though the correlation depends on used.
both fluid and PCM properties).
The phase change materials (PCMs) are substances with high
Nomenclature heat of fusion that can be used to store and release a large
amount of thermal energy during melting and solidification
[13]. In the case of the investigated heat exchanger, the pur-
T temperature
pose of thermal storage is to increase the thermal inertia and
H enthalpy
thus to attenuate the fluid temperature fluctuations. Both sen-
t time
sible and latent heat storage can be employed for this purpose.
density
The PCMs, which have been developed in the last decades, are
c heat capacity
used in many engineering applications, e.g. in heating systems
ceff effective heat capacity
[2], building structures [8, 18], thermal energy storage systems
fs solid fraction
[11, 7], or to improve the thermal comfort in buildings [9, 12].
Tref referential temperature
For a review of phase change materials and their applications,
Lf latent heat of phase changes
see e.g. [13].
x, y, z spatial coordinates in Cartesian coordinate system
r, , z spatial coordinates in cylindrical coordinate system The paper describes the implementation of the numerical model
R inner radius of the exchanger of the fluid-PCM exchanger and summarizes the results of nu-
Qgen internal source of heat merical investigations of the attenuation of fluid temperature
w velocity fluctuations with the use of latent heat thermal storage (a fluid-
h heat transfer coefficient PCM heat exchanger). The study of the optimal design of
S area of surface the attenuator with the PCM was performed by utilizing the
T temperature of free stream nature-inspired heuristic firefly optimization algorithm, see e.g.
Nu Nusselt number [15, 16].
Re Reynolds number
Pr Prandtl number Problem Description
weight
The fluid-PCM heat exchangers for attenuation of fluid temper-
, , parameters of firefly algorithm
ature fluctuations can be of various designs. Alawadhi [1] pre-
sented a numerical study to evaluate the thermal performance of
Introduction a temperature regulation unit. The unit was a two-dimensional
channel with PCM on each side. The author numerically inves-
The maintaining of a constant fluid temperature plays an im-
tigated the thermal characteristics of the unit for a step function
portant role in many applications from laboratory experiments
change and periodic change of inlet temperature. Dimension-
to the extracorporeal blood circulation. Some deviations from
less parameters were used in the study. Though the developed
the desired fluid temperature can occur due to a number of rea-
model is only two dimensional it could be useful for paramet-
sons such as imperfect temperature control or fluctuating heat
ric studies in case of flat plate type fluid-PCM heat exchangers.
load. The fluctuations can follow a certain pattern, or they can
 which results in the governing equation
     
T T T H
k + k + k = (3)
x x y y z z t

Figure 2: Fluid-PCM heat exchanger
The case study presented in this paper involves a circular tube,
through which the fluid flows, surrounded by a phase change
material (Figure 2). The PCM layer has an annular cross section
and it is thermally insulated on the external side. As will be fur-
ther demonstrated, this configuration requires quite a long tube
to effectively reduce temperature fluctuations. Multiple paral-
lel tubes embedded in a PCM (an arrangement similar to shell
and tube heat exchanger) represent a much more compact de-
sign option for practical use. The developed numerical model
can be modified in order to be employed in finding the optimal
spacing of the tubes for a given set of requirements in case of
fluid-PCM heat exchangers with multiple parallel tubes.
The main goal of the numerical investigations was to assess the
thermal response of the fluid-PCM heat exchanger and to find
the length of the tube and the amount of PCM for a required
attenuation parameters. The numerical model of the fluid-PCM
heat exchanger was developed in MATLAB. The model was es-
tablished by applying the control volume method. Since the
heat exchanger (attenuator) was a circular tube, the cylindrical
coordinate system was used. The investigated case was a tran-
sient heat and mass transfer problem involving fluid flow and
phase change. The effective heat capacity method was used
for latent heat and store-release energy modelling. Owing to
the transient behaviour, the explicit numerical schema, which
is straightforwardly implementable, was applied with respect to
the time derivative. The value of the heat transfer coefficient de-
termined according to convective heat transfer correlations was
used in convective heat transfer between the fluid and the tube
(PCM).
Modelling of Phase-Change Problems
Owing to the phase change and the latent heat release-storage
phenomenon, an appropriate numerical method has to be used.
There are several approaches for modelling problems with the
phase changes and the most common are the enthalpy method
and the effective heat capacity method [14, 6]. These modelling
approaches and its main ideas are briefly described below.
Enthalpy Method
The use of the enthalpy method is based on introducing the
thermodynamics function of the volume enthalpy H which is
defined as follows [14],
Z T
H(T ) = Lf (1 fs ) + c d. (1)
Tref
The enthalpy is used in order to include both the sensible and
latent heat of phase change. The derivative of the enthalpy is
then substituted to the general heat transfer equation
     
T T T T
k + k + k + Qgen = c (2)
x x y y z z t
that describes the transient heat transfer inside the material that
undergoes the phase changes. However, by introducing the en-
thalpy the governing equation (3) contains two unknown vari-
ables: the temperature and the enthalpy that are coupled to-
gether by the enthalpy-temperature relationship which is often
determined experimentally, e.g. with the use of the differen-
tial scanning calorimetry [17]. Moreover, the presence of two
unknown quantities represents another difficulty since the com-
puting of the temperature field needs to be performed in two
successive steps. Therefore, the desired temperature in the time
n + 1 is usually computed from the temperature in time n with
the intermediate step of the enthalpy-temperature relationship
T n H n+1 T n+1 . (4)
Effective Heat Capacity Method
The main idea of the effective heat capacity is to include the
latent heat of the phase change to the heat capacity of the mate-
rial. This arrangement helps to overcome issues of the enthalpy
method, mainly the need of the intermediate step related to the
acquiring the temperature from the enthalpy. The effective heat
capacity can be defined [14] with the use of the enthalpy func-
tion as follows,
H fs
ceff = = Lf + c. (5)
T T
Substitution of the relation (5) to the general heat transfer equa-
tion (2) leads to the governing equation describing the unsteady
temperature field of the material,

T


T


T

T
k + k + k = ceff . (6)
x x y y z z t
As can be seen in Eq. (6) the temperature is the only unknown
variable, and therefore the computation can be organized in one
step as follows,
T n T n+1 . (7)
The function of the effective heat capacity can be determined
similarly as the enthalpy function by the differential scanning
calorimetry method. The function of the effective heat capac-
ity is usually nearly constant in the temperature range without
the phase change. When the material enters the phase change
temperature range, the effective heat capacity steeply increases
and consequently decreases due to the latent heat. On the other
hand, the enthalpy function increases when the temperature in-
creases as well. The slope of the enthalpy curve in the tempera-
ture range of the phase change is significantly larger than in the
temperature range without the phase change. This behaviour is
caused by the latent heat of the phase change. The schematic
representation of the enthalpy and the effective heat capacity
funtions is pictured in Figure 3.
Numerical Model of Heat Exchanger
In order to investigate the thermal behaviour of the exchanger,
the numerical model of heat and mass transfer was implemented
in MATLAB. This numerical model allows for various setup
and design parameters of the exchanger and therefore it can be
used also for design optimization.
 represents the width of the temperature range of phase change.
The effective heat capacity and the material constants described
above were determined as follows,
( )
(T Tpch )2
ceff (T ) = 2, 250 + 35, 400 exp . (10)
5

The heat and mass transfer in the fluid that flows through the
circular tube is described by the following equation,
     
1 T 1 T T
kr + 2 k + k +
r r r r z z
T T
Figure 3: The dependence of the enthalpy and the effective heat + wc = c (11)
z t
capacity functions on the temperature for the PCM
where the term wc T
z
is due to heat and mass transfer of the
The numerical model of the fluid flow and the PCM is composed fluid flow.
of two parts that solve both the heat transfer and related energy The mathematical description of the thermal behaviour of PCM
storage-release inside the phase change material, and the heat and the mathematical description of the fluid flow are coupled
and mass transfer of the fluid that flows through the exchanger. together. The heat transfer between both the mentioned parts is
Obviously, both the parts of the model are coupled together in supposed to be attained by the convective heat transfer mecha-
order to ensure the heat transfer between the exchanger and the nism that is governed by the Newtons law of cooling
fluid flow. The exchanger is assumed to be a circular tube made
of the PCM through which the fluid flows, and therefore the Q = hS(T T ). (12)
numerical model is implemented with the use of the cylindri-
cal coordinate system as schematically shown in Figure 4. The The heat transfer coefficient h in Eq. (12) represents the inten-
phase change and the latent heat phenomena are modelled by sity of heat transfer between the exchanger and the fluid flow. In
using the effective heat capacity method described above. problems of internal flows through tubes, the heat transfer co-
efficient is usually determined by utilizing the convective heat
transfer correlations. In this case of the convective heat trans-
fer in the circular tube, the following correlation in the implicit
form [3] was utilized
Nu 2/3
Re (Re 1000)Pr
Nu =  1/2  . (13)
Nu
1 + 12.7 1/3 Pr2/3 1
RePr

The corellation (13) is valid for a wide range of Re and Pr num-

bers, particularly the condition 3, 000 Re 5 106 must hold
for the Reynolds number and the restriction 0.5 Pr 2, 000
needs to be fulfilled for the Prandt number. Both the condi-
Figure 4: Scheme of the cylindrical coordinate system
tions were fulfilled for the considered operational conditions.
The heat transfer coefficient h is then obtained from the Nusselt
The heat transfer and the energy storage-release phenomena in
number Nu,
the PCM are driven by the equation (6). The transformation of D
the Eq. (6) to the cylindrical coordinates system leads to the Nu = h (14)
kfluid
following governing equation
as h = kfluid Nu
D . In order to establish the numerical model of
     
1 T 1 T T the exchanger an appropriate discretization method has to be
kr + 2 k + k = used. In this case the numerical model of the system, which is
r r r r z z
T constituted by Eq. (8) and Eq. (11), was then discretized by uti-
= ceff . (8) lizating the control volume method accoring the scheme shown
t
in Figure 4. The control volume method, which allows for an
The effective heat capacity function was devised as a function advantageous physical view to the studied problem, is founded
of the Gaussian-shape probability distribution on the utilization of the control volumes of the entire system, i.e.
( ) for both the exchanger made of the phase change material and
(T Tpch )2 the fluid flow. The energy and mass balance is then establish for
ceff (T ) = c0 + cpch exp . (9)
all the control volumes of the system. This leads to the system
of algebraic equations that represents the thermal behaviour of
From the physical point of view, c0 represents the heat capac- the exchanger.
ity of the phase change material in the temperature range with-
out the phase change, cpch is the maximum heat capacity of the Due to the rotational symmetry of the exchanger, the studied
phase change material that is attained at the principal temper- problem is reduced to the 2D with only radial r and longitudinal
ature of phase change Tpch (obviously, the principal tempera- z coordinates. Thus, due to the symmetry, the circumferential
ture lies in the temperature range of the phase change) and coordinate is not taken into account providing the heat flux in
the circumferential coordinate is equal to zero. The discretiza- and the following independent parameters of the exchanger de-
tion in the time derivative of Eq. (6) was performed explicitly sign are considered for the optimization: the length of the ex-
which means that the temperature in the time step n + 1 is deter- changer and the exchanger outer radius (i.e. the mass of the
mined only by the known values of the temperature distribution PCM) whereas the interior radius of the exchanger is consid-
in the previous time step n. ered to be fixed.
Hence, there are several types of the control volumes according Due to the large-scale numerical model and the number of vari-
to the control volume discretization. Particularly, both the parts ables, the use of the standard mathematical programming and
of the numerical model related to the PCM exchanger and the optimization methods is complicated and time-consuming. This
fluid flow consist of the interior control volumes and the bound- difficulties were a motivation for utilization of the heuristic op-
ary control volumes (e.g. the inlet and outlet control volumes, timization methods where the numerical model of the tempera-
the boundary control volumes between the fluid and the ex- ture field is used as a black-box.
changer, the circumferential control volumes of the exchanger
etc.). Owing to the previous results [10, 5, 4] in solving similar engi-
neering problems of optimal design, the nature-inspired meta-
The temperature of the PCM in the position position (r, , z) heuristic firefly algorithm [15, 16] was considered and imple-
(i, j) and in time n+1 is then determined by the following equa- mented. The main idea of the firefly optimization algorithm is
tion inspired by the biological behavior of fireflies in the nature. For
the description of the algorithm and related implementation de-
kPCM (2r + r)t  n 
tails see e.g. [15].
Ti,n+1 n
j = Ti, j + 2
Ti+1, j Ti,nj +
2PCM ceff r r
The principle of the algorithm is to keep a group of fireflies
kPCM (2r r)t  n n

+ Ti1, j T i, j + where each firefly represents one particular solution of the prob-
2PCM ceff r2 r
lem. To determine the optimal solution the fireflies are com-
kPCM t 
n n n

pared to each other by their light intensity I that simultaneously
+ Ti, j+1 2Ti, j + T i, j1 , (15)
PCM ceff 2 z represents the value of the objective function. When the algo-
rithm iteratively runs, the fireflies move in the state space and
the temperature of the fluid flow in the position (r, , z) (i, j)
the brighter fireflies (i.e. the better solutions of the optimiza-
and in time n + 1 is given by the equation
tion problem) are followed by other fireflies that are attracted
kf (2r + r)t  n  to them. When the computation finishes, the fireflies are ag-
Ti,n+1 n
j = Ti, j + 2
Ti+1, j Ti,nj + gregated together around the optimal solution. The fireflies are
2f cf r r
attracted to each other according to the light intensity that is
kf (2r r)t  n 
usually defined by the exponential function depending on the
+ 2
Ti1, j Ti,nj +
2f cf r r distance between the fireflies.
wt  n 
+ Ti, j+1 2Ti,nj1 + Ti,nj+1 (16) The firefly i follows another firefly j (i.e. the firefly j represents
2z
the solution of the problem with the better value of
the objective
and the temperature on the interior surface of the exchanger (i.e. function than the firefly 0 i), the condition Ii < I j holds and the
the surface temperature of the PCM inside the tube) in the posi- movement of the fireflies can be given as
tion (R, , z) (i, j) and in time n + 1 can be calculated accord- 2
xi = xi + 0 eri j x j xi + i ,


ing (19)
2
where the term 0 eri j x j xi represent the attractiveness of


kPCM (2R + r)t  n 
Ti,n+1 n
j = Ti, j + 2
Ti+1, j Ti,nj +
2PCM ceff R r the fireflies i and j and the term i is due to the randomiza-
h(2r r)t   tion. The behaviour of the algorithm is significantly affected
+ T Ti,nj + by three parameters which need to be carefully chosen accord-
2PCM ceff Rr
ing to the optimization problem and its nature. The parameter
kPCM t  n n n

+ T 2T + Ti, j+1 . (17) , which is related to the attractiveness, significantly affects the
PCM ceff 2 z i, j+1 i, j1
convergence and the time needed for discovering the optimal
solution. For a wide range of applications, the typical value of
An example of the temperature field of the system (i.e. both is [0.1, 10]. For the problem of the heat exchanger design,
the PCM and the fluid) acquired from the numerical model de- the parameters were determined to be = 1, = 1, and = 0.4.
scribed above is shown in Figure 5.
The algorithm starts with the number of initial fireflies that are
Heat Exchanger Design Optimization randomly generated solutions. In the case of the considered
problem the firefly is determined by the two-element vector that
The goal of the optimization procedure was to achieve the represents the length of the exchanger and the outer radius of the
required fluid temperature stability (Tmax Tmin ) at the out- exchanger (i.e. the mass of the PCM). The state space is then
let of the exchanger with the minimum amount of the PCM two-dimensional and the fireflies move in that space according
used (mPCM ). Obviously, this requirement results in the multi- to the aforementioned scheme. The number of fireflies n used
objective problem with two opposing objectives: the better at- for the optimization depends on the nature of the optimization
tenuation requires the more PCM used and on the contrary, problem, and in this case the number of fireflies was set to 20.
decreasing the mass of the PCM used makes the attenuation
less effective. Thus, the objective function of the considered Results and discussion
optimization problem can be defined with utilization of the
weighted sum approach as follows, The considered phase change material had the latent heat of 140
kJ/kg and the melting range was between 27 C and 33 C. The
z = min { (Tmax Tmin ) + (1 ) mPCM }. (18) inlet temperature of water oscillated with the square wave pat-
 Figure 5: The temperature field in the exchanger during its operating

tern (amplitude of 5 C around the temperature of 30 C). The

inner diameter of the exchanger was set to 26 mm and the heat
transfer coefficient between the fluid and the PCM was deter-
mined according to Eq. (13) to be 1,350 W/m2 K.
For the inlet fluid temperature fluctuating between 25 C and
35 C, the amplitude of the output fluid temperature fluctuations
smaller or equal to 1.5 C was requested. Hence, the objective
function (18) of the problem can be stated as follows,
n
z = min |3 (Tmax Tmin )| +
o
+ (1 ) (rPCM )2 LPCM , (20)

where the first term in Eq. (20) keeps the fluctuations of tem-
perature at 3 C (amplitude of 1.5 C), and the second term in
Eq. (20) minimizes the mass of the used PCM. The objective
variables were constrained as follows,

Minimum lenght 0.5 m Minimum radius 0.02 m

Maximum lenght 40 m Maximum radius 0.5 m. Figure 6: Occurrence of fireflies in the state space during itera-
tions for 360 s period
Three square wave frequencies with respective periods of 120,
360, and 1,200 seconds were investigated. In all cases the inlet
temperature fluctuation amplitude was set to 5 C. The results of
the optimization of the exchanger design are shown in Table 1.
The successive occurrence of fireflies during the computations
is shown in Figure 6 for the case of 360 s period and the group
of fireflies in a particular time and the case of 1,200 s period
is shown in Figure 7 where the size of the firefly represents its
value of the objective function.

Table 1: Results of design optimization

Square wave Temp. outlet Length Radius
period [s] fluctuation [ C] [m] [m]

120 3.00 30.0660 0.0200

360 3.00 34.4737 0.0200
1,200 2.99 39.9998 0.0250
Figure 7: Occurrence of fireflies in the state space in a particular
By using the optimization algorithm the required range of the iteration for 1,200 s period
outlet temperature fluctuation was achieved. For the 120 s and
360 s square wave periods the firefly optimization algorithm
finds the optimal value of the exchanger radius in the minimum
value restricted by the constraints of the optimization model.
However, in the case of 1,200 s square wave period the optimal
length of the exchanger leads to the maximum value (again re-
stricted by the constraints) and the radius of the exchanger is
then 0.0250 m.
The objective function reaches the higher values for the case of
the 1,200 s square wave period, and therefore better results amy
be reached by increasing the length of the exchanger. However,
in practical applications usually several tubes embedded in par-
allel in the PCM rather than one long tube surrounded by the
PCM would be used in the design of the exchanger.
Conclusion
A numerical model of a fluid-PCM heat exchanger was imple-
mented in MATLAB and a firefly optimization algorithm was
used to find out the length of the exchanger and the amount
of PCM for the required attenuation characteristics. Water was
considered as the fluid in the conducted study and the square
wave oscillations of water temperature at the inlet were used.
The amplitude of the temperature fluctuations was 5 K and the
square wave periods were 120, 360 and 1200 seconds. The re-
sults of the study indicate that the length of the tube plays a
more important role in attenuation characteristics of the fluid-
PCM heat exchanger than the thickness of the PCM layer sur-
rounding it (though the correlation depends on both fluid and
PCM properties). This fact has implications for the design of
fluid-PCM exchangers with multiple parallel tubes embedded
in a PCM where the tube spacing (distance between the tubes)
can be shorter when the heat exchanger is used for attenuation
of fluid temperature fluctuation than when it is used for thermal
storage. The developed numerical model can be modified in
order to be used for other geometries of the fluid-PCM heat ex-
changers. The results of the numerical investigations are going
to be experimentally validated with the use of an experimental
set-up that is currently being built in one of the labs available to
the investigators.
Acknowledgements
The research leading to the presented results was supported by
the project GACR P101/11/1047 The attenuation of fluid tem-
perature oscillations using latent heat thermal storage of Czech
Science Foundation and by the BUT junior project FSI-J-12-22
Application of numerical modelling and optimization methods
in engineering problems with state and structural changes for
young researchers. The principal author, the holder of Brno
PhD Talent Financial Aid sponsored by Brno City Municipal-
ity, also gratefully acknowledges for that financial support.
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in a channel using phase change material. Applied Ther-
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Demonstration Test for Evaluation of Measuring Accuracy of Heat

Transferred by Ground Source Heat Pump

T. Takeda1, T. Hagihara2, T. Ono2, T. Nakazawa2, and S. Funatani1

1
DGraduate School of Medicine and Engineering, University of Yamanashi
Takeda 4-3-11, Kofu, Yamanashi, 400-8511, Japan
2
Hagihara Boring Co., Ltd.
Kami-Imai-cyo 740-4, Kofu, Yamanashi, 400-0845, Japan

Abstract heat pump circulates a mixture of water and antifreeze around a

loop of pipe, called a ground loop, which is buried in the ground.
The demonstration test of measuring technology for heat The mixture and antifreeze is containing propylene glycol of 16%.
utilization by renewable energy is carried out by the New Energy
and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO).
The NEDO and the other 7 companies and organization (include
of Hagihara Boring Co., Ltd.) have started the demonstration test
project using a ground source heat pump (GSHP) system as a
joint research from 2011. The University of Yamanashi have
been carrying out the demonstration test for evaluation of
measuring accuracy of heat transferred using the ground source
heat pump system as an entrusted study from Hagihara Boring
Co., Ltd.

This paper describes the outline of the apparatus and the schedule
of the demonstration test. The paper also describes the
preliminary results regarding an amount of transported heat, a
coefficient of performance of the GSHP, an accuracy of
measuring devices, and so on. The ground source heat pump
uses pipes which are buried in the ground to extract heat from the
ground [2]. This heat can be used to heat radiators, under-floor
or warm air heating systems and hot water in the office room.
The ground source heat pump were adopted a closed loop and Figure 1 Flow sheet of ground source heat pump system
vertical borehole system. The closed loop systems keep the
fluid used for heat transfer within the system. The vertical
systems use two long pieces of pipe with a U-shape at the bottom
in a hole bored in the ground. The ground source heat pump
circulates a mixture of water and antifreeze around a loop of pipe,
called a ground loop, which is buried in the ground.

Heat from the ground is absorbed into the fluid and then heat
passes into the heat pump through a heat exchanger. The
ground keeps at a constant temperature under the surface, thus
the heat pump can be used throughout the year. The ground
source heat pump system will operate continuously during a
month or more. The measuring accuracy of the amount of heat
transported by the ground source heat pump were evaluated and
discussed.

Introduction
Figure 1 shows a flow sheet of the ground source heat pump
system in the University of Yamanashi. Figure 2 shows the
photo of the header of the GSHP system. The ground source
heat pump uses pipes which are buried in the ground to extract
heat from the ground. This heat can be used to heat radiators,
under-floor or warm air heating systems and hot water in the
office room. The ground source heat pump were adopted a
closed loop and vertical borehole system. The closed loop
systems keep the fluid used for heat transfer within the system.
The vertical systems use two long pieces of pipe with a U-shape
at the bottom in a hole bored in the ground. The ground source
Figure 2 Header of GSHP
Heat from the ground is absorbed into the fluid and then heat
passes into the heat pump through a heat exchanger. The
ground keeps at a constant temperature under the surface, thus
the heat pump can be used throughout the year. The length of
the ground loop depends on the size of the office room and the
amount of heat we need. Longer loops can draw more heat
from the ground; however need more space to be buried in. If
space is limited, a vertical borehole can be drilled instead. The
depths of the boreholes were 100m, 75m, and 50m. The It was necessary to know the underground temperature and the
number of boreholes was 2 for each depth. thermal conductivity of the borehole having different depth. To
perform the experiment by using three kinds of depth of the
Experiment borehole, thus, the thermal response test of 50m and 100m have
been carried out. As the results of the experiment, it has been
Experimental Apparatus found that the underground temperature deeper than 10m was
about 19C in average, and the thermal conductivity of the
Figure 3 shows the schematic drawing of the measuring system. underground was about 1.51 W/mK in the average.
An electro-magnetic flow meter, an ultrasonic flow meter having
3 beams sensors, an ultrasonic flow meter having 1 beam sensor
and a turbine flow meter were adopted as a flow measuring Table 1 Result of thermal response test
device. A platinum resistance thermometer, a thermocouple,
and a thermistor were adopted as a sensor of temperature Borehole 100m-A 50m-B
measurement. The measuring points of the primary coolant Diameter 179mm 229.4mm
were the positions of inlet/outlet parts of the heat pump. The
temperature of the primary coolant was also measured at the Depth 101.1m 51.2m
inlet/outlet of the ground loop. The temperature and flow rate Water
of the hot water equipment and the air conditioner were measured. Filled Material Silica sand
Bentonite
The ground source heat pump system will operate continuously Thermal Conductivity 1.51W/mK 1.47W/mK
during a month or more.
Under Ground Temp. 19.1C 17.3C

Flow Rate 32.6L/mim 34.4L/mim

Heated Power 5006W 2970W

Density 1.85g/cm3 1.81g/cm3

Specific Heat Capacity 0.84kJ/kgK 0.87kJ/kgK

Thermal Diffusivity 9.76x10-7m2/s 9.38x10-7m2/s

Thermal Registance 0.061mK/W 0.08mK/W

20
Fig.3 Schematic drawing of measuring system
40
Depth [m]

100mA
60
50mB

80

100

120
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0
Temperature of under ground [C]

Fig. 5 Result of underground temperature in the Kofu Campus

Fig.4 Position of boreholes for thermal response test
Thermal Response Test
The result of the thermal response test was shown in Table 1.
Figure 4 shows the position of the boreholes for the thermal
response test. The measurement result of the underground
temperature was shown in Fig.5. As for this region, it was
expected that the underground temperature was a comparatively
high region from the measurement data of the surrounding area.
Preliminary Results
Figure 6 shows the atmospheric temperature and room
temperature of June 23, 2012. The maximum atmospheric
temperature was around 28C. The room temperature could be
controlled on between 19 and 21C during the day. Figure 7
shows the temperature change of the polyethylene pipe in the
borehole (100m/A and 100m/B boreholes) during the day. The
thermocouples were attached with the wall of the polyethylene
pipe at various positions. The wall temperatures of the pipe
during from 10 to 18 oclock were higher than that during the
night. The maximum temperature of the polyethylene pipe wall
was around 21.8C.
 30 Figure 8 shows the temperature change of the antifreeze in the
Atmospheric temperature Experimental condition
Room temperature (2012/6/23) outlet of the GSHP. The temperature change of the antifreeze in
28
the inlet of the GSHP is shown in Fig.9. It was found that there
26
was the slight difference among the antifreeze temperature
measured by each sensor. This is because the sensor position to
Temperature [ C]

24 the pipe cross-sectional direction is different. For example, the

sensor position of the thermistor was set near the pipe wall.
22 Thus the temperature measured by the thermistor will indicate the
higher value than that measured by the other sensors, if the pipe
20 wall will be affected by a solar thermal radiation.
18 Figure 10 shows the flow rate change of the antifreeze. The
0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00
Elapsed time [min]
flow rate was measured by the 3-beams ultrasonic flow meter, the
1-beam ultrasonic flow meter, the electro-magnetic flow meter,
Fig. 6 Experimental condition of June 23, 2012 and the turbine flow meter, respectively. The relative error of
the flow rate measured by the ultra-sonic flow meters based on
the flow rate obtained by the electro-magnetic flow meter was
22 less than 4%. The relative error of the flow rate based on the
flow rate measured by the electro-magnetic flow meter is shown
in Fig.11. However, the flow rate measured by the turbine
21 meter was different from the one obtained by the other flow
Temperature [ C]

meters. This is because the flow rate obtained by the turbine

meter is the average flow rate which is an integration value of a
20 specific time. On the other hand, the instantaneous value can be
measured by the other flow meters. So, it was found there was a
delayed time between the flow rate measured by the turbine flow
19 100m/A-100m 100m/A-50m 100m/A-30m 100m/A-10m meter and the one measured by the other flow meters. The
100m/A-3m 100m/A-R 100m/B-75m 100m/B-50m relative error of the flow rate measured by the turbine flow meter
100m/B-40m 100m/B-20m 100m/B-1m 100m/B-R based on the flow rate obtained by the electro-magnetic flow
18 meter was less than 6% as shown in Fig.11.
0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00
Elapsed time [min]

Fig. 7 Temperature change of polyethylene pipe in borehole 120

3beams Ultrasonic F.M 1beam Ultrasonic F.M
100 Electro-magnetic F.M Turbine F.M.

24 80
Flow rate [L/min]

Temperature of antifreeze
23 60

22 40
Temperature [ C]

21 20

20 0
Temp. by Pt. at the outlet of HP 12:00 12:05 12:10 12:15 12:20 12:25 12:30
19 Temp. by T/C at the outlet of HP -20
Elapsed Time [min]
Temp. by Thermistor at the outlet of HP
18
12:00 12:05 12:10 12:15 12:20 12:25 12:30 Fig. 10 Flow rate change of antifreeze
Elapsed time [min]

Fig. 8 Temperature change of antifreeze in the outlet of GSHP 0.1

0.08 Relative error (Flow rate measurement)
0.06
24
0.04
Temperature of antifreeze
23 0.02
0
22 -0.02
Temperature [C]

-0.04
21 Relative error (3beams U.S.F.M)
-0.06 Relative error (1beam U.S.F.M)
-0.08 Relative error (Turbine F.M)
20
-0.1
Temp. by Pt. at the inlet of HP
12:14 12:16 12:18 12:20 12:22
19 Temp. by T/C at the inlet of HP Elapsed Time [min]
Temp. by Thermistor at the inlet of HP
18 Fig. 11 Relative error of flow rate measurement
12:00 12:05 12:10 12:15 12:20 12:25 12:30
Elapsed time [min]

Fig. 9 Temperature change of antifreeze in the inlet of GSHP Figure 12 shows the temperature change of the antifreeze in the
outlet of the GSHP during the day. The temperature was
measured by the platinum resistance thermometer sensor,
thermocouple, and thermistor, respectively. The relative error
of the temperature measured by the thermocouple and the 10
thermistor based on the temperature measured by the platinum Coefficient of performance
resistance thermometer sensor was also less than 4% as shown
in Fig.13. Figure 14 shows the coefficient of performance
(COP) of the GSHP. The COP has changed between from 5 to 5
7.

COP
24 0
Temperature of antifreeze COP (Pt. & Electro-magnetic F.M)
23 COP (T/C & 3beams Ultrasonic F.M)
COP (Thermistor & Turbine F.M.)
-5
22
12:00 12:05 12:10 12:15 12:20 12:25 12:30
Temperature [C]

Elapsed time (min.)

21
Fig.14 COP change of GSHP
20
Temp. by Pt. at the outlet of HP
19 Temp. by T/C at the outlet of HP
Temp. by Thermistor at the outlet of HP Conclusions
18
0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 We have carried out the continuous operation test of the ground
Elapsed Time [min]
source heat pump system not only as the joint study of the NEDO
Fig. 12 Temperature change of antifreeze in the outlet of GSHP but also as the entrusted study from Hagihara Boring Co., Ltd.
The preliminary experimental results were obtained as follows.
The relative errors of the flow rate measurement and the
0.04
Relative Error(Temperature Measurement) temperature measurement were almost 6% in maximum. The
0.03
COP of the GSHP has changed between from 5 to 7 under the
0.02 current operational condition. Afterward, the calorimetry data
0.01 will be acquired for one year or more under a continuous driving
0 condition. Then, measurement accuracies of temperature, flow
-0.01 rate and the amount of heat transferred to the ground are
-0.02 scheduled to be evaluated. The experiment is also scheduled in
-0.03 the case of changing of the depth of boreholes and the flow rate
-0.04 of antifreeze.
-0.05 Relative error (T/C)
Relative error (Thermistor)
-0.06 References
0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00
Elapsed Time [min] [1] Ground Source Heat Pump Association,
http://www.gshp.org.uk/index.html
Fig. 13 Relative error of temperature measurement
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Molecular Dynamics Study on the Influences of Nanostructure Geometry

on the Energy Transport and Local Non-equilibrium Behavior
at Liquid-Solid Interfaces

Sho Murakami1, Masahiko Shibahara1 and Taku Ohara2

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka Suita Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
2
Institute of Fluid Science
Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira Aoba-ku Sendai Miyagi, 980-8577, Japan

Abstract f in the direction of x, y or z axis

i atoms or molecules
Non-equilibrium classical molecular dynamics simulations j atoms or molecules
were used to directly investigate the influence of nanoscale Liquid liquid molecules
structural geometry on thermal resistance at a liquid-solid LJ 12-6 Lennard-Jones potential
interface and the interfacial local non-equilibrium behavior of Nano nanostructure atoms
liquid molecules. A liquid molecular region confined between rot rotational
parallel solid walls was employed as a calculation system, using a sl between liquid molecules and solid atoms
Lennard-Jones model or SPC/E model for the interparticle Solid solid atoms
potential. The interfacial thermal resistance and the energy
tra translational
transport mechanism at the liquid-solid interface were found to x in the direction of the x axis
vary depending on the surface geometry at the nanometer scale y in the direction of the y axis
under the conditions used in the calculation. There was a certain z in the direction of the z axis
relationship between the interfacial thermal resistance and the the first term on the right hand side of the energy
magnitude of the local non-equilibrium behavior of liquid 1st
transport equation
molecules. The variation of the energy transport mechanism was the second term on the right hand side of the energy
found to be related to variations in the interfacial thermal 2nd
transport equation
resistance and the local non-equilibrium behavior at the liquid-
solid interface.

Introduction
Nomenclature
Responding to increased interest in liquid-solid interfacial
E energy
phenomena, a number of molecular dynamics simulations have
F interatomic or intermolecular force
been carried out to estimate the thermal resistances at various
I moment of inertia
liquid-solid interfaces [1-7]. The molecular energy transport
k Boltzmann constant
mechanism at liquid-solid interfaces has been investigated [2,4], as
L surface structural clearances
has the influence of surface roughness on the interfacial thermal
m mass
resistance [6,7], by employing molecular dynamics simulations.
N number of particles
One of the authors has observed energy transfer differences at
N torque
liquid-solid interfaces depending on the surface structure geometry
Q energy flux
and the structure clearances at nanometer length scales using non-
Rn thermal resistance at a liquid-solid interface
equilibrium classical molecular dynamics simulations [8-10].
r distance between particles
Such simulations are used in the present study to directly
T temperature
investigate the influence of nanometer-scale structural geometry
V control volume
on the thermal resistance at liquid molecules-solid interfaces, as
v velocity
well as the interfacial local non-equilibrium behavior of liquid
interaction potential parameter between liquid molecules
molecules.
and solid atoms
A liquid molecular region confined between solid walls was
temperature discontinuity between the solid wall and the
T employed as the calculation system. The calculation used either
liquid region
the 12-6 Lennard-Jones model or the SPC/E model to describe
Lennard-Jones potential parameter the interparticle potential [8-10]. The temperature of the middle
potential energy between particles layers of the upper and lower solid walls were held constant by
Lennard-Jones potential parameter the Langevin method in order to produce a temperature gradient
angular velocity in the system. The temperature gradient in the liquid molecular
region between the solid walls was utilized to calculate an
superscript/subscript interfacial thermal resistance depending on the interfacial
nanostructure geometry. The energy transport mechanism was
the interaction between A and B where A and B are
A-B also investigated using the energy transport formula at the
Liquid, Solid or Nano
molecular scale, and the energy flux at the liquid-solid interface
was decomposed into that due to the molecular motions and that
due to molecular interactions [11]. In the present study, we
generically discuss the relationship among the thermal resistance,
the energy transport mechanism and the local non-equilibrium
behavior at the liquid-solid interface modified by the interfacial
nanostructures.
The temperature gradients and the energy flux through the
upper and lower walls were calculated numerically after a
relaxation calculation of 1 ns for the Lennard-Jones model and 0.2
ns for the SPC/E model. Newtons equations for solid atoms and
liquid molecules were integrated numerically using the Leap Frog
method. The thermal resistance between the solid wall including
the nanostructures and the liquid region Rn was calculated using

T
Numerical Methods Rn , (2)
Qz
The liquid molecular region confined by the two parallel solid
walls was defined as a unit cell for the molecular dynamics where T is the temperature discontinuity between the lower solid
simulation. Figures 1 (a) and (b) show the calculation model wall and the liquid region at z = 0.7 nm.
employed in the case of a 12-6 Lennard-Jones liquid model and In order to investigate the energy transport mechanism at the
that using a SPC/E liquid model, respectively. In the present study, liquid-solid interface, the energy flux in the heat conduction
the surface structural clearance L was defined as the periodic direction Qz that passed through a control volume V in the case of
distance between the nanostructures on the solid wall as shown in the Lennard-Jones liquid model was calculated by [11]
Figures 1 (a) and (b). Various structures of 0.7 nm height were
considered to be attached to the lower solid wall and the structural
1 1
clearances L were changed from 0.0 to 2.8 nm for the parametric Qz E i v z ,i rz ,ij v i Fij . (3)
studies. As shown in Figures 1, the structures attached to the V i 2 i j i
surface formed periodic channel structures in the y-direction. The
structures on the bottom surface in the unit cell consisted of the The first term on the right hand side of Eq. (3) represents the
same number of atoms under all conditions. Solid atoms (walls and molecular energy transport due to their motions, and the second
nanostructures) had the atomic weight of Fe (55.847 AMU) and term represents the energy transport due to the interparticle forces
liquid molecules had the molecular weight of H2O (18.000 AMU). between all pairs of atoms or molecules. For the SPC/E liquid
The upper and lower solid walls consisted of four atomic layers model, the contribution of rotational motions was added to the
where the outermost layers were fixed and the temperatures of the right hand side of Eq. (3) as was done in prior work [11],
second outermost layers were held constant by the Langevin
method. Temperature gradients were formed in the liquid 1 1
molecular region by controlling the temperatures of the lower and Qz E i v z ,i rz ,ij v i Fij i N ij .
upper walls to be 350 K and 300 K, respectively. Each liquid
V i 2 i j i

molecule employed either the 12-6 Lennard-Jones potential model (4)

with only translational degrees of freedom or the SPC/E potential
In the present study, the liquid temperatures were calculated
model with translational and rotational degrees of freedom. The
in multiple control volumes. For the Lennard-Jones model sixteen
sizes of the liquid molecular region were set at 5.65.65.6 nm3 in
control volumes were used, of size 5.65.60.35 nm3 and
the case of the Lennard-Jones model and 2.85.62.8 nm3 for the
numbered as volume 1, 2, , 16 from the lower solid wall as
SPC/E model. The densities of the bulk liquid region were set at
shown in Figure 1 (a). Runs using the SPC/E liquid model
1.30103 kg/m3 and 1.06103 kg/m3, respectively, for the Lennard-
employed eight control volumes of size 2.85.60.35 nm3 and
Jones and the SPC/E models. Periodic boundary conditions were
numbered as volume 1, 2, , 8 from the lower solid wall, as
employed in the x- and y-directions as defined in Figures 1 (a) and
shown in Figure 1 (b). The translational temperatures of solid
(b). In the present study, the liquid-solid interface was defined as
walls and liquid molecules Ttra were calculated using
the region at z = 0.0 ~ 0.7 nm parallel to the two solid walls when
the top of the lower solid wall was defined as z = 0 nm. The total 2 N
1 2 2 2
calculation time were set to be 10 ns in the case of the Lennard- Ttra m v x ,i v y ,i v z ,i . (5)
Jones model and 2.0 ns for the SPC/E model. 3kN i 1 2
The Lennard-Jones potential energy parameters shown in In the case of the Lennard-Jones model, the average temperature
Table 1 were employed as the interparticle potential functions in of liquid molecules T was defined as the translational temperature
the present study so as to qualitatively understand the influence of Ttra , and the translational temperature in the direction of the f axis
the nanostructures on the energy transfer phenomena. The Tf was defined as
Lennard-Jones potential parameters and mass of liquid molecules
N
and solid atoms correspond respectively to those of water 2 1 2
molecules and iron atoms. The interaction between liquid Tf mv f ,i fxyz . (6)
molecules and solid atoms was also described by the 12-6 kN i 1 2
Lennard-Jones potential function, and the standard parameters sl
In the case of the SPC/E model, the rotational temperature of
and sl were determined using the Lorentz-Berthelot combination liquid molecules Trot was calculated using
rules. The potential parameter between liquid molecules and solid
atoms was expressed as a relative value to the standard value, N
2 1 2 2 2
and was varied from 0.1 to 0.4. Hence, the potential energy Trot I x ,i x ,i I y ,i y ,i I z ,i z ,i
between liquid molecules and solid atoms sl can be written as 3kN i 1 2
follows, (7)

12 6 and the average temperature of liquid molecules T was defined as

the average of the translational temperature Ttra and the rotational
sl sl
LJ_sl rij 4 sl (1) temperature Trot. We investigated the differences among the
rij rij . translational temperatures in the direction of x, y and z axis and
those between the translational and rotational temperatures.
 Results and Discussions
Table 1 Lennard-Jones potential parameters.

nm / 10-21 J LJ liquid model

H2O H2O 0.2641 5.585 Figure 2 shows the effects of nanometer-scale surface
Fe Fe 0.2209 40.00 structural clearance on the thermal resistance at the liquid-solid
1.495 0.1 interface in the case of the LJ liquid model. The thermal resistance
2.989 0.2 at the interface varied depending on the nanostructure clearance L,
H2O Fe 0.2425
4.484 0.3 and it passed through a minimum value at L = 0.7 nm when the
5.979 0.4 surface structural clearances changed from 0.0 to 2.8 nm under all
OO potential parameter conditions of . The absolute value of the
0.3166 1.080 thermal resistance increased when the potential parameter was
(SPC/E)
1.495 0.1 relatively small at the same surface structural clearance.
O Fe 2.989 0.2
0.2425 Figures 3 (a)-(c) show the influences of the nanostructure
(SPC/E) 4.484 0.3 clearance on the difference between the translational temperature
5.979 0.4 in each direction and the average molecular temperature. The
plots show the differences between the translational temperature
in the y-direction Ty and the average temperature T of liquid
molecules, and that between the translational temperature in the z-
direction Tz and the average temperature T; the data are presented
for the control volumes 1 (z = 0.00 ~ 0.35 nm), 2 (z = 0.35 ~ 0.70
Liquid molecules nm), and 3 (z = 0.70 ~ 1.05 nm). As shown in Figure 3 (a), the
differences between Ty and Tz at control volume 1 increased due to
the interfacial nanostructures. The largest differences were
observed in the case of the surface structural clearance L = 0.7 nm.
16 In Figure 3 (b), the temperature differences at the control volume 2
15 also increased due to the interfacial nanostructures although the
14
13 temperature differences at control volume 2 were smaller than
5.6nm

12 those at control volume 1. On the other hand, Figure 3 (c) shows

11
10 that there was little temperature difference at the control volume 3
9 in all cases. These results show that the local non-equilibrium
8 behavior of liquid molecules at the liquid-solid interface were
7
0.7nm

6 much more pronounced than those in the liquid bulk region. The
5 nanostructure clearances enhanced the local non-equilibrium
4 behavior of liquid molecules at interface. The more substantial
3
2 interfacial local non-equilibrium behavior of liquid molecules
1 seemed to lead to lower interfacial thermal resistance at the
liquid-solid interface under all parameter conditions in the present
z study as shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3 (a).
L nm 5.6nm
5.6nm Figures 4 (a)-(c) show the energy flux components calculated
by Eq. (3) for, respectively, control volumes 1, 2, and 3; these
x y calculations had the potential parameter = 0.2. The explanatory
notes labeled 1st and 2nd in Figures 4 (a)-(c) express the
(a) LJ liquid model energy flux through the first and second terms on the right hand
side of Eq. (3), respectively. The plot segments labeled Liquid,
Liquid molecules Solid, and Nano in the figure legend give the energy flux
contributed by, respectively, liquid molecules, solid wall atoms,
and nanostructure atoms. For example, the explanatory note 1st
8 Liquid represents the energy flux due to the motions of liquid
0.7nm

7
2.8nm

6 molecules, and 2nd Solid-Liquid shows the energy flux

5 through the interaction between solid wall atoms and liquid
4 molecules. In Figures 4 (a)-(c) the energy flux through the second
3
2 term on the right hand side of Eq. (3) was much larger than that
1 through the first term. Therefore the total energy flux was largely
z dependent on the components of the second term on the right hand
L nm 2.8nm side of Eq. (3).
5.6nm As shown in Figure 4 (a), the energy flux through the
x y
interaction between solid wall atoms and nanostructure atoms
(b) SPC/E liquid model (2nd Solid-Nano) and that between nanostructure atoms (2nd
Nano-Nano) at control volume 1 passed through a maximum
Figs.1 Calculation models and the definition of the surface value at L = 0.7 nm. By contrast, the energy flux due to the
structural clearance L at a liquid-solid interface. interaction between solid wall atoms and liquid molecules (2nd
Solid-Liquid) and that between liquid molecules (2nd Liquid-
Liquid) passed through a minimum value at L = 0.7 nm. These
four components varied depending on the surface structural
clearance L. Also, as seen in Figure 4 (b), the energy flux through
the interaction between nanostructure atoms (2nd Nano-Nano) 1
Ty-T
and that between liquid molecules (2nd Liquid-Liquid) at
control volume 2 varied depending on the surface structural
clearance L. These results show the component of the energy 0.5
transport due to the nanostructure surface could vary depending

Ty-T, Tz-T K
on the nanostructure clearance L. The energy transport component
involved in the interfacial nanostructures was the largest in the
case of the surface structure clearance L = 0.7 nm. On the other 0 Tz-T
hand, in Figures 4 (b) and (c), the energy flux through the
interaction between nanostructure atoms and liquid molecules
(2nd Nano-liquid) at control volumes 2 and 3 was independent -0.5
of the surface structural clearance L. The energy flux through the
interaction between solid wall atoms and nanostructure atoms
(2nd Solid-Nano) and that between nanostructure atoms (2nd -1
Nano-Nano) at control volumes 1 and 2 changed without 0 1 2 3
varying the energy flux through the interaction between L nm
nanostructure atoms and liquid molecules (2nd Nano-liquid) at
control volumes 2 and 3; these observations suggest that local (a) Control volume 1 (z = 0.00 ~ 0.35 nm)
energy transfer was increased due to the interfacial nanostructures, 1
except in the z-direction. According to these calculation results Ty-T
shown in Figures 4 (a)-(c), the estimated energy transfer in the y-
direction between nanostructure atoms and liquid molecules at
0.5
control volumes 1 and 2 depended on the surface structural

Ty-T, Tz-T K
clearance L. In particular, we can surmise that the energy transfer
in the y-direction between nanostructure atoms and liquid
molecules could reach a maximum when the surface structure 0 Tz-T
clearance L = 0.7 nm. Thus, the overall energy transport
mechanism at the liquid-solid interface was dependent on the
nanostructure clearance L. The variation of the energy transport -0.5
mechanism at the liquid-solid interface was related to the
variations of the thermal resistance and the local non-equilibrium
behavior of liquid molecules, expressed by the translational
-1
liquid temperature in the y-direction (Ty). 0 1 2 3
L nm
(b) Control volume 2 (z = 0.35 ~ 0.70 nm)
1
1.2
Ty-T
-8
( 10 )
Thermal resistance m2K/W

1 0.5
Ty-T, Tz-T K

0.8
0 Tz-T
0.6

0.4 -0.5

0.2
-1
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3 L nm
L nm
(c) Control volume 3 (z = 0.70 ~ 1.05 nm)
Fig.2 Effect of the surface structural clearance at the
nanometer scale on the thermal resistance at the liquid-solid Figs.3 Effect of the surface structural clearance at the nanometer
interface in the case of the LJ liquid model. scale on the interfacial local non-equilibrium behavior of liquid
molecules in the case of the LJ liquid model.
 109 Figures 6 (a)-(d) show the influences of the surface structure
3.5 clearance L on the difference between the translational
3.0 temperature Ttra and the average temperature T of liquid
2nd Solid-Nano molecules, and that between the rotational temperature Trot and
Energy flux W/m2

2.5
2nd Nano-Nano the average temperature T data for control volume 1 (z = 0.00 ~
2.0 1st Nano 0.35 nm), 2 (z = 0.35 ~ 0.70 nm), 3 (z = 0.70 ~ 1.05 nm), and 4 (z
1.5 2nd Nano-Liquid = 1.05 ~ 1.40 nm) are respectively shown in Figures 6 (a)-(d). In
Figure 6 (a), the differences between the translational temperature
1.0 2nd Solid-Liquid
Ttra and the rotational temperature Trot for control volume 1 were
2nd Liquid-Liquid relatively large and did not depend on the surface structural
0.5
1st Liquid clearance L. These large non-equilibrium phenomena extremely
0.0 close to the liquid-solid interface were caused by the dominance of
0 0.7 1.4 2.8
the translational energy component in the energy transfer process
L nm
between solid atoms and liquid molecules. As shown in Figure 6
(a) Control volume 1 (z = 0.00 ~ 0.35 nm) (b), the temperature differences for systems with nanostructure
surfaces in control volume 2 were larger than those in the case of
109 the flat surface, L = 0.0 nm. We suggest that this is due to the
3.5 smaller influence of the lower solid wall in control volume 2 in
3.0 comparison with that in control volume 1, especially in the case of
2nd Solid-Nano the flat surface. In Figure 6 (c), the temperature differences in
Energy flux W/m2

2.5
2nd Nano-Nano control volume 3 are seen to increase due to the surface
2.0 1st Nano nanostructures, although the temperature differences in the case of
1.5 2nd Nano-Liquid the flat surface were relatively small in comparison with those of
2nd Solid-Liquid
the nanostructure surfaces. On the other hand, there was little
1.0 temperature difference exhibited by control volume 4 in all cases,
2nd Liquid-Liquid
0.5 as seen in Figure 6 (d). These results show that the local non-
1st Liquid equilibrium behavior of liquid molecules at the liquid-solid
0.0
0 0.7 1.4 2.8
interface was much enhanced in comparison with those in the
L nm
bulk liquid region. The local non-equilibrium behavior of liquid
molecules was also enhanced in between the nanostructure
(b) Control volume 2 (z = 0.35 ~ 0.70 nm) clearances at the liquid-solid interface. The differences between
the translational and rotational temperature in the case of the
109 SPC/E liquid model as shown in Figure 6 were much larger than
3.5
the differences between the y- and z-translational temperatures in
3.0 the LJ liquid model as shown in Figure 3. The differences between
2nd Solid-Nano the translational and rotational temperatures were observed in
Energy flux W/m2

2.5
2nd Nano-Nano larger liquid region in comparison with the differences between the
2.0 1st Nano y- and z-translational temperatures, as shown in Figures 3 (c) and 6
1.5 2nd Nano-Liquid (c). The more significant interfacial local non-equilibrium
2nd Solid-Liquid behavior of liquid molecules seems to lead to a lower interfacial
1.0 thermal resistance at the liquid-solid interface under all parameter
2nd Liquid-Liquid
0.5 conditions in the present study, as shown in Figures 6 (b) and (c).
1st Liquid
0.0
0 0.7 1.4 2.8
L nm
6
(c) Control volume 3 (z = 0.70 ~ 1.05 nm) ( 10 -9)
Thermal resistance m2K/W

Figs.4 Effect of the surface structural clearance at the

nanometer scale on the energy flux components at the liquid-
solid interface for the LJ liquid model with =0.2. 4

SPC/E liquid model

2
Figure 5 shows the effects of surface structural clearance at
the nanometer scale on the thermal resistance at the liquid-solid
interface in the case of the SPC/E liquid model. The thermal
resistance at the interface passed through a minimum value at L =
0.7 nm when the interfacial structure clearances were changed from 0 1 2 3
0.0 to 2.8 nm under all potential parameter conditions of , as was L nm
the case with the Lenard-Jones liquid model. Figures 2 and 5 show
that the interfacial thermal resistance depended on the
Fig.5 Effect of the surface structural clearance at the
nanostructure clearance L, regardless of which liquid molecular
nanometer scale on the thermal resistance at the
model was used.
liquid-solid interface using the SPC/E liquid model.
 1.5
Ttra-T Conclusions
1 Classical non-equilibrium molecular dynamics simulations
were conducted in order to clarify the influences of nanometer-
scale surface structural clearances and the interaction potential
Ttra-T, Trot-T K

0.5
parameters between liquid molecules and solid atoms on a) the
0 Trot-T interfacial thermal resistance, b) the non-equilibrium behavior of
liquid molecules, and c) the energy transport mechanism at the
-0.5
liquid-solid interface. A liquid molecular region confined between
parallel solid walls was employed as the model system, using either
-1
the 12-6 Lennard-Jones or the SPC/E models as the intermolecular
-1.5
potential. The adherent structural clearances and the interaction
0 1 2 3 potential parameter between liquid molecules and sold atoms were
L nm the parameters varied in the calculations.
(a) Control volume 1 (z = 0.00 ~ 0.35 nm) Regardless of the liquid molecular model used, the thermal
1.5 resistance at the liquid-solid interface showed a dependence on
Ttra-T the surface structural clearances at the nanometer scale and on
1 the interaction potential parameters between liquid molecules and
solid atoms. The non-equilibrium behavior of liquid molecules at
the liquid-solid interface varied depending on the nanometer-
Ttra-T, Trot-T K

0.5
scale surface structures in both the liquid molecular models. The
0 Trot-T local non-equilibrium behavior of liquid molecules at the liquid-
solid interface was much enhanced in comparison with those in
-0.5
the liquid bulk region.
-1 In the case of the Lennard-Jones liquid molecular model, the
molecular energy transport mechanism at the liquid-solid
-1.5
0 1 2 3 interface varied depending on the surface structural clearances.
L nm The variations in the total energy flux were largely dependent on
the energy flux due to interparticle forces involved in the
(b) Control volume 2 (z = 0.35 ~ 0.70 nm) interfacial nanostructures. The variations in the latter were related
1.5 to variations in the thermal resistances and the local non-
Ttra-T equilibrium behavior of liquid molecules.
1
Ttra-T, Trot-T K

0.5
Acknowledgment
0 Trot-T This work has been partially supported by Japan Society for
-0.5
the Promotion of Science (JSPS), Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (B) No. 23360099.
-1

-1.5
0 1 2 3
References
L nm
[1] Maruyama, S. & Kimura, T., Thermal Science &
(c) Control volume 3 (z = 0.70 ~ 1.05 nm) Engineering, 1999,Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 63-68, 63-68.
1.5 [2] Ohara, T. & Torii, D., Journal of Chemical Physics, 2005,
Ttra-T Vol. 122, 214717-1-9.
1 [3] Xue, L. & Keblinski, P. Journal of Chemical Physics, 2003,
Vol. 118, No. 1, 337-339.
Ttra-T, Trot-T K

0.5 [4] Torii, D. et al., Journal of Heat Transfer, 2010, Vol. 132,
012402:1-9.
0 Trot-T [5] Kim, B. G. et al. Journal of Chemical Physics, 2008, Vol.
129, 174701-1-9.
-0.5
[6] Nagayama, G. et al. International Journal of Thermal
Sciences, 2010, Vol.49, No.1, 59-66.
-1
[7] Wang, Y. & Keblinski, P. Applied Physics Letters, 2011, 99,
-1.5
073112-1-3.
0 1 2 3
[8] Shibahara, M. & Takeuchi, K., Nanoscale and Microscale
L nm Thermophysical Engineering, 2008, Vol.12, No.4, 311-319.
(d) Control volume 4 (z = 1.05 ~ 1.40 nm) [9] Shibahara, M. & Takeuchi, K., Journal of Thermal Science
& Technology, 2011, Vol. 6, No.1, 9-20.
Figs.6 Effect of the surface structural clearance at the nanometer [10] Shibahara, M. & Ohara, T., Journal of Thermal Science &
scale on the interfacial local non-equilibrium behavior of liquid Technology, 2011, Vol. 6, No. 2, 247-255.
molecules using the SPC/E liquid model. [11] Ohara, T., Journal of Chemical Physics, 1999, Vol. 111,
No.14, 6492-6500.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Buoyant-Thermocapillary Flow Instabilities in Annular Pools
N. Imaishi1, M. Ermakov2 and WY. Shi3
1
Kyushu University, Kasuga 816-8580, Japan
2
Inst. Problems in Mechanics, RAS, Moscow, 117526, Russia
3
College of Power Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
Abstract
Despite many experimental and theoretical works in these several
decades, the characteristics of the buoyant-thermocapillary flow
instabilities in annular pools are not well understood yet. In this
work, stability of axisymmetric steady buoyant-thermocapillary
flow in annular pool is precisely examined through a large set of
linear stability analysis (LSA). All annular pools in this work are
heated at the outer wall and cooled at the inner wall. The gas-
liquid interface is flat, non-deformable, adiabatic and subjected to
the Marangoni effect, the bottom is an adiabatic solid wall.
Axisymmetric steady temperature and flow fields are obtained by
solving the steady, non-linear fundamental PDEs and BCs. The
time-dependent fundamental PDEs and BCs are linearized by
adopting the normal mode method. The linearized PDEs and
BCs are discretised on the same grid used for the basic field
calculation. Thus obtained matrix equation rises a generalized
eigenvalue problem which provides neutral stability conditions.
Neutral/critical Re for the incipience of 3-D flows and flow
patterns are searched for annular pools of a fluid of medium Pr
(Pr=6.7) as a function of depth d under various gravity levels for
Pool #1 (Ri=20mm, Ro=40mm) and Pool#2 (Ri=4.0mm,
Ro=67.5mm) and also for pools of a low Pr fluid (Pr=0.011) in
Pool#1 under 0G and 1G. The LSA for Pr=6.7 fluid revealed that
there are two types of hydrothermal waves (HTW1, HTW2) and
one type of 3-D steady flow (3DSF) in annular pools. HTW1
prevails in shallow pools, HTW2 in deeper pools at any gravity
level and 3DSF prevails in much deeper pools under non-zero
gravity field. Results for Pr=0.011, two similar types of HTW are
the most dangerous mode but the neutral condition for 3DSF
modes locates slightly super critical conditions for HTW even in
shallow pools regardless the gravity level. In Pool#2, target-like
pattern (HTW1 with m=0) becomes the most dangerous in a very
narrow range of liquid depth but pool geometry does not cause
drastic change of instability characteristics.
Introduction
When a horizontal temperature gradient is applied on a liquid
surface, there appears a surface stress and it drives a flow along
the interface. This is caused by the variation of the surface
tension along the interface corresponding to the applied
temperature gradient and is often called the Marangoni effect or
the thermocapillary effect. In terrestrial condition, thermo-
capillary effect is coupled with the buoyancy. Buoyant-
thermocapillary flow often takes important role in nature and
industry. Most well-known example is the melt flow in melt
zones in CZ and floating-zone crystal growth processes. In these
cases, the flow tends to be steady when the applied temperature
gradient, or the temperature difference (T) between the
containner walls, is small. However, above a certain threshold
value of the T, the steady flow becomes unstable against three
dimensional disturbances and oscillatory 3D flow (propagating
hydrothermal waves :HTW) and/or 3D steady flow (3DSF) are
observed. Hydrothermal wave was first predicted by Smith and
Davis [1] by a linear stability analysis of thermocapillary flow in
infinite liquid layer. Since then experiments [2,3] and numerical
simulations [4,5,6] have been reported on instabilities of
buoyant-thermocapillary flow in rectangular pools. Classical
linear stability analysis have been applied to the buoyant-
thermocapillary flow of infinite extent [7,8]. Recently, Kuhlmann
[9] reported a linear stability analysis of buoyant-thermocapillary
flow in finite rectangular pool. Beside the flow instability in
rectangular pools, instability of the buoyant thermocapillary flow
in liquid pools in annular gap attracted the research interests for
industrial applications (melt flows in CZ furnace etc.) and also
for space experiment applications because annular pools were
expected to be free from the side wall effects. Experiment of
Schwabe et al.[10] encouraged many researchers to work in this
field. Experiments revealed interesting characteristics of HTW
and 3DSF[11] in annular pools, such as, liquid depth dependency
of azimuthal wave number (m) and oscillation frequency of
HTW[12,13,14], two types of HTW (one appears in shallow pool
near the cold wall, and the other in deeper pools (but still
shallower than those for 3DSF) [10,15], oscillatory target-like
HTW (m=0) in annular pool with a very small inner cold wall
radius and liquid depth d lc= / g ; lc the capillary length)
and two HTWs can be observed in annular pool of depth
around lc [15-17], strong dependence on the direction of
temperature gradient [17]. Regardless these many research works,
general characteristics and general characteristics of the stability
of the steady axisymmetric buoyant-thermocapillary flow in
annular pools and flow patterns of the induced 3D flows are not
yet well understood. Numerical simulation provides us with
many details [18-22,24-26]. However simulation needs too heavy
CPU load to clarify general aspects of the phenomena in annular
pools. Linear stability analysis needs less CPU load and may
provide many information, but so far very limited number of
LSA results [23-27] have been reported for cylindrical pools
covering only small portion of the problems. This work aims at
understanding the fundamental characteristics of the buoyant-
thermocapillary flow instabilities in annular pools by conducting
series of linear stability analysis on stability of axisymmetric
steady buoyant-thermocapillary flow in annular pools against
three dimensional perturbations. The basic flow field is defined
by numerically solving non-linear fundamental PDEs with simple
thermal boundary conditions, i.e., adiabatic conditions both on
the bottom solid wall and liquid-gas interface. Effects of liquid
depth, Pr, gravity level, and pool geometry on the stability limit
and flow pattern are investigated.
Problem formulation
Physical and mathematical models
We consider an open annular cavity in a vertical gravity field
shown in Figure 1. Liquid depth is d, radius of the inner wall Ri,
radius of outer wall Ro, gap width R=Ro-Ri. Then the geometry
is characterized by the aspect ratio =R/d and the radius ratio is
 u = 0, (16-a)
u
+ U 0 u + u U 0 = p + 2u + Gr e z , (16-b)

1 2
+ U 0 + u 0 = . (16-c)
Pr
Tc
The boundary conditions for these perturbation equations are the
same as those for the basic state, except for the replacement of
equation (13) by =0.

Fluid Numerical methods

The basic state is first determined by solving the governing
equations numerically on a non-uniform staggered grid using the
Newton-Raphson method. Stability of the basic state against
Figure 1. Model of annular pool small 3-D perturbations is investigated by means of LSA based
characterized by the aspect ratio =R/d and the radius ratio on normal modes assumption
R=Ri/Ro. The outer wall is maintained at a uniform temperature
at Th and the inner wall at Tc (< Th) and the temperature u(r , , z , ) u (r , z )

difference is T=Th-Tc. The top and bottom are assumed to be p (r , , z , ) = p (r , z ) exp {R + i (I + m )} + c.c. (17)
adiabatic. Fluid is considered to be an incompressible Newtonian ( r , , z , )
(r , z )
fluid with constant thermophysical properties except for the
temperature dependences of surface tension and density. The normal mode is characterised by the wave number m in
Thermocapillary force acts on the liquidgas interface. For the direction, the oscillation frequency I, the temporal growth rate
dimensionless formulation of the governing equations, we use the R, all of which are real, and the complex structure functions
scales d, d2/, /d, 2/d2, and T/ for length, time, velocity, u , p , and . Inserting equation (17) into the linearized equations
pressure and temperature. The fluid surface is considered to be
and the corresponding boundary conditions and after descretiz-
flat and non-deformable, i.e, the Capillary number is assumed to
ation on the same grid used for the basic state calculation, we
be very small (Ca=TT/0 ; 0 is surface tension, T (=-0/T) obtain a generalized eigenvalue problem of the form
the temperature coefficient of surface tension). Under the above
assumptions, the mathematical model is expressed by the A(Re, m, Pr, Gr , , R ) x = B(Pr) x . (18)
following fundamental PDEs,
where =R+i is the eigenvalues, x =( u , p , ) the eigen-
U = 0, (1)
vectors, and A and B are sparse matrices with 5n 5n elements; n
U is the total grid number in the r-z plane. Eigenvalues are either
+ U U = P + 2 U + Gr e z , (2)
real (=0 : 3DSF) or complex conjugate pairs ( 0 : HTW
1 2 travelling clockwise and counter clockwise directions). We seek
+ U = . (3) for the neutral stability boundaries of the basic flow characterised
Pr
by the neutral Reynolds number Ren (Pr, Gr, , R, m) at which
Here ez is the unit vector in positive z direction. R=0 is satisfied. The critical Reynolds number Rec is the
B.C. at the liquid surface: ( z = 1, 0 2, Ri / d r Ro / d ): smallest neutral Reynolds number for a given combination of Pr,
Gr, and R. The associated normal mode is called the critical
U V
= Re , = Re , W = 0, z = 0 (4, 5, 6, 7) mode. Equation (18) was solved by inverse iteration method. The
z r z r Newtons method was used to seek the neutral conditions. Grid
B.C. at z=0 : U = 0, z = 0 (8, 9) convergence was carefully checked for each case and the relative
B.C. at r=Ri/d : U = 0, = 0 (10, 11) errors in the calculated critical parameters (Rec, mc and Ic) are
estimated of about 4% or better in most cases.
B.C. at r=Ro/d : U = 0, = (12, 13)
Results for Pool #1 (R=0.5)
The dimensionless groups are the Prandtl, Grashof, Reynolds and
dynamic Bond numbers, Annular pool #1 is characterized by the geometry parameter of
g Td 4 d 2 T Gr g d 2 R=0.5 (Ri=20mm and Ro=40mm). This geometry corresponds to
Gr = , Pr= , Re= T , Bd= = , (14)
R
2
R Re T the annular pool was used by Schwabe et al. [11,12] for their
where is the thermal diffusivity, the thermal expansion co- space and on-ground experiments and also used for several
efficient, and g the acceleration of gravity. These governing numerical simulations [19,20,22,24-26] and LSA [24-26]. In the
equations and boundary conditions define an axisymmetric following section, we use two fluids, one is a moderate Pr
steady two-dimensional flow field. This flow field is called the number fluid (Pr=6.7) and a low Pr fluid (Pr=0.011) to see the
basic state and denoted as U0(r,z), P0(r,z), and 0(r,z). The Fluid 1 Fluid 2
stability of this basic flow is investigated by a linear stability [kg/m3] 760 2530
analysis. The flow field is decomposed as [m2/s] 9.7010-8 2.5310-5
U U 0 ( r , z ) u ( r , , z , ) [m2/s] 5.3910-7 2.7710-7
[1/K] 1.5010-4 1.5010-4
P = P0 (r , z ) + p (r , , z , ) . (15)
T [N/(Km)] 8.0010-5 7.00 10-5

0 ( r , z ) ( r , , z , ) Pr [ - ] 6.7 0.011
By inserting equation (15) into the governing equations and [N/m] 15.910-3 0.735
linearizing the equations with respect to the small perturbations u,
p, and , the linear stability equations are obtained as Table 1 Thermophysical properties of fluids
effects of Pr on the characteristics of flow in annular pools.
Thermophysical properties of these fluids are listed in Table 1.
Basic flow and linear stability analyses are conducted using non-
uniform meshes with 301 (or 125) grids in radial direction and
31- 156 grids in z direction depending on the pool depth.
Flow instabilities in annular pool of fluid 1 in pool #1
In this combination of pool and fluid, we seek Ren over a wide
range of wave number m and pool depth =1 (d=20mm) - =100
(d=0.2mm) under four different gravity levels (1G, 0.5G, 0.165G,
and 0G). Figure 2 shows Ren as a function of m for =20 under
1G condition. In this case, there exist several neutral stability
branches of hydrothermal waves type instabilities. Most of them
indicate a minimum (such as point A) in small m region, but one
branch shows a local minimum in large m region (point B).
Temperature perturbation patterns at A and B are also shown in
Figure 2. In this case, the critical condition is determined as
(Rec=71.40, mc=26, Ic=5.915).
140
120
B E
Re
100
B
80
A C
0 20 40 60 80
m A
Figure 2. Neutral Reynolds number vs. m (=20 and 1G) and
surface patterns of perturbation temperature.
Basic state at the critical condition (0 and stream function
and radial distribution of temperature along the surface and
bottom) is shown in Figure 3. These figures indicate thermal
boundary layers near the inner and outer walls and the surface
temperature gradient over a wide range of the surface is much
smaller than T/R. There is a steady vortex locates near the hot
outer wall and also a small co-rotating roll next to the vortex.
1
0.8
surface
(T-Tc)/(Th-Tc)
0.6
0.4 bottom
0.2
0
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
R/Ro
Figure 3. Basic state at the critical condition (=20 and 1G).
Hereafter, the HTW with smaller m value are called HTW1 and
HTW with larger m is called HTW2. HTW1 appears near the
inner (cold) wall and HTW2 appears near the outer (hot) wall.
Kinetic- and thermal-energy-balances for perturbations [9] based
on Equation (16) revealed that HTW1 is sustained by the thermal
energy produced at near the cold wall (R/Ro 0.57) by convective
transports of the basic temperature field caused by the
perturbation flow. On the contrary, HTW2 is sustained by the
thermal energy production by convective transport of the basic
temperature field caused by the perturbation flow at vicinity of
the hyperbolic stagnation point of the basic flow near the hot wall
(R/Ro 0.97). In shallow pools, HTW1 has many solution
blanches as shown in Figure 2, but number of branches decreases
with decreasing (increasing liquid depth). In pools of <15 the
solution branches for HTW1 and HTW2 part into two
independent branches dominant in each narrow range of m.
Figure 4 shows the neutral and the critical Reynolds numbers for
the incipience of 3D instabilities in the Pool #1 under 1G as a
function of the aspect ratio together with some patterns of
perturbation temperature on the surface. It should be noted that
there are two particular values of aspect ratio, *1 and *2, at
which two different flow modes become unstable at same
temperature difference, i.e., in a pool of *1=13.519 (1.48mm)
HTW1 and HTW2 become unstable at Re=130.97 and in a pool
of *2=4.566 (4.38mm) HTW2 and 3DSF at Re=1351.9, as
shown in Figure 4. All HTW patterns drawn in Figure 4 are
traveling in the clockwise direction. Similar patterns traveling in
the counter-clockwise direction exist as the conjugate solutions.
: Rec (HTW1)
HTW2
10000 : Rec (HTW2)
m=55 F : Rec (3DSF)
Re c , Re n
1000
D
HTW1
m=26 B
100
A
1 5*2 10 1* 50 100
C (*1=13.519, Re=130.97) D (=6.667, Re=459.84)
HTW1 HTW2 HTW2
m=14 m=34 m=18
E (*2=4.566, Re=1351.9) F (=2.0, Re=5905.4)
HTW2 3DSF 3DSF
m=9 m=30 m=17
Figure 4. Stability diagram for the Pool #1 under 1G
condition and some patterns of perturbation
temperature on the surface. (Patterns at A and B
are shown in Figure 2)
1
Similar calculations are conducted for different gravity levels
(0.5G, 0.166G (gravity on the moon) and 0G) to evaluate the
effect of gravity level on the buoyant-thermocapillary flow
instability in Pool #1 and the results are summarized in Figure 5
together with the result for 1G. These results indicate following
effects of the acceleration of gravity (buoyancy). Firstly, gravity
is indispensable to cause 3DSF in thermocapillary-driven flow in
annular gaps. Secondly, gravity shifts *1 and *2 values toward
larger values, i.e., flow-type changes from HTW1 to HTW2
and from HTW2 to 3DSF occur in shallower pool under larger G
level. Thirdly, buoyancy force stabilizes the basic flow against
3D disturbances (HTW1, HTW2, 3DSF) and increases Ic of
HTW2. Under higher G level, basic flow rate at the critical
 0.5G 1G
10000 30
100 HTW2
0.166G
50 3DSF
1000 0G
HTW1 20
Re

0G 1G

I
m
HTW2
HTW2
10 10 HTW2
100 5
HTW1 3DSF HTW1
0
1 5 10 50 100 1 5 10 50 100 1 5 10 50 100

Figure 5. Effects of G-level on the critical and neutral stability conditions in Pool1.
condition increases. In deep liquid layers, the stationary vortex of 5000
the basic flow becomes stronger and larger. Thus the thermal : Ren HTW1
energy production near the stationary vortex increases and switch 4000 : Ren HTW2
from HTW1 to HTW2 becomes easier under larger G level. In : Ren 3DSF1
further deeper pools, the stationary vortex of the basic flow 3000 : Ren 3DSF2
becomes strong and expands toward the inner wall and distorted : Ren 3DSF3

Rec , Ren
into an elliptic shape and then 3DSF starts, suggesting the elliptic 2000 solid line : Rec
instability takes major role for the incipience of 3DSF [9].
Flow instabilities in annular pool of fluid 2 in pool #1
Fluid 2 is characterized by its low value of the Prandtl number
(Pr=0.011). The first LSA by Smith and Davis [1] revealed that 1000
hydrothermal waves instability in low Pr fluid pool is caused by 900
800
inertia rather than the Marangoni effect. In this section, buoyant- 5 10
thermocapillary flow instabilities in annular pool are compared
with those of the moderate Pr fluid cases in the previous section. Figure 7 Stability diagram for the Pool#1 under 0G condition.
Figure 6 shows a basic state in a shallow pool at the critical
condition (=20 under 1G : Rec=874.11, I=27.763, mc=39).
Because of the small Pr value, the temperature distribution in the a) =20
pool is close to that of a conduction dominant case although it is HTW1 HTW2 3DSF1 3DSF2
slightly distorted by the buoyant-thermocapillary flow in the pool.
Temperature gradient is larger near the inner wall and gradually
decreases in the outer region. There is a strong steady vortex m=39 m=106 m=78 m=45
attached to the cold inner wall and two weak co-rotating
stationary rolls next to the strong vortex.
b) =5.0
HTW1 HTW2 3DSF1 3DSF2
1

0.8
m=12 m=28 m=24 m=13
(T-T c)/(Th-Tc)

0.6

0.4
0.2
0 arms of temperature perturbations, i.e., HTW2 looks as if it
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
R/Ro
Figure 6. Basic state at the critical condition (=20 and 1G)
Figure 7 shows neutral stability limits for several types of 3D
flow instabilities and the surface patterns of temperature
perturbation are shown in Figure 8. HTWs in shallow pools of
fluid 2 are dominant near the inner wall and we do not meet
HTW like the HTW2 for Pr=6.7, which shows largest amplitude
of temperature oscillations near the outer wall. This trend is also
true for deeper pools. Under 1G condition, hydrothermal waves
instability (HTW1: see Fig. 8) is the most dangerous mode over
almost entire range of studied. But in a very narrow range of
(1.667 1.715), different type of HTW (HTW2) becomes
Figure 8 Surface patterns of temperature perturbations.
the most dangerous. HTW2 is characterized by its shape of the
0.9 1
propagates in the counter-clockwise direction. It should be noted
that in shallow annular pool of the fluid 2 (=20), 3DSF-type
instabilities attain neutrally stable state at slightly above the
critical condition, i.e., Ren for 3DSF2 locates only 30% above Rec.
HTW2 and three types of 3DSF instabilities also appear under 0G
condition. This suggests that 3DSF in low Pr fluid pool may
correspond to some kind of centrifugal instability mechanism.
Figure 9 shows the effect of G-level on the critical conditions for
the incipience of 3D flow. m and I are insensitive to G-level.
However, unlike the case of fluid 1 (Pr=6.7), gravity significantly
destabilizes buoyant-thermocapillary flow in low Pr fluid pools.
This destabilization corresponds to the effects of the buoyancy
force to enhance the flow rate of the basic flow and suppresses
the secondary vortex which appears near the bottom and
 5000
4000 : Ren HTW 1 100 : mc HTW 1 (1G)
: Ren HTW 2 : mc HTW 2 (1G)
: mc HTW 1 (0G) 200
3000 solid line : Rec 80 : mc HTW 2 (0G)
0G
Rec , Ren

mc , mn
60 : mn HTW 1

In Ic
2000 : mn HTW 2
1G 40 100

20
1000
900
800 0 0
5 10 0 10 20 0 10 20

Figure 9 Effect of G-level on the critical s and neutral condition of HTWs (Pr=0.011, 0G and 1G).
increases the depth of the return flow zone. Suppression of the 200
secondary vortex also contributes to enhance the flow rate. The
reduced depth of the return flow under 0G causes the increases in
m and I of HTW1 in a range of 3- 7, as seen in Figure 9.
100

m
Results for Pool #2 (R=0.0593)
Pool #2 has small inner radius and large radius of outer wall.
Garnier and Normand [21] conducted a simplified LSA to 0
explain the oscillating target-like pattern (HTW of m=0) [15]. 20
Their LSA result predicted that hydrothermal waves with m>0
are all vanished near the center (d/R<0.24) for a case of =16,
Bi=1.0 and Pr=10. However, their model involves three
In

assumptions; 1) conductive bottom wall, 2) heat loss from the 10

liquid surface to the surrounding gas phase, and 3) ignoring the
boundary layers near the side walls and the steady vortex
attached to the cold wall. Based on the LSA result, Garnier et al.
speculated that the HTW with m=0 is the possible pattern for the 0
50 100
shallow liquid layer of depth around the capillary length in pools Figure 11 m and I at neutral
stability state in Pool #2.
with small R. However, present result for the Pool #1 suggests
HW2 may be equivalent to the present HTW1. In this work, we
examine the stability limit of buoyant-thermocapillary flow in a
realistic but simple annular pool model using 501 grids in the
radial direction and 31-65 grids in z direction depending on the
pool depth.
5000
: HTW1 (m>0)
: HTW1 (m=0) =63.50, Rec=42.605
: HTW1' (m>0) =42.33, Rec=116.04
1000 : HTW1' (m=0) mc=6, Ic=5.906 HTW1 mc=2, Ic=5.753 HTW1
: HTW2
500 : 3DSF
Ren

100
50 a)

10 50 100 =39.69, Rec=176.60 =38.48, Rec=207.52

mc=0, Ic=5.675: HTW1 mc=0, Ic=4.568, HTW1

220
b)
200
Ren

180

160 =37.35, Rec=221.10

mc=0 =12.7, Rec=2074.8
mc=49, Ic=6.991: HTW2 mc=53, Ic=0: 3DSF
140
37 38 39 40 41
Figure 12 Surface patterns of at the critical state for the
incipience of instability. (Pool #2, Pr=6.7, 1G).
Figure 10 Neutral stability diagram for Pool #2.
 8
MAGIA 0G lines : LSA results
MAGIA 1G
1
6 HTW1
3DSF
0.8

Tc [K]
HTW2
(T-Tc)/(Th-Tc)

0.6 4 1G

0.4
2
0.2 0G
0
0 0 10 20
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
R/Ro d [mm]
Figure 14 Comparison with Experiment MAGIA [10].
Figure 13 Basic state at a critical condition (=38.48 1G)

The results indicate that vertical heat loss is not obligatory for
appearance of the target-like oscillating pattern (HTW1 with
m=0) in annular pool with very small inner wall radius. HTW1
with m=0 can occur even in adiabatic pool but in a very limited
range of pool depth, 37.91 40.19 in the present case.
However, in a slightly wider range of 37.91 42.33,
differences between Ren for m=0 and Ren for m=1 are always less
than 2.0. As shown in Figure 13, the basic flow field at the
critical condition for =38.48 (Re=199.52, m=0) has no
quantitative difference from that in the Pool #1 (Figure 3) except
for the smaller temperature gradient on the surface and steeper
change of the average temperature and also three small co-
rotating cells near the inner wall. Unlike the LSA result of
Garnier and Normand [21], the characteristics of the HTW1 in
Pool #2 are similar to those of the Pool #1. A relation mc
holds at 40.19 and the critical wave length of HTW1 at the
inner wall (lc=2Ri/mcd) is 4.188 at 55.22 (mc 5). In smaller results. However, both results show similar liquid depth
range, mc continues decreasing but in slightly non-linear way,
and accordingly the critical wave length increases, e.g. mc=1 and
lc=16.00 at =40.45. With further decrease in , HTW1 shows its
minimum Ren at m=0 since the wave length of HTW1 of m=1
becomes too large to be accommodated by the periphery length
of the inner wall and needs larger Reynolds number is required to
sustain m=1. It should be also noted that there are many solution
branches of HTW1 in shallow pools and the critical state is
attained by HTW1 in 37.91 38.96. HTW1 shows minimum
Ren at m=0. In smaller range of (14.11 37.91), HTW2 is
LSA results indicate the flow-type switches at d1* and d2* but the
references did not describe the flow-type shift. Tc by LSA for
0G are distinguishably smaller than the experimental results. On
the other hand, LSA results for 1G are smaller than those of
experiments. Sim and Zebib [18] conducted numerical
simulations and explained the discrepancy in 0G case by the heat
input to the liquid surface which came from the observation
window which was heated to prevent condensation of oil vapour.
Detailed analyses are needed to give reasonable explanations for
the discrepancies in 1G results.
Stability limits of 0.65cSt silicone oil flow in Pool#2 under 1G.
Tc vs. d lines based on the present LSA are compared to the
experimental data of Garnier [27] and Miranda [16] in Figure 15.
LSA results are distinguishably larger than the experimental
dependencies and the threshold depths (d1*) at which HTW1
switches to HTW2, are both slightly larger than the capillary
length (lc=1.46mm).
LSA (Pr=6.7)
: HTW1 (m>0)
30 : HTW1 (m=0)
: HTW (min at m=0)
: HTW2
20
T [K]

the most dangerous mode. In the pools of further decreased

, 3DSF becomes the critical mode (calculated in a range of
10.58 14.11 and expected to be true for deeper pools). These 10
are also quite similar to those of the Pool#1.
Experimental Results : HW1
Comparison with available experimental data (Pr=10.3) : HW2
0
1 2 3
In this section, the present LSA results are compared with d [mm]
available experimental results. Hereafter, the non-dimensional
expressions shown in the previous sections are converted to Figure 15 Comparison with Experimental data for Pool #2.
dimensional expressions Tc vs. d based on the pool geometry
parameters and the thermophysical properties in Table 1. These From Figures 14 and 15, the present LSA results show reasonable
properties are sometime different from those used in other papers agreement with available experimental data. It should be noted
(Pr=10.3, T =8.7710-5 [15]). Thus the comparisons should be that the present LSA results also show good agreements with
qualitative and further extensive LSA calculations are requested three dimensional numerical simulations of flow instabilities in
for detailed quantitative discussions. liquid layers of Pr=6.7 fluid [23] and Pr=0.011 fluid [26] in Pool
#1.
Stability limits of 0.65cSt silicone oil flow in Pool#1.
Conclusions
Critical temperature difference Tc in Pool#1 under 0G obtained
by a space experiments MAGIA [10,11] and on-ground tests [10] Since there is no side wall, which produces undesirable
are compared with the present LSA results in Figure 14. influences to the incipience and development of velocity and
temperature perturbations in rectangular pools, annular pool has
an advantage for experimental investigations of flow instability.
However, buoyant-thermocapillary flow instability in annular
pool may be slightly different from that in rectangular pools
because of the curvature and accordingly difference periphery
lengths of the heat transfer walls. But the effects have not been
clearly understood. In this work, we conducted a series of LSA of
steady axisymmetric buoyant-thermocapillary flow in annular
pools with different geometries to evaluate the effects of Pr, and
gravity level on the critical conditions for the incipience of three
dimensional disturbances. In the LSA model, a parameter R is
introduced in order to take the curvature into account. Present
LSA results reveal the following characteristics of the three
dimensional flow instabilities of buoyant-thermocapillary flow in
annular pools.
1) In annular pools three types of instability occur; two kind of
hydrothermal waves instabilities (HTW1, HTW2) and three
dimensional steady flow (3DSF). HTW1 is the most dangerous
mode in shallow pools of moderate Pr fluid (Pr=6.7) and in wide
range of liquid depth in low Pr fluid pool (Pr=0.011). HTW1 is
dominant near the inner wall and HTW2 is dominant in deeper
pools of moderate Pr fluid except for 0G condition. In case of
low Pr fluid pool, HTW2 is not observed. 3DSF is the most
dangerous mode in deep pools of moderate Pr fluid. Although
3DSF cant be the most dangerous in low Pr fluid pools but it
should be noted that the ratio of Ren for the neutral stability
Reynolds number of 3DSF to the Rec (the critical Reynolds
number for the incipience of HTW1) is only 1.30 in shallow pool
(=20) regardless the gravity level.
2) HTW1 and HTW2 correspond to HW2 and HW1 of Garnier
[15] observed in their experiments using Pool#2 geometry.
Garnier observed pulsating target-like patterns in shallow pools
and named HW2 because of its two-dimensionality of the
patterns. And they gave a name HW1 to the observed quasi-one
dimensional hydrothermal waves in deeper pools (HW1
corresponds to HTW2 of the present work). Present LSA suggest
HW2 is one specific pattern of HTW1 which is allowed only in a
narrow range of liquid depth in annular pools of small R and in
further shallower liquid layers quasi-one-dimensional hydro-
thermal waves (HTW1 with m>0) become dominant.
2) Present result reveals that heat loss from the liquid surface is
not indispensable for the incipience of the target-like patterns.
Also, buoyant-thermocapillary flow instabilities are more
complex and of more diversity than expected earlier.
3) Present LSA results give qualitative explanations for
characteristics of the flow instabilities of buoyant-
thermocapillary flow in annular pools.
Further detailed analyses are continuing so as to clarify the
mechanisms which drives each type of instability mode, and to
find correlations which enable to estimate the instability type
switching conditions (1* and 2*). At the same time, HTW1 and
HTW2 in the present annular pools of moderate Pr fluid must be
compared to the two kinds of hydrothermal waves in rectangular
pool reported in References [3,4]. The results for low Pr fluid
pools should be carefully compared with some numerical
simulations.
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 Laminated Encapsulation with Transfer Printing of Micro-lens Array
Integrated in Photovoltaic Module
B.K. Chiou1, H. Ay1, Y.S. Lin 2, T.S. Sheu3, J.W. Huang4, C.F.Ai5 and D.G.Tsai5

1
Department of Mold and Die Engineering
National Kaohsiung University of Applied Science, Kaohsiung 80778, Taiwan, R.O.C.
2
Graduate Institute of Applied Science
National Kaohsiung University of Applied Science, Kaohsiung 80778, Taiwan, R.O.C.
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering
R.O.C. Military Academy, Kaohsiung 83059, Taiwan, R.O.C.
4
Department of Physics
R.O.C. Military Academy, Kaohsiung 83059, Taiwan, R.O.C.
5
Department of Physics
Institute of Nuclear Energy Research, Atomic Energy Council, Taoyuan County 32546, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Abstract Vtra trapezoidal cone volume

This Study uses a LIGA like process to produce photovoltaic
modules that integrate laminated encapsulation with transfer
printing of micro-lens array (MLA). The optical efficiency
of micro-lens array on the PV module is verified by an
optical software design. Step one uses the optical software to
simulate different focal lengths of the micro-lens and
calculate the energy of the PV module at different incident
angles to obtain the optimal geometric micro-lens. Step two
uses the LIGA like process, lithography, deposition, and the
electroforming MLA Ni mold. The mold with PV module
laminated encapsulation is placed on the ETFE film surface.
By applying hot press transfer printing, EVA micro-lens
array PV modules are produced.
Simulation results show that when the micro-lens is at an
alignment angle of 0 - 45, efficiency is increased. When
the gaps between micro-lenses are equal, the micro-lens
diameter is 200um. As the fill factor increases along with the
diameter increase, it has optimal efficiency. When the
micro-lens fill factors are equal, the micro-lens diameter is
150um. As the micro-lens height is lower, the contact angle
with light is also smaller, increasing its anti-reflection ability
and reduces direct reflection. Experimental results show that
the micro-lens array with a diameter of 200 um, gap of 50
um, and fill factor of 58% has a higher efficiency than the
micro-lens array with a diameter of 150 um, gap of 50 um,
and fill factor of 51%. Simulations of a micro-lens with
alignment angles 0 - 60 are conducted from sunrise to
sunset. Results show that it has a maximum power
efficiency increase of 2.95%, can reduce the direct reflection
of the incident light to increase refraction, and can be used
in places with high latitudes or insufficient sunshine time to
provide a stable power output.
The laminated encapsulation technology of micro-lens array
integrated in PV modules can reduce mass production costs.
Nomenclature
f micro-lens focal length
rc radius of curvature
n index of refraction
h micro-lens height
D micro-lens diameter
Vlens micro-lens volume
ttra trapezoidal cone thickness
f.f fill factor
Cd center distance
g gap
alignment angle
gain
Introduction
The development of micro-optical components has become
an emerging popular topic which primarily miniaturizes the
size of optical elements or optical systems into an
approximate range of millimeters to microns. In micro-
optics, the lens has always been very important, such as
spherical mirrors, aspheric mirrors, and lens group
composites [1], it even includes the micro-lens array that
was created for micro-electromechanical applications. These
all show the importance of micro-lens array in micro-optics.
A micro-lens array is composed of many small lenses that
have respective optical imaging systems which are not only
independent, but also coordinated. Micro-lens array is
already an important part of the optical system. Through
applying the production technology for Micro Electro
Mechanical Systems (MEMS), micro-lens array can be
formed into lenses that are non-spherical, spherical, convex,
concave, etc. They are currently being applied in many
optical areas such as fibercoupling, light gathering and light
extraction[2-5]. It plays a very important role in optical
components.
With the global energy crisis, the greenhouse effect, the hole
in our ozone and other environmental issues, the
environmental protection issue becomes increasingly
important. The sun is an inexhaustible supply of clean
energy, so the development of applications of solar energy
and other renewable energies for the sustainable
development of our environment is currently the most
important topic globally. Solar cell converts solar energy
into electricity by utilizing the fact that after the
semiconductor receives sunlight, the incident photon
converts energy to generate free electrons. When the
electrons travel, electrical currents are generated and
potential difference is created at the PN junction. From
another perspective, solar cells require sunlight to function;
in its absence, solar cells cannot produce electrical currents,
which is why current designs usually use solar cell modules
as a supplementary power source. Solar energy is the most
researched renewable energy where a lot of effort is put in to
study how solar energy can be stored as electrical energy
and be effectively applied into everyday life. We will apply
micro-lens array on solar cells.

Method

Micro-lens Theoretical Analysis

1988 Popovic first combined the micro-process technology Figure 1 Thermal reflow
the IC standard process to make micro-lens arrays using hot
melt method [6]. Simple geometry is used to infer the
equation and this equation would be referred to as equation
(1)and(2) for the curvature radius of the micro-lens to
calculate the focal length of the micro-lens array produced.
After thermal reflow, the bottom feature size and height of
the Micro-lens array can be measured to calculate the micro-
lens radius of curvature , shown on Figure 1.
The theory regarding the volume change of the photoresist
substrate of a trapezoidal cone before and after thermal
reflow deduces that by applying lithography, the photoresist
can be put on silicon wafer and have it heated on a platform
to transform the photoresist from a trapezoidal conical shape Figure 2 Hexagon matrix
to a sphere through the thermal reflow process. This study
uses simple geometry to attain surface contour changes after
the cylindrical photoresist undergoes thermal reflow.
Mathematical equations and these equations would be
referred to as equations (3) to (6) are used to explain the
relationship between relevant parameters as a reference for
the production of a perfect spherical photoresist.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)
Figure 3 Micro-lens parameters

(6)
Borrelli [7] mentioned that the geometric shape and its
filling factor are one of the several conditions that affect the
overall optical efficiency of a micro-lens. In order to acquire
lots of effective light sources, the fill factor (f.f) needs to be
as close to 100% as possible. The fill factor is affected by
the geometric shape of the micro-lenses and the way they
are arranged. The fill factor can reach up to 90.7% if the
micro-lens are staggered, shown on Figure 2. The
calculation is show in equation (7).
2
(7)
Experiment
Optical Simulation
The Trace_Pro optical software , is used for MLA
photovoltaic module simulation, shown on Figure 4 where
the material of the various parts of the module and the
refractive index can be set. The alignment angle of the PV
module to the sun is simulated shown on Figure 5 from 0 -
75 energy. The optical path of the MLA PV module and its
energy distribution on the receiving surface is acquired to
evaluate the effectiveness of the MLA. Equation (8) is used
to calculate its effectiveness.
(8)
Lithography Process Technology electroformed deposition process is the accumulation of
atoms one by one, so it can fully replicate the cavity. As the
This study uses thermal reflow to produce micro-lens arrays. precision of the electroformed goods depends on the
After designing the size of the mask lens, the photoresist accuracy of the cavity design, as long as the mold is
mold is built before using lithography for electroforming, designed properly, the replica accuracy can reach the micron
shown on Figure 6. The following experimental steps are level and it can be defined as precision electroforming. The
introduced in sequence: electroplating solution used in this study is mainly nickel
aminosulfonate. In order to increase the adhesion between
Mask Design coating and specimen, the current density must be reduced
Experimental mask size is 12 cm x 12 cm, where the to 0.8A/cm2 first and electroformed for 60 minutes before
diameter of each micro-lens is either 150 um or 200 m and plating. As low current density causes the coating deposition
the gap between them is 50 um. Refer to figures and tables speed to slow down, the compactness of the nickel deposit
as in Table 1 and Table 2. The micro-lens arrays are on the specimen surface is thus relatively high, which
staggered and the material used for the mask is plastic. increases adhesion between specimen and coating. When the
60 minute pre-plating is complete, electroforming at the set
current can be commenced.
Spin-coating
Positive photoresist, AZ4620, is applied on the surface of Laminated Encapsulation with Transfer Printing of Micro-
silicon wafer to form a layer that is flat and has sufficient lens Array in Photovoltaic Module
thinkness. Refer to figures and tables as in Table 3 and
Table 4. Spin-coating is used to take advantage of the This study uses the laminator for PV modules, where by
viscosity characteristics of the photoresist. placing the nickel mold under the DuPont ETFE film, the
required MLA pattern can be acquired. Figure 6 shows how
to make MLAs with the same nickel mold pattern, which is
Soft Bake
required for mass mold replications. Figure 6 is the MLA
Since the photoresist is sticky, baking after coating can photovoltaic module process. The structure of the solar cell
remove the organic solvents in the photoresist to avoid it module can be divided into five layers where the first layer
from sticking to the photomask. In addition to that, it also of sheet material is the DuPont ETFE film and layers two to
increases the adhesion ability of the photoresist and four are EVA, a thermosetting plastic materials that melts
establishes its exposure characteristics, which makes the into a liquid if subject to heat and becomes solid again after
photoresist harden. Refer to figures and tables as in Table 4. cooling. EVA can isolate air moisture to avoid oxidation of
the metal within the module and can coat the third layer of
Exposure the solar cell into the PV module. It is a protective layer for
solar cells. The bottom layer material is Tedlar. Refer to
The UV light of the exposure machine is used for exposures. figures and tables as in Table 5.
The mask pattern is transferred onto the photoresist through
the UV light. The pattern after exposure is consistent with
those on the mask. Refer to figures and tables as in Table 4.
D
150 200
(um)
Develop
The purpose of developing is to use the developing solution g(um) 25 50 75 25 50 75
to erode and show the micro-structure we want. Since the
material property of the positive photoresist is that the f.f(%) 66.6 51 40.3 71.6 58 48
portion that had been subject to sunlight will be removed by Table 1 The simulation of micro-lens diameter and gap
the developing solution and the unexposed portion will be
retained on a silicon wafer. The developing solution is made D
with 1 part AZ400K and 3 part DI water. DI water is used 150 200
(um)
for cleaning post developing. Refer to figures and tables as
in Table 4. Cd
225 200 184.4 301.2 269.4 245.8
(um)
Thermal Reflow f.f(%) 40 50 60 40 50 60
In planar micro-optical lens production, the basic photoresist Table 2 The simulation of micro-lens diameter and fill
structure is formed after development. Subjecting this basic factor
photoresist structures to the thermal reflow process produces
the micro-lens required. When the Photoresist reaches the D(um) 150 200
glass transition temperature, it turns into a fluidity state and Spin-coating Thickness of
tends to minimize it surface to reduce surface energy. Refer 9.4 18.2
Test Subject (um)
to figures and tables as in Table 4. Spin-coating Thickness
9.61 17.94
by Simulation (um)
Ni Electroforming Micro-lens Height by
18.4 34.52
Electroforming technology uses the principle of Simulation (um)
electroplating, where the casting metal material is placed in Table 3 Parameters of micro-lens design
the anode and the object to be casted is connected to the
cathode. The electrolyte solution of the metal ions of the
casting material is used as the electroforming solution. The
 D:150um D:200um
:1500rpm :1000rpm
Spin- 2 2
coating :435rpm/s :348rpm/s
t:40s t:30s
T:9.4um T:18.2um
o
Soft bake 100 C3min

Exposure 4s 6.3s

AZ400K(1)DI Water(3)2min
Develop
90s 40s
Thermal o
Reflow 150 C30min

Table 4 Parameters of the AZ4620 resist lithography process

unitmm
Before After
Laminated Laminated
Material Encapsulation Encapsulation Figure 6 MLS PV module process

ETFE film 70x70x0.04 70x70x0.04

Results and Discussion
EVA 70x70x0.42 70x70x0.38
Solar cell 50x50x0.19 50x50x0.19 Result of Optical Simulation
Tedlar 70x70x0.24 70x70x0.24
When the gap between micro-lenses is equal, since the fill
Total Thickness 1.31 1.23 factor increases as the diameter increase, the micro-lens
Table 5 Material size diameter is 200 um. When the gap is 25 um and the
alignment angle is 0o, an optimal effectiveness of 1.6% is
reached , shown on Figure 7. When the micro-lens fill factor
is equal, the micro-lens has a diameter of 150um and a fill
factor of 60%. Since the micro-lens has a low height, its
contact angle to light is also small, which increases its anti-
reflective ability and reduces direct reflection. It has an
optimal effectiveness of 1.31% at a 0o alignment angle ,
shown on Figure 8. At alignment angles 0- 45, the MLA
PV module power is improved , shown on Figure 7 and
Figure 8 , while the optimal power is reached at a
45alignment angle. When the DuPont ETFE film micro-
lens diameter is 150um and 200um, respectively, and the PV
module has an alignment angle of 0, the maximum contact
angle with the micro-lens surface is 30 and 36,
respectively as the micro-lens have different heights.
However, when the PV module alignment angle is at 45,
the contact angle of light and the micro-lens surface is 56
and the contact angle of the micro-lens plane is 48, shown
Figure 4 Simulation software Trace_Pro
on Figure 9 and Figure 10. Under these circumstances, as
light travels from a optically denser medium to an optically
thinner medium, the refractive angle is greater than the
incident angle, which results in the so-called internal
reflection. The critical angle for DuPonts ETFE film is 46,
so when the alignment angle of the PV module is 45, a
portion of the light is first reflected internally and then
refracted through the micro-lens to the PV module.

Experimental Measurements and Results

Figure 5 Alignment angle (=0-75)
Process Quality
In order to verify whether the design of the micro-lens is
consistent with the experimental micro-lens, it is tested at
 every stage of the process. As shown in Table 6, Figure 11,
Figure 12, Figure 13 and Figure 14, in the lithography
process and after developing the photoresist, the size of the
design is almost the same; but after the photoresist
undergoes thermal reflow, there is an obvious difference in
size as the photoresist volume contracts after being subject
to heat.
Table 7 and Figure 15 show the electroformed nickel mold
where the micro-lens is significantly reduced in size. This
may be due to the rapid deposition of nickel ions that occurs
during electroforming when the current density is too high,
which causes the micro-lens size to vary
The power of the MLA PV module , shown on Figure 17 is
measured using the solar cell testing machine , shown on
Figure 18. Since the measurement of the machine may affect
or become the source of experimental error, we must Figure 7 Result of optical simulation -relationship between
consider the impact of the error in order to avoid diameter & gap
impreciseness of the experiment due to errors from the
experimental result. Since the irradiation level is measured
every 1000W/m2 and each irradiance level is slightly
different, every power value will be slightly different as well,
thus, the average is used to estimate the value of the error.
Figure 19 show the MLA PV module power. When the
micro-lens diameter is 150 um and 200 um, respectively, its
power at alignment angles 0- 60 are obviously enhanced,
with a maximum efficiency increase of 2.95%. This shows
that from sunrise to sunset, the micro-lens utilizes the light
focusing principle to refract light to the solar cell below with
a small incident angle. This increases the irradiance of the
incident light on the solar cells and indirectly reduces the
direct reflection of sunlight. It can capture all the
unabsorbed light during focusing and can reduce the
incident angle of light to the solar cells to increase the
chance of secondary reflections. When the micro-lens
diameter is 200 um, as it has a fill factor that is 7%, which Figure 8 Result of optical simulation -diameter & f.f relation
is more than that of the micro-lens with a diameter of 150
um. With the same area, the higher the fill factor of a micro-
lens, the better its power output.

Actual Size
Before Reflow After Reflow
Design Size
D g D g D g
(um) (um) (um) (um) (um) (um)
151 48.5 139 48
150 50 0o 45o
1 0.5 1 1
Figure 9 Optical simulation -D:150um
200.5 50 188.5 45.5
200 50
0.5 1 1 1
Table 6 Optical profilometer-micro-lens for diameter and gap

Actual
After
Size Before electroforming
electroforming
Design Size
D g D g D g
(um) (um) (um) (um) (um) (um) 0o 45o
139 48 162.1 52.7 Figure 10 Optical simulation -D:200um
150 50
1 1 0.5 1

188.5 45.5 210 56.1

200 50
1 1 0.5 1
Table 7 Optical profilometer-Ni mold for diameter and gap
 D:150um g:50um D:150um g:50um D:150um D:200um
Before Reflow After Reflow g:50um g:50um
Figure 11 Optical profilometer-micro-lens D:150um Figure 16 Optical profilometer-MLA PV module

D:200um D:200um
g:50 g:50
Before Reflow After Reflow
Figure 12 Optical profilometer-micro-lens D:200um

Figure 17 MLA PV module

D:138.38
SEM:MLA rc:267.41
h:9.11
Figure 13 SEM-micro-lens D:150um

D:186.49
SEM:MLA rc:207.58
h:33.5
Figure 14 SEM-micro-lens D:200um

Figure 18 Solar simulator measures of the MLA PV module

D:150um D:200um
g:50um g:50um
Figure 15 Optical profilometer-Ni mold
 Efficient Coupling Between LED and Optical Fiber,
IEEE Photonics Technology Letters,11, 1999, 439-441.
[5] Cho, S.R., Kim, J., Oh, K.S., Yang, S.K., Baek, J.M.,
Jang, D.H., Kim, T.I. and Jeon, H., Enhanced Optical
Coupling Performance in An InGaAs Photodiode
Integrated with Wet-etched Microlens, IEEE Photonics
Technology Letters,14, 2002, 378-380.
[6] Popovic, Z.D., Sprague, R.A. and Neville Connell, G.A.,
Technique for Monolithic Fabrication of Microlens
Arrays, Applied Optics,27, 1998, 1281-1284.
[7] Borrelli, N.F., Efficiency of Microlens Array for
Projection LCD, 44th Electronic Components and
Technology Conference, 1994, 338-345.

Figure 19 Solar simulator measure results

Conclusion
This study focuses on the design of the micro-lens array and
defines the gap between different diameters of the micro-
lens and its center. By using optical simulation software to
design the micro-lens, the effect the parameter of an optimal
micro-lens has on PV module power is acquired. The results
from this study are listed as follows:
(1) Simulation results show that when the micro-lens is at an
alignment angle of 0 - 45, its efficiency increase.
When the gaps between micro-lenses are equal, the
micro-lens has a diameter of 200 um. As the fill factor
increases with the increase in diameter, it has optimal
efficiency. When the fill factors of micro-lenses are
equal, the micro-lens has a diameter of 150 um. As the
micro-lens has a lower height, its contact angle with
light is also small, which enhances its anti-reflective
abilities and reduces direct reflection.
(2) Experimental results show that when the micro-lens
array is applied on the PV module, it has a diameter of
200 umgap of 50 um and a fill factor of 58%. This is
much better than the fill factor of 51% when the micro-
lens has a 150 um diameter and gap of 50 um.
(3) Simulations are conducted from sunrise to sunset at
alignment angles 0 - 60. During this period, the
maximum power increase is 2.95%. It can effectively
reduce the direct reflection of the incident light and
increase secondary refractions. It can be used in places
with high latitudes or insufficient sunshine time to
provide a stable output power.
(4) The laminated encapsulation technology of micro-lens
array integrated in PV modules can reduce mass
production costs.

References
[1] Sizinger, S. and Jahns, J. (editor) Microoptics Wiley-Vch
Verlag, 1999.
[2] Choi, H.W., Liu, Gu, C.E., McConnell, G.J., Girkin,
M.J., Watson, M. and Dawson, M.D., GaN Micro-
Iightemitting Diode Arrays with Monolithically
Integrated Sapphire Microlenses, Applied Physics
Letters,84, 2004, 2253-2255.
[3] M. K. Wei, Su, I.L., Method to Evaluate the
Enhancement of Luminance Efficiency in Planar OLED
Light Emitting Devices for Microlens Array, Optics
Express, November,12, 2004, 5777-5782.
[4] Park, E.H., Kim, M.J. and Kwon, Y.S., Microlens for
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
The Aerodynamic Analysis of the Optimal Shape for Solar Vehicle Used in
Metropolis
Y.L. Hsu1, H. Ay1 and T.S. Sheu2
1
Department of Mold and Die Engineering
National Kaohsiung University of Applied Science, Kaohsiung 80778, Taiwan, R.O.C.
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering
R.O.C. Military Academy, Kaohsiung 83059, Taiwan, R.O.C.
Abstract
The main design of a metropolis-type solar car should take the
high occupancy need and comfortableness of the vehicle into
consideration while also meeting the requirements of having a
low aerodynamic drag coefficient and low power consumption.
Therefore, in order to meet the actual needs, this study uses
numerical simulation and experimental measurements to design
and test a metropolis-type solar car. To achieve the optimal shape
design, metropolis-type solar cars equipped with two upright
seats but different shape designs are tested under various
velocities attack angles and deflection angles for the comparison
their drag coefficient.
The numerical simulation will use the ANSYS ICEM-CFD
software to build the shape of the model and its mesh at first.
The computational fluid dynamics software, ANSYS FLUENT
CFD, is used to obtain the optimal body shape with a
low aerodynamic drag coefficient. Rapid Prototyping is then used
to create a model reduced by a scale down to 4% for the low
speed open loop wind tunnel experiments. Finally, the results are
compared to that of the simulation for verification.
Results from the numerical simulation and wind tunnel
experiments show that at different velocities and deflection
angles, when the velocities increases, the aerodynamic drag
coefficient of the vehicle body decreases and the lift coefficient
increases. Model-A produced the lowest drag coefficient and the
better lift coefficient. The results of the wind tunnel
experiment are consistent with that of the numerical simulation.
The findings from this study can hopefully be used as a reference
for future developments of the metropolis-type solar car.
Nomenclature
Cd Drag Coefficient
Cl Lift Coefficient
Density
V Velocity
A Orthographic Projection Area
Fd Axial Force
Fl Normal Force
Angle of attack
Introduction
The Apollo solar car team from National Kaohsiung University
of Applied Sciences was established in 1998. There has been
seven raced-type and one metropolis-type solar car created
(Figure 1). The team focuses on participating in international
solar car competitions, especially the World Solar Challenge,
American Solar Challenge, and Dream Cup. The success of a
solar car mainly depends on the maneuverability and stability, so
the power and shape of a car are the most important issues.
Generally, the power of a car depends on the horsepower, and the
horsepower is not affected by the weather. In the design of a solar
car, all the systems need to be optimized. To increase the power
of the solar car, it is necessary to use high efficiency solar cells,
especially for the race-type solar car, but the solar cells are quite
expensive. Therefore, how to achieve optimal results with
minimized resources often becomes the biggest problem of the
solar car team.
The shape design of a solar car can directly affect the
aerodynamic results. The different forces and moment on the
solar car body represent the aerodynamic drag and the stability of
the body during operation. Aerodynamic drag is the main factor
affecting energy consumption; If the larger solar car body and
faster its velocity, the aerodynamic drag will be larger. In order to
compare the shape design of the race-type and metropolis-type
solar cars, a dimensionless unit is defined, the drag coefficient,
which is the aerodynamic drag divided by the product of dynamic
pressure and the orthographic projection area of the product
( ). The drag coefficient for regular cars is approximately
0.35 to 0.4, the drag coefficient for race-type solar cars has a
value between 0.07 and 0.2 [1]. The difference in energy
consumption between the two types of solar cars is more than
double that of the race-type solar car. Therefore, when designing
the shape of the metropolis-type solar car, the drag coefficient
must be kept as close to that of the race-type solar car as possible
to significantly reduce its energy consumption.
The race-type solar car is designed like a tricycle with only one
driver, but no further research or design has been done on the
metropolis-type solar car. This study hopes to research the
aerodynamics on the body shape of the new generation
metropolis-type solar car and proposes to use the numerical
method for simulation analysis and validate it with experiments
[2]. As the computational fluid dynamics software advances,
numerical analysis has been able to accurately simulate the
aerodynamic characteristics of a solar car in operation. This study
may provide a basis for future research and development of the
metropolis-type solar car for the Apollo solar car team.
Numerical Analysis Method
Basic assumptions
The numerical calculations results of the computational fluid
dynamics in a numerical model may be affected due to the
quality of the grid. In order to correspond to the physical
characteristics and reduce numerical computation errors, the
construction of an appropriate grid node system is a very
important step. This study uses the ANSYS ICEM-CFD software
for meshing and grid construct.
 lengths to the pressure outlet. The distance between the vehicle
and both sides of the wall is twice the car width and the distance
between the vehicle top and the ceiling is four car heights (Figure
2 & Figure 3).

Figure 2 Computational domain

Figure 1 Evolution of Apollo Solar Car Since 1998

The calculation of a flow field numerical model requires the use
of equations for the calculation of computational fluid dynamics.
In order to solve for an approximation of the actual state, it is
necessary for the required simulated conditions to be set for the Figure 3 Boundary conditions
numerical simulation. The numerical method discretiazes the area
that requires calculation. The flow field discussed in this study is Vehicle Model Introduction
the external flow field of the solar car; the aerodynamics of the
solar car operating under a steady velocity is also explored. The Rapid prototyping is used to build model vehicles scale down to
underlying assumptions are as follows: 4%. Model-A is an ordinary sedan designed for the general
market with a length of 163mm, a width of 70mm, and a height
I. Assuming there is a steady-state flow field on of 60mm. Model-B is a mini car design with a length of 142mm,
the shape of the solar car. a width of 70mm, and a height of 60mm (Figure 4). The two
II. Assuming the fluid is Newtonian fluid, and the different type of models are put through numerical analysis and
viscosity coefficient and the fluid shear stress wind tunnel experiments to obtain results.
are unrelated.
III. Assuming the fluid on the body surface and the
body surface itself is under a no slip boundary
condition.
IV. Assuming the flow field is an incompressible
flow. A B
V. Assuming at room temperature of 25, the
fluid in the flow field is air with a density of
Figure 4 Rapid prototyping models
and a viscosity coefficient of
. Deflection angle
VI. The change in temperature and the heat
transfer effect are not considered. The numerical analysis and wind tunnel experiments were
VII. The influence of gravity is not considered. conducted under wind velocities of 30 m/s, 40 m/s, and 50 m/s,
all of which can be attained in the wind tunnel. Numerical
analysis is used to simulate the rotation of the vehicle body and
Flow field of the calculation model
its deflection angle (Figure 5) at 0 , 10 , 20 , and 30 . The
The condition setting for the establishment of the flow field drag coefficient and lift coefficient is calculated for the different
model and the Fluent boundary follows the solving guidelines for angles and wind velocities and the results are then compared to
the SIMPLEC algorithm. As this study needs to compare the that of the wind tunnel experiments. The optimal shape is then
simulation results to that of the wind tunnel experiment, it is found from the comparison results.
necessary for the model to be built in accordance with the wind
tunnel equipment. The front of the solar car model is two car
lengths from the velocity inlet; the rear of the solar car is four car

Figure 5 Deflection angle
Attack angle
Actual vehicles utilize the suspension system to adjust the angle
of attack so it minimizes the windward area. Numerical analysis
is used to simulate the wind velocity of 50 m/s, attainable in the
wind tunnel, and coupled with different angles of attack of -2, -
1, 0, 1, and 2 (Figure 6) to analyse the effect the attack angle
has on aerodynamics.
Figure 6 Attack angle
Lift Coefficient and Drag Coefficient
Drag coefficient measures the degree a vehicle is affected by
aerodynamic drag. The lower the drag coefficient, the lesser it is
affected by aerodynamic drag and vice versa. Energy
consumption is proportional to the drag coefficient, so the lower
the drag coefficient of the vehicle, the lower its energy
consumption. The equation is as follows:
(1)
W represents the fuel consumption of the vehicle, Cd represents
the drag coefficient of the vehicle, and V represents the velocity
of the vehicle. As seen in the equation, any subtle changes in the
drag coefficient will be magnified by velocity, which makes the
power loss considerably unfavourable for energy consumption.
When a vehicle is operating, pressure drops on the side with the
faster air flow, which produces an uplift force. Due to the
aerodynamic drag produced during the operating of a vehicle,
three directional forces are produced around the center of gravity
of the vehicle, a longitudinal force, a lateral force and a vertical
force. The longitudinal force is the greatest aerodynamic drag,
representing about more than 70% of the overall air resistance.
As the aerodynamic drag is proportional to the drag coefficient,
modern vehicles need to consider lowering the drag coefficient to
lessen aerodynamic drag. The lift coefficient and drag
coefficients can be calculated by inputting the wind tunnel testing
results into the equation. The equation is as follows:
(2)
(3)
Experiment Equipment Introduction
Experimental equipment architecture
The experimental set-up of this study, Figure 7, can be divided
into five main structures, low speed open loop wind tunnel, 16
mm SIX-COMP, angle rotating mechanism, signal amplifier, and
data acquisition system. The principle of the aerodynamic drag
measuring system used in this experiment is to use a strain gauge
to convert external forces received into voltages. The test object
is first fixed on the sensor of the six component force balance
instrument, and the strain generated from the deformation
resulting from forces received by the strain gauge is converted
into an outer stress to be received by the object. Finally, the data
is outputted into the data acquisition system to acquire the stress
values for the detection of the drag coefficient and the lift
coefficient.
Figure 7 Experimental Set-up
Results and Discussion
Deflection angle
This study uses different vehicle shape designs to acquire
numerical analysis simulation results for comparison with the
wind tunnel experimental results of a solar car model reduced by
scale down to 4% under wind velocities of 30 m/s (f=28Hz), 40
m/s (f=38Hz), and 50 m/s (f=48Hz). The aerodynamic drag at
different deflection angles is also investigated. The wind tunnel
experiments use the angle rotating mechanism to change the
model and the deflection angle to conduct experiments. The
numerical simulation results are compared to those from the
experiments.
Numerical results show that Model-A when the deflection angle
is 0 and the vehicle velocity is 30 m/s, the Cd value is 0.349 and
the Cl value is 0.0331. When the vehicle velocity is 40 m/s, the
Cd value is 0.348 and the Cl value is 0.0336. When the vehicle
velocity is 50 m/s, the Cd value is 0.347 and the Cl value is 0.034.
The effect of alterations on the car shape, velocity, and deflection
angle is explored in this study. When the deflection angle widens,
the drag coefficient and the lift coefficient also vary. The drag
coefficient gradually increases, with the results shown in Figure 8
to Figure 11.
Figure 8 Drag coefficient for Model-A Figure 11 Lift coefficient for Model-B

Attack angle
Numerical analysis is used to simulate wind velocity of 50 m/s,
attainable in the wind tunnel, to conduct analyses under different
attack angles to investigate what affects the drag coefficient and
the lift coefficient under different attack angles.
When Model-A at the velocity is set at 50 m/s and the attack
angle is -2, the Cd value is 0.449 and the Cl value is 0.0610;
when the attack angle is -1, the Cd value is 0.442 and the Cl
value is 0.0288; when the attack angle is 0, the Cd value is 0.347
and the Cl value is 0.0340; when the attack angle is 1, the Cd
value is 0.438 and the Cl value is -0.0325; when the attack angle
is 2, the Cd value is 0.450 and the Cl value is -0.0695. The
numerical analysis results are shown in Figure 12 amd Figure 13.

Figure 9 Lift coefficient for Model-A

Figure 12 Drag coefficient vs attack angle

Figure 10 Drag coefficient for Model-B


Figure 13 Lift coefficient vs attack angle
Conclusions
The different wind velocities can lead to variations in the drag
coefficient and lift coefficient. Experimental results show it can
be deduced that the drag coefficient diminishes with the increase
in velocity and the lift coefficient increases with the increase in
velocity.
To consider the energy consumption saving, the Model-A has
been chosen to develop the metropolis-type solar car in the study,
because the drag coefficient can be lower than one of the Model-
B for attack angle between -1 to 2.
After understanding these results from the numerical analysis or
wind tunnel experiments, they can be applied in the empirical
formula to obtain the total energy consumption of the shape of
the car body to further investigate what modifications to the body
shape will further improve and lower its energy consumption.
References
[1] Honerner S.F., Fluid-Dynamic Drag : Practical Information
on Aerodynamic Drag and Hydrodynamic Resistance,
Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 103, 1965, 293-299.
[2] Han, T., Sumantran, V., Harris, C., Kuzmanov, T., Huebler,
M. and Zak, T., Flow-Field Simulations of Three Simplified
Vehicle Shapes and Comparisons with Experimental
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Drag Reduction Using Air Bubbles on a Displacement Catamaran

Yanuar1, M.A. Talahatu1, Gunawan1, M. Baqi and A. Jamaluddin2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Indonesia, Jakarta 16424, Indonesia
2
Indonesian Hydrodynamic Laboratory
LHI, Surabaya 60111, Indonesia

Abstract Although the effectiveness of micro-bubbles has been

demonstrated and the bubble sizes have been found to be one of
The concept of micro-bubble ejection is emerging as an attractive the important factors affecting the drag reduction, the overall
method for viscous drag reduction for vessels. Micro-bubbles mechanism that leads to this reduction is only poorly understood.
reduce skin friction of a ship by injecting air bubbles from the Documented drag reduction techniques include electrolysis
surface. Although considerable work has been done on the mono- induced micro-bubbles, reported by McCormick and
hull for minimum resistance, significantly less work has been Bhattacharyya [5]. The survey of Latorre and Bablenko [6]
carried out on the catamaran hull. It is of great interest to showed that the reduction in the local skin friction is sensitive to
understand the drag characteristics due to air bubble between the the bubble orientation on the surface. Madavan et al. [7] carried
demihulls. The object of this study was to investigate out an experiment using the boundary layer of the test section
experimentally the drag reduction component for a displacement wall of a water tunnel with injection of air from a porous plate.
catamaran. The model resistance measured with/without the The result showed that the injection of micro-bubbles in the
micro-bubble injection during each resistance test run. Analyses turbulent boundary layer of a flat plate can reduce the drag by
of the test results showed the micro-bubble ejection have 15%-80%. The bubble size and location of the injection points
significant skin friction reduction effect. The overall drag are important parameters in the persistence of drag reduction.
reduction corresponding to a 4-8% reduction in the local skin The relationship between the bubble size and the drag reduction
friction and the drag reduction depend on speed and hull was examined by Kato et al. [8]. The results showed that the
configuration. decrease in the bubble size according to the increase in the main
Keywords: air bubble, drag reduction, catamaran, experiment. flow velocity wascaused a larger reduction rate of skin friction.
Experiments by Watanabe and Shirose [9] and Takahashi et al.
Nomenclature [10] indicated that air lubrication did not persist over length/time
scales. Recently, Yanuar et al [11] investigated experimentally
CT total resistance coefficient the drag reduction effects due to the introduction of micro-
L length bubbles into a high speed mono-hull at the basin. The study
B breadth established a relationship between the drag reduction
T draft effectiveness and the air bubble position along the hull. Yanuar et
V Speed al [11] found that the bubble was effective for drag reduction if
1+k form factor they are located beyond a certain distance from behind the
wave interference factor midship. The micro-bubbles appear to have very strong effects on
viscous interference factor dynamics of turbulence for drag reductions greater than about 6 -
CF frictional resistance coefficient 9%.
CW wave resistance coefficient
Fr Froude number In particular, the interaction between the bubbles and the
Re Reynolds number boundary layer on twin hull such catamaran has not been studied
g acceleration gravity extensively. The present study is to investigate experimentally
density the drag characteristics using air bubbles on a displacement
S wet area surface catamaran. A catamaran model with dimensions of L = 1372 mm,
v kinematic viscosity B = 132 mm, and T = 78 mm is used. The influence of the varied
Qa is the injected air rate location micro-bubble injection and bubble velocity are also
Ba is the width of the slot investigated.

Introduction
Diluted polymer solutions, surfactants, micro-bubbles and
compliant coating as drag reducers have been reported by Troung
[1]. Micro-bubbles are perhaps the cheapest and non-polluted
drag reducer. Micro-bubble-modified boundary layer and
associated skin friction reduction have been an active area of
research for ship hull in recent years because of its energy saving
potential [2]. The drag reduction in a turbulent boundary layer
on a smooth wall can be realized by reducing the skin friction
under suitable conditions when small air bubbles are injected into
the flow from an upstream [3,4].
Experimental Descriptions
A series of model tests were conducted in a basin. The basin had
a length of 20 m and width of 10 m, and the water depth was
maintained at a constant depth of 2 m. The experiments were
conducted for a Froude number of up to 0.65. The model was
connected to the load cell transducer at a point located amidships
and vertically above the base line, allowing the model to move
freely in the vertical plane. Total resistance was measured for
each run over the test range of Froude numbers. In the resistance
tests, the ship model was pulled by a wire rope and the total
longitudinal force acting on the model was measured for various
speeds. During the measuring run the ship model was free to
heave and pitch. Fig.1 shows the experimental setup in the basin.
Fig.1 Experimental set-up
This set-up consisted of the catamaran models, electric motor,
data interface, camera, load cell transducer and compressor. The
comparison of the total drag between catamaran models with
micro-bubbles and without micro-bubbles injection was
analyzed. The model test was conducted in order to have the total
resistance values of the catamaran model (RT) at various velocity
conditions (V). During the model test experiments, the catamaran
model was pulled by an electric motor that was designed so that
motor rotation could be used to pull the catamaran model with a
constant speed. Pull force was measured by using a load cell
transducer. The load cell was affixed to the ship model and
connected to the rope pullers. The load cell was mounted on the
amidships of the model. Towing rope was connected to an
electric motor whose speed could be set and adjusted. The load
cell gauge was connected to a data interface to obtain the pull
force when the model was pulled.
Fig.2a Lines and body plan of catamaran
(1)
(2)
(3)
Fig.2b Lines plan and positioning bubble injector
Fig.2 shows the lines plan and body plan for test model. Positions
varied from position 1, position 2, and position 3. These positions
were investigated and compared regarding the influence of
micro-bubble injection. The nozzle diameter was the same as that
with the bubble diameter of about 0.2 mm.
Fig.3 Bubble Configurations
Fig.3 shows the bubble configuration. Thre are three types of
bubble configuration or injection. Position 1 is placed around the
center line of bottom. Position 2 is placed with zig zag
configuration and position 3 is placed with spacing between right
side and left side in the bottom. The total area of bubble injection
is same for 3 configuration.
Experimental analyses
This paper constitutes a resistance analysis of symmetrical
displacement catamaran hull forms with various lateral
separations (clearance) on the effects of air bubble
application.The paper by Insel and Molland [13] summarizes a
calm-water-resistance investigation into high-speed semi-
displacement catamarans, with symmetrical hull forms based on
experimental work carried out at the University of Southampton.
Two interference effects contributing to the total resistance effect
were established; these are viscous interference, caused by
asymmetric flow around the demihulls which affects the
boundary layer formation, and the wave interference, due to the
interaction of the wave systems produced by each demihull. They
proposed that the total resistance of a catamaran could be
expressed by the equation:
(CT )CAT =
(1 + k ) CF + CW (1)
The factor has been introduced to take account of the pressure-
field change around the demihulls and takes account of the
velocity augmentation between the hulls and would be calculated
from an integration of the local frictional resistance over the
wetted surface, while (1+k) is the form factor for the demihull in
isolation. For practical purposes, and can be combined into a
viscous interference factor where (1+k) = (1+k). Hence
(CT )CAT =
(1 + k ) CF + CW (2)
where CTO is the total coefficient resistance of monohull and CT
is the total coefficient resistance of catamaran model. The
catamaran model is varried by 4 types (1 types without bubble
and 3 types with bubble injection).

For a demihull, (wave interference factor) and (viscous Results and discussion
interference factor) =1.
A comparison with the bubbles and without the bubbles applied
Where CT is coefficient of total resistance, CW is coefficient of to the catamaran model was made to evaluate the resistance
characteristics as shown in Figs.4-7.
wave resistance, CF is coefficient of friction resistance, and
(1+k) is the form factor.
Monohull
The form factor 1+k is determined experimentally at very low 5x10-3 Catamaranwithout bubble
speed or low Froude numbers (Fr< 0.2), where Cr must become Catamaranwithbubbleposition1
Catamaranwithbubbleposition2
negligible. The ITTC [14] and Bertram [15] recommended Catamaranwithbubbleposition3
applying Prohaska's method, described as: 4x10-3

( ) n

Ct
CT =1 + k C F + a Fr (3)
3x10-3
4
At low speed, Fr < 0.2, is assumed to be a function of Fr , the
straight line plot of CT/CF versus Fr4/ CF will intersect the
ordinate (Fr = 0) at (1+k), enabling the form factor to be 2x10-3
determined. Flat plate friction resistance (CF) is estimated with a
reasonable precision using ITTC-57. 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7

From the experimental towing test results, for the models, the Fr
Fig.4 Total resistance coefficient of ship with and without bubble
total resistance coefficient CT has been calculated as:
Fig.3 shows the relationship between the total resistance
RT coefficient and Froude number for catamaran model with bubbles
CT = (4)
catamaran without bubbles and monohull model. The catamaran
2
0.5 SV
model with injected bubbles will be varied for 3 variations of
injector positioning. It appears that the catamaran model (with
Where is water density and S is the wetted area of the ship hull. bubble or without bubble injection) has a value of CT, which is
The Froudes number and Reynolds number are defined as relatively higher at low speeds. When the Froude number
increases further, Fr > 0.3, in a certain range of values of CT
smaller than the monohull model. The effects can be seen in the
V
Fr = (5) bubble injection at high Froude numbers where the turbulent
gL flow drag coefficient of resistance is smaller. On the other hand,
it was found that the value of CT depends on the position of the
bubble injector. It appears that the ship model with bubble
VL injection at position 1, has a smallest value of CT. This result
Re = (6) agrees well with the experimental work of Kodama et al. [12] at a
v circulating water tunnel. In that study it was found that the skin
friction reduction was much greater when the position of bubbles
Where V is the speed of the ship, L is the length of the ship, g is was located at the rear and center. It can be concluded that the
acceleration of gravity, and is the kinematic viscosity of water. injector position has an effect on the value of the resistance
coefficient.
The bubble characteristics can be determined by the following
formulas. The air layer thickness is:
Qa
ta = (7)
BaV

where Qa is the injected air rate, Ba is the width of the slot, V is

the velocity of ship model. Drag reduction is obtained by:

CT CTO
=
DR (%) 100% (8)
CTO
 1,15 Catamaran without bubble
Catamaran with bubble position 1
1,10 Catamaran with bubble position 2
Catamaran with bubble position 3

1,05
Ct/Cto

1,00

0,95

0,90

0,85
0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6
Fr
Fig. 7 Relationship between drag reduction and Froude number
Fig.5 Total resistance coefficient ratio between catamaran model
and monohull model
Fig.5 shows the drag reduction that occurred. It is clear that drag
reduction for position 1 is greater than position 1, position 2 and
Fig.5 shows the total resistance coefficient ratio as a function of
Froude number. The value of ratio indicate that drag reduction without bubble. The drag reduction starts at a Froude number of
occured. If the ratio value is lower than 1, it is indicated that about 0.3. As the Froude number increases, drag reduction also
resistance coefficient of the catamarn model is lower than increases for spesific range. The start drag reduction occured is
monohull model. The best configuration is position 1 because different for all variation. Catamaran with bubble position 1 has
have smallest resistance ratio. start occured at Fr = 0,3. For position 2, 3 and without bubble
are follow respectively. The maximum drag reduction for this
Catamaran without bubble research is 8%.
1,00
Catamaran with bubble position 1
Catamaran with bubble position 2
Catamaran with bubble position 3

Conclusions
Ct/Cto

0,96
0,92
1 2 3 4 5 6
ta=Qa/BaV
Fig.6 Relationship between total coefficient ratio and air
thickness
Fig.6 shows the total resistance coefficient ratio as a function of
air thickness. The horizontal axis is the rate of air ejection in
terms of the air layer thickness. As the flux of injected air
increases, the total resistance coefficient decreases. The effective
air layer thickness is 5,5 mm. The resistance coefficient ratio for
position 3 is slightly higher than for position 2 and position 1.
This indicates that position 1 is the best position to reduce the
total resistance that occurred
Considering the experimental model test results to evaluate the
bubble drag reduction on a high speed catamaran model, the
following conclusions can be stated; bubble application to ships
is found to have a positive influence on catamaran resistance.
The applications of bubbles can reduce the catamaran resistance
significantly for a high speed range. The test results show that an
effective drag reduction of up to 8% at Fr = 0.4 can be achieved.
The air flow rate and location of the injection position are
significant for achieving the maximum drag reduction. Micro-
bubble injection at the center area of bottom is the best location
for effective drag reduction. It is expected that more work will be
carried out in order to gain further understanding on this topic, in
order to apply the method to full-scale ships
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the Directorate for Research and
Community Service, University of Indonesia (RUUI Research
2012), Jakarta, Indonesia.
References
[1]. Truong V.-T., Drag Reduction Technologies, Reported by
Maritime Platforms Division Aeronautical and Maritime
Research Laboratory, DSTO-GD-0290, published by Defence
Science & Technology Organization (DSTO) Aeronautical and
Maritime Research Laboratory, 506 Lorimer St, Fishermans
Bend Vic 3207 Australia.

[2]. M Tsutahara and M Sakamoto, Trans. of the JSME Series B

61, 2088 (1995).
[3]. K Watanabe, in Proceedings of the International
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[4]. R Latorre, Ocean Engng. 24, 161 (1997).

[5]. Mc Cormick ME, Bhattacharyya R (1973). Drag reduction of

a submersible hull by electrolysis. Nav Eng Journal, 85, 11-16.

[6]. Latorre, R., Bablenko, V., (1998). Role of bubble injection

technique in drag reduction. Proc. ONR-NUWC. International
Symposium on Seawater Drag Reduction, Newport RI, 319-326.

[7]. Madavan NK, Deutsch S, Merkle CL (1985). Measurements

of local skin friction in a micro-bubble-modified turbulent
boundary layer. Journal of Fluid Mechanic, 156, 237-256.

[8]. Kato H, Miyanaga M, Yamaguchi H et al (1994). Frictional

drag reduction by injecting bubbly water into a turbulent
boundary layer and the effect of plate orientation. In:Serizawa A,
Fukano T, Bataille J (eds). Advanced in multiphase flow.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 86-96.

[9]. Watanabe, O. Et al., (1998). Measurements of Drag

Reduction by Microbubbles Using Very Long Ship Models,
Journal of Soc. Naval Architects, Japan, 183, 53-63.

[10]. Takahashi, T., Kakugawa, a., Kodama, Y., and Makino, M.

(2001). Experimental study on drag reduction by microbubbles
using a 50m-long flat splate ship. 2nd Int. Symp. On Turbulence
and Shear Flow Phenomena, 175-180.

[11]. Yanuar, Gunawan, Sunaryo and Jamaluddin, Micro-bubble

Drag Reduction on a High Speed Vessel Model, J. Marine Sci.
Appl. (2012) 11: 1-3, DOI: 10.1007/s11804-009-7078-4

[12]. Kodama, Y., Kakugawa, A., Takahashi, T., and

Kawashima, H., (2000). Experimental study on micro bubbles
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[13]. Insel M. and Molland A.F. An Investigation into the

Resistance Components of High Speed Displacement
Catamarans RINA Transactions, Vol.134, 1992

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23 rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Burning Characteristics of Coconut Oil In Micro-combustor

I.N.G. Wardana1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Universitas Brawijaya, Jl. Mayjen Haryono 167, Malang 65145, Indonesia

Abstract
Coconut oil is large molecule triglyceride type vegetable oil. It is
potential for fueling power generator, transportation, or
industries. Studies have been done on combustion characteristics
of coconut oil in a micro-combustor at various air fuel ratio and
wall heat flux. The results show that at lower wall heat flux, the
burning process of coconut oil has three periods. Burning process
of fatty acids takes place during the first period by liberating high
rate of thermal energy. The glycerol which is hygroscopic
absorbs substantial heat energy for evaporation during the second
period. The heat energy absorption interrupts the burning process
so that the glycerol burns in the third period with lower rate of
thermal energy release. At higher wall heat flux the thermal
energy is sufficient to overcome the heat energy absorbed by
glycerol so that the multicomponent in the coconut oil burn
simultaneously without interruption by evaporation. The
combustion of coconut oil in micro-combustor is the best at air
fuel ratio equals 5.
Keywords: Coconut oil, micro combustor, three periods of
burning process, two step combustions, alternative fuel
very useful i n remote area for mobile phone portable charger.
However, its high boiling point, explosive nature of myristic
acid, and glycerol component which is hygroscopic may affect its
combustion characteristics in micro-combustor. These are
challenge for environment friendly power production and,
therefore, worth for study.
Experiments
The study was carried out experimentally in a micro-combustor
shown schematically in Figure 1. The combustor was constructed
by two horizontal parallel stainless steel plates of 150 mm length
and 75 mm width with a gap of 900 m. The combustion
chamber has an inlet section and a pressure release section
connected to a topless water tank. During combustion process the
inlet valve was closed and the pressure release valve was opened
to maintain the chamber at atmospheric pressure.

Introduction
The abundance use of fossil fuel brings about environmental
problems. This situation forces engineers to make effort not only
to utilize energy efficiently but to find out alternative fuel as
well. Plant oil is suitable for alternative fuel since it is zero
emission and it available in large number. In tropical country the
source of coconut oil is very huge mainly in rural area which is
lack of electricity. Coconut oil has potential for fueling power
generator, industries, and transportation. It had been used as
supplement in a jet engine of Boeing 747 of Virgin Atlantic that
flew from London to Amsterdam on 24 February 2008 [1]. Yet
the application of coconut oil needs fundamental studies on its
combustion characteristics. Many studies have been done to
elucidate combustion characteristics of vegetable oil
fundamentally [2,3,4,5] and practically in diesel engine and in
stoves [6,7,8,9]. Nevertheless the data are insufficient to explain
combustion characteristics of coconut oil. Figure 1. Experimental apparatus
Coconut oil is large molecule triglyceride type vegetable oil. In
general vegetable oil is constructed by one molecule of glycerol The coconut oil was evaporated in a boiling chamber and the
as a backbone and three long chain fatty acids connected to the steam was mixed with air before it was filled into the micro-
backbone. As it is ignited the oil molecule breaks into fatty acids combustor through the inlet section. The air fuel ratio by volume
and glycerol molecules due to hydrolysis reaction by water from (AFR) was varied from 4 to 7. To clarify the effect of multi
the combustion product. Fatty acid burns during the first stage molecule in coconut oil, i.e., fatty acids and glycerol, and the
and glycerol does afterward [3]. The composition of fatty acids in volatility of meristic acid on the combustion characteristics, the
coconut oil is mainly lauric, myristic, palmitic, caprylic, oleic, burning process was observed in transient period. This was
capric, stearic, and linolic acids [9]. The unsaturated components performed by injecting the mixture at each AFR into the
(oleic and linolic acids) are around 3-10% which represent a low combustor and then igniting it with an electric heater placed
degree o f spontaneous combustion. However, myristic acid has beneath the down wall. The heat flux from the heater was set as
been reported as explosive material [10] which may be potential 2.2 W/cm2; 2.8 W/cm2; 3.4 W/cm2; and 4.0 W/cm2. At each run
for high power density. This suggests that coconut oil may be the gas in the combustion chamber was primarily vacuumed by a
applied as alternative fuel for micro-combustor which will be
suction syringe pump via inlet section while the pressure release ignited. This period takes around 2 seconds in each AFR. In the
valve was closed. As the chamber had been vacuumed second period the ion production rate is nearly zero, the ion
completely the inlet valve was closed and a syringe pump concentration is constant for around 2 to 3 seconds. In the third
containing air-fuel mixture was connected to the inlet section. period the rate of ion production is negative, the ion
The mixture was pumped into the combustion chamber while concentration drops. The maximum ion at AFR = 4 is around 80
opening the inlet valve. The inlet valve was closed again as the mV. At AFR=5 the ma ximum ion increases significantly to
mi xture pumping process completed and the pressure release around 140 mV and it decreases as the AFR increases.
valve was opened. Finally the mixture in the chamber was ignited
by the electric heater placed under the down wall. The burning
process in the chamber was detected by an ion sensor inserted
into the combustion chamber as shown in Figure 1 while the heat
release during burning process was measured by a K-type
thermocouple on the up wall. The signals from sensors were
digitized by ADC and were stored into the personal computer
(PC) memory at sampling frequency of 10 Hz.

Results and Discussion

Figure 2 shows ion and temperature signals of coconut oil
combustion at AFR = 3. The ion and temperature signals which is
nearly unchanged indicate that combustion does not occurs at
AFR = 3.

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

Figure 2. Ion concentration (a) and temperature (b) at AFR = 3

Figure 3a, 3b, and 3c show the ion, temperature, and the rate of
temperature increase of combustion process, respectively at wall
heat flux of 2.2 W/cm2 at various AFR. As seen in Figure 3a the
ion is produced in three periods. In the first period the rate of ion
production is high indicating that the coconut oil mixture is
(c)
Figure 3. Ion (a), temperature (b), and rate of temperature
increase (c) of combustion at ignition heat flux of 2.2 W/cm2
 multicomponent in the coconut oil burn simultaneously without
Figure 3b shows combustion temperature signals measured on interruption by evaporation.
the up wall of the combustor. There are three period of
temperature increase during combustion process corresponding to
ion variation in Figure 3a. In the first period the temperature
increases from around 280 oC to around 320 oC in around 2
seconds at each AFR. In the second period the temperature is
constant at 320 oC for around 2 to 3 seconds. In the third period
the temperature increases shortly.

The rate of temperature increase shown in Figure 3c is estimated

from the slope of the temperature graph in Figure 3b. There are
two peaks of temperature increase rate during combustion
process, the higher peak is in the first period and the lower one is
in the third period. In the second period the rate of temperature
increase is small or nearly zero. This results show that the
burning process of coconut oil in the micro-combustor has three
periods. In the first stage, during ignition, the rate of ion
concentration and temperature increase are high indicating that a
large number of heat energy is released. In the second period, the (a)
rate of ion concentration and temperature increase are nearly
zero. This shows that phase change takes place during the second
period. In the third stage the ion concentration increases shortly
and then drops while the rate of temperature increase is high.
This indicates that during this moment there is also heat energy
production from combustion which is lower than that in the first
stage. Similar to that reported in [3] the coconut oil burn in two
stages. It must be the volatile component of fatty acids that burn
during the beginning of the first stage followed by the less
volatile one that burn during the end of the first stage whereas
glycerol burns during the third period. This is due to the fact that
glycerol which is highly hygroscopic absorbs water from fatty
acids combustion product and become very wet. So it needs a
longer time to burn because it takes substantial heat energy to
evaporate during the second period before igniting in the third
stage. By increasing the AFR from 4 up to 7 the temperature and
the ion concentration in the first period increase. The rate of ion (b)
concentration increase is the highest at AFR = 5 indicating that
the volatile components of fatty acids combustion during the first
period tends to burst out though the signal is not detected well by
temperature sensor due to thermal inertia of the wall. However,
the higher peak of temperature increase rate at AFR = 5 than the
other AFR in the third period shown in Figure 3c indicates that
the second stage combustion receives a larger number of heat
energy from the large heat release in the first period to burn.

Figure 4a, 4b, and 4c show the ion, temperature, and the rate of
temperature increase of combustion process, respectively at wall
heat flux of 4.0 W/cm2 at various AFR. As shown in in the
figures, at AFR = 4, the three periods are still appear though the
zero rate o f ion and temperature increase (constant ion and
temperature) period is shorter. The ion concentration increase
significantly in the first period (Figure 4a) as compared to that at
wall heat flux of 2.2 W/cm2 indicating that the heat release by
combustion process is high. However the high temperature
increase is not detected by the temperature sensors (Figure 4b) (c)
due to the wall thermal inertia. But, the shorter second period and
the higher peak of temperature increase rate at the third period at Figure 4. Ion (a), temperature (b), and rate of temperature
AFR = 4 (Figure 4c) indicates that the evaporation in the second increase (c) of combustion at ignition heat flux of 4.0 W/cm2
period and reaction rates in the third period are faster due to
higher thermal energy received from the first period combustion. Figure 5 shows maximum ion produced in the first period at
At higher AFR, namely at 5, 6, and 7, the ignition starts much various wall heat flux and AFR. All maximum ions tend to
earlier. The ion, the temperature, and the rate of temperature increase with wall heat flux (Figure 5a). The effect of wall heat
change increase in the first period which increase is the highest at flux on the ion production is large at AFR = 4 and 7. As shown in
AFR = 5. The evaporation in the second period and the second Figure 5b the highest ion produced in the first period of
step combustion in the third period are tends to disappear. This combustion is obtained at AFR = 5. This shows that the
indicates that at high wall heat flux the thermal energy is combustion of coconut oil in micro combustor is the best at AFR
sufficient to overcome the heat absorbed by glycerol so that the = 5.

(a)
(b)
Figure 5. Maximum ion at various wall heat flux (a) and AFR (b)
Conclusions
Combustion of coconut oil has been studied in a micro-
combustor at air fuel ratio varied from 4 to 7 and wall heat flux
varied from 2.2 to 4 W/cm2. The results show that:
1. At lower wall heat flux, the burning process of coconut oil
has three periods. The fatty acids burn in the first period
which release high thermal energy. The more volatile
components of the oil burn in the beginning o f the first
period whereas the less volatile one burn at the end of the
first period. The glycerol which is hygroscopic absorbs
substantial heat energy for evaporation in the second period.
This heat absorption interrupts the burning process so that
the glycerol burns in the third period with lower heat energy
release.
2. At higher wall heat flux the thermal energy is sufficient to
overcome the heat absorbed by evaporation of glycerol so
that the multicomponent in the coconut oil burn
simultaneously without interruption by evaporation.
3. The combustion of coconut oil in micro combustor is the
best at AFR equals 5.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by Program Hibah Kompetensi Batch I
DIKTI (Directorate of Higher Education), Ministry of Education
and culture, The Republic of Indonesia.
References
[1] Patel N. Virgins coconut-powered 747 completes first
flight, http://www.engadget.com/2008/02/25/virgins-
coconut-powered-747-completes-first-flight/>.
[2] Wardana ING and Imam Zaky, Combustion Characteristics
of Jatropha Oil Droplet, International Journal of Transport
Phenomena,10( 3), 2008, 197-202.
[3] Wardana I.N.G., Combustion Characteristics of Jatropha Oil
at Various Oil Temperature, Fuel, 89, 2010, 659-664.
[4] Wardana ING., Combustion Characteristics of Jatropha Oil
Methyl Ester Droplet in Magnetic Field, International
Journal For Academic Research, 3(3), 2011, 74-79.
[5] Bartle K.D., Fitzpatrick E.M., Jones J.M., Kubacki M.L.,
Plant R., Pourkashanian M., The combustion of droplet of
liquid fuels and biomass particles, Fuel, 90, 2011, 1113-
1119
[6] zkan M, Ergen AT, Deniz O. Experimental per formance
analysis of biodiesel, traditional diesel and biodiesel with
glycerine. Turkish J Eng Env Sci.,29, 2005, 8994.
[7] Agarwal D, Agarwal AK. Performance and e mission
characteristics of jatropha oil (preheated and blends) in a
direct injection compression ignition engine. Appl Therm
Eng, 27,2007, 23142323.
[8] Sahoo PK, Das LM. Combustion analysis of jatropha,
karanja and polanga based biodiesel as fuel in a diesel
engine. Fuel, 88, 2009, 994999.
[9] Kratzeisen M.and Mller J., Influence o f free fatty acid
content of coconut oil on deposit and performance of plant
oil pressure stoves, Fuel, 89, 2010, 1583-1589.
[10] Anezaki, T., and Dobashi, R., Effects of Particle Materials
on Flame Propagation During Dust Explosion, Proc. 5th Int.
Seminar on Fire and Explosion Hazards, Edinburgh, UK,
23-27 April 2007.
23 rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Outlet Pipe Design of the Hot Water Layer System in Consideration of

Flow Stability in the Research Reactor
H.G. Yoon 1 , K.W. Seo1 , J.H. Yoon 1 and D.Y. Chi1
1
Fluid System Design Division, Advanced Reactor Development Institute
Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Daejeon, South Korea

Abstract Q cod,w Conduction heat loss through the reactor concrete

island to the air, [W]
The hot water layer system maintains the hot water layer at the Q cod,H Conduction heat loss through the stratified stable water
upper part of the reactor and service pools so as to minimize the layer, [W]
radioactive primary coolant rising up to the pool surface by Q con,b Convection heat loss from the bottom of the hot water
natural convection in the open pool type research reactor. layer to the upper section of the cold water, [W]
Therefore, reactor and service pools are divided into the hot Q con,s Convection heat loss from the pool surface into the air,
water layer at the upper part of pools and the part below the hot [W]
water layer with lower temperature while the reactor is in normal Q evap Evaporation heat loss from the pool surface into the air,
operation. Water mi xing between these layers is minimized [W]
because the hot water layer is formed above the water of lower Q heater Supplied heat from the heater, [W]
temperature. Q pc Heat transfer rate through the primary coolant, [W]
R Thermal resistance [C/W]
Ta Air temperature in the reactor hall, [K]
The ends of the suction and discharge lines of hot water layer
system are submerged below the pool surface and located at the Th Temperature of the hot water layer, [K]
same level in the reactor and service pools. Especially, the end Tin Inlet temperature of the heater, [K]
shape of the discharge pipe is designed as a T-shape diffuser to Tin,pc Inlet temperature of the primary coolant, [K]
distribute the flow uniformly for the formation of the stable hot Tout Outlet temperature of the heater, [K]
Tout,pc Inlet temperature of the primary coolant, [K]
water layer at the upper section of the reactor and service pools.
Va Air velocity above the pool surface, [ft/min]
Heat loss, temperature stratification and velocity field are taken
into consideration to determine the formation of the stable hot Introduction
water layer based on the numerical simulation results. In the most open-pool type research reactors make the hot water
Commercial CFD tool FLUENT is used to calculate the pool layer (HWL) at the upper part of the reactor pool. Floating up of
water flow with different locations of the end suction pipe. Also the radioactive ions in primary coolant to the pool surface is
two kinds of turbulent model, RNG k-e and SST k-w turbulent prevented by this water layer so as to minimize the pool top
models are used for the conservative system design. radiation level. Research reactors of OSIRIS in France, RSG-
GAS in Indonesia, OPAL in Australia and HANARO in South
It is decided that service pool is a proper location of the end Korea adopt this system.
suction pipe based on the simulation results. But, the location of
the end suction pipe shall be decided after in-depth discussions
about mechanisms of the radiation shielding.

Nomenclature
Ac Reactor concrete area, [m2]
Ah Area of the pool surface, [ m2] or [ ft 2]
C Unit conversion factor, 0.293[W/(Btu/hr)]
cp Heat capacity of the water, [J/g K]
d Thickness of the reactor concrete island, [m]
dH Thickness of the stratified stable water layer, [m]
hs Heat transfer coefficient on the pool surface, [W/m2K]
ks Thermal conductivity of the reactor concrete, [W/mK]
kw Thermal conductivity of the pool water, [W/mK]
m HWL Mass of the hot water layer, [g]
m HWLS Circulated mass flow rate in the HWLS, [g/sec]
m pc Circulated mass flow rate in the primary cooling
system, [g/sec]
Pa Saturated vapour pressure at the dew point temperature
in the reactor hall, [inHg]
Ph Saturated vapour pressure at the hot water layer
temperature, [inHg] Figure 1 Schematic diagram of the reactor pool and the hot water
layer in the open-pool type research reactor.
Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of a typical open-pool type are calculated from the following simple convection and
research reactor. A reactor is placed in the lower part of the conduction equation (3) and (4), respectively [3].
reactor pool. Most radiation sources are produced near the reactor
core.
If there is no HWL at the upper part of the reactor pool, heated Qcon, s hs Ah Th Ta
water near the reactor will be raised up to the pool surface by the (3)
natural circulation as shown in Figure 1. At the same time, the
radioactive ions shall be floated up with the circulated water.
Finally, pool top radiation level shall be increased.
Qcod , w
Th Ta Here, R
d (4)
If there is the HWL at the upper part of the reactor pool, R ks Ac
temperature gradient will be formed from the HWL to the
primary coolant near the reactor assembly. This temperature
gradient suppresses the natural circulation in the pool such as the Evaporation rate equation is used to calculate the evaporation
temperature inversion layer due to the radiation cooling on the heat loss from the pool surface into the air. This equation as
ground. Finally, Stratified stable water layer will be formed at the following comes from ASRAE handbooks and is derived from
upper part of the pool and the radioactivity level will be experimental results.
maintained as low as the personnel can work without any
physical hazards near the pool top while the reactor is in normal
operation. The HWL temperature will be maintained at about
5~10C higher than the reactor pool temperature near the reactor Qevap Ah 95 0.425Va Ph Pa C (5)

assembly.
Followings shall be satisfied in order to formation and maintain
the stable HWL.
(1) The thermal capacity of the heater of the system should
be lager than the all heat losses from the HWL t o
around environment.
(2) The HWL te mperature should be higher than the
average temperature of the pool water near the reactor
assembly in order to suppress the natural circulation.
(3) Proper inlet and outlet pipe design in the pool in order
to minimize the flow disturbance.
The HWL is maintained through the related system. The HWL
mainly losses heat by the evaporation and convection from the
pool surface to the air and by the convection from the bottom the
HWL as depicted in Figure 1. The heat loss is compensated by a
supplied heat from the heater of the system. In other words, the
hot water layer system is designed to take the water at the upper
part of the pool to heat it up to the designed temperature and to
return it back to the pool [1], [2].
Heater capacity is calculated analytically through the following
heat balance equation,
Environmental conditions of equation (5) come from operation
conditions.
But, convection heat loss from the bottom of the HWL to the
upper section of the cold water in Equation (2) is not calculated
directly by using the simple convection equation [3]. It is difficult
to determine the heat transfer coefficient in the convection
equation. In this research, this heat loss is calculated by CFD.
Evaporation heat loss calculated from Equation (5) is used as a
boundary condition on the pool surface in CFD. Convection heat
loss on the pool surface and conduction heat loss through the
reactor concrete island are neglected in CFD because these values
are relatively small. These calculated values are about 10% of the
evaporation heat loss. And it is expected that there heat loss do
not affect the flow field of the HWL.
It is predicted that flow field in the pool is divided into three parts
as shown in Figure 1. HWL and flow field of the primary coolant
will be located at the upper and lower part of the pool,
respectively.

dTh (1)
mHWL c p Qheater Qevap Qcon, s Qcon, b Qcod ,w
dt

When the HWL is stable, there is no variation of the temperature

with time. Therefore, left term o f Equation (1) becomes zero in
normal operation. Thus, supplied heat from the heater is
described as following,

Qheater Qevap Qcon, s Qcon, b Qcod, w (2)

In Equation (2), convection heat loss on the pool surface into the
air and conduction heat loss through the reactor concrete island
Figure 2 Suction and discharge piping of the hot water layer
system and geometry of the reactor and service pools.
Figure 3 Velocity contour and streamline from the T-shape
distribution header in the HWL.
Figure 4 Temperature contour from the T-shape distribution
header in the HWL.
Figure 5 Streamline from the T-shape distribution header.
Stratified stable water layer will be formed between the HWL
and cold water near the reactor assembly with the temperature
gradient.
The flow field of the HWS is affected by suction and discharge
pipe lines in the pool. Geometrically, pools consist of reactor and
service pools. The reactor pool is connected to the service pool
by a short canal as shown in Figure 2. The ends of the suction
and discharge lines are submerged below the pool surface and
located at the same level in the pools. The end shape of the
discharge line is designed as a T-shape diffuser to distribute the
flow uniformly for the formation of the stable HWL and it is
located at the reactor pool.
On the other hand, the commercial pipe is used as the end suction
line. This pipe line is just extruded into the pool with a short
length.
In this research, flow fields of the reactor and service pools are
numerically simulated with different locations of the end suction
pipes. Two different locations are considered because these
installable locations represent the flow field of the HWL. One is
in the reactor pool, Case 1, and the other is in the service pool,
Case 2, as shown in Figure 2.
Heat loss is calculated numerically from the HWL to the lower
part of the pool in order to determine the heater capacity.
Temperature and velocity field are taken into consideration to
determine the formation of the stable hot water layer based on the
numerical simulation results. Commercial CFD tool ANSYS-
FLUENT 13.0 is used to calculate the pool water flow with
different locations of the end suction pipe. Also two kinds of
turbulent model, RNG k-e and SST k-w turbulent models are
used for the conservative system design.
Mesh types of the hexahedron and tetrahedron are used in the
calculation. ICEM CFD and ANSYS Meshing are used as a
meshing tool.
Flow characteristics with the T-shape distribution header
T-shape distribution header is connected to the discharge pipe
line as shown in Figure 2. This header distributes the system
water into the reactor pool with the high temperature heated up in
the heater. Discharge flow from the header shall not disturb the
formation of the stable HWL.
If normal circular pipe is used rather than the T-shape
distribution header in the design of the discharge pipe, circular jet
with a velocity of about 2m/sec flows into the reactor pool and
collides with the reactor pool liner without a spreading. Finally, it
is difficult to maintain the stable hot water layer with a specific
thickness [4].
Figure 3 and 4 show the velocity and temperature contours near
the distribution header in the reactor pool. Discharge flow with a
velocity of about 0.5~1m/sec infiltrate into the hot water layer
smoothly. This T-shape distribution header in Figure 2 is used in
this research [5].
Figure 5 show the flow field in the reactor pool with the other T-
shape distribution header. This figure explains the importance of
the design of the distribution header. Secondary flow with
rotational velocity components is appeared below the main flow
field of the HWL in the reactor pool as shown in the Streamline
of Figure 5.
Heat loss on the bottom of the HWL
Heat loss from the HWL to the primary coolant through the
stratified stable water layer is calculated numerically in this
research. It is assumed that its heat transfer mechanisms are
mi xing and turbulence diffusion. Figure 6 shows the temperature
contour with the pool height. Its heat transfer mechanism looks
like a conduction heat transfer because of temperature gradient
with the pool height. In this case, heat loss is calculated as Last term o f Equation (7) is the boundary condition of the
following Equation (6). numerical simulation and its value is calculated from Equation
(5). Primary coolant is the ultimate heat sink in the simulation.
This coolant flows into the bottom of the reactor pool and flows
out through the reactor assembly.
Table (1) summarizes the heat loss from the bottom of the HWL
to the primary coolant based on numerical simulation results,
Equation (7) and conduction Equation (6).

Calculation Cases Heat loss(kW)

Q pc , Case 1 204kW
Q pc , Case 2 194kW
Figure 6 Temperature contour on the mid-plane in the reactor and Q cod, H 0.1kW
service pools
Table 1 Heat loss from the bottom of the HWL to the primary
coolant in the pools

Calculated heat transfer rate based on the conduction equation is

very small compared with the numerical simulation results.
Based on the reference experimental and numerical simulation
results, it is expected that this heat loss mechanism is the
turbulence mixing between the layers.

Flow field of the HWL with different suction pipe locations

Figure 7 Velocity contours on the mid-plane in the reactor and
service pools
In this research, this heat loss is calculated from the HWL and
primary coolant as following Equation (7).
Qpc mpc cp Tin, pc Tout , pc
Velocity contours on the mid-plane in the reactor and service
pools are shown in Figure 7. There is no significant difference in
the main flow of the HWL in the reactor and service pools.
Discharge flow from the T-shape distribution header makes the
complex flow field at the upper part of the reactor pool.
Temperature of this region is almost same because of the mixing
flow. And stratified temperature field is gradually developed with
height. This temperature difference makes the density difference
and then finally stable flow is formed in the reactor and service
pools.
But, there are different secondary flow patterns under the HWL
with each calculation cases. As Shown in Figure 7, second flow
is hardly generated in Case 2 because all discharged flow from
the T-shape distribution header flows from the reactor pool into
the service pool. On the other hand, there are weak sidewise
velocity components across the reactor and service pool as shown
in Case 1 of Figure 7. This flow pattern is generated by the heat
transfer, mass continuity.
A Thickness of the HWL in Case 1 is almost 70% of that in Case
2. This difference is induced by the location of the suction pipe
line. All discharged flow in the reactor pool shall flow into the
service pool through the canal in Case 2. Therefore, the HWL
Ah k w Th Tin , pc thickened in the reactor pool.
Q cod , H
dH
Conclusions
(6)
Calculated heat losses based on computational results in Table 1
are almost same. This result is used to calculate the heater
capacity.
The flow field between the HWL and the primary coolant flow in
Case 2 is more stable than that of Case 1. Therefore, Case 2 is
adopted as a location of the end suction pipe line based on the
mHWLS c pTout Tin Qevap (7) point of view of the ionized radionuclides transport.

Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the support from the ministry of
education, science and technology of South Korea.
References
[1] Choi, J. W., Jeong, Y. H., Jeong, N. G., Chi, D. Y. and Yoon,
J. H., Basic design status of hot water layer system for open
pool research reactor, Transaction of the Korea Nuclear
Society Spring Meeting, Taebaek, South Korea, 2011, 657
658.
[2] Yoon, H. G., Choi, J. W., Yoon, J. H. and Chi, D. Y.,
Design of the demineralized water make-up line to
maintain the normal pool water level of the reactor pool in
the research reactor, Transaction of the Korea Nuclear
Society Spring Meeting, Jeju, South Korea, 2012, 8586.
[3] Yunus A. Cengel, Heat Transfer: A Practical Approach,
Mc-Graw Hill, 2 nd Edition, 2003.
[4] David C. Wilcox, Turbulence Modelling for CFD, DCW
Industries, Inc. 1993.
[5] Yoon, H. G., Seo, K. W., Park, Y. C. and Chi, D. Y., Inlet
and outlet pipe design of the hot water layer system in the
research reactor, Spring meeting of the Korea Society for
Computational Fluids Engineering, Jeju, South Korea, 2012,
349-352.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Experimental study on the action of electric field on growing gas bubbles

by measuring the variation of their curvature
P. Di Marco and G. Saccone
Department of Energy and Systems Engineering
University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
p.dimarco@ing.unipi.it

Abstract VT Tates volume (m3)

v velocity (m/s)
The study of bubble dynamics is precursory to the understanding
of the more complex heat and mass transfer technical issues y vertical coordinate (oriented downwards) (m)
involving them, like phase separation and boiling. In particular, it z bubble vertical coordinate (or. upwards)
is well known that the application of an electric field affects 0 vacuum dielectric permittivity (F/m)
bubble growth and detachment in a fluid and may improve R relative dielectric permittivity
boiling heat transfer performance. incidence angle (rad)
An extremely simple experiment was operated to achieve a better dynamic viscosity (Pa s)
comprehension of EHD phenomena on gas bubbles: a single gas density (kg/m3)
bubble was injected into a still dielectric fluid through an orifice f free charge density (C/m3)
in a flat plate; the injection device allowed very slow growth, or surface tension (N/m)
even the creation of a fully static bubble. A d.c. electric field s surface gradient (1/m)
could be imposed in the system by means of an electrode laid
parallel to the plate. Suffixes
The image of the bubble was acquired and processed via a A on surface A
dedicated software, to obtain its geometrical parameters and the b buoyancy
forces acting on it. The overall vertical force balance on the
B bubble
bubble was experimentally verified in the absence of electric
e electric
field to qualify the method. The resulting electric force in the
presence of EF is then determined and compared successfully f liquid
with a numerical evaluation by COMSOL code. Finally, the local g gas
curvature of the bubble profile was obtained from image h hydrostatic
processing, and its value was compared with the trend predicted m mechanic
by the capillary equation, extended to include EHD phenomena. n normal
The last comparison evidenced the need of further clarification of p pressure
the mechanisms governing electrical interfacial stress. r radial
S on surface S
Nomenclature surface tension
t tangential
a Laplace length (m)
v viscous
A gas-liquid interface area (m2)
0 at bubble apex
B electrostriction coefficient, Eq.(2)
Do orifice diameter (m)
E, E electric field intensity (V/m)
Introduction
F, F force (N)
f volumic force (N/m3) The study of bubble dynamics is precursory to the understanding
fe electric stress at the interface (N/m2) of the more complex heat and mass transfer technical issues
g, g gravity acceleration (m/s2) involving them, like phase separation and boiling. In particular,
H bubble height (m) after the pioneering studies of Melcher and Taylor in 1969 [19],
k unit vector, vertical axis it is well known that the application of an electric field affects
bubble growth and detachment in a fluid. This results in a general
K surface curvature (1/m)
improvement of boiling heat transfer, and in space applications
m mass velocity (kg/s m2)
may provide a suitable force to replace buoyancy in
n normal unit vector microgravity, to stabilize boiling heat transfer and phase
p pressure (Pa) separation, as shown e.g. by Di Marco and Grassi in [11].
p0 pressure at the bubble top (Pa)
r radial coordinate (m) The shape of the interface of a slowly-growing bubble is ruled by
Ri curvature radii (0 = at bubble apex) (m) the capillary equation, which was first integrated by Bashfort and
S orifice cross-sectional area (m2) Adams as early as in 1883 [2], with a numerical technique. In a
t tangent unit vector force-balance approach, the quasi-static growth of a bubble can
tik generic stress tensor component (Pa) be interpreted as the competition between buoyancy, surface
tension and internal overpressure force; the resulting electric
T stress tensor (Pa)
force gives a further contribution. These forces can press the
V bubble volume (m3)
bubble towards the surface or push it away from it; generally
speaking, the overpressure force is always directed towards the
fluid, while the surface tension force is always directed towards
the surface. The buoyancy force can act in either directions,
depending on the versus of the gravity vector (upward facing or
downward facing surface), and of course it vanishes in
microgravity conditions. The versus of electrostatic force
depends on the electrode geometry and on the shape and size of
the bubble, and it may even change direction during the process
of bubble growth.
According to Saville [23] the first record of an EHD experiment
ages back to 17th, in Gilberts treatise De Magnete. The problem
is complicated by the fact that the change of geometry due to the
movement of the phases alters the electric field distribution, and
thus electric and flow-field equations are coupled. Lord Rayleigh
(1882) introduced the study of the effect of electric field and
electric charges on droplets. First systematic studies on electric
forces in two-phase media date to 1960s (Taylor [26, 25],
Melcher and Taylor, [19]). Bonjour and coworkers [4, 5] are
considered the first to apply EHD to boiling phenomena. Review
works, mainly focused on heat transfer applications, have been
compiled by Di Marco and Grassi (1993) [9], and Allen and
Karayiannis [1]. Taylor and Melcher [26, 19] in several works
around the end of 60s, have introduced the leaky dielectric Phillips, [20])
model, that generalizes earlier studies limited to pure dielectrics
or perfect conductors, and have set the basis of EHD analysis as
it is carried out nowadays [23]. However, in most of these early
works, according to a suggestion of Korteweg and Helmoltz [24],
the contribution of the so-called electrostriction coefficient (that
is, the variation of electric permittivity with density) has
generally been neglected, which, as it will be shown in the
following, may lead to significant inaccuracy in case of two-
phase media.
Theoretical background
Electrostatic force in a continuum
A brief foreword on the characteristics of the electrical force is
necessary, in order to include it in the momentum balance. The
most generally accepted expression for the volumic electric force
that acts on a fluid is (Landau, [18])
0 E 2
grad R + 0 grad ( b E 2 )
1
f '''e = F E (1) action of an electric field
2 2
where
bubble growth is sufficiently slow, the three-phase line joining
b = R (2)
T the gas-liquid interface to the solid surface remains pinned to
is often referred to as the electrostriction coefficient. b is nearly
zero in gases [18]. For non-polar fluids, like FC-72 which is
considered here, Clausius-Mossotti law holds
( R 1) ( R + 2)
b= (3)
3 surrounding the bubble, bounded by the liquid side of the vapor-
Only the first term (Coulomb's force) depends on the sign of the
electric field. It is present whenever free charge buildup occurs,
and in such cases it generally predominates over the other
electrical forces. The remaining two terms encompass
dielectrophoresis and electrostriction: unfortunately, there is no
general agreement in literature about a clear distinction of the
two effects, although the prevailing opinion is to refer the third
term to as electrostriction. They depend on the magnitude of E2,
thus being independent of the field polarity. The third term is
irrotational and it can be seen as an added electrically induced
pressure in the fluid. In fact, the solution of Navier-Stokes
equation in the presence of electrostatic force
Dv
= grad pm + 2 v + g + f''' (4)
Dt
in a still fluid (v = 0) yields a pressure
0 b E 2
pm = g y + + cost (5)
2
where y increases downwards. Therefore, hydrostatic pressure is
increased in a fluid subjected to an electric field: this effect is
termed electrostriction [15]. Although, as already noted,
Korteweg and Helmoltz suggested that the role of electrostriction
can be neglected in non dilatational motions, this is not advisable
in two-phase flows, as discussed later.
A relation like Eq.(1) is of little use in two-phase flow, where an
interface is present within the fluid. However, according to
continuum mechanics, the volumic force can be reformulated as
the divergence of a stress tensor
f '''e = div Te (6)
where, in particular, in case of electric force Te is termed
Maxwell stress tensor, whose components are (Panofsky and
0 E 2
tik = 0 R Ei Ek [ R b ] ik (7)
2
It is well known that the resulting force on a surface S with
normal outward unit vector n can be expressed as
Fe =
T
S
e n dS (8)
The use of Te allows to carry on stress and force calculations
only from knowledge of the electric field E, without determining
charge density distribution or dealing with discontinuities at
liquid-vapor interfaces. However, E depends on the fluid density
and its variation with temperature, and on the distribution of
dielectrics (i.e. gas and liquid) in the domain, and sometimes is
not easy to evaluate it.
Quasi static momentum balance on a growing bubble under the
Consider a gas bubble growing slowly from a circular orifice on a
flat surface (Fig.2), with an incidence angle . In these
conditions, it can be shown (Gerlach et al., [16]) that, if the
the orifice rim CL, as long as the incidence angle is larger than
the static contact angle. Afterwards, the bubble spreads on the
surface keeping constant contact angle. For well-wetting fluids,
like fluorocarbons, this occurs very late, or most frequently does
not occur at all before detachment. If we neglect all the dynamic
forces, the quasi-static momentum balance on a control volume
liquid interface, S, and by the gas side of the orifice area A (see
Fig.1) is written as
V
g g dV + t fg dL p f n dS
CL S
(9)
pg n dA + Te , f n dS + Te, g n dA = 0
A S A
Where, in particular, n is the normal outward unit vectors and tfg
is oriented parallel to the gas-liquid interface at the three-phase
contact line.
The radial component of Eq.(9) is self-balanced in axially
symmetric problems; the integration of the z-component gives
Fb + Fp + F + Fe , s + Fe , A = 0
where, considering a bubble growing upwards, the buoyancy,
internal overpressure, surface tension (or adhesion) and electric
forces are given by
Fb = k g g dV p f ,h n dS p f ,h n dA =
V S A (11)
= VB ( f g ) g
F = k t fg dL = Do sin (12)
CL
Do2
Fp = k ( p g p f , h ) n d A = ( p g ,b f g H ) (13)
4 n f ( Te, f Te , g ) n f =
A 2
Fe, s = k Te,l n dS
S Therefore, as reported also in [15], the electrical stress is oriented
Fe , A = k Te, g n dS
A
where k is the vertical upward unit vector. In particular, it can be
noted that the pressure in the fluid has been set to 0 at bubble
apex and the hydrostatic pressure at the bubble base, pf,h = f g H,
has been added in Eq.(11) to express the buoyancy force in the
traditional form for a fully immersed body. The same term has
then to be subtracted from the overpressure force to avoid
counting it twice. In the present case, Fe,A = 0 since the electric
field is null at the bubble metal baseplate, which is grounded.
Eq.(10) shows that, during quasi-static growth, bubble
equilibrium is determined by buoyancy, excess of internal
pressure, surface tension at the bubble neck, and electric force.
This balance must hold at any stage of bubble growth, by means
of an adjustment of the incidence angle at the orifice rim, and
the bubble detachment will occur when, further to a volume
increase, it is no longer possible to fulfil it (Gerlach et al., [16]).
S and the electric stress are responsible of deviation of the bubble
A CL
tfg
Figure 1. Sketch of the bubble.
Momentum balance across a curved gas-liquid interface
subjected to electric forces
If the equilibrium of a pillbox volume of negligible thickness
surrounding the gas-liquid interface in a still fluid is written, the
local equation for interface equilibrium in normal direction can
be obtained as [21, 13]
( pm , g pm , f ) + n f ( Te , f Te , g ) n f = 2K
Equation (16) can be seen as a generalization of the celebrated
Laplace-Young equation for an adiabatic interface, including
electric forces. It can be shown also that either for a perfectly
dielectric or conducting fluid the tangential component of electric
stress vanishes. In particular, for dielectric fluids, in the absence
of free charge at the interface, the electric stress difference across
the interface is given by [15, 19, 18]
(10)
f e ,n = n f ( Te, f Te, g ) n f =
(17)
0
= (1 R , f ) ( R , f En2, f + Et2, f ) + b f E 2f
2
where the relative dielectric permittivity of the gas phase has
been assumed equal to 1 and the gas electrostriction coefficient,
bg, equal to 0. It is clear that, for a curved interface, normal
electric stresses contribute to determine the shape of the
interface, and also the electrostrictive term plays its role in this
context.
For non-polar fluids, accounting of Eq.(2), Eq.(17) becomes
0 ( R , f 1) 2
(2 E Et2, f )
n, f (18)
6
(14)
towards the gas on isopotential surfaces (En=0) and towards the
(15) liquid on field streamlines (Et=0). Combining Eq.(16), with the
expression of the hydro-electro-static pressure along the
interface. Eq.(5), and eliminating the pressures, the capillary
equation is finally obtained and extended to electrical forces [13]
2 K = = 2 K0 ( f g ) g y
0 (1 R, f )
( ) ( )
(19)
+ En2, f En2, f ,0 + Et2, f Et2, f ,0
2 R, f
where y is oriented downwards, from bubble top and the suffix 0
refers to the bubble top. As outlined by Castellanos and Durand
[6, 15, 17], the electrostrictive term is cancelled in this equation
due to the corresponding term in the hydrostatic pressure, Eq.(5).
In the absence of electric stress, Eq.(19) shows that the curvature
decreases linearly from bubble top to its foot; as already
mentioned, this equation has been solved numerically by
Bashforth and Adams [2]. When the electric field is present,
Eq.(19) requires to solve electric field distribution at the same
time, and, to the authors knowledge, no general solution has
been found, although Bateni et al. [3] proposed a numerical
method for droplets. Eq.(19) shows that the gravitational head
from spherical shape: in fact, in the absence of electric field and
in microgravity, bubbles grow as perfect spheres (Di Marco et al.,
[10]). It can be noted also that a non-uniform electric stress along
the interface is necessary to alter its shape; this non-uniformity
can be created by the presence of the bubble itself inside an
originally uniform electric field.
Experimental apparatus and data processing
T f a f
C (N/m) (mPas) (kg/m3) (mm)
20 0.0115 0.69 1692 0.83 1.752
35 0.0102 0.57 1659 0.79 1.729
Table 1. Properties of FC-72 (C6F14) at ambient temperature.
The experimental cell (Fig.2) consisted of a polycarbonate box of
about 2.5 dm3 volume, open to the atmosphere and monitored by
a temperature sensor (K-type thermocouple). A circular orifice
(16) was drilled in a stainless steel flat plate, laid horizontally inside
the container, and air was injected through it into the fluid. The
working fluid was air-saturated FC-72 at environment
temperature, whose physical and electrical properties are reported
in Tab.1. The level of the liquid was such to keep a constant
hydraulic head above the orifice of 980 Pa (about 59 mm of FC-
72).
An axisymmetric electric field could be generated above the
orifice by imposing a voltage up to 20 kV dc to a washer-shaped
stainless steel electrode, of 1-mm thickness, with a hole of 4 mm
drilled in it and coaxial with the orifice originating the bubble.
The electrode was positioned parallel to the surface where the
bubble was forming, at a distance of 6 mm.
Figure 2. Test facility.
The gas (air) was injected in the orifice by means of a dedicated
injection device constituted by two syringes of different volume
actuated by micrometric screws, and connected through a tee
junction (see Fig.3) . The outlet branch of the tee was connected
to the plate orifice via a small diameter (<1mm) tube. The first
syringe was filled with the test liquid, the second with air. By a
careful operation of the gas syringe, a small gas inclusion of gas
was created in the liquid filling the injection pipe after the tee
junction. With the aid of the liquid syringe, the gas inclusion was
driven toward the orifice. In this way, the compressibility of the
system was very low, and, by careful operation of the liquid
syringe via the micrometric screw, it was possible to create a
static bubble of prescribed volume attached to the orifice.
to the orifice
Syringe 1 (liquid)
valve
Syringe 2 (air)
Figure 3. Injection device.
The bubble geometrical parameters were measured by digital
processing of video images taken with a high resolution
(1024x768) camera (Hitachi HV-F31F). The resulting resolution,
with the aid of a microscopic lens (Infinity InFocus KC, with
auxiliary IF 3.5 lens), was about 380 pixel/mm (2.6 m/pixel).
The digital processing software is based on Matlab Image
Acquisition toolbox (Cosentino et al., [7]).
In particular, the bubble profile was extracted by the images,
after treatment to reduce the noise and enhance the contrast, with
Canny method. The bubble volume VB was determined as the one
of a solid of rotation matching the bubble profile. The curvature
radius at bubble top, R0, was obtained by fitting a parabola at the
top side of the digitized bubble profile (see Fig.4). Finally, the
incidence angle was derived by means of a parabolic fitting of the
bubble profile in the proximity of the orifice rim. In these two
fittings, the number of points of the profile to take into account
and the degree of the fitting curve were optimized by comparing
the outcomes with the results of the numerical integration of the
capillary equation, Eq.(26), which are available in the absence of
electric field [12]. In the end, a cubic fitting of the lowest 15
pixels of the bubble profile has been chosen and adopted in all
the measurements.
The two principal curvatures of the bubble profile, y(r), have
been determined by making use of the classical mathematical
formulae for a solid of revolution
d2 y / d r 2
K1 = 3/2
1 + ( d y / d r )2
y
K2 = (20)
sin tan 1 ( d y / d r )
K1 + K 2
K=
2
However the discontinuities in the bubble profile, due to the pixel
resolution of the image, makes it difficult to evaluate the
derivatives, especially the second one. To mitigate this, the
profile has been smoothened with a Savitzky-Goolay filter, and
then interpolated by cubic spline, on which derivatives have been
evaluated. Furthermore, for the bubble cap, the procedure has
been performed on the r(y) profile. Despite the extensive
filtering, the measured curvature is still affected by some
disturbances, as shown in next sections, and the procedure is still
being improved.
Figure 4. Bubble shape in the presence of electric field (right) or
less (left), for the same volume (0.0429 mm3), and corresponding
digitized profile.
Figure 5. Bubble shape in the presence of electric field (right) or
less (left), for the same volume (0.3492 mm3), and corresponding
digitized profile.
Some bubble shapes, along with their profiles, are reported in
Figs. 4 and 5: it can be noted how, for the same volume, the
bubbles elongate in the presence of the electric field.
Once the geometrical parameters of the bubble have been
determined, it is possible to evaluate the forces acting on it,
Eqs.(11)-(15). The evaluation of the buoyancy force Fb, Eq.(11),
and of the adhesion force F, Eq.(12), is immediate once VB,
and the fluid properties are known. The evaluation internal
overpressure force requires some additional consideration. If the
hydrostatic head in the gas is neglected, the hydrostatic pressure
in the gas is uniform and equal at the one at the bubble top, i.e.,
according to Eq.(16)
2
p0, g p0, f = f e,n ,0 (21)
R0
Therefore
 Do2 Results: total force on the bubble
Fp = = ( p g ,0 f g H ) =
4 As a first step, the bubble equilibrium in the absence of electric
(22)
Do2 2 Do2 field has been investigated to validate the numerical procedure.
= p f ,0 + f g H f e,n ,0 = Fm , p + Fe, p The forces in Eq.(23) have been determined and compared with
4 R0 4
their theoretical counterparts, as reported in Fig.8, where the
The former three forces must add to zero in the absence of abscissa is the bubble volume made non-dimensional by dividing
electric field, that is by the so-called Tates volume

Fres = Fb + Fm , p + F = 0
When an electric field is applied, the total electric force can be
evaluated by difference
Fe,tot = Fe, s + Fe ,b + Fe, p = Fres
Numerical evaluation of the electric field around the bubble
Do
(23) VT = (25)
( f g ) g
It can be seen that the forces add almost perfectly to zero, within
1 N. It is also interesting to note that, despite the resulting
(24) electric force points downwards, the detachment of the bubble in
the presence of electric field occurs at a slightly lower volume.
This means that the bubble detachment is ruled by more complex
considerations than a simple lookup of force orientation (Di
Marco et al., [14]).
Once the method has been verified, the electric force has been
experimentally determined with the aid of Eq.(24). The results
are reported in Fig.9, where the outcome of COMSOL
calculations on a limited set of bubbles is reported too: it can be
noted that the calculated values compare well with the
experimental ones. Fig.10 shows that the agreement is generally
better than 20%.

12

8 Pressure
Surf. tension
Buoyancy
Force [microN]

4 Total

Figure 6. Trend of the electric field around the bubble (at lower
0
left side), evaluated with COMSOL code. The abscissa is the
axial symmetry axis, the white rectangle represents the section of
-4
the electrode, charged at 20 kV.
The correct evaluation of the electric field in the domain requires -8
the knowledge of the bubble shape. Therefore, an axisymmetric
problem has been set in COMSOL Mutiphysics code. The bubble -12 -2 -1 0
profile has been imported into COMSOL with the aid of a Matlab 10 10 10
V/V Tate [=]
routine and the electric forces, Eqs.(14) (18) and (19), have been
evaluated with the aid of a custom-made boundary expression Figure 8. Forces on bubbles in the absence of electric field, vs.
implemented into the code. The resulting electric field is reported bubble volume, and comparison with their theoretical values
in Fig.6. The trend of electric stress, Eq.(18), along the bubble (continuous lines).
surface is reported in Fig.7. It can be noted that the maximum
stress has the same order of magnitude (~10 Pa) of the
15
hydrostatic head, and it is directed towards the liquid in the lower Pressure
Surface Tension
part of the bubble, and towards the gas at bubble top. Buoyancy
10 Electric (exp)
Electric (calc)

5
Force [microN]

-5

-10

-15 -2 -1 0
10 10 10
V/V Tate [=]

Figure 9. Forces on bubbles in the presence of electric field vs.

bubble volume, and comparison with the electric force resulting
from COMSOL calculations. Continuous lines refer to theoretical
values in the absence of EF.
Figure 7. Electric stress at the bubble surface, Eq.(18), vs the
bubble height, as evaluated with COMSOL code.
 3 3
COMSOL calculated Electric Force [microN]

+20 % 2.8
experimental (no EF)
2.5 theory, Eq.(19)

2.6

curvature K [1/mm]
2
-20 % 2.4

1.5
2.2

1 2

1.8
0.5
1.6
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 dimensionless bubble height, z/H
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Experimental Electric Force [microN]
Figure 12. Comparison between calculated and experimental
Figure 10. Comparison between calculated and experimental values curvature vs. dimensionless bubble height, in the absence
values of the resulting electric force. of electric field.
fint =
Results: curvature and interfacial stress
0 (1 R , f )
( ) ( )
(27)
The measured bubble curvatures for the bubbles depicted in Fig.5 = En2, f En2, f ,0 + Et2, f Et2, f ,0
2 R, f
are reported versus the dimensionless bubble height in Fig.11.
Although the data are not completely free from noise, it can be It is evident that Eq.(27) underestimates the electrical stress. On
noted that in the presence of electric field the curvature increases the contrary, if the expression of fint is modified including the
at bubble top and decreases on bubble side, causing bubble electrostrictive contribution:
elongation, as it is evident also in Fig.5.
0 b f
4.5
f 'int = fint
2
(E 2
f E 2f ,0 ) (28)

4
no electric field the matching of experimental data definitely improves, as shown
with electric field
in the same figure.
curvature K [1/mm]

3.5
10
experimental
3 theory, Eq.(27)
0 theory, Eq.(28)

2.5
-10
electrical stress [Pa]

2
-20

1.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
dimensionless bubble height, z?h -30

Figure 11. Measured bubble curvature vs. dimensionless bubble -40

height, in the presence of electric field or less.
In the absence of electric field, Eq. (19) predicts a linear decrease -50
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
of interface curvature from top to base of the bubble. The dimensionles bubble height, z/H
theoretical trend of curvature has been evaluated with the above
equation, and is compared with the experimental value in Fig.12. Figure 13. Comparison between the experimental value of
Aside of experimental noise, the match is quite satisfactory, and electric interfacial stress vs. dimensionless bubble height and two
validates the procedure. different theoretical evaluations.
By considering again Eq.(19) in the presence of electric field,
once the bubble shape is known the electric stress acting at the It seems therefore that the electrostrictive pressure does not
gas-liquid interface may be experimentally evaluated as cancel out, but it has to be retained in the extended capillary
equation. At the time this paper is written, this is just a mere
fint = 2 ( K K0 ) + ( f g ) g y (26) hypothesis and the question is still open.

This procedure, already outlined in [12], was followed also by Di Conclusions

Bari [8] in his Doctoral Thesis. The results are reported in Fig.13,
which is again affected by the noise resulting from curvature
calculation. In the same figure, the result is compared with the
theoretical expression of fint deriving from Eq.(19), i.e.
An simple experiment was operated to achieve a better
comprehension of electrostatic forces acting on gas bubbles. A
single gas bubble was injected into a still dielectric fluid through
an orifice in a flat plate; the injection device allowed very slow
growth, or even the creation of a fully static bubble. A d.c.
electric field could be imposed in the system by means of an
electrode laid parallel to the plate. The image of the bubble was
acquired and processed via a dedicated software, to obtain its
geometrical parameters and the forces acting on it. In particular,
the local bubble curvature was determined by interpolation of the
profile. The experimental methods were qualified by comparison
with theoretical results of bubble shape and forces in the absence
of electric field. In particular, the force balance was verified with
an accuracy generally better than 1 N.
The resulting electric force in the presence of EF was then
determined and compared with a numerical evaluation by
COMSOL code. The agreement was satisfactory, generally better
than 20%.
Finally, the local curvature of the bubble profile was obtained
from image processing, and its value was compared successfully
with the trend predicted by the capillary equation in the absence
of electric field, although the need to further reduce noise in
curvature measurement was evidenced.
Finally, the electric stress acting on the interface was determined
experimentally by substituting known terms in the extended
capillary equation, and compared with its theoretical evaluation.
This comparison evidenced the need of further clarifying the role
exerted by electrostrictive pressure on electric interfacial stress,
which will be the subject of future work.
Acknowledgments
Roberto Manetti gave a fundamental contribution in setting up
the experimental apparatus. The fruitful discussion with Prof.
Akio Tomiyama and Mr. Ryo Kurimoto is gratefully
acknowledged. This work was performed with the financial
support of ESA, within the CBC project (MAP AO-2004-111).
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Two zone structure of laminar methane-oxygen diffusion flames at
atmospheric and elevated pressures
P.H. Joo, M.R.J. Charest, C.P.T. Groth, and .L. Glder
Institute for Aerospace Studies UTIAS
University of Toronto, 4925 Dufferin Street, Toronto ON M3H 5T6, Canada
Abstract
A combined experimental and numerical study was conducted to
examine the structure of laminar methane-oxygen diffusion
flames in comparison with methane-air flames. Methane-oxygen
flames displayed a distinct two-zone structure. The inner zone,
similar to hydrocarbon-air diffusion flames, had a yellow/orange
colour and was surrounded by an outer blue zone. This outer
zone was shown to have a stratified structure with a very steep
equivalence ratio gradient and the main reactions in this zone
were shown to be the oxidation of hydrogen and carbon
monoxide produced within the inner zone. This two-zone
structure of the methane-oxygen diffusion flames persisted at
elevated pressures up to 60 atm. Methane-air diffusion flames
had a thin layer of blue outer zone at atmospheric pressure;
however, this zone completely disappeared when the pressure
was increased above atmospheric. Soot measurements made in
these flames indicated that the maximum soot yields of methane-
air flames are consistently higher than methane-oxygen flames at
all pressures. The maximum soot yield of methane-oxygen
flames reached a peak at about 40 atm then started decreasing as
the pressure further increased, whereas the maximum soot yield
of methane-air flames reached a plateau at about 40 atm without
much change with further pressure increase.
Introduction
One of the promising techniques of carbon dioxide capture in
combustion is using pure oxygen (or highly oxygen enriched air)
as the oxidizing agent. Oxy-fuel processes use oxygen instead of
air for combustion of fuels, and use dilution agents such as
carbon dioxide or steam for flame temperature control and
material cooling. In addition to easier carbon dioxide capture,
oxy-fuel combustion offers a number of technical advantages
over conventional combustion using air, in terms of thermal
efficiency, combustion stability, enhanced heat transfer, and a
better control of pollutant emissions [1-3].
Another interesting application of pure oxygen-hydrocarbon
combustion is in the area of rocket propulsion. Liquid oxygen
and hydrocarbon engine systems can offer significant advantages
for future launch vehicles, such as favorable cost, better
reliability, simpler ground operation, reduced overall mass of the
vehicle and mission flexibility. Liquid oxygen-kerosene and
liquid oxygen-methane systems seem to be the most likely
candidates. Recently, there is considerable interest is in the
potential use of methane and liquid oxygen as propellants for
reusable rocket engines [4]. The rationale is to reduce operational
costs as well as overall propellant tank sizes as compared to
liquid hydrogen, especially for applications in booster or core
stage engines. Liquid oxygen-methane is viewed as one of the
most promising propellant combinations in this context [4].
Available studies reported in literature on methane-oxygen
combustion were conducted under turbulent conditions at
supercritical methane pressures with liquid oxygen and with the
aim of reproducing conditions of rocket applications [5-7].
Information on the structure and characteristics of co-flow
laminar diffusion flames of methane in oxygen is limited. Most
of the research done at atmospheric pressure is related to oxy-fuel
combustion applications and the interest is in the use of oxygen
enriched air as the oxidizer. The effect of oxygen concentration
in the co-flow air on soot formation in laminar diffusion flames
of methane at atmospheric conditions was reported by Sugiyama
[8] and Lee et al. [9]. It is argued that the observed reductions in
soot concentrations, upon increasing the oxygen concentration in
co-flow air, are due to the changes in velocity field and in the
flame shape [8]. It is reported that the soot surface growth and
oxidation rates are higher in flames of methane with an oxidizer
consisting of 50% oxygen 50% nitrogen compared to the rates
in a methane-air base flame [9]. Soot concentrations are reduced
as the oxygen concentration in the oxidizer is increased [9]. Du et
al. [10] reported that in a counter-flow diffusion flame the effect
of oxygen concentration on the oxidizer side, for both ethylene
and propane flames, is almost totally thermal. A recent numerical
study [5] considers a counter-flow geometry flame of liquid
oxygen and methane at transcritical conditions. Flame structures,
namely major and minor species concentrations, are calculated at
70 atm for three scenarios of liquid oxygen and methane injection
temperatures. Liquefied methane has some favorable cooling
characteristics that can be used in combustion chambers with
regenerative cooling [6]. Most recently, sooting structure of
methane-oxygen flames has been reported at elevated pressures
[11] showing an unexpected dependence of soot formation on
pressure.
In the current work, the two-zone structure of the laminar
methane-oxygen diffusion flames, observed experimentally at
atmospheric and elevated pressures, was studied and compared to
the structure of methane-air diffusion flames. The physical flame
appearance, as well as the species distribution computed
numerically, was investigated. The work also provides
measurements of soot yields of methane-oxygen and methane air
diffusion flames as a function of pressure.
Experimental Details
Experiments were conducted in a combustion chamber, capable
of operating at sub- and super-atmospheric pressures, with an
inner diameter of 0.24 m and a height of 0.60 m. The details of
the combustion chamber and the laminar co-flow diffusion flame
burner used in this study are described in detail in previous
publications [12-14]. The thermal-based mass flow meter is
calibrated for low and high pressure uses and has a maximum
total error of less than 2%. Fuel nozzle of the burner is 3 mm in
diameter and the co-flow air nozzle has a diameter of 25 mm. A
schematic of the experimental set-up is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. A schematic view of the experimental setup.
A non-intrusive, line-of-sight spectral soot emission (SSE)
diagnostic technique was used to obtain the temperature and the
soot volume fraction. In the SSE diagnostic, line-of-sight
radiation emissions from soot are measured along chords through
the flame at a given height. Soot emission is measured over the
wavelength range of 690-945 nm. Spectra are averaged over the
height of the entrance slit as well as across twelve spectral
regions, each 21 nm wide. This provides 12 adjacent spectral
data points per line-of-sight acquisition. Output from the
spectrometer is focussed onto a calibrated 16-bit CCD detector
(1100330 pixels). The lateral emission scans are inverted to
obtain radially resolved emission data using the three-point Abel
deconvolution technique, where temperature and soot volume
fraction can be determined when soot optical properties are
known [15]. Soot radiation emissions are measured every 50 m
across the flame at the height increments of 0.5 mm. Details of
the theory are provided elsewhere [16] and the specifics of the
overall experimental layout of the spectral soot emission
diagnostic used in this study are provided by Joo and Glder
[14].
The methane flow rate for the experiments was originally
selected to be 1.1 mg/s. With this flow rate methane-oxygen
flames were very stable at all pressures up to 60 atm. Methane-air
flames, however, with a 1.1 mg/s flow rate were highly unstable
above a few atmospheres and were producing smoking flames.
Reducing the flow rate down to 0.85 mg/s provided stable flames
without smoking up to 20 atm. In order to have stable non-
smoking flames up to 60 atm, the flow rate was further reduced
to 0.55 mg/s. Methane-oxygen flames with 0.55 mg/s methane
flow rate were not measurable above 10-15 atm due to very small
flame sizes. As a result, the following experimental flames were
considered: (a) methane-oxygen flames, from 1 to 60 atm with
1.1 mg/s methane flow rate, and atmospheric with 0.55 mg/s
methane flow rate; (b) methane-air flames, 1 to 5 atm with 1.1
mg/s methane flow rate, 1 to 20 atm with 0.85 mg/s methane
flow rate, and 1 to 60 atm with 0.55 mg/s methane flow rate.
Numerical Approach
The present study makes use of a previously developed
framework for modeling laminar reactive flows with complex
chemistry, non-gray radiative heat transfer and soot [17]. This
framework mathematically describes the gaseous combusting
flow using the conservation equations for continuous, multi-
component compressible gas mixtures [18]. The equations
consist of the conservation of total mass, individual species mass,
mixture momentum, and mixture energy. Soot formation and
destruction is modeled using an approach similar to those
developed by Leung et al. [19] and Fairweather et al. [20]. In this
approach, the soot particle size distribution is approximated by a
single average size that varies spatially via surface reactions and
coagulation.
The equations governing the gas-particle mixture described
previously are solved numerically using a finite-volume scheme
previously developed by Groth and co-workers [17,21,22]. The
scheme makes use of piecewise limited linear reconstruction and
an approximate Riemann solver to determine the inviscid fluxes
[23]. The second-order diamond-path method developed by
Coirier and Powell [24] was used to compute the viscous fluxes.
Both the inviscid flux and the temporal derivative are
preconditioned using the proposed matrix of Weiss and Smith
[25]. This preconditioning helps reduce excessive dissipation and
numerical stiffness commonly encountered when applying the
compressible gas equations to low-Mach-number flows. The
solution of the fully-coupled nonlinear ODEs are relaxed to a
steady-state using the block-based parallel implicit algorithm
developed by Northrup and Groth [17,21] which makes use of a
matrix-free inexact NewtonKrylov method. Solution of the
Discrete Ordinate Method equations for radiation is decoupled
from the gas-particle flow equations and solved sequentially at
each time step [17]. This framework has been previously applied
to the studies on the effects of pressure and gravity on methane
and ethylene diffusion flames [26-28].
Thermodynamic and transport properties along with gas-phase
kinetic rates are evaluated using CANTERA [29], an open-source
software package for chemically-reacting flows. The simulations
were performed using a modified version of the Gri-Mech 3.0
mechanism for methane combustion [30]. Nitrogen was assumed
to be inert and all reactions and species related to NOx formation
were removed from the mechanism, giving a final reduced
mechanism with 36 species and 219 reactions. The simulation
results only for the atmospheric pressure are used exclusively
here to compare flame structures of methane-oxygen and
methane-air flames.
Fig. 2. Two zone structure of the atmospheric laminar methane-
oxygen flames with highlighted boundaries of the two zones: (a)
methane flow rate 0.55 mg/s, (b) methane flow rate 1.1 mg/s.
Results and Discussion
Visual observations and photographic images indicated that
methane-oxygen diffusion flames have a two-zone flame
structure. The inner zone, zone I, is luminous similar to a laminar
methane air flame and is mostly yellow/orange, Figure 2. The
inner zone is surrounded by an outer zone, zone II, which is centerline temperature of methane-oxygen flame is about 700-
mostly blue and occupies a larger volume. At atmospheric 800 K higher than that of methane-air flame. Centerline hydrogen
pressure the luminous zone appeared as a semi-sphere and mass fractions along the flame axis indicate that relatively large
attached to the burner rim by the typical blue region, similar to amounts of hydrogen produced through the pyrolysis of methane
that of an atmospheric hydrocarbon-air diffusion flame. The at high temperatures in the methaneoxygen flame, Figure 5.
yellow sooting region was concentrated mainly towards the tip of
the luminous zone and the entire zone was encapsulated by a
much larger blue flame with a bulbous appearance. In diffusive
combustion of methane in oxygen, methanes oxidative pyrolysis
is expected to lead to formation of hydrogen which can quickly
diffuse through the reaction zone and form the non-sooting flame
enclosing the luminous zone, Figure 2. This interesting two-zone
structure of methane-oxygen diffusion flames was observed to
persist at elevated pressures as well, Figure 3.

Figure 3. Still images of methane oxygen flames from 1 to 40
atm showing the persistence of the two zone flame structure at
elevated pressures. Methane flow rate is 1.1 mg/s.
Figure 5. Centerline mass fractions, along the flame axis, of
methane, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and oxygen along with
temperature in the methane-oxygen flame obtained from
numerical simulation at atmospheric pressure. Methane flow rate
is 1.1 mg/s. Horizontal arrows mark the observed heights of the
Zone I and Zone II as shown in Figure 2b.

Figure 4. Still images of methane-air flames from 1 to 10

atmospheres. Two zone structure disappears above atmospheric
conditions. Methane flow rate is 0.85 mg/s.

For atmospheric methane-air diffusion flames, a very thin layer

of a blue flame enclosing the yellow luminous diffusion flame
Figure 6. Centerline mass fractions, along the flame axis, of
was reported by Saito et al. [31] at low methane flow rates. At
methane, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and oxygen along with
atmospheric pressure, we observed a similar thin layer of a blue
temperature in the methane-air flame obtained from numerical
flame surrounding the luminous zone in methane-air flames,
simulation at atmospheric pressure. Methane flow rate is 1.1
Figure 4. However, this thin blue layer disappeared as soon as the
mg/s.
pressure was increased to above atmospheric, Figure 4.
Heights of the two zones measured along the flame axis, Figure
It should be noted here that for a similar methane flow rate,
2(b), are superimposed on the hydrogen mass fraction profile of
visible flame height of the methane-air flame is about three times
methane-oxygen flame in Figure 5. It seems that the mass
longer than the methane-oxygen flame at atmospheric conditions,
fraction of hydrogen reaches a peak just before the tip of the
as shown Figures 1 and 4. The visible flame heights of methane-
yellow luminous zone and then hydrogen is depleted by oxygen
air flames essentially stay constant with increasing pressure as
through a diffusion flame within the blue flame zone. A similar
shown in Figure 4, and as observed previously [14]. However,
behavior was observed with the mass fraction of carbon
the visible flame height of methane-oxygen flames gradually
monoxide as shown in Figure 5. Carbon monoxide concentration
decreases as the pressure is increased, as shown in Figure 3.
reached a peak at the tip of yellow luminous zone. Then it was
oxidized, along with hydrogen, by oxygen diffusing inwards
Centerline temperature profiles along the flame axis of methane-
within the blue flame zone. Only a small fraction seemed to exit
oxygen and methane-air flames at one atmosphere, obtained from
the blue flame tip, Figure 5. These observations confirm that the
the corresponding numerical simulations, are shown in Figures 5
blue flame zone is mainly a diffusion flame of hydrogen and
and 6, respectively. Also shown in these figures are the profiles
carbon monoxide burning in oxygen. However, the computed
of methane, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and oxygen
oxygen mass fraction along the flame centerline increased from
concentrations along the flame axes. As expected, the maximum
basically zero at the tip of the yellow zone and the beginning of With increasing pressure, the annular soot distribution flattens
the blue zone, Figure 5, to high concentrations before the tip of and the peak soot concentration moves towards the flame
the blue zone. This indicates that the blue zone is a diffusion centerline similar to the behaviour observed in hydrocarbon-air
flame as it starts above the yellow zone but turns into a partially diffusion flames.
premixed (stratified) flame with height as a result of intense
diffusion of oxygen into the flame zone. The computed
equivalence ratios at Figure 7 show a very steep change, along
the flame centerline, from the tip of the yellow zone to the tip of
the flame, illustrating the stratified structure within the blue zone.

Fig. 8. Centerline mass fractions, along the flame axis, of

acetylene, ethylene, ethane, hydroxyl radical, and oxygen and
hydrogen atoms in the methane-oxygen flame obtained from
numerical simulation at atmospheric pressure. Methane flow rate
is 1.1 mg/s. Horizontal arrows mark the observed heights of the
Zone I and Zone II as shown in Figure 2b.

Figure 7. Distribution of the equivalence ratio within the outer

blue zone of methane-oxygen flame at atmospheric pressure.
Methane flow rate is 1.1 mg/s.

In methane-air flame, peak hydrogen and carbon monoxide

concentrations are about an order of magnitude are lower than
those in methane-oxygen flames, Figures 5 and 6. This is most
probably the result of the temperature difference between the two
flames: pyrolysis of methane in air is less intense than that in an
oxygen atmosphere.

In zone I of methane-oxygen flames, intense pyrolysis of

methane leads to high concentrations of acetylene, ethylene, and
ethane, although most are destroyed by the tip of the zone I,
Figure 8. Blue zone (zone II) contains relatively high
concentrations of radicals OH, O, and H, as compared to the
concentrations in zone I. In methane-air flames, on the other
hand, concentrations of acetylene, ethylene, and ethane are much
higher than in methane-oxygen flames, Figure 9. Preferred
pyrolysis products seem to be small hydrocarbons, whereas in
methane-oxygen flames pyrolysis products are mainly carbon
monoxide and hydrogen in addition to small hydrocarbons,
Figure 8.
At the atmospheric methane-oxygen flame, soot concentrations
are very low and not measurable with the current soot
diagnostics. Measurements with a line-of-sight attenuation at
atmospheric pressure yielded the maximum soot volume fraction
much less than 0.1 ppm. With increasing pressure soot volume
fraction increases: maximum is about 7 ppm at 10 atm, 25ppm at
20 atm, and 45 ppm at 30 atm. At elevated pressures soot
formation is distributed in an annular band near the burner rim.
Figure 9. Centerline mass fractions, along the flame axis, of
acetylene, ethylene, ethane, hydroxyl radical, and oxygen and
hydrogen atoms in the methane-air flame obtained from
numerical simulation at atmospheric pressure. Methane flow rate
is 1.1 mg/s.
To compare the sensitivities of sooting propensities of methane-
oxygen and methane-air flames to pressure, we use the
percentage of total carbon in the fuel converted to soot as a
function of height at various pressures. The percentage of total
carbon in the fuel converted to soot was suggested as a better
measure to assess the influence of pressure on soot formation
[32] and this approach was used in our previous high pressure
studies [12-14]. The mass flow rate of carbon, in the form of
soot, can be determined through the relationship
m
s ( z ) 2 s v z ( r, z ) f v ( r, z )rdr
where vz is the axial velocity, s = 1.8 g/cm3 is the soot density,
and z is the axial height. The axial velocity could be estimated
using the relationship v z ( z ) 2az , where a is an acceleration
constant commonly assumed to be 25 m/s 2 at atmospheric
pressure [33]. However, in recent studies [26,27,34] it was found
that the acceleration constant a, which is used to estimate the
axial velocity of the flame as a function of height, is larger than
25 m/s2 at super-atmospheric pressures. Instead of calculating the
soot yield from the equation above using the constant
acceleration, the velocity field within the flame envelope
computed from the full numerical simulation was used. The soot
yield defined as the percentage of carbon in the fuel converted to
soot is simply Ys m s / m c , where m c is the carbon mass flow
rate at the nozzle exit. A plot of soot yield in methane-oxygen
and methane-air flames as a function of pressure is shown in
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Maximum soot yields of methane-oxygen and
methane-air flames as a function of pressure.
Methane-air flames produce several times more soot than
methane-oxygen flames, Figure 10. In methane-oxygen flames,
soot yield reaches a peak around 40 atm, and then it starts
decreasing with further increase in pressure. In methane-air
flames, on the other hand, it seems that the soot yield reaches a
plateau around 40 atm as observed with gaseous n-alkane fuels
[34].
Some degree of uncertainty is introduced to the measured soot
volume fractions due to a lack of understanding of the
dependence of soot optical properties, specifically soot refractive
index and consequently the refractive index absorbtion function
E(m), on soot temperature, and wavelength. We assumed, for the
purposes of this work and to be consistent with the previous high-
pressure soot measurements [11-13], that soot refractive index
does not have a significant dependence on temperature.
Another source of uncertainty originates from the dependence of
the function E(m) , which is a function of soot refractive index,
on wavelength. Based on the previous analysis and estimates [11]
a constant E(m) function with a magnitude of 0.274 is assumed in
the present work.
Modelling of the flame emission using the previously described
methods [16] showed that attenuation of emission by soot
introduces only a small error in the measurements (i.e. < 2%) for
even the highest soot loadings observed in these flames.
Although soot concentrations are a factor of ten larger than those
observed in the familiar atmospheric flames, the flame diameter
is much smaller and decreases with increasing pressure. The
maximum total uncertainty in soot measurements was evaluated
as 35%. The error bars in Figure 10 correspond to the maximum
total uncertainty.
Conclusions
Through a combined experimental and numerical effort, a distinct
two-zone structure of laminar methane-oxygen diffusion flames
has been identified. The inner zone has a yellow/orange colour
and is similar to hydrocarbon-air flames. This inner zone is
surrounded by a larger blue outer zone. This outer zone was
shown to have a stratified structure with a very steep equivalence
ratio gradient, and the main reactions were shown to be the
oxidation of hydrogen and carbon monoxide produced within the
inner zone. This two-zone structure of the methane-oxygen
diffusion flames persisted at elevated pressures up to 60 atm.
Methane-air diffusion flames had a thin layer of blue outer zone
at atmospheric pressure; however, this zone completely
disappeared when the pressure was increased above atmospheric.
Maximum soot yields of methane-air flames were consistently
higher than methane-oxygen flames at all pressures. Soot yield of
methane-oxygen flames reached a peak at about 40 atm then
started decreasing as the pressure further increased, whereas soot
yield of methane-air flames reached a plateau at about 40 atm
without much change with further pressure increase.
Acknowledgments
Operational funds for this work have been provided by Natural
Sciences and Engineering Research Council Canada, and
Canadian Space Agency. We acknowledge an infrastructure grant
provided by the Canadian Foundation for Innovation.
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Enhancement of Oxygen Transfer by Controlling Liquid Water Movement in

Gas Diffusion Layer for Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells

R. Koresawa1, T. Daitoku2 and Y. Utaka3

1
Graduate School of Engineering
Yokohama National University, 79-5 Tokiwadai, Hodogaya, Yokohama, Japan
2
Faculty of Systems Science and Technology
Akita Prefectural University, 84-4 Tsuchiya, Yurihonjyo, Japan
3
Faculty of Engineering
Yokohama National University, 79-5 Tokiwadai, Hodogaya, Yokohama, Japan

Abstract X-ray radiography(3), fluorescence microscopy(4), soft X-ray

The mass transfer characteristics of the gas diffusion layer (GDL)
are closely related to cell performance in polymer electrolyte fuel
cell (PEFC). Thus, it is necessary to clarify the characteristics of
liquid water distribution, microscopic conformation and the
oxygen diffusivity of the GDL. In this study, a hybrid type GDL
with a non-uniform wettability distribution was examined to
promote oxygen transfer in the GDL. Oxygen diffusivity in the
GDL was measured with simultaneous visualization of liquid
water in the GDL using a galvanic cell type oxygen absorber and
X-ray radiography. Oxygen diffusion paths in the hybrid GDL
were formed from near the boundary between the hydrophilic and
hydrophobic regions, which resulted in enhancement of the
oxygen diffusion characteristics.
Introduction
Polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs) are expected to be used as
lightweight and reduced-size power sources for vehicles, due to
their high power densities, and because of their superior start-up
characteristics at low operating temperatures. In addition, PEFCs
have become commercially available as domestic cogeneration
systems. However, reduction of cost and improvement of PEFC
performance are still required. Degradation of performance by
the amount of moisture in PEFCs is an especially important
problem. For example, water or condensation from humidified
vapor accumulates in the gas diffusion layer (GDL) and gas
channels in the separator, so that diffusion of the reactant gas is
hindered at high humidity and high current density (i.e., the
flooding phenomenon). In contrast, proton conductivity in the
polymer electrolyte film is decreased by drying of the cell due to
low humidity (i.e., the dehydration phenomenon). It is thus
important to manage the amount of moisture at the cathode where
water is generated due to the chemical reaction of hydrogen and
oxygen. To achieve this, the liquid water distribution and mass
transfer characteristics of the reactant gas in the cathode GDL,
where the generated water condenses, must be clarified. Apart
from the liquid water distribution, it is also necessary to
characterize the microscopic conformation and oxygen
diffusivity of a GDL containing moisture near the cathode (where
generated water has a large effect on the cell performance).
The characteristics of liquid water in microporous media such as
GDLs have been investigated. Numerical analysis techniques,
such as the lattice Boltzmann method and the moving particle
semi-implicit method, have been used to investigate the behavior
of liquid water in microporous media(1),(2). Experimental analysis
has been used to clarify the liquid water distribution, the oxygen
diffusion characteristics and their correlation. Techniques such as
radiography(5), synchrotron X-ray radiography(6) and X-ray
computed tomography (CT) using synchrotron radiation(7) have
been used to visualize and analyze the microscopic configuration
and the distribution of liquid water or a test liquid in microporous
media. Other than the visualizations in GDL, effects of
hydrophobic polymer quantity in GDL are examined. GDLs with
different polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)(8),(9) or fluorinated
ethylene propylene (FEP)(10),(11) contents have been investigated
under various conditions. In addition, control of the behavior of
liquid water in a PEFC has been attempted. To enhance liquid
water transport from the electrode to the gas channels and to
lower mass transport losses of oxygen through the GDL,
systematic modification of the GDL has been conducted using
laser-perforation(12). The laser-treated GDL had 39 holes (ca.
80m diameter) along the flow field. To force the liquid water
from the GDL to specific locations, a single large diameter pore
was created in the GDL under the rib or under the channel(13). To
promote the discharge of condensate water that stagnates in the
GDL, a slit was created in the GDL and the fuel cell performance
was investigated(14).
A method has been developed to measure oxygen diffusivity in
porous media using a galvanic cell type oxygen absorber(15) and a
method to measure the apparent oxygen diffusivity of GDL
containing moisture(16) has been proposed by authors. In addition,
the measurement accuracy of the oxygen diffusion characteristic
in a GDL was enhanced by improvement of the oxygen absorber
and verification of the measurement method(17). Novel GDL
configurations have been proposed (hybrid type GDL) to
improve the oxygen diffusivity by controlling the moisture
distribution in the GDL, in which two porous media with
different wettabilities are arranged alternately(18) and two porous
media with different pore size distributions are alternately
arranged(19). The oxygen diffusivity in the hybrid type GDL
composed of alternately arranged porous media was measured
and the liquid water distribution was visualized using X-ray
radiography. The liquid water distribution and behavior in the
hybrid type GDL have also been visualized using neutron
radiography(20),(21). These studies have revealed that the hybrid
type GDL has much higher oxygen diffusivity than conventional
GDLs. The concept of the hybrid GDL was applied using a
carbon paper GDL used for PEFCs. The carbon paper GDL is
given a non-uniform wettability distribution by forming adjacent
hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions(22), which resulted in
enhanced oxygen diffusion characteristics.
In the present study, a hybrid type GDL is prepared using carbon
paper GDL for PEFC with a non-uniform wettability distribution
to control the liquid water movement in the GDL and achieve
 both oxygen diffusion and moisture retention. To improve the Table 1 Projection imaging conditions of the BL20B2
oxygen diffusion characteristic of the previous reported(22) hybrid
GDL, hybrid type GDLs with different hydrophobic regions and
different PTFE contents were fabricated. The effects of the Photon energy [keV] 13
different hydrophobic regions and PTFE content on the oxygen
diffusivity and liquid water distribution were simultaneously Effective pixel size [m/pixel] 3.62
measured using a galvanic cell type oxygen absorber and X-ray
radiography using the BL20B2 beamline at SPring-8. Distance between sample and detector
43
Experimental Setup and Procedure [mm]
Galvanic cell type oxygen absorber Exposure time [ms] 60
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the galvanic cell type
oxygen absorber used to measure the oxygen diffusion Number of projections [/180] 900/180
characteristics in the GDL. The fundamental structure of the
galvanic cell type oxygen absorber was the same as that
previously described(17) to visualize the interior of the GDL using J O 2 31.99 103
I out 1
(4)
X-ray radiography, although some improvements were made. 4F A
The position of the GDL from the oxygen absorbing surface was
where J O [kg m2 s] is the oxygen mass flux, F[s A / mol] is the
changed from 3.1 mm to 13.6 mm, and the GDL sample was 2

Faraday constant and A [m2] is the cross-sectional area of the test

positioned between the X-ray source and a detector for
material. The GDL sample was inserted into a cylindrical acrylic
visualization. The galvanic cell type oxygen absorber consists of
pipe (0.4 mm thick, 4 mm inner diameter). The sample was
a carbon cathode, a Pb anode, an electrolyte (principal
installed 13.6 mm above the oxygen absorbing surface to permit
component is KOH solution), and a gas permeable membrane.
simultaneous measurement of the oxygen diffusivity and
Oxygen is absorbed at the cathode and undergoes
visualization of liquid water in the GDL by X-ray radiography. A
electrochemical reaction. The electrochemical reactions at the
thin cylindrical acrylic pipe was used in consideration of the X-
two electrodes are:
ray transmission.
[Cathode] O2 2H2O 4e 4OH (1)
X-ray Computed Tomography Imaging
[Anode] 2Pb 2Pb2 4e (2)
X-ray computed tomography (CT) with high speed and high
Oxygen reduction occurs at the cathode when oxygen penetrates resolution was used to visualize the changing liquid water
the cathode and dissolves into the electrolyte; thus, the distribution in the GDL. X-ray CT was conducted at the BL20B2
experimental apparatus effectively functions as an oxygen beam line of the world's largest synchrotron radiation facility
absorber. The lead anode electrode is oxidized according to (SPring-8)(23). X-ray CT was used to non-destructively obtain 3D
equation (2). Lead dissolves in the alkaline electrolyte and water internal structural information of a sample by measuring the
is produced in the same quantity as the amount consumed at the spatial distribution of the X-ray absorption coefficient. CT
cathode: images were acquired for about 1 minute using monochromatic
X-ray with high luminance and high directivity. Moreover, it is
Pb2 3OH HPbO2 H2O (3) possible to use an imaging process that utilizes X-ray
refraction(24), which is effective for small samples that have
The quantity of oxygen gas consumed by the electrochemical differences in absorption. Figure 2 shows a schematic of the X-
reaction at the cathode can be obtained from the output current ray tomography system. X-rays passing through the object are
Iout [A] of the oxygen concentration sensor using equation (4). transformed into a visible image by the fluorescent screen
The output current resulting from oxygen reduction due to (scintillator).
reaction at the cathode surface is determined by measuring the
voltage drop of an in-circuit resistor from the electromotive force The visible light images on the screen are projected by an optical
of the oxygen absorber. lens and are detected by a Complementary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor (CMOS) image sensor with an optical lens. Table
1 lists the projection imaging conditions used for the BL20B2
Porous media holder beamline.
GDL (Specimen)
Cathode (Carbon) O2 CMOS image
Monochromator sensor
13.6mm
Collector body (Au) 4mm 8GeV Electron beam
Cross-slit
Sample
-
4e
Bending magnet
Electrolyte _
16.5mm
(KOH+H2O)
+
I OUT
Beam monitor
Anode (Pb) High speed shutter (Scintillator and
Synchrotron
53.0mm radiation optical system)
Monochromatic
X-ray
Fig.1. Schematic diagram of the galvanic cell type oxygen absorber. Rotation stage

Fig.2. Outline of projection tomographic X-ray system.

 Table 2 Specifications of the hybrid GDLs (simultaneous Table 3 Specifications of the hybrid GDLs
oxygen diffusivity measurement and visualization) (oxygen diffusivity measurement)

PTFE content Thickness PTFE

GDL type Porosity Thickness
[wt%] [m] GDL type content Porosity
[m]
0 0.78 [wt%]

Carbon Paper GDL 0 0.78

7 0.76 Carbon Paper GDL
(uniform) (uniform)
7 0.76
20 0.73

4 0.76 5 0.76

8 0.75 9 0.74
Dot Hybrid GDL Dot Hybrid GDL
17 0.74 20 0.73
370 370
32 0.70 32 0.70

4 0.76 4 0.76
8 0.75
13 0.74
Stripe Hybrid GDL
Stripe Hybrid GDL 11 0.74
21 0.73
20 0.73
32 0.70
32 0.70

GDL samples
Carbon paper (Toray, TGP-H-120) with a thickness of 370 m
was used as a GDL sample. Hybrid GDLs with non-uniform
wettability distribution were prepared by partly-hydrophobizing
the carbon paper GDL by melting and fixing PTFE to the carbon
fiber in the GDL. Details of the GDLs that were used for
simultaneous oxygen diffusivity measurement and visualization
are given in Table 2 and those used only for oxygen diffusivity
measurements are given in Table 3. Figure 3 shows schematic
diagrams and example CT images of the unmodified GDL and
hybrid type GDLs with 32 wt% PTFE content. The Carbon Paper
GDL in Tables 2 and 3 and figure 3 is carbon paper (Toray, TGP-
H-120) that is not treated or is uniformly treated with PTFE. The
Stripe Hybrid GDL has striped hydrophobic regions, as shown in
figure 3. The Dot Hybrid GDL has dotted hydrophobic regions,
as shown in figure 3. The PTFE content of the hybrid GDLs was
calculated based on the weight of the sample, and is given as the
ratio of PTFE to total weight of the GDL. The porosity of the
hybrid GDL is average porosity; the volume of PTFE deposited
in the pores of the GDL is calculated based on the weight of the
sample, and the average porosity is calculated using the volume
of PTFE and the total volume of the GDL. Fig.3. Schematic diagrams and X-ray CT images of the GDLs.
The CT images in figure 3 show the GDLs within the cylindrical
acrylic pipe (gray circle surrounding the GDL). In the CT Figure 4 shows both X-ray CT images and the oxygen diffusivity
images of dry GDL, the black areas are pores (air), the tangled as a function of the average water saturation for the carbon paper
thread-like fibers are carbon fibers, and the whitest and light GDL. The average water saturation denotes the fraction of pores
colored areas are PTFE. In the CT images of wet GDL, liquid filled with water (100% saturation indicates that all the pores are
water appears as gray areas filled between carbon fibers. filled with water). The average saturation of the GDL containing
moisture was obtained by binarizing the CT images (ca. 100
The evacuation impregnation method(16) was used to fill the images) of the GDL on the basis of the dry GDL image, and the
GDLs with water. This method involves filling pure water into fraction of pores filled with liquid water in the GDL was
the sample voids by placing the sample in pure water and calculated using these binarized images. The CT images in figure
decompression in a vacuum vessel. 4 show the variation of liquid water in a GDL becoming dry from
Results and Discussion a wet state and the corresponding oxygen diffusivity in the graph.
These CT images are cross-sectional images, perpendicular to the
Simultaneous Measurement of Oxygen Diffusivity and thickness direction.
Visualization of Liquid Water Distribution
The oxygen diffusivity increased when the degree of saturation
decreased from 100%, because the number of pores increases, so
that the oxygen diffusion paths increase. The oxygen diffusivity
results are in agreement with the previously reported results(22),
and the measurement was confirmed to have high precision.
The CT images reveal that oxygen diffusion paths (pores in the
GDL) are formed with increasing oxygen diffusivity. The CT
images imply that initial pores were formed irregularly in the
carbon paper GDL. Moreover, the pores spread from the initial
pores to the entire GDL area as more pores were formed.
Figure 5 shows both X-ray CT images and the oxygen diffusivity
as a function of the average water saturation for a hybrid GDL
with 21 wt% PTFE striped hydrophobic region (gray area in the
schematic diagram at top-left of figure 5). The oxygen diffusivity
in both the carbon paper GDL and the stripe hybrid GDL increase
with the decrease of saturation from 100%. This is because the
oxygen diffusion paths increase due to the increase of pores in
the GDLs. A difference in the oxygen diffusivity of these GDLs
is observed when the average water saturation is 50% or less. The
hybrid GDL with non-uniform wettability distribution exhibits
high oxygen diffusion characteristic; at an average water
saturation of about 20%, the oxygen diffusivity is about 2 to 3
times higher than that in the carbon paper GDL.
The CT images in figure 5 show that the formation of pores
corresponds to the variation of oxygen diffusivity. Firstly, pores
in the GDL are formed near the hydrophobic region and the
wettability boundary. The pores spread to the untreated region
that was not hydrophobized (hydrophilic region) after the
formation of the initial pores. The oxygen diffusivity increases
with the formation of these pores, because the hydrophilic region
draws liquid water from the hydrophobic region, as previously
1 mm 1 mm
-6
[10 ] 8
Carbon Paper GDL
Carbon Paper GDL (SPring-8)
6
Oxygen diffusivity [m 2/s]
Carbon Paper GDL (TGP-H-120)
4 Thickness 370 m
Porosity 0.78
0
0 20 40 60
Saturation S [%]
Fig. 4. Relationship between oxygen diffusivity as function of average saturation in carbon paper GDL
(uniform) and the CT images.
movement from the hydrophobic region to the hydrophilic region,
and that the oxygen diffusion paths are formed in the entire
reported(22). Therefore, it is suspected that pores are formed at the
wettability boundary and the hydrophobic region by liquid water
region in the thickness direction of the GDL; the formation of
this oxygen diffusion paths improved oxygen diffusion.
Figures 6 and 7 show cross-sectional CT images of the carbon
paper GDL with uniform wettability and a hybrid GDL with a
non-uniform wettability distribution (20 wt% stripe hybrid GDL),
respectively.
Figures 6(a)-(f) and figures 7(a)-(e) show the variation of liquid
water distribution as the average saturation changes. For the
carbon paper GDL, the oxygen diffusion paths increase gradually
by the evaporation of liquid water from an end face. In the case
of the hybrid GDL, the liquid water distribution is local. Figure
7(b) and (c) indicate that liquid water is present in the hydrophilic
region and that oxygen diffusion paths are formed at the
hydrophobic region in the thickness direction. It is considered
that the hybrid GDL has much higher oxygen diffusivity than the
carbon paper GDL with uniform wettability distribution, due to
the formation of oxygen diffusion paths which was formed in the
entire region in the thickness direction.
Effect of PTFE content
Figure 8 shows the oxygen diffusivities for GDLs (Tables 2, 3
and the previously reported results(17)) with various PTFE content
(0-32 wt%). The hybrid GDLs were classified into 4 categories
according to the PTFE content: approximately 5 (4, 5wt.%), 10
(8, 9, 11, 13wt.%), 20 (17, 20, 21wt.%), and 30wt% (32wt%),
and these categories correspond to the key legend of figure 8.
1 mm 1 mm
1 mm
80 100
1mm
 1 mm 1 mm 1 mm

[10-6] 8

7 Carbon Paper GDL (uniform)

Stripe Hybrid GDL
6
Oxygen diffusivity [m /s]
2

5 Carbon Paper GDL Stripe Hybrid GDL 1 mm

Porosity 0.78 0.73
4 PTFE content [wt%] 0 20

0 20 40 60 80 100
1 mm
Saturation S [%]

Fig. 5. Relationship between oxygen diffusivity as function of average saturation in a hybrid GDL with
non-uniform wettability distribution and the CT images.

Hydrophilic region Hydrophilic region

Hydrophobic region
(a) S=95%
(a) S=99%
(b) S=79%
(b) S=80%
(c) S=44%
(c) S=50%
(d) S=28%
(d) S=20%
(e) S=4%
1 mm (e) S=0%
(f) S=0% 1 mm

Fig. 6. Cross-sectional images of the carbon paper Fig. 7. Cross-sectional images of a hybrid GDL with a non-
GDL (uniform). uniform wettability distribution.

In addition, the average saturation at the time of only the
oxygen diffusivity measurement is calculated on the basis
of the GDL weight.
The oxygen diffusivity in the each GDL increased when
the degree of saturation decreased from 100%, because as
the number of pores in GDL increases with decreasing
average saturation, the oxygen diffusion paths increase. A
difference in the oxygen diffusivity is observed when the
average water saturation is 60% or less. The oxygen
diffusion in the hybrid GDL is higher than that in the
carbon paper GDL. In addition, the carbon paper GDL,
which uniformly-hydrophobized with PTFE, has enhanced
oxygen diffusion and has similar tendencies as the hybrid
GDL when the average saturation is at 25% or less.
However, the hybrid GDL has higher oxygen diffusion
than the uniformly-hydrophobized GDL at high saturation.
This is because the liquid water does not move from the
hydrophobic region to the hydrophilic region in the
uniformly-hydrophobized GDL at high saturation.
Moreover, at low saturation, the uniformly-hydrophobized
 -6
[10 ]
8 Carbon Paper GDL
PTFE content [wt%] PTFE content [wt%]

0 7
20

Oxygen diffusivity [m 2/s] 6 Hybrid GDL

Dot Hybrid Stripe Hybrid
5 5
10 10
20 20
4
30 30

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Saturation S [%]
Fig. 8. Variation of effective oxygen diffusivity against average saturation for GDLs.

Changes in the oxygen diffusion characteristics and

GDL has comparatively high oxygen diffusivity. The
hydrophobic inhomogeneity in the GDL, although the
uniformly-hydrophobized GDL has a uniform wettability
distribution by PTFE coating; It is considered that
relatively lower percentage PTFE left in the inner region
of the GDL after the treatment.. Thus, the wettability
distribution in the uniformly-hydrophobized GDL was
similar to that for the hybrid GDL. Comparison of the
oxygen diffusivity in the hybrid GDLs with various PTFE
content reveals differences. For example, when the
average water saturation is approximately 30%, the hybrid
GDL with about 10 wt% PTFE has the highest oxygen
diffusivity, and the hybrid GDL with about 5 wt% PTFE
has the second highest oxygen diffusivity. In addition,
when the average water saturation is 0% (dry condition),
the oxygen diffusivity in the hybrid GDLs with various
amounts of PTFE (about 5-10 wt%) are comparable with
that for the carbon paper GDL. However, when the
average water saturation is 0%, the oxygen diffusivity in
the hybrid GDLs of PTFE ranging from approximately 20
to 30 wt% is low, because the pores are filled by PTFE,
which obstructs oxygen diffusion. These results indicate
that the optimal amount of PTFE for a hybrid GDL is from
approximately 5 to 10 wt%. In addition, there was no
significant difference between the oxygen diffusivity of
the striped and dotted hydrophobic region GDLs.
Conclusions
The oxygen diffusivity of hybrid GDLs with non-uniform
wettability distributions were measured with simultaneous
visualization of liquid water in the hybrid GDLs using an
improved galvanic cell type oxygen absorber and X-ray
radiography, respectively. The effects of the hydrophobic region
and PTFE content in the GDLs were examined by oxygen
diffusivity measurements. The results are summarized as follows:
the CT images corresponded well.
Oxygen diffusion paths were formed from near the
boundary between the hydrophilic and hydrophobic
regions, and it was formed in the entire region in the
thickness direction.
A GDL used for PEFCs that had a non-uniform
wettability distribution (hybrid GDL) had enhanced
oxygen diffusion characteristics.
Hybrid GDLs with PTFE content ranging from
approximately 5-10 wt% had the highest oxygen
diffusivities.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
(JSPS), [(B)23360097], and the synchrotron radiation
experiments were performed at the BL20B2 beamline of SPring-
8 as the Priority Research Proposal (priority field: Industrial
Application) with the approval of the Japan Synchrotron
Radiation Research Institute (JASRI) (Proposal Nos. 2011B1819,
2011B1825 and 2012A1632).
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Flow and Heat Transfer of Combined Forced and Natural Convection around
Heated, Horizontal Square Cylinder Placed in Uniform Cross-Flow of Air

Fumiyoshi KIMURA1, Yosuke KURUMA1 and Kenzo KITAMURA2

1
Department of Mechanical and Systems Engineering, University of Hyogo,
2167 Shosha, Himeji, Hyogo 671-2280, Japan
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology,
Tempaku-cho, Toyohashi, Aichi 441-8580, Japan

Abstract T ambient fluid temperature

Experimental investigations have been carried out on the
combined forced and natural convective flow induced around a
heated rectangular cylinder placed in a uniform horizontal flow
of air. Two-dimensional square cylinders of which side length d
= 20 and 30 mm were adopted as a test cylinder, and they are
heated with uniform heat fluxes. The Reynolds and modified
Rayleigh numbers based on the side length ranged as; Red = 50-
1200 and Rad* = 104-7105. The flow fields around the square
cylinder were visualized with fine particles. The following results
were obtained from the flow visualization experiments. Firstly,
when the test cylinder is unheated or slightly heated, the forced
air flow first impinges on the front side of the cylinder, and, then,
separates at the lower and upper edges of the front surface. Due
to the flow separation, the top, bottom and rear surfaces of the
cylinder are covered by separation bubbles. Besides, so-called
Krmn vortices appear behind the cylinder. Secondly, with an
increase of the buoyancy force, the vortex shedding is depressed
and the wake behind the cylinder gradually directs upward. This
makes the flow field asymmetrical with respect to the horizontal
mid-plane of the cylinder. The local Nusselt numbers were also
measured and they showed the following variations with the
buoyancy force. When the buoyancy force is small, the local
Nusselt numbers represent symmetrical distribution for the upper
and lower halves of the cylinder. On the other hand, the numbers
increase monotonously with the buoyancy force, and they show
maxima in the vicinity of the bottom edges of the front and rear
surfaces. This results in asymmetrical distribution of the local
Nusselt numbers with respect to the horizontal mid-plane of the
cylinder. It is also found that the overall Nusselt numbers are
correlated well with the non-dimensional parameter, Grd*/(Nud
Red 2), which represents the ratio of the buoyancy to the inertial
force. Moreover, the regions of forced, natural and combined
convection can be determined with the above parameter.
Nomenclature
g gravitational acceleration
d side length of square cylinder
Grd Grashof numbers (= g(Tw-T) d 3/2),
Grd* modified Grashof Numbers (= gqw d 4/2)
hi local heat transfer coefficients of square cylinder
hd overall heat transfer coefficients of square cylinder
Nu local Nusselt numbers of square cylinder (= hi d/)
Nud overall Nusselt numbers of square cylinder (= hd d/)
Pr Prandtl number
qw surface heat flux
Rad* modified Rayleigh Number (= gqw d 4/())
Red Reynolds number (= u d/)
Tw surface temperature of square cylinder
Twi Local surface temperature of square cylinder
u main velocity of forced convection
thermal conductivity
volume expansion coefficient
emissivity of stainless steel foil heater
thermal conductivity
kinematic viscosity
Introduction
The flows that are affected by both the buoyancy and inertial
forces are referred as mixed or combined convective flows. The
combined convective flows induced around a cylinder are
encountered in a wide variety of industrial equipment and
engineering situations such as cooling of electronics instruments,
heat exchangers, ventilation and air conditioning, and so on.
Therefore, many analytical and experimental studies have been
carried out to investigate their flow and heat transfer
characteristics. However, most of them have treated the
combined convections induced around the heated or cooled
circular cylinders. While, a few studies has been conducted for
the cylinders other than the circular cylinders. In particular, for
the combined convective flows around rectangular cylinders, we
can only cite the experiment by Oosthuizen and Bishop [1] and
the analyses by Turki and colleagues [2] and Dhiman and
colleagues [3].
Oosthuizen and Bishop have measured overall heat transfer
coefficients from the heated horizontal square cylinders using
transient method, i.e. by heating a test cylinder outside the wind
tunnel and then measuring its temperature-time variation while it
cooled when placed in the air-stream in the wind tunnel. Their
test cylinders having side lengths, d, between about 20 and 36mm
were heated isothermally and placed in a uniform upward
(aiding) and downward (opposing) forced convective flow of air.
The experiment has covered the ranges of the Reynolds number,
Red = 50-2000, and the Grashof number, Grd (= g(Tw-T) d 3/ 2),
Grd = 7.9104-4.53105. Although their results will give useful
information on the heat transfer characteristics, no data is
available on the effect of buoyancy force on the flow fields
around the cylinder. Meanwhile, Turki and colleagues [2] and
Dhiman and colleagues [3] have conducted the two-dimensional
numerical analysis on the flow and heat transfer characteristics of
combined convection around an isothermal square cylinder
confined in a horizontal channel of finite height. They have dealt
with the combined convective flows of relatively low Reynolds
and Richardson numbers less than Red = 200 and Ri (= Grd /Red 2)
= 1, respectively. Although they have presented the local and
overall Nusselt numbers under the influence of buoyancy force, it
is uncertain whether their results well predict the actual Nusselt
numbers, because no experimental data has been available at
present.
 Figure 1. Experimental apparatus.
Taking account of the above circumstances, the present authors
have conducted the experimental investigations on the flow and
heat transfer of the combined convection around the heated
horizontal square cylinders. The cross flow case, i.e., a two-
dimensional square cylinder is placed horizontally in a uniform
horizontal flow of forced convection is treated in the experiment.
In order to obtain comprehensive information on the flows
around the square cylinder, we have begun with the visualization
experiments using fine-particles of Magnesium Stearate. We
have, then, carried out the measurements of local heat transfer
coefficients from the heated cylinder using thermocouples.
Moreover, based on these visual and heat transfer data, the
correlations between the flow field and heat transfer from the
square cylinder have been discussed.
Experimental Apparatus and Measurement
A Schematic illustration of the present experimental apparatus is
shown in Figure 1. The apparatus consisted of a low-speed wind
tunnel, a test duct and a test square cylinder. The room air was
first introduced into a settling chamber, then entered the test duct,
and was exhausted into the room by a blower. Two mesh screens
placed in the settling chamber and a contraction nozzle of 7.1:1
contraction ratio realized a uniform cross-flow of small
disturbances at the inlet of the test duct. The test duct has
300300 mm2 cross-sectional area and was 1000 mm long. The
test square cylinder was placed horizontally in the test duct and at
70 mm downstream from the inlet. In order to confirm the
uniformity and the turbulent intensity of the forced flow at this
cross-section, mean and fluctuating velocity were measured with
a hot-wire anemometry. The result showed that the mean velocity
of the forced convection was uniform with 3 % deviation in
the central cross-section 30 mm apart from the duct wall, and the
turbulent intensities of the forced convection was less than 2 % of
the mean velocities.
The test square cylinder was fabricated with an acrylic resin
square pipe 2 mm thick and 300 mm long, and stainless steel foil
heaters 30 m thick. The heaters were glued on the outer surface
of the pipe and were connected in series. A uniform heat flux
condition was realized by applying AC power to the heaters. The
cylinders with different side lengths of d = 20, 30 mm were
utilized in the experiments.
For the measurements of the local heat transfer coefficients,
Chromel-Alumel thermocouples 100 m in diameter were spot-
welded on the back of the heaters along the central periphery of
the square cylinder. These thermocouples measure the local
surface temperatures of the cylinder, Twi. The thermocouples of
the same diameter were placed at the inlet of the duct to measure
the temperature of air, T. Based on the temperature differences
between the cylinder and the main stream, Twi, T, and also on
the convective heat flux, qw, the local heat transfer coefficients, hi,
from the square cylinder were defined and calculated as follows:
qw
hi (1)
(Twi T )
In the present measurements, heat losses due to conduction
through the square pipe and radiation from the surface will exert
serious influences on heat transfer from the cylinder. In order to
reduce the conduction heat loss, a ceramic fiber thermal
insulation was stuffed into the pipe. While the heat loss by
radiation was estimated with the following equation:
qr (Tw T )
4 4
(2)
Where, qr, and stand for the heat flux by radiation, the
emissivity of the heater and Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
respectively. We have adopted = 0.16 as the emissivity of the
stainless steel foil heater. Then, the heat flux by convection, qw,
was calculated by subtracting the above heat fluxes from the
Joule heat flux, qj, deposited on the heaters as:
q w q j qr (3)
The present experiments covered the ranges of Reynolds and
modified Rayleigh numbers as; Red = 50-1200, Rad* = 104-7105.
Thermo-physical properties in those non-dimensional parameters
were estimated at the film temperature, Tf = (Tw+T) /2, while the
volume expiation coefficient, , of the air was estimated at the
ambient temperature as; = 1/T.
Results and Discussion
Visualization of Flow around Square Cylinder
In order to obtain comprehensive information on the flow fields
around horizontal square cylinder, we first carried out the
visualization of flow using fine-particles of magnesium stearate
as a tracer. Figure 2 shows representative results for the square
 20
2
A D q =45[W/m ]
w
2
q =89[W/m ]
15 w
2
B C q =178[W/m ]
w

Nu
2
q =266[W/m ]
w

10

5
2
(a) qw = 0 W/m

0
A B C D A
(a) u = 50.6 cm/s

20
2
A D q =20[W/m ]
w
2
q =41[W/m ]
15 w
2
B C q =84[W/m ]
w
Nu
2
q =168[W/m ]
w

(b) qw = 20 W/m2 10

0
A B C D A
(b) u = 8.4 cm/s

20
2
A D q =20[W/m ]
(c) qw = 84 W/m2 w
2
q =40[W/m ]
15 w
2
B C q =82[W/m ]
w
Nu

2
q =165[W/m ]
w

10

(d) qw = 168 W/m2
Figure 2. Visualized flow fields (d = 30 mm, u = 8.4 cm/s).
cylinder of d = 30 mm, where the velocity of air was fixed at u =
8.4 cm/s. These photos were taken from the side with the
exposure time of 1/4 sec. A metal halide light sheet was used to
illuminates the movement of the particles in the plane parallel to
the flow direction. The mainstream flows from left to right in
those pictures. Figure 2(a) shows the flow field around the non-
heated cylinder. The forced air flow first impinges on the front
surface of the square cylinder, and, then, separates from the upper
and lower edges of the cylinder. Due to the flow separation, the
0
A B C D A
(c) u = 0 cm/s (pure natural convection)
Figure 3. Local Nusselt numbers (d = 30 mm).
top, bottom and rear surfaces of the cylinder are covered by a
separation bubble. Moreover, so-called Krmn vortices appear
in the wake region behind the cylinder. We have observed that
the vortices are shed alternately from the upper and lower edges
with almost regular time intervals. Although the vortices
gradually lose regularity with increasing the velocity of forced
flow, the flow field remains almost symmetrical with respect to
the horizontal mid-plane of the cylinder. On the other hand, the
 2 2
10
d=20mm
d=30mm
d
Nud
Nu
1 1
10
Nuf = 0.31Red1/2
0 0
10
2 3
10 10
Re
d
Figure 4. Overall Nusselt numbers.
above vortex shedding is gradually depressed with increasing the
heat flux. Besides, the wake behind the cylinder directs upward
as shown in Figures 2(c) and 2(d). This results in the asymmetric
flow field around the cylinder. Moreover, careful observation of
these figures depicts that the approaching flow in the vicinity of
the front surface is symmetrical with respect to the horizontal
centerline of the cylinder when the cylinder is unheated. On the
other hand, the approaching flow direction gradually shifts from
horizontal to downward with increasing the heat flux as shown in
Figures 2(b) to 2(d). Although it is obscure from the figures, we
have observed that the above approaching flow turns upward, and
ascends in the vicinity of the front surface when the heat flux is
large enough. We have found that the above ascending flow
occurs when the non-dimensional parameter Grd*/(Nud Red 2)
exceeds 15, Furthermore, it is obvious from Figure 2 that the
separation bubble over the bottom surface becomes larger than
that over the top surface with increasing the heat flux, and that
the flow separated from the upper edge of the front face
reattaches the top surface with increasing heat flux.
Heat Transfer Characteristics of Square Cylinder
Referring to the above results, we subsequently carried out the
quantitative measurement of the local heat transfer coefficients
from the square cylinders using thermocouples. The
measurements have covered a wide range of Reynolds and
modified Rayleigh Numbers that realize the forced, combined
and natural convective flow. Figure 3 shows the representative
results for the cylinder of d = 30 mm, where the velocities of the
main air flow were varied as u = 50.6 cm/s, u = 8.4 cm/s and
u = 0 cm/s. Notation A, B, C and D in the abscissa stands for the
edge of the square cylinder as shown in the figure.
We will first discuss the result for u = 50.6 cm/s shown in
Figure 3(a). One will see that the local Nusselt numbers show
almost identical distribution throughout the present heat flux
conditions. The result implies that the heat transfer by forced
convection is dominant. The local Nusselt numbers show maxima
at the front surface and minima at the bottom and top surfaces,
while those at the rear surface show constant and intermediate
values between the above two. The maximum numbers at the
front surface are attributed to the impingement of the forced main
flow, while the minimum numbers at the top and bottom surfaces
are due to the stagnant flows in the separation bubbles that cover
the top and bottom surfaces. Besides, the numbers from top and
bottom surfaces coincide with each other, representing that the
Nusselt number distribution is symmetrical to the horizontal mid-
plane of the cylinder.
10
d=20mm
d=30mm
Nun=0.46Rad* 1/5
10
10
4 5 6
10 10 10
Rad*
Figure 5. Overall Nusselt numbers of pure natural convection.
We will next mention the result for u = 0 cm/s shown in Figure
3(c), representing the local Nusselt numbers of natural
convection. The figure shows that the numbers increase
monotonously with the heat flux throughout the whole surfaces
of the cylinder. The numbers show maxima at the bottom edges,
B and C, of the front and rear surfaces, and decrease toward the
upper edges, A and D. This is attributable to the development of
natural convection boundary layers adjacent to the vertical heated
surfaces. The numbers, then, show minima at the top surface. As
a whole, the Nusselt number profile shows symmetry against the
vertical mid-plane of the cylinder.
Meanwhile, Figure 3(b) demonstrates the result for u = 8.4 cm/s.
The local Nusselt numbers from the whole surface of the cylinder
gradually increase with the surface heat flux. In particular, when
the surface heat flux is increased as qw = 168 W/m2, the local
Nusselt numbers show almost identical distribution as those for
the natural convection. Besides, the minimum point in the front
surface shifts to the upper edge of the cylinder with increasing
surface heat flux. This is due to the development of buoyancy
induced flow along the heated surface. As a result, the local
Nusselt numbers show asymmetrical distribution with respect to
the horizontal mid-plane of the cylinder.
We have measured the local Nusselt numbers by varying the
forced flow velocity u, heat flux qw and the size of the cylinder
d systematically. Based on these data, we subsequently calculated
the overall Nusselt numbers of the square cylinder. The results
are presented in Figure 4, where the overall Nusselt numbers, Nud
(= hd d/), are plotted with the Reynolds numbers, Red (= u d/).
Although not shown in the figure, the plots contain the data for
different heat fluxes and, in general, they show higher Nusselt
numbers with the heat flux. The figure depicts that the overall
Nusselt numbers for higher Reynolds numbers gather around the
solid-line in the figure. The solid-line is considered to represent
the heat transfer correlation for the forced convection, so that we
have tried to obtain the correlation. The result showed that the
line is expressed well with the following equation.
1/ 2
Nu f 0.31 Re d (4)
On the other hand, the Nusselt numbers for smaller Reynolds
numbers scatter and show higher values than those of the solid-
line. We already know that the above increase in the overall
Nusselt numbers is due to buoyancy.
We have next calculated the overall Nusselt numbers for the
natural convection and they are plotted with the Rayleigh
 10
Grd*/(Nu d Red2 ) = 0.08
Nud / Nun
1 1
d [mm]
Forced
Convection
0.1
0.01 0.1
Figure 6. Non-dimensional correlation of overall Nusselt numbers.
numbers, Rad* (= gqw d 4/()) as is shown in Figure 5. The
overall Nusselt numbers show the linear variation against the
Rayleigh numbers as is presented with the solid-line in the figure.
We found that the following equation well describes the present
Nusselt numbers.
1/ 2
Nun 0.46 Rad
Moreover, the above Equation (5) coincide fairly well with the
following analytical correlation proposed by Chen and colleagues
[4], who have conducted the two-dimensional analysis on the
laminar natural convection around the square cylinder using a
finite difference method.
1/ 2
Nun 0.457 Rad
The results, in turn, indicate that the present measurements have
been carried out quite satisfactory.
Classification of Forced, Combined, and Natural Convection
Based on the above heat transfer data, we have next tried to
correlate the overall Nusselt numbers using various non-
dimensional parameters. Among these parameters, we found that
the parameter, Grd*/(Nud Red 2), well correlates the present overall
Nusselt numbers. The results are represented in Figure 6. In this
figure, the overall Nusselt numbers of the square cylinders, Nud,
are normalized with those for the pure forced and pure natural
convection, Nuf and Nun, respectively, and, then, the ratios, (Nud
/Nuf) and (Nud /Nun) are plotted in term of the parameter
Grd*/(Nud Red 2). The parameters (Nud /Nuf) and (Nud /Nun) stands
for the relative increase or decrease in Nusselt numbers compared
to those of the pure forced and pure natural convection under the
same Reynolds or modified Rayleigh number, respectively. Here,
the numbers Nuf and Nun were calculated from Equations (4) and
(5). As is obvious from Figure 6, the whole plots for the both
cylinders of d = 20 mm and 30 mm gather around the single
curves. The overall Nusselt numbers coincide with those of the
10
Grd*/(Nu d Red2 ) = 15
Nud / Nuf
Nu d / Nu n Nud / Nu f
20
30
Combined Natural
Convection Convection
0.1
1 10 100
Grd*/(Nud Red2 )
pure forced and natural convections when the non-dimensional
parameter Grd*/(Nud Red 2) is less than 0.08 and is larger than 15,
respectively. Therefore, Grd*/(NudRed2) = 0.08 and 15 are
considered to give the thresholds for the pure forced and natural
convection, respectively. Meanwhile, in the intermediate region,
0.08 < Grd*/(Nud Red 2) < 15, the overall Nusselt numbers show
deviations from those for the forced and natural convections.
(5) Therefore, the region can be referred as the combined convective
region. The results will afford useful information on the heat
transfer by the combined convection induced around heated
square cylinders.
Conclusions
The fluid flow and heat transfer of combined forced and natural
convection around heated horizontal square cylinder placed in
(6) uniform cross flow of air were investigated experimentally. A
test square cylinder was heated with constant heat fluxes and was
placed in a uniform cross-flow of air. The Reynolds and
modified Rayleigh numbers are ranged as; Red = 50-1200 and
Rad* = 104-7105. The experiments have begun with the
visualizations of the flow fields around the square cylinder. The
following results were obtained from the flow visualization
experiments.
(1) When the test cylinder is unheated or slightly heated, the
forced air flow first impinges on the front side of the cylinder,
and, then, separates both at the lower and upper edges of the front
surface. Due to the flow separation, the top, bottom and rear
surfaces of the cylinder are covered by separation bubbles, then,
so-called Krmn vortices appear behind the cylinder. Although
the vortices change to irregular with the Reynolds numbers,
almost symmetrical flow field with respect to the horizontal mid-
plane are realized around the cylinder.
(2) The above mentioned vortex shedding is depressed with an
increase of the buoyancy force, and the wake behind the cylinder
directs upward. Thus, the flow field around the cylinder becomes
asymmetrical.
In light of the above results on the flow visualization, we have
subsequently carried out the quantitative measurements of the
local heat transfer coefficients from the cylinders, and have
obtained the following results.
(3) When the buoyancy force is small, the local Nusselt numbers
show symmetrical profile between the upper and lower halves of
the cylinder. On the other hand, the local Nusselt numbers from
the whole surfaces of the cylinder increase monotonously with
the buoyancy force, and, in particular, they show maxima in the
vicinity of the bottom edges of the front and rear surfaces. As a
whole, the overall Nusselt numbers become higher than those of
the forced convection. Besides, the local Nusselt numbers show
asymmetrical distributions with respect to the horizontal mid-
plane of the cylinder.
(4) Based on these heat transfer data, we have tried to correlate
the overall Nusselt numbers using various non-dimensional
parameters. Among these parameters, we found that the
parameter, Grd*/(Nud Red 2), well correlate the present overall
Nusselt numbers.
(5) The overall Nusselt numbers coincide with those for the
forced and natural convections when the parameter Grd*/(Nud
Red2) is less than 0.08 and larger than 15, respectively. While, in
the intermediate region, 0.08 < Grd*/(Nud Red 2) < 15, the overall
Nusselt numbers show deviations from those for the forced and
natural convections. Thus, the region can be referred to the
combined convective region.
References
[1] Oosthuizen, P. H. and Bishop, M., An experimental study
of mixed convective heat transfer from square cylinders
Proceedings of AIAA 22nd Thermophysics Conference, 1987,
1-8.
[2] Turki, S., Abbassi, H. and Nasrallh, S. B., Two-
Dimensional Laminar Flow and Heat Transfer in a Channnel
with a Built-in Square Cylinder, International Journal of
Thermal Sciences, Vol. 42, 2003, 1105-1113.
[3] Dhiman, A. K., Chhabra, R. P. and Eswaran, V., Steady
Mixed Convection across a Confined Square Cylinder,
International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer,
Vol. 35, 2008, 47-55.
[4] Chang, K. S., Coi, C. J. and Cho, C. H., Laminar Natural
Convection Heat Transfer from Sharp-Edged Horizontal
Bars with Flow Separation, International Journal of Heat
and Mass Transfer,Vol.31,1988, 1177-1187.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Flip-Flop Flows
inside Streamwise Diverging Diamond-Shaped Cylinder Bundles
S. Umeda1 and S. Torii2
1
Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering,
Fukuyama University, Fukuyama, 729-0292, Japan
2
Department of Mechanical System Engineering,
Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, 860-8555, Japan
Abstract
The aim of the present study is to develop the fundamental study
on the control of the self-excited oscillations in diamond-shaped
cylinder bundles. The PIV method is employed for the flow
visualization in the horizontal cross section of the exit jet-stream
flow field exiting from diamond-shaped cylinder bundles.
Comparison is carried out between the measured results in the
absence and presence of the concavities constructed on both
sidewalls inside the diamond-shaped cylinder bundle. It is
found from the study that (i) velocity vectors are mutually spread
on left or right direction at the angle of 30o, that is the diverging
angle of the jet-stream from the bundle becomes 60o, (ii) the
mean absolute values of the jet-stream velocity-variation rate,
|dV/dy|, at the cross-section of the channel is increased for each
bundle, and (iii) a substantial enhancement of |dV/dy| takes place
at Type D60c for the streamiwise diverging diamond-shaped
bundle.
Introduction
In various industrial devices such as fluid machinery and
combustion equipment, the efficiency of mechanical performance
may be enhanced by promoting jet-stream diffusion. Both
active and passive means are constructed for the control of such
jet streams. The corresponding numerous research works were
presented. For example, Zaman et al. [1] applied vortex
generators for controlling an axis-symmetrical method of
generations and Yokota [2] developed various generation devices
by means of self-sustaining oscillations. In the decade of
1990s, the authors also studied the cross-sectional view of a
flow network with a single intersection and a flow system
consisting of mutually intersecting flow passages inside a plate or
an assembly of plates. The fundamental study on a flip-flop
flow of a single jet stream was reported. In particular, Umeda
and Yang [3] and Umeda et al. [4] discovered self-excited
multiple jet-stream groups from diamond-shaped cylinder
bundles. It was disclosed that these flow fields construct
multiple jet streams of equal flow rates at the exit which are
symmetrical with the central longitudinal line as the axis. When
a flip-flop flow is generated from a diamond-shaped cylinder
bundle, the von Karman vortices which are generated in both
left- and right- rear-flow regions behind the cylinders undergo
fluctuations. Furthermore, Umeda et al. [5] studied flip-flop
flow oscillation from a diamond-shaped cylinder bundle with
wall concavity. They disclosed that the presence of wall
concavity results in a remarkable change in the jet-stream from
the diamond-shaped cylinder bundle in higher turbulence levels
and dispersion of individual jet-streams with respect to those
without concavities .
In industrial applications of the exit oscillation jet streams, the
diamond-shaped cylinder bundles provide an exit jet stream flow
field with multiple equal flow-rate jet-stream group having self-
excited oscillations and can be applied to fluids engineering
machinery for mixing, stirring, diffusion, heat transfer and
cleaning operations. It should be noticed that the corresponding
flow fields and various devices require the improvement of
further functions as advanced devices. That is, (i) although flip-
flop flow is observed in the exit jet streams from the flow
passages, its direction indicated oscillations is within 30 degree
whose wideness is somewhat narrow and (ii) a diamond-shaped
cylinder bundle which consists of multiple rows of diamond-
shaped cylinders with 30-degree apex angle in staggered
arrangement, amplifies the pressure drop in the channel. In
order to develop the application device, furthermore development
and pressure characteristics in the channel may be requested.
The flip-flop flow induced from the diamond-shaped cylinder
bundles is observed in multiple rows of diamond-shaped
cylinders with about 60-degree apex angle in staggered
arrangement [6]. The presence of the flip-flop flow behavior
appears inside the flow passage at the fourth row in the bundle.
In other words, there is no effect of diamond-shaped cylinders
over the fifth row in the bundle on the presence of flip-flop flow
[7].
In addition to the specific characteristics of a continuous
intersecting flow of the converging and diverging flow of the
main stream, the present study is performed on the flow
characteristics around diamond-shaped cylinder bundle revised
with concavities on both bundle walls. Here, the revised
channel with a diamond-shaped cylinder bundle is consisted of
the fourth row bundles having an apex angle of 30o, diamond-
shaped cylinders with an increase in 10o interval apex in the
downstream direction, and eighth row bundle of diamond-shaped
cylinders with having an apex angle of 60o. In order to
determine whether or not self-excited oscillations induced by the
intersecting of the main stream have a remarked changes due to
the presence of the concavities.
Experimental apparatus and experimental method
Five different diamond-shaped cylinder bundles are employed.
As an example, an upper view of a diamond-shaped cylinder
bundle in the presence of concavities on both bundle walls is
illustrated in Fig. 1. The corresponding channel constructed
with multiple rows of diamond-shaped cylinders is consisted of
circular concavities on both channel walls at the fourth row in the
bundle and similar circular concavity on an upper channel wall
between twin diamond-shaped cylinders at the fifth row in the
bundle. This channel type is referred to as 'Type D60cu'.
Different diamond-shaped cylinder bundles with concavities are
summarized in Fig. 2. Here, left upper part in the column is
'Type name' and an apex angle of 30o is named as 'D30'. Note
that the revised channel in the presence of a diamond-shaped
cylinder bundle with the fourth row bundles having an apex angle D30n 6 rows
Type name Rows 18.7
of 30o and eighth row bundle of diamond-shaped cylinders
having an apex angle of 60o is indicated as 'D60'. In order to Columns:7 Flow
distinguish the channel, the channel without concavities on both

30
4 th row

5
bundle walls, with concavities and with circular concavity on an
upper channel wall corresponds to a subscripted name as 'n', 'c', Configuration Without concavity
and 'cu', respectively. The diamond-shaped cylinder bundles
consist of multiple rows of diamond-shaped cylinders in the flow D30c 18.7 6 rows D60n 18.7 8 rows
direction and seven columns in the lateral direction. The
number of rows is different by 'Type' and its number is indicated Flow Flow

30
in the upper right of the column. The shape for 'Type' is

30
4 th row

5
4 th row

5
illustrated in the center part of the column and the absence and
presence of concavity are shown as 'Without concavity' and
Concavity Without concavity
'Concavity', respectively.
As for five different diamond-shaped cylinder bundles, since the
D60c 8 rows D60cu 8 rows
16.2
substantial narrow flow cross-section easily causes the flip-flop
Flow 5
flow, the square duct shape in which the channel height d, short

30

30
4 th row

40
5
axis width of diamond-shaped cylinder and narrow flow cross-
section width is the same as 5mm, is employed. 8 9.3
5 th row Flow

5
Concavity 18.7 9.3
In case of using air as the test fluid, a rectified-flow passage is
needed upstream of the diamond-shaped cylinder bundle to
generate flip-flop flow. Therefore, a flow-calming section is Fig. 2 Kinds of configurations around a right side wall
installed to supply air from a blower, as illustrated in Fig. 3. at 4th or 5th row in diamond-shaped cylinder bundles
The coordinate system of the flow measurement is superimposed
in Fig.3. The co-ordinate system is provided identifying the
location in the measuring region, as shown in Fig. 3. The origin Cylinder y
of the co-ordinate system is set at the center of the exit from the
diamond-shaped cylinder bundle, measuring the flow direction bundle
Calming duct
by the x-axis, the lateral direction by the y-axis, and the vertical
300

70
direction by the z-axis. Blower
Flow x
Position of a hole for piezometer 117
4 1,000 mm ~128
18.66
(a) Top view
5

z
5
5

x
60
60

60

.
30

90mm
50

60

(b) Side view

40

50

Flow Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of the experimental setup

30

40
5

4 Results and discussion

127.5mm
Fig. 1 Top view in a diamond-shaped cylinder
bundle (Type D60cu)
For visualizing air jet streams, PIV method (LaVision Co.) is
employed in the measurement region, i.e., the horizontal area of
x=10~100mm and z=0mm. Here, the horizontal direction
corresponds to the width of the flip-flop flow, that is Type D30n
and D30c is y = +/- 20 and the others are y = +/- 30. In case of
supplying air from a blower, a smoke generator is installed at the
suction port to simultaneously supply a tracer for the PIV.
Results of the PIV measurements are recorded using a CCD
camera with the sampling frequency of 15 Hz, the pulse interval
of 25 s, and the pixel number of 1340 by 1040. Vector images
of 500 frames in which a vector is estimated by 32x32pixel, are
obtained.
Figure 4 illustrates the pressure loss coefficient, Cp, versus the
Reynolds number, Re, for different five channels with diamond-
shaped cylinder bundles. Here Cp is defined as:
Cp = (Hu Pd/g)/(U2/2g) (1)
It is observed that the pressure loss coefficient is lineally
decreased with an increase in the Reynolds number. Notice that
the Cp for Type D30c, at Re fixed, is lower than that for the other
Types. This is because the pressure loss coefficient is affected
by the shape and size of the concavities on channel walls. In
contrast, higher pressure loss coefficient occurs for Type D60cu
because of the increase in the number of concavities. Similar
value shows for D60c in the low Reynolds number region, while
Cp agrees with that for D30c in the high Reynolds number region.
It is found that the pressure loss in the channel is affected by the D30n and Re=7,900. The similar velocity vectors are depicted
shape and size of the concavities and the Reynolds number. in Figs. 5.2 (a) and (b) in the case of Type D60cu and Re=7,300.
For reference, the gradient, i.e., 15o and 30o at y=0 are
The jet-stream velocity fields in the vicinity of the channel exit superimposed in each figure. As mentioned previously,
were measured with the aid of the PIV method. Among the oscillations of flip-flop flow and jet stream dispersion in both the
results obtained for the velocity, the instant velocity vectors at left and right directions are different for Type D30n and Type
two different times are illustrated in Figs. 5.1 (a) and (b) for Type D60cu. In other words, enhancement of jet stream dispersion is
caused for Type D60cu than Type D30n and its dispersion angle
3.0 is 60o, as seen in Fig. 5.2.
Average iso-velocity distributions on the horizontal cross section,
for the without and with -wall-concavity cases, i.e., Type D30n
and Type D60cu, are plotted in Figs. 6.1(a) and 6.2(a),
respectively. Here, the average velocity is obtained based on
the instant velocity image data in the PIV measurements. In
regard to the mean flow velocity in the lateral direction V, iso-
dV/dy distribution is presented in Figs. 6.1(b) and 6.2(b). For
both with- and without-wall concavity, the generation of flip-flop
flow causes the flow to be nearly symmetrical with respect to the
central longitudinal line of the exit jet-stream flow field. For
Type D30n D30c D60n D60c D60u the without wall-concavity case, i.e., for Type D30n, both the
Symbol flow velocity difference and the dV/dy magnitude diminish in the
2.0 left as well as the right direction. On the contrary, for the with-
wall-concavity case (Type D60cu), the flow velocity increases in
4000 6000 8000 10000 both the left and right directions, and a flow characterized by a
Re large velocity gradient is induced. Furthermore, the
corresponding area is extended to x=40mm in comparison with
Fig. 4 Change of Cp versus Re that for Type D30n.

y y
10 m/s 10 m/s
20 20
mm mm

15o
15o 0 0

x x
-20 -20
10 55 100 mm 10 55 100 mm

(a) Time t=t1 (b) Time t=t2

Fig. 5.1 Vector distributions of jet streams at an instant time for Type D30n (Remax=7,900

y y
10 m/s 10 m/s
30 30
mm mm

30o
0 0
30o

x x
-30 -30
10 100 mm 10 55 100 mm
55
(a) Time t=t1 (b) Time t=t2

Fig. 5.2 Vector distributions of jet streams at an instant time for Type D60cu (Remax=7,300
 y y
4. 0
0

0.0
20 5. 0
mm
14.0
6.0
20 -5
mm 0.0

.0
.0

12
14
0.0 0.0

9.0
13.0 7.0

.0
0 0.0
11 0 50.0
8. 0

10
.0
0. 0
0. 0
x 0.0 x
-20 -20
10 55 100 mm 10 55 100 mm
(a) Iso-velocity distribution (b) Iso-dV/dy distribution
Fig. 6.1 Iso-velocity and iso-dV/dy distributions of jet streams for Type D30n (Remax=7,900)
y y
30 30
mm mm
50.0
0.

50.0
11

.0 50
250 .
8.0

0
5.8

50.0
.0

0. 0
12

20
0 0
11.0 9.0 7.0

0.0
10
200

.0
50
.0 50.0
.0
250. 100 50.
0
x 0
-30 x
-30
10 55 100 mm 10 55 100 mm
(a) Iso-velocity distribution (b) Iso-dV/dy distribution
Fig. 6.2 Iso-velocity and iso-dV/dy distributions of jet streams for Type D60cu (Remax=7,300)

Next task is to study the mean absolute values of the jet-stream

velocity-variation rate, |dV/dy|, for different channels with the
diamond-shaped cylinder bundle. The corresponding results are
depicted in Fig. 7 in the form of |dV/dy| versus Remax for five
different types. Here, Remax is obtained using the maximum
time-averaged velocity at the exit of channel, which is measured
with the aid of Climomaster Anemometer (KANOMAX Co.).
One observes that the magnitude of |dV/dy| is increased for each
bundle and a substantial enhancement of |dV/dy| takes place at
Type D60cu for the streamiwise diverging diamond-shaped
bundle. In contrast, |dV/dy| becomes lower for Type D30n and
Type D30c, in which both results show only slight behavior with
an increase in Reynolds number. Note that as the Reynolds
number is increased, |dV/dy| value, for Type D60n, Type D60c
and Type D60cu, approaches the similar value and amplifies
approximately twice higher than in the absence of the wall
concavity.
It is found from the present study that the diffusion phenomenon
in the jet-stream is quantitatively disclosed by different bundle
shapes. When the flip-flop flows is applied to the industrial
area, PIV measurement discloses that the provision of the wall
concavity produces a large flow change in the effluent flow field
Fig. 7 Change of |dV/dy| versus Remax
from diamond-shaped cylinder bundles and an enhancement in
both the turbulence and dispersion of individual jet streams.
This trend becomes larger by the shape and size of the
concavities and the Reynolds number. In summary, the Conclusions
visualization studies of water and air jet streams have disclosed
that the presence of the wall concavity has resulted in a large Using water and air as the test fluids, various
change in the flow in the efflux jet-stream field from the visualization/measurement experiments have been performed to
diamond-shaped cylinder bundle and large turbulence and determine changes in flow inside and effluent from diamond-
dispersion of individual jet streams. shaped cylinder bundles with and without wall concavity.
Results have been summarized here:
(1) Pressure loss characteristics are disclosed for Type D30 and
Type D60 with and without wall concavity.
(2) In the efflux jet streaklines, flip-flop flow oscillations occur
with the appearance of large dispersion of the left- and right-ward
air and water jet streams. Irrespective of with or without the
wall concavity, flow in the horizontal efflux jet-stream field is
almost symmetrical with respect to the central longitudinal line
as the axis.
(3) Suction effect is induced by the rotation of the vortex in the
concavities constructed on both sidewalls inside the diamond-
shaped cylinder bundle. Consequently, flip-flop flow oscillations
is enhanced and its dispersion angle 60o for Type D60.
(4) As for the mean absolute values of the jet-stream velocity-
variation rate, the corresponding behavior is affected by
Reynolds number and channel flow, i.e., Type D30 and Type
D60.

In addition to the applications of these results to fluids-

engineering equipment related to mixing, stirring, and washing
such as pollutant dispersion, more efficient machinery can be
developed.

Acknowledgment
The work was partially supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
Research (No. 22560180) from the Japan Society for Promotion
of Science for which the authors wish to express their sincere
gratitude.

References
[1]. Zaman, K. B. M. Q., Reeder, M. F., and Samimy, M.,
Control of an axisymmetric jet using vortex generators, Phys.
Fluids, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 778796, 1994.
[2]. Yokota, K. (Nagoya Institute of Technology), Patent no.
2008-207119, 2008.
[3]. Umeda, S. and Yang, W.-J., Diagnosis of Intersecting Flow
on Visualization of Flow Networks-, Kyoritsu Publishing Co. Ltd.,
p. 42-170, 2007.
[4]. Umeda, S., Hasegawa, S. and Yang, W.-J., Occurrence of
flip-flop flows in diamond-shaped cylinder bundles, J. Environ.
Eng., vol. 2, no.1, pp. 112, 2007.
[5]. Umeda, S., Iijima, K., Shinmura, K. and Yang, W.-J., Effect
of Wall Concavity on Oscilations of Jet Streams from Diamond-
Shaped Cylinder Bundle, J. Flow Visualization and Image
Processing, vol. 18, pp. 165-183, 2011.
[6]. Umeda, S., Patent no. 2841173, 1998.
[7]. Umeda, S., Characteristics of intersecting flows in multiple
diamond-shaped islands, J. Flow Visualization and Image
Processing, vol. 8, pp. 165176, 2001.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Optimal Design of Thermal Management System in a LED Package
M.W. Jeong1, Y. Jang2, J. Heo2, H. Kang2 and Y. Kim2
1
Graduate school of Mechanical Engineering
Korea University, Seoul 136-713, Korea
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Korea University, Seoul 136-713, Korea
Abstract
LEDs (Light emitting diodes) are a powerful light source because
of high energy efficiency, long life, and eco-friendliness. Most of
the electricity in a LED becomes heat rather than light. If this
heat is not removed, the LEDs run at a high temperature, which
not only lowers their efficiency, but also makes the LED less
reliable. Therefore, the thermal characteristic of the LED package
should be carefully considered in the design process because the
heat generated from junction degrades reliability and efficiency
of the LEDs. In this study, the effect of heat spreading was
studied with the variation of geometrical design parameter using
a commercial CFD (computational fluid dynamics) program. An
effect of the thermal modeling of the LED model was evaluated
with the variation of the thickness of a board. In addition, thermal
characteristics were studied for the composition of a material
layer of a board. In thermal design, the variation of thermal
performance with the variation of the thickness had different
tendencies between in thermal modeling with TIM and without
TIM. The reasonable tendency was observed in the thermal
model with TIM because the effect of heat spreading was
included. The effect of heat spreading was varied by the
composition of layers in the board.
Nomenclature
k thermal conductivity [W/mK]
Q heat transfer rate [W]
R thermal resistance [K/W]
T temperature [oC]
t thickness [-]
angle of heat spreading through material [o]
Subscripts
a air
avg average
b board
D.A. die attach
H high
j junction
L low
s spreading
z z-direction
Introduction
LEDs draw strong attention as a next generation light source.
LEDs have a tenth energy consumption and 50 times life time
comparing with an incandescent lamp, and 10 times life time
comparing with a fluorescent lamp [3, 5]. Therefore, LEDs have
a powerful light source because of high energy efficiency, long
life, and eco-friendliness. Recently, LEDs have been used in
various fields as a light source. Heat dissipation is being more
and more important in LEDs because of increasing light output
and integration. Generally, it is known that only about 15 to 20%
of input power is converted into light, and the remaining 80 to
85% is converted into heat. Life time of a LED decreases from
40,000 to 20,000 hours when junction temperature increases from
40 to 50oC [3]. Also, heat generated from LEDs can cause a
critical failure due to difference of thermal expansion coefficient
in the materials and degradation of light output by changing
colors in package and lens [5]. Park et al. (2004) studied about
the effect of junction temperature on the performance of a LED.
They reported that the LED efficiency decreased by 70% at the
junction temperature of 85oC [2]. Therefore, thermal
characteristics of LEDs should be carefully considered in the
design process for efficiency and reliability. In addition, thermal
spreading is an important factor to be considered in thermal
design [1]. Thermal resistance is composed of Rz (z-direction
resistance; vertical direction) and Rs (spreading resistance;
horizontal direction). The was the lowest thermal resistance at the
thickness of 0.6 mm due to the effect of heat spreading, when the
thickness of Cu substrate is varied in a multi-chip LED [4].
In this study, the heat spreading characteristics of LEDs were
studied with the variation of geometrical design parameters. The
effect of the thermal modeling in LEDs was evaluated with the
variation of the thickness of a board. In addition, thermal
characteristics were studied for the composition of layers in a
board. The thermal performance of a LED package model was
analyzed using a commercial CFD program.
Thermal Modeling
Figure 1 shows the model structure in analysis. The working fluid
is air. The ambient air temperature is 25oC and the air is assumed
to be incompressible ideal gas. LED chips are on the board in air
surrounding. The size of air surrounding is 232310 mm3 to
consider the experimental condition. The bottom of surrounding
is at isothermal condition whose temperature is 25oC.
Gravitational acceleration is -9.81 m/s2 in the z-direction
considering natural convection.
Figure 1. Schematic of thermal modeling.
 Thermal conductivity
Material
(W/m K)
Chip 46
Die bonding (AuSn) 57
Dielectric layer 2
Board (Aluminum) 140
TIM
0.6
(Thermal interface material)
Table 1. The thermal conductivity of materials in LED package
The temperature of the LED model was solved by a CFD tool
with the FVM (finite volume method). The used CFD tool was
the commercial CFD program, Ansys Icepak 13.0. Mesh quality
was satisfied to be over 0.5. The number of elements was about
1,945,000. The time variation was steady state. The convergence
during solving was investigated to consider the residuals and to
monitor the maximum chip temperature.
Model to Change the Board Thickness
Figure 2 shows a schematic of the LED model. The LED package
is a COB (chip on board) type. There are 4 chips on the board.
The size of the chip is 1.01.00.1 mm3. The heat generation is
1.68 W per a chip. Chips are attached on the board by die
attaching (AuSn). The thickness of the die attaching is 0.02 mm.
The board consists of a dielectric layer and aluminum base plate.
The dielectric layer is anodizing oxide layer. The size of the
dielectric layer is 16.0017.000.01 mm3. The thickness of TIM
(thermal interface material) is 0.23 mm. Table 1 shows the
thermal conductivities of materials used in the LED package.
Model to Change the Structure of the Board
Figure 3 shows a schematic of the layer structure in the board. As
shown in Fig. 3(b), two types are considered in this study. The
first case is named as kH-kL, which consists of chip-kH and -kL
layers in order. The second case is named as kL-kH, which is
composed of chip-kL and -kH layers in order. Thermal
conductivities of kL and kH layers are 20.24 W/mK and 202.40
W/mK, respectively. The heat generation from the chip is 3 W.
The thicknesses of kL and kH layers are 0.2 mm and 1 mm,
respectively.
Result and Discussion
Effects of Modeling Method and Thermal Boundary Condition
The boundary condition and modeling method are important for
the numerical analysis using CFD.
Figure 2. Schematic of the LEDs: (a) Exterior of the LED
package (b) Structure of the LED package.
Figure 3. Schematic of the layer structure in the board: (a) Base
model of the layer structure, (b) Two types in composition of the
layer.
Heat spreading is not a trivial issue on thermal problem of a LED
including micro scale heat transfer [1]. In this study, we
attempted to investigate the effects of the modeling method when
analyzing thermal characteristics of the LED packages with
various geometries.
Two cases of the LED model compared: one is the thermal model
without TIM and the other is the thermal model with TIM. The
uniform temperature of 25oC was fixed on the bottom of the
board in the thermal model without TIM and on the bottom of
TIM in the thermal model with TIM. Figure 4 compares the
junction temperatures in the thermal model without TIM with
that in the thermal model with TIM according to the increase in
the thickness of the board from 0.21 to 2.10 mm. In the thermal
model without TIM, the junction temperature increased from
36.5 to 41.8oC with the increase in the board thickness. In the
thermal model with TIM, the junction temperature decreased
from 87.8 to 59.0oC with the increase in the board thickness. The
junction temperature in the thermal model with TIM was 51.3 to
17.2oC higher than that in the thermal model without TIM at the
thickness of the board from 0.21 to 2.10 mm. The junction
temperature increased in the thermal model without TIM and
decreased in the thermal model with TIM according to the
thickness of the board. This is due to the effect of heat spreading.
Figures 5 and 6 show temperature distributions of the thermal
model without TIM and with TIM, respectively. As shown in
Figure 6, the high temperature region was expanded from the
center to side on the surface of the board with the increase in the
TIM thickness because of the decrease in the junction
temperature. However, as shown in Figure 5 for the thermal
model without TIM, the spreading of the high temperature region
restricted due to the increase in the thermal resistance with the
thickness of the board. The effect of heat spreading did not
appear in uniform temperature condition on the bottom of the
board when varying the thickness of the board. The high
temperature region became larger on the board surface with the
90 Junction temperature
Without TIM
80 WithTIM
Temperature (oC)
70
60
50 Tambient : 25oC
40
30
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Base(Al plate) thickness (mm)
Figure 4. Comparison of junction temperature according to the
thickness of the base.
 8
Rjb 90
7 85

Thermal resistance (oC/W)

Tj
6 80

Temperature (oC)
Tambient : 25oC 75
5 70
4 65
60
3
55
2 50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 5. Variation of temperature distribution with the variation Base plate thickness (mm)
of the thickness of the base in the thermal model without TIM.
Figure 7. Variation of thermal performance with the increase in
the thickness of the base in the board.

Rb Rz Rs
= + (3)
dt dt dt

Where Rb is the thermal resistance of the board, Rz is the vertical

Figure 6. Variation of temperature distribution with the variation
of the thickness of the base in the thermal model with TIM.
was increase in the board thickness from 0.21 to 2.10 mm in the
thermal model with TIM. It was consistent with the result that
heat spreading increased with the increase in the thickness of a
substrate in a specific thickness range [1,4]. Therefore, it is
required to consider the thermal model with TIM when
investigating the thermal performance of LEDs with the variation
of the board thickness.
Thermal Characteristics with a Thickness of Al Plate
Figure 7 shows the variation of thermal characteristics of a LED
package with the variation of base (Al plate) thickness. The
thermal resistance (Rjb) is calculated by equation (1).
T j Tb ,avg
R jb = (1)
Q
The junction temperature was from 89.8 to 58.3oC at the
thickness of Al base plate from 0.21 to 5.25 mm. The minimum
junction temperature was 58.2oC at the thickness of 4.20 mm The
thermal resistance from junction to board was from 7.32 to 2.71
K/W and the minimum value was 2.70 K/W at the thickness of
4.20 mm. However, the difference values of thermal performance
were very small after 2.10 mm. Therefore, the thermal
performance became almost constant after 2.10 mm within the
thermal resistance, Rs is the horizontal thermal resistance
(spreading resistance). Rz is l/kA and A is vertical area to
direction of heat transfer. Rs decreased, but Rz increased with the
increase in the thickness from 0.21 to 2.10 mm. In addition, Rb
decreased with the increase in the thickness from 0.21 to 2.10
mm. After 2.10 mm, the increase in Rz was consistent with the
decreasing in Rs.
Effect of Layer Composition in Board
Figure 8 compares junction temperatures by combination of the
layers. The board was composed of two layers The junction
temperatures were 74.5oC in the kH-kL and 101.7oC in the kL-kH.
The kH-kL showed 27.3oC higher junction temperature than the
kL-kH. The area of sink substrate was larger than that of heat
source. Therefore, heat spreading occurred when heat moved
from the heat source to the heat sink substrate. The effect of heat
spreading can investigate from the spreading angle. The
spreading angle was calculated by equation (4) [6].
k Layer 1
= tan 1 (4)
k Layer
2
The angles of heat spreading were 84.29o in kH-kL and 5.71o in
kL-kH. The wider angle of heat spreading indicates the better heat
spreading.
150
kH-kL Tambient : 25oC
kL-kH
Ttemperature (oC)

thickness from 0.21 mm to 5.25 mm. The thermal resistance at 100

the thickness of 2.10 mm decreased by 62.2% comparing with
that at 0.21 mm. The thermal resistance from the junction to
board can be expressed by equation (2).
50
R jb = Rchip + RD. A. + Rd + Rb (2)

In addition, the variation of the thermal resistance of the board 0

can be expressed as equation (3) by Yang et al. [4].
Figure 8. Comparison of junction temperature according to layer
composition in the board.
 L2
L1
chip
Layer1
Layer2
thickness of 2.10 mm. The effect of heat spreading was different
Figure 9. Cross-section of layout for thermal spreading in a board.
Figure 9 shows concepts of length of heat spreading, average
length of heat spreading, average cross-sectional area for the
effect of heat spreading. The length of heat spreading can be
calculated by equation (5). The average length of heat spreading
can be calculated by equation (6). The average cross-sectional
area by heat spreading effect can be calculated by equation (7)
[6].
L2 = 2t Layer1 tan ( ) + L1 (5)
L L
LLayer1,avg = 2 1 + L1 (6)
2 [2] Park, J., Shin, M.H., Lee, C.C., Measurement of
ALayer1 , avg = L2Layer1 , avg (7)
The average lengths of heat spreading were 11.00 mm in kH-kL
and 1.02 mm in kL-kH. The average cross-sectional areas of layer1
by heat spreading effect were 121.02 mm2 in kH-kL and 1.04 mm2
in kL-kH. The kH-kL would have the larger average cross-sectional
areas than the kL-kH because kH has higher thermal conductivity
than kL so that better heat spreading occurs in the kH. Therefore,
cross-sectional area of layer1 is dominant for heat transfer,
because the cross-sectional area increases continuously through
all layers. Under the limitation of design, to set the higher
thermal conductivity material close to heat source in PCB yielded
better thermal design.
Conclusions
In thermal design, the variation of thermal performance with the
variation of the thickness had the different tendency between in
the thermal modeling with TIM and without TIM. This is
important in thermal design of LEDs. The thermal model with
TIM showed more reasonable tendency because the effect of heat
spreading was considered. In the thickness of Al base from 0.21
to 5.25 mm, the thermal performance decreased before the
thickness of 2.10 mm and remained almost constant after the
by combination of the layers in the board. The angle of spreading
and average cross-sectional areas of layer1 became larger when
the layer of higher thermal conductivity was close to the heat
source.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Korean Evaluation Institute
of Industrial Technology (Grant No. 10035530).
References
[1] Lasance, C.J.M., How to Estimate Heat Spreading Effects in
Practice, Journal of Electronic Packaging, 132, 2010,
0310041.
Temperature Profiles on Visible Light-Emitting Diodes by
Use of a Nematic Liquid Crystal and an Infrared Laser,
Optics letters, 29(22), 2004, 26562658.
[3] Park, J.W., Rapid Thermal Diffusion Devices Development
of the High Power LED Lighting system, Proceedings of
Korea Society of Precision Engineering Autumn Conference,
2010, 593-594.
[4] Yang, C., Liu, W., Liu, C., Measurement of Thermal
Resistance of First-level Cu Substrate used in High-power
Multi-chips LED Package, Microelectronics Reliability, 52,
2012, 855860.
[5] Ok, C.W., A Study on Optimization of the Heat Sink for
Reliability Improvement of High Power Light Emitting
Diode, Chonbuk National University, Thesis for the Degree
of Master, 2006.
[6] Ulrich, R.K. Brown, W.D., Advanced Electronic Packaging,
IEEE Press, 2006.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Condensation Control in Glazed Flat Plate Solar Water Heaters

J. Oshikiri1 and T.N. Anderson1

1
School of Engineering
Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 1142, New Zealand

Abstract The mechanism of condensation in a solar thermal flat plate is

Glazed flat plate solar collectors offer a simple and cost effective
approach to heating water. However, on clear nights solar
collectors can transfer a significant amount of heat to the
atmosphere by radiation. In areas with a cool climate and high
relative humidity the radiation heat loss can lead to the
temperature of the glazing often reaching the dew-point of the
surrounding air, this leads to condensation developing on the
glazing. If water condenses on the inside of the glazing and
repeatedly drips onto the solar absorber this could lead to damage
of the solar collector surface thus shortening its operating life.
Also the build-up of condensation on the glazing can lead to the
growth of mould, is visually displeasing to the owner, and means
energy must be wasted to evaporate the moisture during the
following day.
This study aims to develop the understanding of the role that
condensation plays on collector performance, as well as
addressing ways of minimising the impact it has. In doing so it
presents an experimentally validated, numerical model for
determining the frequency of condensation in glazed flat plate
solar water heaters. It shows that climatic factors including
relative humidity, ambient temperature and wind speed determine
the frequency of condensation for any given location. However, it
also reveals that the frequency of condensation can be modified
by altering the convection heat transfer coefficient inside the
collector and most significantly by using low emissivity coatings
on the glazing layer.
Introduction
Modern society relies deeply on the use of fossil fuels, and it is
generally understood that they cause some negative impacts on
the environment. Solar energy is a promising alternative to this,
as it can substitute fossil fuels in a clean and renewable manner.
The use of solar water heating is widespread, particularly in
Germany, China and Australia due to the fact that it can be cost
effective and last for over 20 years.
However, over time the performance of solar water heaters
decreases due to the corrosion and degradation of the materials
inside the collector. A study conducted under the auspices of the
International Energy Agencys Solar Heating and Cooling
Program suggested that the main reason for corrosion could be
due to condensation inside the collector [1].
Condensation is a natural phenomenon often associated with
enclosed spaces such as refrigerators, buildings and vehicles, due
to changes in temperature and humidity. However, solar thermal
flat plate collectors can also suffer from condensation problems,
particularly in cold areas with high relative humidity such as
continental and northern Europe [1] and southern areas of
Australia.
principally driven by the release of heat into the atmosphere by
radiation, particularly at night. If the temperature in the collector
cover falls below the dew point temperature, condensation can
form on the glazing of the collector. The existence of water can
cause damage to the collector surface and create unfavourable
microclimatic conditions for the internal materials. In addition to
this, energy must be used to evaporate the moisture the next day.
Even in a small flat plate solar thermal collector, a great deal of
moisture condensation can occur, and repeated condensation
dripping onto the solar absorber can lead to a degrading of the
collector over time. Despite previous studies focussing on
European climates, corrosion due to condensation and its impacts
on the performance of solar water heating systems is also a
significant problem in New Zealand [2-4].
In light of problems posed by condensation in flat plate solar
water heaters and the relative lack of attention paid to the
problem, this study set out to explore ways of reducing the
occurrence of condensation in flat plate solar collectors,
particularly in New Zealand.
Theoretical Modelling
Heat Balance
In order to analyse the frequency of condensation in a flat plate
solar water heater it was decide to utilise a quasi-steady state
numerical model to determine the temperature and relative
humidity inside the collector.
In this model, it was assumed that the heat transfer in the
collector was one-dimensional and as such the temperature of the
collector surfaces were uniform, such that there was no
difference in temperature between the corners and the centre of
the collector.
Figure 1 illustrates a cross sectional view of a typical single
glazed collector, showing the heat transfer mechanisms, where Ta
is the ambient temperature and Ti is the temperature inside the
collector.

Figure 1. Cross sectional view of a collector

To determine the absorber and cover temperature, it is essential The heat transfer due to radiation from the cover to the sky and to
to calculate the heat transfer by convection, conduction and the surrounding ground (hro) is given by Equation 8 [1].
thermal radiation from all the surfaces and in the solar collector.
This can be done by iteratively solving the collector heat balance T 4 Ts4
hro = 0.5(1 + cos s ) cCs c
equations (Equation (1) and (2)) for a collector of unit area [1]. Tc Ts (8)

dT p
Cp = G ( ) hcb (T p Ta ) hcg (T p Tc ) hrg (T p Tc ) (1)
dt
dTc T p + Tc
Cc = Ga c + hcg (T p Tc ) + hrg (T p Tc ) hvg ( Ta ) (2)
dt 2
hco (Tc Ta ) hro (Tc Ts ) q ei q eo
In equations (1), (2), G is the incident solar radiation and is the
transmittance-absorptance product of the solar collector, hcb is the
heat loss through the back insulation, hcg and hrg represent the
heat transfer coefficient for natural convection and thermal
radiation in the air gap respectively. hro is the heat transfer
coefficient for thermal radiation from the cover to the ambient air
and hco is the heat transfer by convection from the cover to the
ambient air. The heat transfer coefficient due to ventilation was
expressed by hvg. Finally, qei and qeo are the heat transfer by
evaporation and condensation.
The conductive heat loss through the back insulation material hcb
was given by a modified form of Fouriers law (Equation (3))
where ei is the thickness of the insulation and ki the thermal
conductivity.
ki
hcb =
ei
The convective heat transfer coefficient between the absorber and
the glazing (hcg) (Equation 4) [1] is expressed in terms of three
parameters: the thermal conductivity of air (k0), the thickness of
the air gap (eo) and the Nusselt number (Nug). The Nusselt
number is a function of the slope of the collector, which has a
significant influence on the performance of the collectors across
the year.
T 4 Ta4
+ 0.5(1 cos s ) cCs c
Tc Ts
Where the view factor to each is taken to be 0.5 and Ts is the sky
temperature. The sky temperature can be expressed using the dew
point temperature and the time from midnight as shown in
Equation 9 [5].
[ ]
1
Ts = Ta 0.711 + 0.0056Tdp + 0.000073Tdp2 + 0.13 cos(15t ) 4 (9)
Where Tdp is the dew point temperature and t is the number of
hours from midnight. Equation (9) is effective for a dew point
temperature from -20 to 30 and clear sky conditions,
however, for this study it was assumed to be valid for all
conditions.
The heat transfer by convection from the cover to the ambient air
(hco) can be expressed in terms of the collectors characteristic
length (L), the Nusselt number due to convection (Nu0) and the
thermal conductivity of air (kg) as illustrated by equation (10).
kg (10)
h co = Nu 0
L
(3)
The Nusselt number for convection (Nu0) is calculated from the
square root of the Nusselt number for laminar flow and turbulent
flow as shown in equation (11). The Nusselt number is given by
the product of Reynolds number and Prandtl number for laminar
and turbulent flow as shown in equation (12) and (13) [1].
Nu 0 = Nu lam
2
+ Nu turb
2 (11)
Nu lam = 0.664 Re 0+.5 Pr 0.33 (12)

Nu g k 0 (4) 0.037 Re 0+.81 Pr 0.33 (13)

hcg = Nuturb =
eg ( )
1 + 2.443 Re +0.1 (Pr 0.67 1

The Nusselt number can be determined by a correlation between The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless number
the Nusselt number and Rayleigh number for tilt angles from 0 to representing the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. In
75as expressed by equation (5) [5]: equation (14) the overall Reynolds number Re+ is taken to be the
+
sum of a forced and free component [5].
1708 (sin 1.8 s )1.6 1708
Nu g = 1 + 1.44 1 1 Re + = Re 2 + Re 2 (14)
Ra g cos s Ra g cos s (5)

+
Ra g cos s 0.33 The Reynolds number for forced flow Re on the cover of the
+ 1 collector can be determined from three elements: wind speed
5830 (Vw), kinematic viscosity (v) and characteristic length (L) as
shown in equation (15) [1].
In equation (5), the positive symbol indicates that if the values in
the square brackets are negative, the values will be zero. L (15)
Re = Vw
Rayleigh number for air inside the collector (Rag) is give by v
equation (6).
The Reynolds number (Re) for natural convection is calculated
g (T p Tc )e g3 (6)
by defining an equivalent Reynolds number and is given by
Ra g = Pr equation (16) [6].
v2
where is the volumetric coefficient of expansion of the air Re = 0.64Gr 0.5 (16)
given by equation 7. In equation (16) the Grashof number (Gr) is a non-dimensional
2 parameter used to quantify the heat transfer due to natural
= (7) convection and between the cover and the ambient air and is
TP + Tc given by equation (17) [1].
 (Tc Ta ) (17) Ra T (25)
Gr = 2 L3 g V = (1 + 1.6078W )
v 2 (Ta + Tc ) p

Now it assumed that condensation occurs if the cover pw (26)

W = 0.62198
temperature falls the dew point temperature. Under these p pw
conditions the heat transfer by condensation and evaporation of
moisture at the outer cover is expressed by equation (18) and The mass flow of damp air is given equation (32) [1].
(19). Now Equation (18) and (19) were developed for
condensation, however, it was assumed that it is valid for T + Tc (27)
mvg = 0.5 (Ta , Pwa ) + a , Pwg V P
evaporation even though evaporation takes place only the cover 2
is wet [1].
For the simulation the mean value is used for the density of the
Tc 0 : q eo = 0.017 hco {p ws (Tc ) p (Tdewa )} (18) air.

Tc 0 : q eo = 0.019 hco {p ws (Tc ) p (Tdewa )} (19) Moisture Balance

The evaporation heat loss from the inside of the cover (qei) is
expressed by the mass transfer rate of air through the air gap and
the latent heat of water. Equation (20) shows heat transfer by
evaporation or condensation at the inside of the cover [5].
q ei = mvg h fg (20)
The heat transfer coefficient because of ventilation (hvg) is
obtained from equation (21) [1].
From the previous sections, the temperature inside the collector
was obtained. It was assumed that the volume of the collector
was constant, and then Charless law and Boyle's law are used to
calculate the pressure in the collector (Equation (28)). Where Pa
is the atmospheric pressure in open air and Pc is the pressure
inside the collector.
Pa Pc (28)
=
Ta Ti

hvg = mvg C pa (21) In conducting the moisture balance we need to consider the
partial pressure of water (Equation (29)) where Pca is partial
Finally, the thermal radiation heat transfer coefficient between pressure of dry air inside the collector and Pcw partial pressure of
the absorber and the cover (hrg) can be expressed by Equation 22 water vapour inside the collector.
[5].
Pc = Pca + Pcw (29)
C s (T p4 Tc4 ) (22)
hrg = The humidity ratio of moist air (w) is defined as the ratio of the
1 1
( + 1)(T p Tc ) mass of the water vapour (mw) to the mass of the dry air (mda) as
p c shown in equation (30).
Ventilation Effects mw (30)
w=
In Equation 20 and 21 reference was made to the ventilation rate mda
of a solar collector; typically ventilation is caused by two main As such the moisture inside the collector is given by equation
factors: thermal driven pressure due to heating and cooling of the (31).
solar collector (through cracks or manufacturers ventilation
ports) as well as wind driven pumping effects. Ventilation which Pcw (31)
includes all elements is overly complex to model, so only thermal Wi = 0.62198
Pc Pcw
driven pressure was considered in this model.
Any moisture in the insulation was ignored and, the saturated
The driving pressure is the pressure difference caused by the
vapour pressure inside of the collector (Pcw) was assumed to be
pressure loss of the distance. The driving pressure is given by the
equal as the saturated vapour pressure outside. The saturated
density of the air, the gravity and vertical co-ordinate measured
vapour pressure outside was calculated from relative humidity
from the neutral plane. When the humidity of air is considered,
outside.
the differential pressure is give by equation (23) [1].

T p + Tc (23) Experimental Method

P = (Ta , Pwa ) , Pwg h g
2 To validate the numerical model, an experiment to measure the
absorber temperature, cover temperature and relative humidity in
Where, Pwa is partial pressure of water in the open air and Pwg is the air gap was developed. A single glazed flat plate solar
partial pressure of water in the air of the air gap in the collector. collector 1 meter long and 1.8 meters wide and was positioned to
Moist air density (a) is defined as the reciprocal of the moist air face due north at an angle of 37 to the horizontal (Figure 2).
specific volume (V). The density of the moist air density is The collector was fitted with nine T-type thermocouples
calculated as shown in equation (24) [1]. (0.3), four of which were attached to the surface of absorber,
1 another four were attached to the inside surface of the cover and
a = (24) the last thermocouple was used to measure the ambient
V temperature. The sensors for absorber and cover were uniformly
The specific volume of the moist air is expressed as equation (25) distributed over the surfaces to determine the mean surface
and the humidity ratio of moist air (W) is defined by equation temperatures.
(26) [1]. In addition, two relative humidity sensors (Honeywell, HIH-
4000) were used to measure relative humidity inside the collector
air gap and in the ambient air. A pyranometer (Apogee, SP110)
was used to measure the global radiation incident the collector.
Additionally atmospheric pressure and local wind speed was
recorded by the AUT weather station. The data from the
experiment was recorded at ten minute intervals and saved in a
spreadsheet, to allow comparison with the simulated data.

Figure 4. Measured v predicted absorber temperature

Similarly, in Figure 5, the measured and simulated cover
temperature are compared, the simulated cover temperature
showed almost the same temperature as the measured cover
temperature. The difference in temperature during the day is
predominantly due to the thermocouple junctions absorbing
radiation. However, it can be seen that the simulation was able to
Figure 2. Experimental solar collector predict the cover temperature quite well at night when
condensation might occur.
Experimental Results and Model Validation
Though the experimental data was collected over a relatively
long time-frame for clarity, and brevities sake, experimental data
is presented for just one test day. Figure 3 shows the observed
incident radiation, ambient temperature and wind speed for a
typical test.

Figure 5. Measured v predicted absorber temperature

Having been able to provide a relatively accurate prediction on
the collector temperatures the measured and simulated relative
humidity in the air gap of the collector were compared. In Figure
6 it can be seen that there is a minor difference between
Figure 3. Meteorological conditions for a typical test simulated and measured relative humidity.
To examine the validity of the model, the results of an
experiment and a simulation using the measured meteorological
inputs (temperatures, barometric pressure, solar radiation and
wind speed) and the design characteristics of the collector model
were compared.
In Figure 4, the measured absorber temperature is compared with
the simulated absorber temperature. The absorber temperature
fluctuations are the result of the variation in the incident radiation
and also the time interval over which the measurements were
recorded, and the simulation discretised. However, it can be seen
that, in general, the simulation was able to predict the absorber
temperature relatively well, especially at night when Figure 6. Measured v predicted absorber temperature
condensation might occur.
On the whole, the simulated relative humidity shows the same
trend as the measured data, in that it dropped around 9am as the
sun went up and increased after 6pm as the sun went down. In
Figure 6, it can be seen that in the morning and at night, there is a
small difference between measured humidity and simulated
humidity. There are a number of reasons why this may occur, in
particular, the effect that uncontrolled ventilation due to wind has
on the collector and also the assumption that the water vapour
pressure in the collector was assumed to be same as in open air.
Despite these differences though, the simulation can predict a
change of relative humidity inside of the collector fairly
accurately and as such should be able to provide an insight into
the occurrence of condensation.
As a final test of the model a verification test was carried out to
test the models ability to predict the occurrence of condensation.
After the experimental testing of temperatures and humiditys
had been completed, the collector experienced an evening of very
clear skies and high humidity such that moisture was found on
the collector at 8am on March 22 as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Condensation on collector
Therefore a simulation was conducted retrospectively using
meteorological data collected from the National Institute of
Water and Atmospheres (NIWA) Cliflo database [7]. Figure 8
shows the simulated absorber, cover temperature and the dew
point temperature from NIWA Cliflo database.
Figure 8. Modelled results of observed condensation occurrence
From the simulation, if it is assumed that condensation occurs on
the surface of the collector when the cover temperature is lower
than the dewpoint temperature, condensation could occur until
7:30am. However, because the weather information from the
NIWA Cliflo database was collected and applied to the
simulation, the location was not exactly the same as the test site.
Therefore, the condensation persisted slightly longer than the
model would predict. However, the model helped to predict the
occurrence of condensation on the collector and provided a
relatively accurate prediction of its duration.
Sensitivity Analysis
Having demonstrated the models ability to predict condensation
it was decided to undertake a modelling sensitivity analysis of a
copper single glazed collector to better understand the factors that
influence the frequency of condensation in New Zealand solar
collectors. To do this it was decided to vary the location,
collector slope, ventilation rate and the emissivity of the cover,
taking July 1st as the test day.
Influence of location on condensation frequency
To determine the effect of location on the occurrence of
condensation the model was tested for Auckland, Hamilton,
Wellington, and Christchurch in New Zealand for the year 2010
using weather data from the NIWA Cliflo database. In Figure 9,
the simulated relative amount of condensation time in each
month for 2010 for each city is shown. It can be seen that in the
winter season condensation occurs more than in the summer
season in any location.
Auckland
Hamilton
Wellington
Christchurch
Dunedin
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Month
Figure 9. Modelled results of observed condensation occurrence
From Figure 9 it can be seen that in Auckland, the simulated total
amount of condensation time in winter reached more than double
that in the summer season. Hamilton shows a similar trend,
though the predicted annual condensation hours were
significantly higher than Auckland. This can be explained by the
fact that, according to NIWA, in 2010, the average wind speed in
Hamilton was 2.8 m/s, which is quite low, and the relative
humidity was 80 %, which is relatively high. As a result, the
frequency of condensation hours in Hamilton was significantly
higher than the other places, thus illustrating that climatic factors
including relative humidity and wind speed play a significant role
in the occurrence of condensation on a surface of the collector.
Similarly the annual simulated condensation hours in Wellington
were considerably lower than Auckland. Wellington is famous
for its southerly blasts in winter and the city is generally very
windy all year. The average wind speed in Wellington was
approximately 6.9 m/s which was significantly faster than the
wind speed in Auckland. As a result, the frequency of
condensation hours in Wellington was significantly lower than
the other places.
Furthermore, the simulation was also run by using the data in
Christchurch, it can be seen that the frequency of simulated
condensation hours in winter is higher than the other cities. In
Christchurch in winter, relative humidity is considerably high and
the ambient temperature can drop below 0 C at night, so ground
frost is common in winter. As such it can be deduced that the
ambient temperature can be one of the climatic factors which
influence the frequency of condensation.
In summary, the results illustrate that the frequency of
condensation on the surface of the cover was considerably
influenced by three climatic factors: ambient temperature, wind
velocity and relative humidity. It was found that areas with a low
mean wind velocity and high relative humidity, such as
Hamilton, and with cold weather, such as Christchurch, had a
high frequency of condensation.
Influence of the slope of the collector on condensation frequency
Now when considering changing the location of a collector, one
would change the slope of the collector to maximise the solar
radiation collected. In the modelling, changing the slope of the
collector influences two heat transfer parameters hcg and hro. hcg
represents the heat transfer coefficient for natural convection in
the air gap, and hro is the heat transfer coefficient for thermal
radiation from the cover to ambient air. Figure 10 shows the
relationship between the slope of the collector and hcg and hro at
night. At night, hcg was not influenced by any collector slope. On
the other hand, hro was decreased as increasing of slope of the
collector. Figure 10 shows that increasing of the slope of the
collector decreases the thermal radiation from the cover to the
ambient at night, as the collector sees the warm ground.

Figure 12. Absorber temperature with changing ventilation

Figure 10. The relationship between the slope of the collector and
hcg and hro during the night
In exploring this further the slope of the collector was also
changed, the slope was set as 15, 30, 45and 60. Figure 11
shows the relationship between the number of expected
condensation hours and slope of the collector. This indicates that
increasing of the slope of the collector has an impact on
condensation on the surface of the collector, though it is Figure 13. Cover temperature with changing ventilation
relatively minor.
1
Figure 14 shows the relationship between ventilation rate and the
number of expected condensation on the surface of the collector
Normalised Condensation Frequency

0.8
cover. It is shown that ventilation can be effective in reducing
condensation however high ventilation is not always effective
0.6
when compared to stagnant conditions.
This can be because of two important things to consider in
0.4
controlling the surface condensation [8]: gaining low vapour
pressure by ventilation and reduced moisture input and gaining
0.2
high surface temperatures by providing insulation or heat input.
1.4
0
15 30 45 60
Normalised Condensation Frequency

Collector Inclination Angle (deg.) 1.2

1
Figure 11. Effect of slope of the collector on condensation hours
0.8
Influence of ventilation of the air gap on condensation frequency
0.6
Now in the development of the model, accounting for heat
0.4
transfer due to ventilation is perhaps the most complicated
parameter to physically realise. This is because it is heavily 0.2

dependent not only on the design of the collector, but also the 0
quality of its construction. Therefore, during the simulation, the 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
hvg (W/m2K)
convection heat transfer coefficient was varied as a proxy for the
ventilation rate of the collector. Figure 14. Effect of ventilation on condensation hours
As such hvg was changed from 0 to 40 W/m2K. Figures 12 and 13 Influence of cover emissivity on condensation frequency
show the effect of varying hvg to 0.1, 10 and 40 W/m2K has on
the simulated absorber and cover temperatures. In this regard a As a final means of controlling the frequency of condensation, it
high hvg implies high ventilation of the air gap in the collector. was decided to explore the influence of the glass covers
Figures 12 and 13 show the same trend, that increasing emissivity on the phenomenon. Figure 15 shows the simulated
ventilation eliminates the distinction between the temperature absorber and cover temperature when the emissivity of the glass
inside and outside the collector at night and during the day as it cover was 0.1 and 0.9. From this figure, it can be seen that the
decreases the surface temperature of absorber and cover. lower cover emissivity made the absorber temperature higher
particularly during the day. On the other hand, changing the
emissivity of the glass did not influence the cover temperature
significantly.

Figure 15. Effect of cover emissivity on absorber and cover
temperature
Exploring this further, in Figure 16, the cover temperature
declines as linear function, in contrast, the absorber temperature
was decreasing as a quadratic function since radiation heat
transfer is a function of T4.
Figure 16. Relationship between the cover emissivity and the
simulated absorber and cover temperatures
The implication of this is that a low emissivity coating on the
glazing will lead to an improvement in the collectors efficiency.
Furthermore Figure 17 shows the relationship of cover emissivity
and the expected number of condensation hours in Auckland. The
figure shows that cover emissivity significantly influences the
frequency of condensation. As such, the use of low emissivity
glass could be highly effective in preventing condensation. The
simulation shows that using glass with an emissivity below 0.1
would effectively prevent condensation on the surface of the
glass of the collector throughout the year in Auckland.
1
Normalised Condensation Frequency
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6
Emissivity
Figure 17. Effect of cover emissivity on condensation hours
Conclusions
Avoiding condensation in solar collectors is a critical issue in
terms of their durability and performance. During the night the
temperature of the collector will often drop below the ambient
temperature due to thermal radiation in the cold air. In climates
where the air at night becomes saturated with humidity,
condensation will form both on the inside and outside of the
collector glazing. If too much condensation occurs on the inside
of the glazing, it will drip on to the absorber surface, which will
consequently lead to long-term damage.
This study charted the development of a validated numerical
model for examining condensation in flat plate solar water
heaters. The numerical model showed that climatic factors
including relative humidity, ambient temperature and wind speed
can determine the frequency of condensation for any given
location. Furthermore it also revealed that the frequency of
condensation can be modified by altering the ventilation inside
the collector, the slope of the collector and most significantly by
using low emissivity coating on the glazing layer.
References
[1] Kohl, M., Carlsson, B., Jorgensen, G. and Czanderna, A.
(editors), Performance and durability assessment: Optical
materials for solar thermal systems, Oxford, Elsevier Ltd,
2004
[2] Kane, C.D. Pollard, A.R. and Zhao, J., An Inspection of
Solar Water Heater Installations, BRANZ Study Report No.
184, Porirua, BRANZ, 2007
[3] Moller, G., Solar water heating Corrosion and
performance issues in New Zealand, 2007,
http://rustypanelsblog.blogspot.co.nz/ [cited 1/05/2012]
[4] Television NZ, Close Up [Television broadcast], Auckland,
TVNZ, 2007, June 22
[5] Duffie, J and Beckman, W., Solar engineering of thermal
processes, New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons, 2006
[6] Kreith, F. and Kreider, J., Numerical prediction of the
performance of high altitude balloons, Boulder, National
Center for Atmospheric Research, 1973
[7] The National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research,
Cliflo database, http://cliflo.niwa.co.nz/ [cited 2/03/2012]
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Investigation of two phase heat transfer coefficients

of cryogenic mixed refrigerants
S. Baek, I. Park and S. Jeong
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea

Abstract
Mixed Refrigerant Joule Thomson (MR-JT) refrigerators are
widely used in various kinds of cryogenic systems these days.
Although heat transfer coefficient estimation for a multi-phase
and multi-component fluid in cryogenic temperature range is
necessarily required in the heat exchanger design of MR-JT
refrigerator, it has been rarely discussed so far. In this paper,
condensation and evaporation heat transfer coefficients of mixed
refrigerant are measured in a microchannel heat exchanger.
Printed Circuit Heat Exchanger (PCHE) has been developed as a
compact microchannel heat exchanger and used in the
experiment. Several two-phase heat transfer coefficient
correlations are examined to discuss the experimental
measurement results. The result of this paper shows that
cryogenic mixed refrigerant heat transfer coefficients can be
estimated by conventional two-phase heat transfer coefficient
correlations.
Introduction
A JT (Joule-Thomson) refrigerator is operated as follows (Figure
1). Pressurized refrigerant cools down when it passes through a
recuperative heat exchanger and expands at a JT valve. The
refrigerant reaches low temperature when it expands at an almost
constant enthalpy condition. Afterwards, the refrigerant at a low
pressure returns through the recuperative heat exchanger, and the
regeneration process is enabled by utilizing the cold source. The
cooling effect is intensified by this regeneration process, so that
the temperature becomes lower as the refrigerant circulates.
Traditional JT refrigerators are operated with a high pressure
ratio and have used pure substances for the working fluid such as
nitrogen, argon, and nitrous oxide. However, cryogenic JT
refrigerators operated with single component refrigerant usually
show very low thermodynamic efficiencies.

Nomenclature Use of mixed refrigerants (MR) in JT refrigerators enables one to

overcome the low exergy efficiency of JT refrigerators [1]. When
mixed refrigerant is applied to a JT refrigerator, condensation
Symbols
takes place in the high pressure side of heat exchanger and
A area evaporation takes place in the low pressure side of a heat
cp heat capacity exchanger. It can be confirmed from temperature-entropy
D diameter diagram of the MR (Figure 2). For designing the appropriate heat
g gravitational accelerlation exchanger for MR-JT refrigerator, heat transfer coefficients of a
h local heat transfer coefficient mixed refrigerant should be identified. However, there are
H height limited studies on mixed refrigerant heat transfer coefficients.
i enthalpy Evaporation heat transfer coefficient on a macrochannel tube was
k thermal conductivity identified by Jung et al [2] using ambient temperature mixed
m mass flow rate refrigerants such as R152a/R13B1. Similar research on the
Nu Nusselt number condensation was conducted with R22/R114 by Koyama [3] on a
Pr Prantl number macrochannel tube. The cryogenic mixed refrigerant (nitrogen,
Q heat transfer rate methane, ethane, propane, and isobutane) evaporation heat
Re Reynolds number transfer coefficient was measured on a macrochannel tube by
T temperature Nellis [4]. Many evaporation and condensation correlations were
U overall heat transfer coefficient developed on the microchannels, however, the working fluids
W width were all single component.
viscosity
density

Subscripts
H hydraulic
Helium helium
HT heat transfer area
in inlet
l liquid phase
LMTD log mean temperature difference
lo liquid only phase Figure 1 Schematic of MR-JT process. Condensation process
MR mixed refrigerant takes place at the high pressure side. After expansion,
out outlet evaporation takes place at the low pressure side.
V vapour phase
 opposite side, the helium is cooled down at LN2 bath to until 120
K, and enters heat exchanger. The MR is condensed by cold
320 Bubble point helium. The condensed MR heated again at the out of the vacuum
Dew point
1400 kPa Const. Pressure chamber, and goes back to the compressor. In Figure 4, the MR is
280 1000 kPa Const. Pressure supplied at 300 K and cooled at LN2 bath about 120 K. The MR
Temperature (K)

500 kPa Const. Pressure

200 kPa Const. Pressure is heated with warm helium and goes back to the compressor
240
with temperature of 290 K. Cold helium enters water heat
200
exchanger to warm up and goes back to the compressor.

160

120 Supply Helium Return

Compressor
80
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Mass
Entropy (kJ/kgmole C) flow meter
MR
Precooler Return
Compressor
Figure 2 Temperature entropy (T-s) diagram of MR

LN2
(Ar:R14:R23:R218:R134a=29:21:7:9:31 mol%) Supply Temperature &
Flow
Valve meter &
Pressure
In this paper, two phase heat transfer coefficients for evaporation Warm up Measure point
and condensation of MR in the cryogenic temperature range are

Condensation
investigated by using a microchannel heat exchangers: a Printed LN2
Circuit Heat Exchanger (PCHE). The PCHE has a 340 m

Warm up
bath
hydraulic diameter. The condensation and evaporation heat

LN2
transfer coefficients of MR are measured by Log Mean
Temperature Difference (LMTD) heat exchanger analysis and
compared with previous developed correlations. Wire cut PCHE

Experimental setup Vacuum

Chamber
Figure 3 and Figure 4 show schematic diagrams of the
experimental setup, composed of two fluid closed loops. When a Heater
MR JT refrigerator is operated, condensation process takes place (Supplimentary)
at high pressure side. This high pressure environment is also
applied in the experiment setup by installation of the valve Figure 3. Experimental setup for MR condensation. MR enters
between the compressor inlet and the outlet of the heat exchanger PCHE at 300 K and exit at low temperature approximately 140 K
(Figure 3). However, the valve is installed between the outlet of after heat exchanged with cooled helium. Valve is located after
compressor and the inlet of the heat exchanger for evaporation heat exchanger to simulate high pressure environment
experiment (Figure 4).
The setup has two compressors, the microchannel heat exchanger,
the pre-cooler, and the LN2 bath. Helium compressor (GENESIS, Supply MR Return

800) is employed to generate helium flow, and another helium Compressor

compressor (Helix, CTI-8200-air cooled) is applied to generate
Mass
MR flow. The mass flow rate of MR is measured by the Coriolis flow meter
Valve Helium
flow meter (Micromotion, CMF025 with 1700 transmitter). The Return
helium mass flow rate is measured by another mass flow meter Compressor
LN2

(Bronkhorst, 5 g/s Coriolis). Four silicon diode thermometers

(Lakeshore DT-670SD) are attached to the surface of the inlet Precooler Supply Temperature &
Flow
and outlet tubes of the heat exchanger in order to measure the meter &
Pressure
flow temperatures with respect to the mass flow rates. Four Warm up Measure point
pressure transducers (SENSYS, PSHD 30 bar) are attached to the
Evaporation

inlets and outlets of the heat exchanger. Experiments are

Cool down

conducted inside a vacuum chamber in order to eliminate heat LN2

LN2

ingress from convection during the course of the cryogenic Bath

experiment. All the pipes inside the vacuum chamber are
soldered to eliminate any leakage of MR at in cryogenic Wire cut PCHE
temperatures.
Vacuum
Temperature data are collected by a monitoring device Chamber
(Lakeshore, Temperature Monitor 218). Mass flow rate and
pressures are collected by a data acquisition system (NI- Heater
USB6343). All collected data are recorded by software on a (Supplimentary)
personal computer (National Instrument, Labview 8.2). Figure 4. Experimental setup for MR evaporation. MR enters
The location of helium and MR compressors are switched each PCHE at 130 K and exit at high temperature approximately 290
other to make evaporation or condensation circumstance of MR. K after heat exchanged with hot helium. Valve is located before
Figure 3 indicates condensation situation of the MR. The MR heat exchanger to simulate low pressure environment
enters heat exchanger at 300 K from the MR compressor. At the
Heat exchanger (Wire cut PCHE) Table 1 Specifications of PCHE used in the experiments
The PCHE is composed of thin stainless steel plates stacked Specifications PCHE
together. There are two types of plates, the divider and the
channel layers (Figure 5). The dividers are 100 m thick plane Hydraulic diameter 0.340 mm
plate to serve as a flow separator. The channel layers are Heat transfer area 0.2024 m2
configured to form 23 flow channels in rectangular shape which Flow area 2.64e-5 m2
are mostly made by full etching of the plates. The size of channel
is 300 m height and 400 m wide, which is depicted in Figure 5. Length 0.55 m
Channel flow pathways are composed with several straight lines Volume 0.136 L
and 90 degree curve lines forming a U-shaped path. Half-etching
Area density 1490 m2/m3
technology, which excavates half depth of plate, is applied
specifically to only the curved channels to help mechanical
integrity. Otherwise the curved channel walls cannot align with
the flow path. The location of the half-etched curvature section is
shown in Figure 6.
The completed PCHE is shown in Figure 7. After stacking the
dividers and the channel layers alternatively, diffusion bonding is
carefully performed to make complete heat exchanger in a
vacuum furnace. A Wire cut is applied to the fabricated PCHE to
reduce axial conduction heat transfer. The PCHE is identically
composed of 10 hot streams and 10 cold streams in a counter
flow arrangement. The PCHE has core dimensions of 220 x 77 x
8 mm3 (20 layers). Four 1/4 inch stainless steel tubes are welded
at each entrance of the flows as headers of the PCHE. The
specification of fabricated 20-layer PCHE is summarized in Figure 5. Schematic of construction structure of 20 layer PCHE
TABLE 1. and dimensions
Because the temperature span of experiment is large (300~130 K),
the axial conduction heat transfer may affect the measurement
during the experiment. However, the wire cut PCHE have
negligible axial conduction effect [5].

MR composition
MRs are selected with two constraints. Firstly, non-flammable
gases are selected for safety reasons. Secondly, gases are selected
with zero ODP (Ozone depletion Portion) values for
environmental reasons. Finally, Argon, R14, R23, R218, and
R134a are selected due to other constraints. The refrigerants are
charged from high boiling temperature refrigerant to the
compressor. Final composition for condensation experiment was
Ar:R14:R23:R218:R134a = 29%:21%7%:9%:31% (mole
fraction). For evaporation experiment, the composition of MR
was Ar:R14:R23:R218:R134a = 31%:22%:7%:10%:27% (mole
fraction). The composition was conformed with Gas
Chromatography (Younglin GC6000). Two standard MR gas
samples were used for the gas calibration. Figure 2 shows the
temperature entropy diagram of similar composition of MR.

Data Reduction
Figure 6. Etched stainless steel plate for the channel layer
The following equations have been employed to calculate the
heat transfer coefficients from data during each particular test at
equilibrium conditions [6]. The heat transfer rate in the
evaporation or condensation process can be determined from the
heat balance of the helium flow:

QHelium mHelium c p , Helium (THelium ,in THelium ,out ) (1)

The enthalpy value were calculated by REFPROP [7] from

pressure and temperature measured at inlet and outlet. The heat
transfer rate of the MR is,

QMR mMR (iin , MR iout , MR ) (2) Figure 7. Picture of wire-cut PCHE

The overall heat transfer coefficient based on the heat transfer

area of the test section is
 Q
U , (3) (a)
AHT T LMTD 300

Temperature (K)
Where the TLMTD is the mean logarithmic temperature difference 250
Helium out
MR in
based on the inlet and outlet temperatures of helium/MR flows. Condensing Warm up
200
Assuming no fouling, and very small thermal resistance of the MR out Helium in
150
heat exchanger wall, the MR heat transfer coefficient hMR can
be calculated as follows: 100

1 1 1 (b) 10
(4) Mixed refrigerant

Mass flow rate (g/s)

hMR U hHelium 8
Helium
6
Axial conduction of heat exchanger is also neglected. Heat
transfer coefficient of helium is analysed in the previous research 4
[8]. Friction factor and the heat transfer coefficient were 2
validated with the experiments. The below equations are used to
obtain the heat transfer coefficient and friction factor of single 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
phase flow of helium [9].
Time (s)

D

0.81 0.79
H
Nu 0.1165
h 0.62 1/ 3
Re Pr (5)
Figure 8. Experimental results on MR condensation process. (a)
W c
W
temperature at heat exchanger outlets with time and (b) mass
flow rate of MR and helium with time.
f 96 / Re(1 3.55 1.946
2

(6)
1.701 0.956 0.253 )
3 4 5
300
vapor
280 phase
260 two phase
Experimental results 240 condensation
Temperature (K)

220
Figure 8 shows the experimental results of the MR condensation
process with time. Helium is cooled at LN2 bath approximately 200
130 K and maintained. The MR at 300 K enters heat exchanger 180 single phase
and is condensed by cold helium, and its outlet temperature 160 warm up
becomes around 150 K. The pressure during the condensation 140
MR
experiment is maintained between 1500 - 1600 kPa. The quality 120 Helium
at outlet is calculated to have 0.22. The mass flow rate of the MR
100
and helium is displayed in Figure 8 (b). The mass flow rate of the 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
MR is increased to observe its effect on the heat transfer Heat exchanged (kW)
coefficient. Helium mass flow rate is increased to maintain the
heat balance between two fluids and to keep inlet/outlet Figure 9. Temperature profile in the heat exchanger. Helium is
temperature of the MR and helium. cold fluid(2.1 g/s) and MR(6.5 g/s) is hot fluid in the heat
Figure 9 shows the temperature profile in the heat exchanger exchanger.
during the condensation experiment. The profile is calculated by
Aspen HYSYS [10] using the Peng Robinson equation of state.
The figure describes when the mass flow rate of the MR and Helium Mass flow rate (g/s)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
helium are 6.5 g/s and 2.1 g/s respectively. The temperature 2000 2000
profile of the MR exhibts stiff decrease at high temperature range,
Condensation HTC (W/m K)

because it is cooled down at vapor phase. After entering two

2

Helium HTC (W/m K)

phase range, the temperature decreases slowly. Because the vapor 1500 1500
2

phase range is small compared to two phase range, the calculated Helium HTC

heat transfer coefficient represent the quality averaged value

1000 1000
from 0.22 to 1.
Figure 10 presents the variation in the heat transfer coefficients
of the MR with increasing mass flow rate from 0 to 7 g/s (250 500 500
kg/m2s in mass flux). The overall heat transfer coefficient is
MR HTC
calculated by equation (3) from experimental results of Linear fit
0 0
temperature, pressure, and mass flow rate. Also single phase heat 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
transfer coefficient of helium is plotted. Helium heat transfer MR mass flow rate (g/s)
coefficient is calculated by equation (5). The condensation heat
transfer coefficient of the MR is calculated by equation (4). The Figure 10. Condensation heat transfer coefficient of MR (red),
calculated heat transfer coefficients show lower values than 1000 and single phase heat transfer coefficient of helium (blue) with
W/m2K in given mass flow rates. Linear interpolation is mass flow rate. Linear interpolation performed on heat transfer
performed on experimental condensation heat transfer coefficient coefficient values of the MR.
values for the MR and it is also plotted in Figure 10.
 Figure 11 shows the experimental results of the MR evaporation
(a) process. The MR is cooled at the LN2 bath approximately 130 K.
Helium at 300 K enters heat exchanger and is cooled by the cold
300
MR. The outlet temperature of helium is close to 160 K. The
Temperature (K)

MR out Helium in mass flow rate of the MR and helium is displayed in Figure 11
250 Cool down
Evaporating
MR in Helium out (b). The mass flow rate of mixed refrigerant is changed
200 intentionally to observe its effect on the heat transfer coefficient.
Helium mass flow rate is also changed to maintain the heat
150
balance between two fluids. The pressure of the MR is
100
maintained between 400 kPa and 600 kPa.
(b) 10 Figure 12 shows the temperature profile in the heat exchanger
8
during the MR evaporation experiment. This condition represents
Mass flow rate (g/s)

the mass flow rate of the MR and helium are 4.3 g/s and 1.5 g/s
6 MR respectively. The temperature profile of mixed refrigerant exhibit
Helium slow increasea at low temperature range, because it is in the two
4
phase range. After entering single phase warm-up process, the
2 temperature increases sharply. Because the vapor phase range is
small compared to two-phase evaporation range, the
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 experimental evaporation heat transfer coefficient values
Time (s) represent the quality averaged value from 0.21 to 1.
Figure 13 presents the variation in the heat transfer coefficients
of fluids with increasing mass flow rate from 0 to 9 g/s. The
Figure 11. Experimental results on MR evaporation process. (a)
evaporation heat transfer coefficients of the MR show increasing
temperature at heat exchanger outlets with time and (b) mass
tendency along the increase of the mass flow rate. The
flow rate of MR and helium with time.
evaporation heat transfer coefficients are four times larger than
those of condensation.
300 Validation experiment
280 vapor
Single phase phase Another experiment is conducted to confirm the experimental
260 cool down
values of the MR heat transfer coefficients. Figure 14 shows the
Temperature (K)

240 experimental setup for the validation. The closed loop of the MR
220 is composed of the compressor, the heat exchanger (PCHE) and
200 the LN2 bath. In this system, the MR is circulated by a
180 two phase compressor and passes through a test heat exchanger. The MR
evaporation from the heat exchanger is thermally conditioned using an LN2
160
140
bath to yield a constant temperature of approximately 130 K, and
Helium is then returned to the heat exchanger, where its temperature is
120 MR
increased to almost 300 K after passing it. This setup is similar to
100 the MR-JT refrigerator except the JT valve is substituted to the
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
LN2 bath to generate cold temperature. Therefore, condensation
Heat exchanged (kW)
takes place in high pressure (or hot) side and evaporation takes
place in low pressure (or cold) side of heat exchanger. The
Figure 12. Temperature profile in the heat exchanger. Helium is
experimentally obtained heat transfer coefficients are combined
cold fluid and MR is hot fluid in the heat exchanger.
and appeared as overall heat transfer coefficients. Figure 15
shows the experimental values of overall heat transfer coefficient
calculated by equation (3). The linearly fitted heat transfer
Helium Mass flow rate (g/s)
0 1 2 3
coefficient of condensation and evaporations from Figure 10 and
6000 6000 Figure 13 with the mass flow rate are added to calculate overall
heat transfer coefficient using equation (7).
5000 5000
1 1 1

Evaporation HTC (W/m K)

(7)
2

Helium HTC (W/m2K)

MR
4000
Linear fit
4000
U hcondensation hevaporation
3000 3000
The calculated values are also plotted and compared with
experimental values in Figure 15. The calculated value and
2000 2000
experimental value agree well each other, meaning that
1000 1000
evaporation and condensation heat transfer coefficient values are
Helium valid.
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Comparison with correlations
MR Mass flow rate (g/s) After the confirmation of the heat transfer coefficients, the
experimental results are compared to the previous researches. For
Figure 13. Evaporation heat transfer coefficient of MR (red), and condensation heat transfer coefficients, broad researches have
single phase heat transfer coefficient of helium (blue) with mass been conducted by Bandhauer [11]. Several condensation heat
flow rate. Linear interpolation performed to calculated heat transfer coefficient correlations are compared with experimental
transfer coefficient of MR. data.
 MR
5000
Compressor Exp. Evaporation HTC

Heat transfer coefficient (W/m K)

450% of Dittus Boelter
Supply Return

2
4000
Mass flow meter Exp. Condensation HTC
80% of Chen (1987)
Hot in Cold Out 3000
LN2 Bath
PCHE 2000

Hot out Cold In 1000

0
0 100 200 300 400
Vacuum 2
Mass flux (kg/m s)
Chamber
Figure 14. Experimental setup for validation of calculated heat Figure 16. Comparison results of experimental values
transfer coefficients evaporation and condensation heat transfer coefficients with
correlations
1000
900 Experimenetal U 1000

heat transfer coefficient (W/m K)

Calculated U (linear fit)

2
800 Experimental U
700 800 Calculated U (Correlations)
U (W/m K)

600
2

500 600
Overall

400
300 400

200
200
100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
Mass flow rate (g/s) 0 100 200 300 400
2
Mass flux (kg/m s)
Figure 15. The experimental overall heat transfer coefficient
compared with calculated value Figure 17. Comparison results of overall heat transfer coefficient
compared to calculated value with equation (8) and (10)
The correlation developed by Chen (equation (8)) [12] agreed
well with experimental condensation heat transfer coefficients.
The original correlation values are 20% decreased to fit with The calculated heat transfer coefficients from correlations are
experimental values. compared to experimental data as Figure 16. The comparison
shows that correlations fit with experimental data. These two
Nu 0.036 Prl Re lo Re l Re l
0.7
0.65 0.2
equations ((8) and (10)) are combined to calculate overall heat
transfer coefficient (U) using equation (7) and compared with
0.252 l1.177 v0.156 (8) experimental data in Figure 17. The calculated overall coefficient
D 2 g 2/ 3 0.553 0.78 shows higher values than experimental values. However the trend
h l v is very similar to the experimental data.

The Nusselt number in Chens correlation is defined as follows: Conclusions

The two phase heat transfer coefficients of the MR are measured
h l
1/ 3
2

Nu (9) and calculated by LMTD heat exchanger analysis. The

kl l g
2
The evaporation heat transfer correlations have been developed
by many of researchers. Kosar [13] and Lee [14] summarized
major correlations. However, these correlation values are
different with experimental values conducted in this study.
However, the Dittus Boelter equation (10) increased by 450 %
is compared to the experimental data, and showed good
agreement.
Nu 0.023 Re L PrL
0.8
condensation heat transfer coefficient shows low values below
1000 W/m2K in a given mass flow rate. However, the
evaporation heat transfer coefficient shows high values. The
experimental values are validated with the MR circulation
experiment and confirmed that the values are reasonable. The
condensation and evaporation heat transfer coefficient are
compared to general two phase heat transfer coefficient
correlations. The Chen correlations fit best for condensation heat
transfer coefficient of the MR. The evaporation heat transfer
coefficient is compared to multiplied value of Dittus boelter
0.4
(10) equation. These results can be useful when designing heat
exchanger for a MR JT refrigerator.
Acknowledgments [14] Lee P-S, Garimella SV. Saturated flow boiling heat transfer
and pressure drop in silicon microchannel arrays.
The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support from International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer.51(34)
Daewoo Ship building & Marine Engineering Co., Ltd. 2008,789-806.

References
[1] Venkatarathnam G. Cryogenic mixed refrigerant processes:
Springer Verlag; 2008.

[2] Jung D, Radermacher R. Prediction of evaporation heat

transfer coefficient and pressure drop of refrigerant mixtures
in horizontal tubes. International Journal of
Refrigeration.16(3) 1993,201-9.

[3] Koyama S, Miyara A, Takamatsu H, Fujii T. Condensation

heat transfer of binary refrigerant mixtures of R22 and R114
inside a horizontal tube with internal spiral grooves.
International Journal of Refrigeration.13(4) 1990,256-63.

[4] Nellis G, Hughes C, Pfotenhauer J. Heat transfer coefficient

measurements for mixed gas working fluids at cryogenic
temperatures. Cryogenics.45(8) 2005,546-56.

[5] Baek S, Kim J-H, Jeong S, Jung J. Development of highly

effective cryogenic printed circuit heat exchanger (PCHE)
with low axial conduction. Cryogenics.52(79) 2012,366-74.

[6] Sami SM, Song B. Heat transfer and pressure drop

characteristics of HFC quaternary refrigerant mixtures inside
horizontal enhanced surface tubing. Applied Thermal
Engineering.16(6) 1996,461-73.

[7] Lemmon EW, Huber ML, McLinden MO. NIST Standard

Reference Database 23: Reference Fluid Thermodynamic
and Transport Properties-REFPROP. Version 9.0 ed:
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Standard
Reference Data Program, Gaithersburg; 2010.

[8] Baek S, Kim J, Hwang G, Jeong S. Elongating axial

conduction path design to enhace performance of cryogenic
compact printed circuit heat exchanger (PCHE). Cryogenic
Engineering Conference & International Cryogenic
Materials Conference. 2011.

[9] Peng XF, Peterson GP. Convective heat transfer and flow
friction for water flow in microchannel structures.
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer.39(12)
1996,2599-608.

[10] AspenTech. Aspen HYSYS User Guides. V7.1 ed.

Cambridge, MA, USA2008. p. Aspen HYSYS.

[11] Bandhauer TM. Heat transfer in microchannel geometries

during condensation of R-134a: Iowa State University,2002.

[12] Chen SL, Gerner FM, Tien CL. GENERAL FILM

CONDENSATION CORRELATIONS. Experimental Heat
Transfer.1(2) 1987,93-107.

[13] Koar A, Kuo C-J, Peles Y. Boiling heat transfer in

rectangular microchannels with reentrant cavities.
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer.48(2324)
2005,4867-86.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Combined Convective and Diffusive Evaporation of a Sessile Drop

P.L. Kelly-Zion1, T. Benavides1, J. Batra1, and C.J. Pursell2
1
Department of Engineering Science
Trinity University, San Antonio 78212, United States
2
Department of Chemistry
Trinity University, San Antonio 78212, United States

Abstract Introduction
A correlation is developed to compute the evaporation of sessile Sessile drop evaporation has an important role in many technical
drops which are evaporating in an initially still environment. applications, including spray cooling, painting and coating, and
Both diffusion and natural convection of the vapour influence the various lab-on-a-chip designs. Sophisticated computational
evaporation rate as movement of the ambient gas has been shown models have been developed to analyse and predict evaporation
to occur due to the natural convection of the vapour, which for processes, and these models have improved greatly the
these experiments is heavier than the ambient air. The correlation understanding of the important physical phenomena. However,
is based on experiments conducted with four hydrocarbons, because of their complexity the models are difficult to
which provides a factor of 4 variation in volatilities as indicated implement. For example, for the relatively simple case of
by the equilibrium vapour pressures, and a broad range of drop diffusion-limited evaporation, researchers use computational
size, from a radius of 1 mm to 22 mm. techniques to solve the pertinent conservation equations for the
evaporation rate [1-4]. Alternatively, an analytical expression for
Nomenclature diffusion-limited evaporation can be obtained through the use of
the electrostatic analogy of a flat disc kept at constant potential
c correlation constant [5-7]. To facilitate the inclusion of evaporation in the analyses of
D diffusion coefficient practical applications, it is desirable to have a correlation that is
E mass evaporation rate simple to implement and that is valid over a broad range of
ED mass evaporation rate for diffusion-limited evaporation conditions, including those in which natural convection of the
g gravitational acceleration vapour is significant.
Gr Grashof number
hfg enthalpy of vaporization Few simple correlations have been published for evaporation in a
hm mass transfer coefficient still environment, for which the combined effects of vapour
M molecular weight of the evaporating component phase natural convection and diffusion control the evaporation
e evaporative flux rate (as opposed to forced convection for which there are a
n correlation exponent comparatively large number of published studies). This set of
P ambient pressure correlations is dominated by those developed specifically for
Pr Prandtl number water evaporation [8-15]. For the evaporation of liquids other
Pv equilibrium vapour pressure than water, the heat and mass transfer analogy may be used but,
R drop radius to our knowledge, no simple, non-computational models have
Ru universal gas constant been developed for evaporation of sessile drops under natural
Sc Schmidt number convection conditions.
Sh Sherwood number One of the methods used for correlating water evaporation data is
ShD Sherwood number for diffusion-limited evaporation to determine a relationship between the Sherwood number (Sh)
T ambient temperature and the Rayleigh number (Ra) in the form given by equation (1).
Ra Rayleigh number
z counterdiffusion correction factor
(1)
thermal diffusivity
mass density Sc is the Schmidt number (/D), and the prefactor c and the
dynamic viscosity exponent n are fitting constants. Bower and Saylor published an
kinematic viscosity excellent review of published correlations of this form and
evaluated the ability of the correlations to fit their measurements,
relative humidity
which were conducted with heated water in square tanks of
widths between 15.2 and 60.9 cm [8, 9]. After accounting for
Subscripts
slight differences in the definitions of Sh and Ra and re-
a air computing the correlations using uniform definitions, Bower and
m mixture or measured Saylor found significant differences in the prefactors, c, and the
s located at the surface of the drop exponents, n, amongst four correlations for water evaporation
located far from the drop under conditions of natural convection. Three of the four
g saturated air correlations were developed for the case in which the water
vapour is less dense than the surrounding air, which results in a
buoyancy-induced upward flow of the vapour [8, 9, 11, 12]. One
correlation was developed for the case in which the water vapour
was colder and denser than the surrounding air, resulting in a
buoyancy-induced downward flow of the vapour [10]. Despite
the difference in the nature of the convective flow, the prefactor
and exponent for this correlation are within the range of values of
the correlations for the upward directed convective flow.
Jodat et al. measured the evaporation rate of heated water in a
large pan for a range of conditions which include vapour
transport by natural convection [14]. They correlated their results
using different forms of Daltons equation, given in general form
by equation (2), and were able to obtain a good fit for c = 0.0069,
n = 1.105, and n = 0.153.
( ) ( )
(2)
In equation (2), is the evaporative flux in units of [kg/m hr],2
Pv is the saturated vapour pressure in [Pa] of water with the
subscripts s and indicating locations at the surface of the liquid
and far from the surface, is the relative humidity, g is the
density of the saturated air in [kg/m3], and hfg is the latent heat of
vaporization in [J/kg].
With the goal of developing a general correlation for the
evaporation rate of a sessile drop that is applicable for a broad
range of volatility, vapour density, and drop size, equations (1)
and (2) were applied to evaporation rate measurements of four
hydrocarbon components: 3-methylpentane (3MP), hexane,
cyclohexane, and heptane. The volatilities of these four
components, as measured by their equilibrium vapour pressures
at 25C, vary by a factor of four. The difference between the
densities of the vapour-air mixture at the drop surface, m, and
the ambient air, a, i.e. (m-a), which is what drives the natural
convection, varies by a factor of three. Since the molecular
weights of the components are all greater than that of air, the
buoyancy-induced flow is directed down and radially away from
the surface of the drop. The drop radius was varied from 1 mm to
22 mm. As the size of the drops increases, they flatten and for
large sizes the drop may be more accurately described as a
puddle. However, for consistency, we use the term drop for all
sizes.
Strong evidence of natural convection occurring during the
evaporation of these hydrocarbon components is provided by
schlieren videos, which indicate that a pancake-shaped vapour
cloud forms above the evaporating drop and this cloud flows
radially away from the drop by natural convection [16]. The flow
of vapours is assumed to be similar to the natural convection
along the top surface of a chilled disk. As the drop size increases,
the influence of natural convection seems to become stronger -
the measured evaporation rate for a 22 mm radius drop of 3MP is
475% greater than a value predicted by a simple diffusion-limited
model [17].
Finding that neither equation (1) nor (2) provides a satisfactory
correlation to the evaporation rate data of the four hydrocarbon
components, a new correlation was developed for the evaporation
of pinned, sessile drops under the conditions of combined
diffusive and naturally convective transport of the vapour. The
new correlation has a form similar to that of equation (1) but
which contains two additional terms. One of the additional terms
provides a limiting result that is equivalent to diffusion-
controlled evaporation, and the other additional term improves
the dependency on drop size. The new correlation fit the
measured data with a RMS error of 3.5%.
Experimental Method
The experimental method is described in detail in [17] and is
summarized below.
Drops were injected onto the centre of a flat, aluminium substrate
of radius of 65 mm. To control the size of the drop, a slightly
raised, disk-shaped platform was located at the centre of the
substrate, which provides a circular edge along which the drop
attaches, as shown in Fig. 1. The drop remains attached during
the evaporation process, and therefore the contact area remains
constant, until the liquid volume becomes insufficient to cover
the platform at which time the drop pulls from the edge.
Measurements were taken only during the time a drop remains
fully attached. The height of the platform is mm for drop radii
less than or equal to 4 mm, and is 1 mm for larger radii.
R, drop radius
65 mm
Figure 1. Schematic of a profile view of a sessile drop on the
disk-shaped substrate. The drop is attached around the
circular periphery of a short platform located at the centre of
the substrate.
Sparrow et al. found that the water evaporation rates from their
experiments were dependent upon the ratio of the diameter of the
flat frame surrounding their pan of water to the diameter of the
pan when this ratio is less than three [10]. When the diameter
ratio is equal to three or more, it no longer affects the evaporation
rate, and presumably the measured evaporation rate is equivalent
to what would be measured for water on an infinite horizontal
surface. Therefore, it is important to note that the ratio of the
substrate diameter to drop diameter for the experiments reported
here is 2.95 and larger.
The drops were generated by injecting a controlled volume of
liquid onto the substrate using a pipettor. The substrate and liquid
were maintained at room temperature, which was 23.2 0.7C.
The ambient pressure was 96 2 kPa.
To isolate the experiments from drafts in the room and to ensure
an initially still environment, the substrate was contained in an
enclosure of volume approximately 6200 cm3. Care was taken to
vent the enclosure along the sides at the bottom in order to
prevent the build-up of vapour while still isolating the experiment
from drafts. Tests conducted with and without venting indicated
that the evaporation rates of drops of radius 8 mm and larger
reduced when the volume was not vented, whereas the
evaporation rates of smaller drops were unaffected.
Two methods were used to measure the evaporation rate. For
drops larger than 2 mm in radius, a simple gravimetric technique
was used whereby the mass of the drop was measured over time
by an analytical balance, which has a resolution of 0.1 mg. The
mass was measured at a rate of 10 Hz and the evaporation rate is
equal to the magnitude of the slope of the changing mass.
For drops having a radius of 1 or 2 mm, the evaporation rates
were slow enough that the resolution of the balance caused a
stair-step pattern in the transient mass results. To avoid this
problem, a shadowgraph imaging technique was used to measure
the profile of the evaporating drop and the drop volume was
computed from the profile. Images were recorded at a rate of 60
frames/sec and the evaporation rate was computed from the
changing volume and the liquid density.
To test the agreement of the gravimetric and imaging techniques,
both were used to measure the evaporation rate of a hexane drop
of radius 4 mm. The two results agree within 7%.
For all measurements except those for drops of radius 1 or 2 mm, transport and thereby increase the evaporation rate over the full
the evaporation rates were constant during the evaporation range of drop sizes. These results, taken in conjunction with the
process and thus showed no effect either of cooling of the drop visual evidence of the existence of natural convection flows
surface, or of a changing contact angle. However, for 1 and 2 mm provided in reference [16], indicate that the evaporation of these
drops, there was a gradual change in the evaporation rate, which components is occurring under combined transport mechanisms
in the worst case resulted in a 20% variation from the mean of diffusion and natural convection. Furthermore, as the drop
during the experiment. This variation is discussed in detail in size increases, the ratio of evaporation rates increases suggesting
reference [17] and is attributed to a large variation in the contact that the relative influence of natural convection becomes stronger
angle for the 1 and 2 mm drops during the evaporation process. with increasing drop size. This effect is weakest for cyclohexane
and heptane and yet for these components the measured
Each experimental condition was conducted at least three times, evaporation rate is twice the diffusion-limited value for a 6 mm
and generally five times, and the values reported are the averages drop radius and becomes four times the diffusion-limited value
of the multiple measurements. for a 22 mm drop radius.
Table 1 provides a comparison of the equilibrium vapour
pressures, gas diffusion coefficients in air, and differences in
densities between the vapour-air mixture and the surrounding air
(m-a) at the temperature and ambient pressure of the
experiments, 23C and 96 kPa. The equilibrium vapour pressures
were computed using the Antoine equation, as given in Yaws
[18], and the diffusion coefficients were computed using the
Wilke-Lee correlation, as given in [19]. The density of the
vapour-air mixture is computed using the ideal gas law and
assuming the partial pressure of the vapour is equal to the
equilibrium vapour pressure.
Component Pv [kPa] D [mm2/s] (m-a) [kg/m3]
3MP 21.70 8.67 0.501
Hexane 18.52 8.62 0.427
Cyclohexane 11.88 9.28 0.265
Heptane 5.528 7.96 0.159

Table 1. Thermophysical properties of the hydrocarbon

components at 23C and 96 kPa.
Figure 1. Measured evaporation rates as a function of the
The evaporation rates were correlated using a relationship drop size.
between Sh and Ra, which are computed according to equations
(3) and (4). To determine an expression for the mass transfer (6)
coefficient, hm, the vapour concentration difference is taken to be
equal to the saturated concentration at the drop surface since [ ] (7)
there is no vapour far from the drop. Furthermore, the saturated ( )
vapour concentration is computed using the ideal gas law.

(3)

[( ) ]( ) (4)

Equation (2) also was used to correlate the data, and the
evaporative flux, e, was determined according to equation (5).

(5)

Results and Discussion

Experimental Results
The measured evaporation rates are presented in Figure 1 as a
function of the drop radius. Clearly, the evaporation rate is
strongly dependent on the volatility and size of the drop.
To gauge the influences of the vapour transport by diffusion and
natural convection, the measured evaporation rates were divided
by the values computed for diffusion-limited evaporation as
computed according to equations (6) and (7), which is Stefans
solution for diffusion from a flat circular disk, as reported by Figure 2. Ratio of measured to diffusion-limited evaporation
Gauss [6]. z is the counterdiffusion correction factor. The ratio of rate as a function of the drop size.
measured to diffusion-limited evaporation rates, plotted in Figure
2, suggest that natural convection is acting to enhance the vapour
Correlation Development
In the effort to determine a general correlation for the
evaporation rate as a function of the physical properties of the
liquid and ambient gas as well as the size of the sessile drop,
equations (1) and (2) were applied with the results given in
Figures (3) and (4). For equation (2), is set to zero since no
vapour was present far from the evaporating drop.
Figure 3. Comparisons of fitted and measured Sherwood
numbers. The open squares are the results of the best fit of
equation (1) to the measured data. The filled circles are the
results of the new correlation, equation (5).
Figure 4. Results of the best fit correlation using equation
(2).
The correlation constants for equations (1) and (2) were found by
applying non-linear regression using the statistical software
package Minitab. The constants are given in Table 2. The root-
mean-square (rms) errors for the fits of equations (1) and (2) are
13% and 66%. Clearly, equation (2) is inadequate to correlate the
evaporation rate over a broad range of volatilities, diffusivities,
and drop sizes. Equation (1), on the other hand, correlated the
data significantly better despite having one fewer correlation
constant.
Equation rms
c n n
# error
(1) 0.897 0.154 -- 13%
(2) 0.0106 0.0274 1.22 66%
Table 2. Constants for the best fit correlations to our evaporation
rate data using equations (1) and (2).
In trying to find a better correlation, the basic Sh-Ra relationship
was utilized but Ra was broken into component parts with each
dimensionless part allowed to influence the correlation to a
different degree, as given by equation (8). In this way, the
magnitude of the effect of the density difference ratio, which
drives natural convection, is not constrained by the effect of drop
size, i.e. the exponents n1 and n2 may be different. Furthermore,
the exponent on Sc ( ) through which the effect of diffusivity
is introduced, is not constrained to the value 1/3, which derives
from the analogy to convective heat transfer. Since the
experiments were conducted at the same temperature, Pr for air is
constant (0.708) and is embedded in the coefficient c2. Another
modification to the form of the Sh-Ra relationship is the constant,
c1, which is added to enable the correlation to reduce to a nonzero
value under conditions when there is no natural convection, i.e.
when the evaporation rate is diffusion-limited.
( ) ( ) (8)
Equation (8) correlated the Sherwood number based on measured
evaporation rates, Shm, with an rms error of 3.7%.
The value of the constant c1 was found to be 1.25. Considering a
condition in which natural convection is not occurring, for
example when m = a, then equation (8) gives Sh = c1. Solving
this expression for the evaporation rate, E, using equation (6) to
express E in terms of the diffusion-limited rate, ED, yields
equation (9). The counterdiffusion coefficient, z, varies between
1.03 (heptane) and 1.13 (3MP) for the conditions of the
experiments and so equation (9) indicates that the correlation
approaches the value for diffusion-limited evaporation, as would
be expected.
(9)
To improve the correlation, the constant c1 was replaced with the
Sherwood number based on diffusion-limited evaporation, ShD,
which is computed by replacing E in equation (3) with the
expression for ED in equation (6). As a consequence, the
computed evaporation rate reduces exactly to the diffusion-
limited value under conditions for which there is no natural
convection and the number of fitting parameters in the correlation
is reduced by 1. The resulting correlation is given by equation
(10) and the comparison between the fitted values and measured
values is given in Figure 3.
[ ] (10)
Figure 5 shows the percentage error in the predicted evaporation
rate. All of the predicted values are within 9% of the measured
values and only three of the predictions have an error greater than
6%. The rms error is 3.5%. The results show that the
correlation provides good agreement over the full range of
conditions. Ra varies nearly five orders of magnitude, from 3.7 to
1.3x105, and the term ( ) varies by four orders of magnitude,
from 38 to 3.9x105. The variation in Sc is small, from 1.8 to 2.1.
Although the correlation provides very good overall agreement
for all four components over the broad range of conditions it
consistently over-predicts the evaporation rate for 3MP by a
small amount.
Equation (10) suggests that the influences of diffusion and
natural convection are independent and additive but, in fact, the
two transport mechanisms are interdependent. The flow of
vapour and air near the drop due to natural convection influences
the vapour distribution and thereby affects the rate of diffusion.
Consequently, the second term on the right hand side of equation
(10) should be perceived as containing both the influence of
natural convection and the net change in the influence of
diffusion compared to the diffusion-only condition.
Figure 5. Error in the evaporation rate computed by the
correlation given by equation (10).
Summary and Conclusions
The evaporation of sessile drops under conditions for which
vapour transport occurs by the combined effects of diffusion and
natural convection is investigated. The evaporation rate of sessile
drops was measured for four hydrocarbons having volatilities that
varied by a factor of about four and for drop radii that varied by a
factor of 22. The measurements were used to develop a general
correlation that is applicable for a broad range of conditions for
which the relative influences of vapour diffusion and natural
convection are significant. Two correlations developed
specifically for the evaporation of water drops were applied to
the measured hydrocarbon evaporation measurements, one of
which produced a moderately good fit while the other performed
poorly. A new and much improved correlation was determined
by modifying the standard Sh-Ra correlation by breaking the Ra
to component parts and by including a term to allow the
correlation to approach the value for diffusion-limited
evaporation as the significance of natural convection goes to
zero.
The new correlation was applied to conditions for which the Ra
varied by almost five orders of magnitude and over this broad
range the rms error is 3.5%.
One parameter of the experimental conditions that did not vary
significantly is the diffusivity. Therefore to test the range of
applicability of the correlation further, it should be applied to
sessile drop evaporation measurements of components having
significantly different diffusivities than that of the hydrocarbons
used in this study.
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgement is made to the Donors of the American
Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund for support of this
research. We are also grateful to Dr. Cabral Balreira for an
informative discussion regarding non-linear regression.
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Water from a Horizontal Surface by Natural Convection, J
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Evaporation into Air of Water from a Free Horizontal Quiet
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Comparison of the ability of Dalton Based and Similarity
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Different Convection Regimes, Heat Mass Transfer, 48 (8),
2012, 1397-1406.
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the Evaporation Correlations for Natural, Forced and
Combined Convection Regimes, P I Mech Eng C-J Mec, 226
(1), 2012, 145-153.
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Evaporation of Sessile Drops under Combined Diffusion and
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Experimental Investigation on Flashback Behavior
of a Lean Premixed Burner with Swirling Flow
M. Komiyama1, K. Takeishi1 and Y. Ogawa1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Osaka University, Osaka 5650871, Japan
Abstract
Lean premixed combustion is one of the most efficient
techniques to reduce nitrogen oxide (NOx) emission. However,
lean premixed combustors have narrow stable combustion range
compared with diffusion combustors and have a risk of flashback.
Flashback of flame into a fuel nozzle causes serious damage to a
combustor. In this study, we present characteristics of flame
propagation in a premixed burner with swirling flow in order to
investigate unsteady flame behavior in the premixer. Two kinds
of mixture gas supply techniques were used in order to
investigate the characteristics of flame propagation. One is a
normal closed center swirler and the other one open center
swirler. The characteristics of flame propagation interacting with
flow fields in a premixer have been investigated by applying
high-speed particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurement and
temperature measurement by Rayleigh scattering.
Introduction
Recently, global warming and extraordinary weather conditions
caused by carbon pollution are big problems we must confront.
Then, in heavy-duty gas-turbine engines, the turbine inlet
temperature (TIT) increases year by year in order to reduce CO2
emissions and to improve thermal efficiency. However, at the
same time, this leads to the increase of NOx emissions which
causes photochemical smog, acid rain, and ozone depletion. One
of the most promising approaches for gaseous fuel (natural gas)
is based on the adoption of lean premixed combustion. Premixed
combustion is a technique to burn mixture gas after fuel is mixed
with air. With lean premixed combustion, local high temperature
regions, which are attributed to mixture inhomogeneity, are
suppressed, and so it has a large effect in reducing NOx
emissions. However, premixed combustion has a characteristic of
flame upstream propagation in unburned mixture gas. The flame
propagation into the mixing zone overheats and damages the
upstream hardware components. Now, it is a general idea to use
swirling flow in gas turbine premixed burners in order to promote
mixing fuel with air, to hold a flame with a recirculation zone and
to develop a more compact combustor. However, unstable
behaviors of vortex such as the vortex breakdown and precessing
vortex core (PVC) complicate the flame structure [1]. Recently,
the flashback caused by vortex breakdown has been studied with
both experimental techniques and numerical analysis. For
instance, there are the following reports. The characteristics of
flashback in a swirling burner with high-speed camera was
analyzed [2]. Discussion about the relationship between
flashback limit and quenching factor was reported [3]. The flame
behavior in a swirl burner was classified from the measurement
result [4]. The flow fields under unburned condition was
measured and the precession movement of vortex core was
clarified [5]. Numerical simulation was applied to analyze about
vortex breakdown, which occurs in an actual gas turbine
combustor [6]. Furthermore, flashback behaviors based on both
laser imaging techniques and numerical simulations were
reported [7-9]. However, the comprehensive mechanism of
flashback has not been clarified yet because of its unsteady
interaction with flame and vortex.
This study aims to clarify the detailed mechanism of flashback.
In addition, our study focuses on the interaction between flame
propagation and flow fields in a premixer. According to the
previous research, it was clarified that low velocity region existed
near the flame tip and the flame propagated upstream through the
region [10]. Therefore, there is a chance that we can control the
flame propagation by changing flow structure and promote
stability of flame. In order to confirm the above hypothesis, we
investigated the characteristics of flame propagation while
changing flow condition intentionally in the model premixer. The
flame dynamics and flow fields were visualized sequentially by
high-speed PIV measurement with a high-speed camera. In
addition, high-speed PIV measurement serves to visualize the
development of precessing vortex core (PVC). PVC is a
remarkable flow structure, which influences the stability of
premixed flame behavior. In this paper, a relationship between
flame stability and PVC was also discussed. Even further,
flashback limit was measured in order to investigate the
dependence of flashback on flow fields. Additionally, we
examined the characteristics of the instantaneous flame
temperature distributions by Rayleigh scattering.
Experimental Setup
The model premixed burner used in this experiment is shown in
Fig.1. In this burner, airflow is swirled by swirler vanes at the
airflow inlet. In this experiment, the exit angle, = 45 degrees of
the swirler vane was used. Fuel is injected outward from the
central fuel nozzle into the surrounding airflow. The nozzle has
24 circular holes of 1 mm in diameter located upstream the
swirler. The cylinder glass whose length is L = 350 mm and inner
diameter is D = 60 mm is used to model a premixer and the glass
is made of quartz in order to transmit a laser light and to visualize
flame behavior and flow fields inside the cylinder. A flame
holder located 20 mm downstream the exit plane of the
cylindrical glass. The flame holder is made of ceramic of 12 mm
in diameter. In this study, flame propagating upstream from the
flame holder through the cylindrical glass is discussed. In this
study, two kinds of mixture gas supply techniques were used in
order to investigate the characteristics of flame propagation under
different flow conditions. The former is described in Fig.1 (a). In
this technique, all mixture gas passes through the swirler vanes
and swirling flow is generated. And the latter is described in
Fig.1 (b). In this technique, a part of mixture gas passes through
the swirler vanes and the rest of mixture gas flows into premixer
through the center hole of the swirler. The swirl number of closed
 Figure 1. Schematic view of model combustor.

center swirler is 0.737 and that of open center swirler are 0.472 in
the case of 50 Nl/min airflow rate, 0.418 of 100 Nl/min and 0.394
of 150 Nl/min, respectively. The 24 % flow rate out of the total
one flowed out from the center nozzle in the open center swirler
in the case of 50 Nl/min airflow rate. The axial flow rate makes
the difference of flow patterns in the cylindrical tube and flame
flashback limit between the open center swirler and the closed
center swirler. By using such configurations, we aim to suppress
the development of low velocity region in vortex core of swirling
flow and prevent the flashback. So far, researches about
premixed burner with such the swirler which has center hole have
been conducted [11,12]. However, effects of suppressing
flashback by using this technique have not been mentioned. In
the study, high-speed PIV measurement was conducted in order
to visualize the instantaneous flow fields in the premixer.
Because the behavior of the premixed flame existing at outlet of
premixer changes unsteadily under the influence of flow field, it
is difficult to know the flashback mechanism interacting with
flow field from an instantaneous result obtained by conventional
PIV measurement. However, we can observe the unsteady
change of the flow field and discuss about detailed mechanism of
flashback by adopting high-speed PIV.
Fig.2 shows the schematic view of flow system and the optical
apparatus of the high speed PIV measurement. Air as an oxidizer
is supplied from a compressor after moisture and dust is removed
by filters from it. In this study, Methane (CH4) was used as fuel
because it is a main fuel in natural gas. In the high-speed PIV
measurement, air contains fine particles of olive oil as a tracer, Figure 2. Experimental apparatus for high-speed
PIV measurement.
which have 2-3 m in diameter. Compressed air flows into a pool
of olive oil through a Raskin nozzle in a pressure vessel and
particles of olive oil are generated. The olive oil that is the measurement area at x= -30 to 30 mm and y = 360 to 400 mm
burnable material was used as a tracer, not only flow fields but downstream the exit of the cylinder tube.
also a detailed flame shape can be measured. An Ar ion laser, the
wavelength of 514.5 nm and 488 nm, was employed to illuminate Results and Discussion
the tracers. Three cylindrical lenses were used to form a 2 mm
thickness laser sheet. The images of the light reflected on particle High-speed PIV measurement
surfaces were taken with a high-speed camera (Photron In this experiment, high-speed PIV measurements were
FASTCAM 10241024 pixels, 12 bits) located in front of the conducted for air flow rate, Qair = 50,100, and150 Nl/min. The
measurement area. The measurement areas of high-speed PIV are measurements in x-y plane were conducted under both an
shown in Fig.1 as the shaded area. In Fig.1, x, y and z represent unburned condition and a burned condition. However, the flame
radial distance from center axis of cylinder glass, axial distance could not be kept at the flame holder and the flashback occurred
from bottom edge of the cylinder glass and out-of-plane distance, at once under the burned condition at Qair = 100, and 150 Nl/min
respectively. In the x-y measurement plane, interaction between
and = 45 degrees when the closed center swirler was used.
flame behavior and flow fields is expected to be visualized.
Therefore, high-speed PIV measurement has not been conducted
Furthermore, the measurement in the x-z measurement plane
at such experimental conditions. Fig.3 shows instantaneous flow
aims to clarify the dynamics of vortex core (e.g., PVC). The
fields measured at Qair = 50 Nl/min and = 45 degrees. In these
particle images were digitally stored on hard disks using the
figures, the velocity vector is described as arrow and the
acquisition software PFV (Photron FASTCAM Viewer). The
distribution of axial velocity is shown by false color. In Fig.3, (a)
sampling frequency was 1000 Hz. A pair of two pictures
and (b) show results of instantaneous flow fields when the closed
separated by a time interval of 1 ms was taken. From these two
center swirler is used. Fig.3 (a) shows the flow fields under the
images with a short time interval, the displacement distance of
unburned condition and Fig.3 (b) shows the flow fields under the
the particle image pattern reflected on particle surfaces was
burned condition. Fig.3 (c) is the result of instantaneous flow
calculated and then, the velocity vector was measured. Then, to
fields under the burned condition when the open center swirler is
reduce the effect of reflection from the cylinder glass surface, a
used (cf. Fig.1 (b)). Under the burned condition such as Fig.3 (b)
background image for each pulse is subtracted from each frame.
and Fig.3 (c), the flame shape was illustrated by black region.
In PIV data procedures, the recursive cross correlation algorithm
The flame shape can be recognized by the area where the
is realized by repeating the cross correlation calculation from
burnable olive oil tracer particles are burned down. In these
large interrogation areas to small ones at four levels. This process
results of high-speed PIV measurement, there are some error
allows one to reduce the computational load dramatically and
vector areas due to reflection of laser light on the cylinder glass
raises the spatial resolution in the final results. Firstly, a first-
surface. In addition, it can be feared that there is an error vector
level sub region is selected and a cross correlation calculation is
near edge of the cylinder glass because of curvature of cylinder
carried out in the same way of a normal correlation processing.
glass. However, such error vector areas dont become problems
At a next level, using the information at a former level to direct
about knowing phenomena of flow fields because they are not so
the search window, the correlation process is carried out with a
large. It was confirmed that images within 55 mm diameter was
smaller interrogation area, which is downsized by one-quarter
not distorted in the cylindrical tube using the reference dots plate
from the former level. The resolution of the camera system is
printed at 2.5 mm of spatial intervals in advance of the
0.080 mm/pixel and the first and the final interrogation box size
experimental procedures.
are 128 by 128 pixels and 16 by 16 pixels, respectively. The
From Fig.3 (a), it can be found that very low velocity region
overlapping between each interrogation box is 50 %. The
exists along the center axis of the premixer. Furthermore, as
uncertainty of the velocity is 0.010 m/s using the sub-pixel
shown from vector maps, internal recirculation zone (IRZ) can be
procedure. In the x-y measurements between at intervals of 1 ms,
seen at the vicinity of the cylinder glass outlet. In Fig.3 (a), the
the cross correlation coefficient of particle patterns of the whole
flow field is not so changed and the low velocity region exists
measurement area is 0.959. In the x-z measurements, that is
stably along the center axis of the premixer. In the result of Fig.3
0.889. This value departs from unity is resulted from that the
(b), it is clarified that the flame is held steady at the low velocity
particle pattern is distorted for flow convection and some
region. In this case, the internal recirculation zone acts effectively
particles flow out from the measurement plane.
as keeping flame. According to existing research, it is interpreted
The flame temperature measurement was performed using the
that the internal recirculation zone transports heats and active
Rayleigh scattering method. We used clean air without olive oil.
species to the tip of the flame and provides areodynamical
The change of the effective Rayleigh scattering cross-section in a
flameholding [7]. From Fig.3 (c), it is found that the flame
CH4-air premixed flame has been reported to be relatively small
[13-15]. It was confirmed that the difference in effective propagating upstream is pressed back to outlet of the premixer by
axial high velocity region of mixture gas. It is considered that the
Rayleigh scattering cross-section between unburned mixture gas
and burned gas is within 3% under these measuring conditions. A high velocity region is generated by impingement flow from the
open center swirler. This phenomenon was able to be seen even
double pulsed Nd:YAG laser (Spectra-Physics, PIV-400) was
in other cases when the open center swirler was used.
employed to measure simultaneous two-dimensional temperature
Accordingly, it can be said that we can control the flame
distributions. This laser light has an emitting wavelength of 532
propagating to upstream and prevent flashback by generating the
nm and 300 mJ of laser power per pulse. The laser lights were
high axial velocity region in front of the flame tip. We measured
made into a laser sheet with 0.2 mm width by a cylindrical lens
two-dimensional fuel concentration profiles and flow fields near
(f=700 mm) into the measuring area. The Rayleigh scattering
the exit of the cylindrical tube using acetone-LIF and PIV
light was collected at right angles to the incident beam by a
simultaneously and instantaneously. We checked the degree of
camera lens. The light collected from Rayleigh scattering was
mixing between fuel and air and confirmed it was enough
enhanced by an image intensifier (I.I) synchronized with the laser
accomplished. The conditions of mixture fuel for reacting cases
so that it could be detected by the CCD camera. The duration
are indicated in flashback limit of Fig. 5 described below. In
interval for detecting Rayleigh scattering was set up to 1 s,
Fig.3 (b), time-series flow fields with closed center swirler was
which is short enough to eliminate the influence of
measured at 1.93 of air ratio based on the measured flashback
chemiluminescence from the flame. In the temperature
limit described in Fig. 5. In Fig.3 (c), that with open center
measurement, we did not use the flame holder and set the
swirler was measured at 1.58.
 T=0ms
T = 568.00ms T = T=12ms
580.00ms T =T=24ms
592.00ms T = T=36ms
604.00ms
350
v[m/s]
0.8
330
y[mm]

310

290 -0.6
1.0m/s
1.0 m/s

270
-20 0 20 -20 0 20 -20 0 20 -20 0 20
(a)
T=0ms
T = 948.00ms T = T=12ms
960.00ms T =T=24ms
972.00ms T = T=36ms
988.00ms
350
v[m/s]
0.8
330
y[mm]

310

290
-0.6
1.0m/s
1.0 m/s

270
-20 0 20 -20 0 20 -20 0 20 -20 0 20

(b)
T=0ms
T = 880.00ms T=16ms
T = 896.00ms T=48ms
T = 928.00ms T=76ms
T = 956.00ms
350
v[m/s]
0.7
330
y[mm]

310

290 -0.1
1.0m/s
1.0 m/s

270
-20 0 20 -20 0 20 -20 0 20 -20 0 20
(c) x[mm] x[mm] x[mm] x[mm]
Figure 3. Time-series flow fields measured at x-y plane at Qair = 50 Nl/min and = 45 degrees by high-speed PIV. (a)
Unburned condition with the closed center swirler. (b) Burned condition with the closed center swirler. (c) Burned condition
with the open center swirler.

Furthermore, the x-z plane flow fields at exit plane of
cylinder glass, y = 350 mm are also visualized in this study. The
high-speed PIV measurements in x-z plane were conducted for
Qair = 50, 100, and 150 Nl/min under only the unburned
conditions. Fig.4 shows the measurement results of x-z plane
flow fields when the closed center swirler is used (cf. Fig.1 (a)).
In these figures, Fig.4 (a) shows the results at Qair = 50 Nl/min
and = 45 degrees and Fig.4 (b) shows the results at Qair = 100
Nl/min and = 45 degrees. In these figures, velocity vector is
described as arrow and vorticity is shown by false color. As
can be seen from Fig.4, vortex core of the swirling flow does not
always exist stably in the center axis of the premixer.
Furthermore, it can be found that the vortex core of the swirling
flow rotates around the center axis of premixer. This behavior of
the vortex core can be interpreted as the precessing vortex core
(PVC). We succeeded in visualizing PVC clearly by high-speed
PIV measurement in x-z plane. The images of the PVC in Fig. 4
(a) and (b) were appeared at 3.68 s-1 and 7.35 s-1 of frequency
using time-series measurement in x-z plane with unburned
conditions. In this measurement case, the Swirl number is 0.74.
The frequency of PVC in this case (a) was 3.97s-1 based on the
relationship between Strouhal number and Swirl number
described in reference [1]. According to the earlier researches,
PVC is considered as the remarkable vortex movement
interacting with the flame behavior held by swirling flow. In
addition, it is feared that burned gas overheats the wall of
premixer because the heat gas approaches the wall by
circumferential movement of flame with PVC. It was confirmed
that the precession movement of vortex core swirled around the
center axis in the same direction as swirling flow. Furthermore, it
was clarified that the turbulence of the flow field was
strengthened by increasing Qair. Therefore, it can be considered
that increase in turbulent burning velocity caused by the high
turbulent flow fields promotes flame to propagate upstream. In
 T = 0 ms 28 ms 56 ms 84 ms

300
[1/s]
-300

(a) Flow field with the close center swirler at Qair = 50 Nl/min, = 45 degrees

T = 0 ms 12 ms 24 ms 36 ms

600
[1/s]
-600

(b) Flow field with the close center swirler at Qair = 100 Nl/min, = 45 degrees

Figure 4. Measurement results of flow field obtained at x-z plane.

addition, the precession movement of vortex core became intense Flashback Limit
and high frequency by increasing Qair. These unstable
movements of vortex core make flame structure complex and In this study, flashback limits were measured under several
cause the flashback. According to the results when the open conditions in order to understand the characteristics of flame
center swirler was used, it was clarified that the circumferential propagation. The flashback limit is indicated by the air ratio (or
velocity was weakened and the vortex core of swirling flow was equivalence ratio) when the flashback occurs. Flashback was
held stably at the center axis of the cylinder glass. Then, it is induced to increase fuel flow rate Qfuel, keeping air flow rate
known that flame speed depends on circumferential velocity of Qair. Air flow rate was set at Qair = 50 to 150 Nl/min at intervals
swirling flow. Therefore, it can be considered that using the of 10 Nl/min. In this experiment, the flashback is defined that the
swirler whose center is open decreases the flame speed. T=0ms T=20ms T=40ms T=60ms T=80ms T=100ms

2.4
case(a)
case(b)
2.1

1.8 (a) Closed center swirler at Qair = 50 Nl/min, = 45 degrees

T=0ms T=20ms T=40ms T=60ms T=80ms T=100ms

1.5

1.2

0.9
50 100 150
Qair[Nl/min]
(b) Open center swirler at Qair = 50 Nl/min, = 45 degrees
Figure 5. Flashback limit mapping.( = 45 degrees). Case (a) Figure 6. Direct consecutive photographs of flame shape. ( 20 ms
the closed center swirler, case (b) the open center swirler. of time interval )
flame propagates into premixer and reaches the point 100 mm
distance from the inlet of the premixer. Fig.5 shows the flashback
limit mapping with swirler whose exit angle is = 45 degrees.
The case (a) represents the result when the swirler whose center
hole is closed, and case (b) represents the result when the swirler
whose center hole is open. The measurements were conducted
five times per one experimental condition and the sample
averages of flashback limit were plotted in these figures. In these
measurements of flashback limit, the reproducible results have
been obtained. As shown by case (a), the flashback limit has not
been measured when air flow rate Qair is more than 90 Nl/min.
In these conditions, flame was not able to be held stably and
flashback occurred immediately. The statistics procedure of the
instantaneous velocity profiles clarified that the turbulence
intensity increased when the air flow rate increased. Then, it can
be considered that the increase of turbulence intensity caused by
increase in air flow rate promotes unstable combustion and
causes the flashback in experimental conditions such as case (a)
of Fig.5. Furthermore, it can be seen that flow velocity near the
center axis decreases when the air flow rate increases. Then,
flame can propagate more easily because of the decrease in flow
velocity near the flame tip. In these conditions, flame could not
be held near the outlet of the cylinder glass. However, the long
and narrow flame existed along the center axis of the cylinder
glass when the fuel condition was adjusted.

400 400

390 390

y[mm]
y[mm]

380 380

370 370

360 360
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
x[mm] x[mm]

(i) 300
Temperature[K]
2500 300 Temperature[K] 2500

500 500

400 400

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
(ii)

2000 2000
Temperature[K]
Temperature[K]

1000 1000
Experiment
Experiment Calculation
Calculation
0 0
0 1 2 0 1 2
(iii) distance[cm] distance[cm]

(a) Closed center swirler at Qair = 50 Nl/min, (b) Open center swirler at Qair = 50 Nl/min,
= 45 degrees. = 45 degrees

Figure 7. Instantaneous 2-D temperature profiles. Top figures (i) show measured instantaneous 2-D temperature profiles, middle ones (ii)
parallel line (blue) and normal line (light green) of the flame surface and the bottom ones (iii) temperature profile along the normal line of
the flame surface.
 Fig.6 shows direct consecutive photographs of flame
propagation taken under several conditions. These photographs
were taken by a high-speed color camera (Photoron FASTCAM
SA-X) and the exposure time was set at 1 ms. In these figures,
picture (a) was taken at Qair = 50 Nl/min, = 45 degrees with
the swirler whose center hole was closed. The
chemiluminescence intensity of picture (a) was very weak, and
the brightness was relatively intensified as compared with
pictures (b). As shown by Fig.6 (a), it can be seen that there is the
long and narrow flame along the center axis of the cylinder glass.
As shown by Fig.6 (b), this flame has laminar flamelet with
winkled and flame density increases with multi-layer winkled
shapes by increasing flow velocity.
Figure 7 shows that two-dimensional instantaneous
temperature distributions measured by Rayleigh scattering. The
top figure of Fig.7 (a) (i) shows the temperature profile measured
at Qair = 50 Nl/min, = 45 degrees with the swirler whose
center hole was closed and in the nearly flash back condition.
The flame shape is narrow as shown by the direct consecutive
photographs of Fig.6 (a) and the flame surface is vague and the
flame thickness is thick due to the moderate combustion by high
air ratio. The middle figure of Fig.7 (a) (ii) shows the flame
shape of the top figure. The parallel direction to the flame surface
of interest is indicated by a blue line and the normal direction of
the flame surface of interest by a light green line. The flame
shape is detected by the spline interpolation of the measured
temperature profiles. The black line of the bottom figure of Fig.7
(a) (iii) shows the temperature profile along the normal line of the
flame surface of Fig.7 (a) (ii) and the red line the numerical result
by PREMIX code and GRI-Mech 3.0. The temperature gradient
of the flame surface is gentler as compared with the numerical
results. It might be caused not by the corresponding angle of the
laser sheet with the normal direction of the flame surface. The
combustion in this flow condition proceeds moderately. The top
figure of Fig.7 (b) (i) was measured at Qair = 50 Nl/min, = 45
degrees with the swirler whose center hole was open and in the
nearly flash back condition. The flame shape has a local concave
and convex curve due to hydrodynamic instability. In the Fig.7
(b) (iii), the flame gradient is steeper as compared with that of
Fig.7 (a) (iii) due to lower air ratio. The flame temperature along
the normal line in the open center swirler, shows the combustion
proceeds more actively as compared with that in the closed one.
Conclusions
Fom this experimental study on the flashback behavior of a lean
premixed flame with swirling flow, the results obtained are
described as follows.
In the premixer with swirling flow, flame is hold at low
velocity region generated by internal recalculation zone (IRZ) of
swirling flow. However, flame cannot be kept at the exit plane of
cylinder glass when circumferential velocity is high and
turbulence of flow field is intensified. In such conditions, the
long and narrow flame can be seen by adjusting the fuel
condition.
From results of high-speed PIV measurement, it was
confirmed that flame was pressed back to downstream of the
premixer by the axial high velocity region generated by
impingement flow from center hole of the swirler. However,
flashback in wall boundary layer was caused by using the open
center swirler when circumferential velocity of swirling flow was
low.
Precessing Vortex Core (PVC) has been visualized in high-
speed PIV measurement at x-z measurement plane. It was
clarified that the PVC becomes intense by increasing air flow rate
Qair. Then unstable behavior of flame is promoted by PVC.
The instantaneous temperature profiles show the temperature
characteristics near the flame surface. The combustion at nearly
flash back conditions proceeds more moderately in the case of
the closed center swirler as compared with in the case of the open
center one.
References
[1] Syred, N., A Review of Oscillation Mechanisms and the
Role of the Precessing Vortex Core (PVC) in Swirl
Combustion Systems, Progress in Energy and Combustion
Science, 32, 2006, 93161.
[2] Fritz, J., Kroner, M. and Sattelmayer, T., Flashback in a
Swirl Burner with Cylindrical Premixing Zone, ASME Paper,
2001, 2001-GT-0054.
[3] Kroner, M., Fritz, J. and Sattelmayer, T., Flashback limits
for combustion induced vortex breakdown in a swirl burner,
Proc. ASME TURBO EXPO, 2002, GT-2002-30075.
[4] Owaki, T. and Umemura, A., Premixed Swirl Combustion
Modes Emerging for a Burner Tube with Converging
Entrance, Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 31, 2007,
1067-1074.
[5] Shtork, S. I., Cala, C. E. and Fernandes, E. C., Experimental
Characterization of Rotating Flow Field in a Model Vortex
Burner, Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, 31, 2007,
779-788.
[6] Turrell, D., Stopford, P. J., Syed, K. J. and Buchanan, E.,
CFD Simulation of the Flow within and downstream of a
High-Swirl Lean Premixed Gas Turbine Combustor, Proc.
ASME TURBO EXPO, 2004, GT-2004-53112.
[7] Konle, M., Kiesewetter, F. and Sattelmayer, T.,
Simultaneous High Repetition Rate PIV-LIF-Measurements
of CIVB Driven Flashback, Exp. Fluids, 44, 2008, 529-538.
[8] Konle, M. and Sattelmayer, T., Time Scale Model for the
Prediction of the Onset of Flame Flashback Driven by
Combustion Induced Vortex Breakdown, J. Engineering for
Gas Turbines and Power, 132, 2010, No. 041503.
[9] Heeger, C., Gordon, R. L., Tummers, M. J., Sattelmayer, T.
and Dreizler, A., Experimental Analysis of Flashback in
Lean Premixed Swirling Flames: Upstream Flame
Propagation, Exp. Fluids, 49, 2010, 853-863.
[10] Tanimura, S., Iwasaki, Y., Komiyama, M., Takeishi, K. and
Nakayama, K., Visualization of Flashback in a Premixed
Burner with Swirling Flow, Science China Technological
Sciences, 53, 2010, 40-45.
[11] Johnson, M. R., Littlejohn, D., Nazeer, W. A., Smith, K. O.,
Chenge, R. K., A Comparison of the Flowfields and
Emissions of High-Swirl Injectors and Low-Swirl Injectors
for Lean Premixed Gas Turbines, Proceedings of the
Combustion Institute, 30, 2005, 2867-2874.
[12] Cheng, R. K., Littlejohn, D., Strakey, P. A. and Sidwell, T.,
Laboratory Investigations of a Low-Swirl Injector with H2
and CH4 at Gas Turbine Conditions, Proceedings of the
Combustion Institute 32, 2009, 3001-3009.
[13] Eckbretha, A. C., Recent Advances in Laser Diagnostics for
Temperature and Species Concentration in Combustion,
Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 18, 1981, 1471-
1488.
[14] Orth, A., Sick, V., Wolfrum, J., Maly, R. R. and Zahn, M.,
Simultaneous 2D Single-Shot Imaging of OH
 Concentrations and Temperature Fields in an SI Engine
Simulator, Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 25,
1994, 143-150.
[15] Komiyama, M., Takeishi, K. and Araki, K, Measurements of
Fuel Concentration and Temperature Distributions in Lean
Premixed Flame with Swirling Flow, Proceedings of 8th
ASME-JSME Thermal Engineering Joint Conference, 2011,
Paper No. AJTEC2011-44479.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Relations between turbulence diffusivities and Leaf Area Densities

in a deciduous forest canopy

Yusuke ITO1, Shigeo KIMURA2, Takahiro KIWATA3, Nobuyoshi KOMATSU3

and Takaaki KONO4

1
Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology
Kanazawa University, Japan
2
Institute for Nature and Environmental Technology
Kanazawa University, Japan
3
School of Mechanical Engineering
Kanazawa University, Japan
4
Research Center for Sustainable Energy and Technology
Kanazawa University, Japan

Abstract
In order to investigate turbulent diffusion in deciduous forest
canopy, wind velocity measurements were conducted over a
period of three years, from 2010 to 2012, using an observation
tower of 20m in height, located in the campus of Kanazawa
University. Three ultrasonic anemometers are installed on the
tower, and the average wind velocities and temperatures, as well
as their fluctuations are monitored at three different heights
simultaneously. Vertical profiles of average wind velocities are
found approximately an exponential profile regardless of the leaf
density. Mixing lengths are about the same, and nearly
independent of the leaf density. Standard deviation of fluctuating
components is seen conspicuously different due to the leaf
density. The difference in eddy structure is also observed
according to the leaf density.
1. Introduction
In recent years, as environmental problem becomes a central
issue, many concerns about the turbulent diffusion processes in
environmental flows, such as atmospheric motions, oceans and
lake circulations, and river flows, are rising. The same holds true
for flows within vegetation layers and above them. In general,
flows in our natural environment are turbulent. This agitated air
flow plays an important role in controlling dispersion processes
of pollens, fire sparks in forest fire, other airborne particles,
concentrations of water vapor, CO2 and other gaseous substances
within and above forest. Therefore, flows in vegetation layer are
responsible for a broad range of transport processes in connection
with our atmospheric environment and forest ecosystem. In
addition, it is known that investigation of flow in plant canopies
assists to understand other effects on our environment;
windshield, moderating severe climate, protection against wind
abrasion, defecating atmospheric pollutants, for instance.
Nonetheless, understanding of transport mechanisms in plant
canopies is still limited by the difficulty to conduct field
measurements, and also by the fact of diversifying conditions of
canopy structures and surrounding topographical terrains. In
general, dispersion of airborne particles and gaseous substances
is significantly affected by random fluid motions in nature. The
agitated air flow leads to enhanced transport of momentum and
scalar quantities (heat, water vapor, CO2etc). This is why many
studies have focused on obtaining these turbulent-transport
properties in both open air and canopy system for decades. As for
plant canopy layers, many field measurements have been
reported until early 1990s. Since then, the research trend was
shifted to numerical analyses and urban canopies, see Uno et
al.,1988; Rotach, 1993; Roth & Oke, 1993; Oikawa, 1995, for
example. Many relevant studies employed numerical techniques
to analyze the formation mechanisms of heat island. One of the
difficulties challenging them, however, is to evaluate the
turbulent diffusivities of momentum, heat and species in a system
of convection-diffusion equations in numerical analysis. We
denote the turbulent diffusion coefficient as K in this paper. It is
worth nothing that only a few measured data of K have been
reported for tall canopies[Fujioka et al. 2009]. Particularly,the
measured data in a complex topographical terrain are almost none.
Considering the above mentioned facts, in the present study,
we conducted measurements of the eddy diffusivities and other
turbulent characteristics in a deciduous forest canopy in a period
of three years, from 2010 to 2012. We evaluated for the eddy
diffusivities and other turbulent properties based on averaged
data sets over a period of ten minutes.
2. Observation site and Experiments
2.1. OBSERVATION SITE
The observation site, a 20m tall tower, is located in a hilly
forest on the campus of Kanazawa University. It is situated one
of minor hills branching from the major hill, which is about
400m in length and 50m in width, stretching to north-west
direction. There are several similar branching ridges side by side
oriented in parallel. They are all thickly covered with many tall
deciduous trees, such as oak trees (Quercus serrata) and Japanese
chestnut oak trees (Quercus acutissima), with occasional bamboo
communities intruded in the oak community. The observation
tower is surrounded predominantly with oak trees, in which many
are as tall as the tower. Figure 1 & 2 are photographic views from
the tower looking northwest and southeast, respectively.
2.2. INSTRUMENTATION
Wind velocities and temperatures were measured by three 3-D
ultrasonic anemometer- thermometers (they are YOUNG, model
81000; velocity resolution: 0.01m/s; temperature resolution:
0.01[K]). The ultrasonic anemometers were calibrated in a wind
tunnel. All data were collected by a data acquisition system
(Keyence Co., NR-500) at a sampling rate of 10 Hz. The
acquired data were averaged in every ten minutes, and they
served to calculate the fluctuating quantities of wind velocity and
temperature.
 LAD(Leaf Area Density) values were measured by image
analysis from the hemispherical photographs that we took using a
digital camera (Nikon, COOLPIX4500) and a fisheye lens
(Nikon, FC-E8) [Matsuyama et al. 2003].
2.3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Figure 3 indicating the tower location shows topographical
views of the surround area in Kanazawa University campus.
Figure 4 shows a schematic of the field measurement setup. The
highest measurement position is 22.5m above the ground. As
shown in Figure 4, the observation tower is surrounded by dense
oak trees whose heights are about 23m. Three anemometers are
mounted at vertical positions of 7.1m, 14.6m and 22.5m on the
west side of the observation tower. In order to minimize
influence of tower structure, these anemometers are set at a
position with a 1m lateral distance away from the tower corner.
In the present study, the data reported are classified into two
categories, measurement A and B. In measurement A, the data
were acquired on June 14&17, 2011 and June 06&10, 2012.
Figure 5(a) shows a photograph of trees around the tower at this

Fig.1 A view from the observation tower looking at the Fig.2 A view from the observation tower looking at the
northwest (March 26, 2011) southeast (March 26, 2011)
Ultrasonic
Observation tower [m] anemometer
140 22.5m
120

100
H 14.6m
20m
Maximum height
80
H 23m 7.1m
60

Fig.3 Location of observation tower and the surrounding Fig.4 Schematic picture of observation tower in the
topography forest

(a) Oak trees have their full leaves (b) Oak trees completely lost their leaves
(Measurement A; June 06, 2012) (Measurement B; March 26, 2011)
Fig.5 State of the vegetation of the observation tower circumference
time. As shown in the photograph, trees are in full leaves. In
addition, the weather for these four days were fine or cloudy. In
measurement B, on the other hand the data were acquired in
March 18&22, 2010 and March 23&26, 2011. Figure 5(b) shows
the picture of trees in March. As the picture shows, the trees
completely lose their leaves in this period of time. In addition, the
weather for these four days were also fine or cloudy. The
hemispherical photographs to calculate LAD value were
taken at several locations near the tower. Figure 6(a) & (b) are
average LAD values near the observation tower. A difference
appears conspicuously when one compares Measurement B with
Measurement A.
2.4. WEATHER AND ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS
Table 1 shows the number of the sample data obtained by
actual measurements and the mean conditions of the weather and
the atmospheric stability. All the data in Table 1 were measured
at z = 22.5m, the highest measurement position. Here, z indicates
the vertical coordinate measured from the ground. UH is the mean
horizontal wind speed. L is the Monin - Obukhov stability length
defined L = u*T0/ g ( w'T ') ,where w and T are vertical wind
velocity and temperature fluctuations, respectively, is the von
Karman constant (0.41), T0 is the potential temperature, g is the
acceleration due to gravity, and u* is the friction velocity derived
from the eddy correlation measurements, with u* = u ' w' . The
ratio between z and L is a parameter which measures atmospheric
stability. It is seen that the atmospheric conditions are all weakly
unstable. The wind velocities and directions are roughly the same
for all cases.
3. The Turbulent Properties
3.1. VERTICAL PROFILES OF MEAN VELOCITY
Vertical profiles of mean velocity within a vegetation canopy
was reported by Inoue(1963),
U ( z ) = U H exp[ b( H z )] (1)
where UH is mean horizontal wind speed at the canopy height (z
= 22.5m), b is decay coefficient. Figure 7 shows normalized
mean wind speed profiles U/UH, plotted against normalized
height z/H (H = 23m, where H is the canopy height and UH is
wind velocity at the canopy height). Figure 7(a) is the results of
June 06 ,2012 as measurement A and Figure 7(b) is the results of
March 18 ,2010 as measurement B. The filled square symbols
represent the average values of all the data obtained during the
measurements; the error bars represent the standard deviations.

1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
z/H [-]
z/H [-]

0.4 0.4
Leaf Area Density
0.2 Leaf Area Density 0.2 Plant Area Density
Plant Area Density
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
2 3 2 3
Area Density [m /m ] Area Density [m /m ]
(a) Measurement A( June 17, 2011) (b) Measurement B( March 26,2011)

Fig.6 LADPAD value near the observation

Table 1 - Summary of weather and atmospheric stability conditions

the numer of
Measurement data z /L [-] U H [m/s] wind derection weather
samples[Run]

June 14,2011 -0.19 2.46 fine

June 17,2011 -0.29 2.29 fine
A 10 North West
June 06,2012 -0.38 2.45 fine
June 10,2012 -0.12 2.02 fine
March 18,2010 -0.09 2.65 cloudy
March 22,2010 -0.55 2.06 fine
B 10 North West
March 23,2011 -1.79 2.30 fine
March 26,2011 -0.75 2.24 fine
 1.0 measured value 1.0 measured value
exponential approximation exponential approximation
0.8 0.8
0.8942(z/H) 0.9163 (z/H)
U/UH = 0.3957e U/UH = 0.3855e
0.6 0.6

z/H [-]
z/H [-]

2 2
R = 0.9567 R = 0.9578

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2
June 06, 2012(2:20p.m.-3:20p.m.) March 18, 2010 (0:24p.m.-1:24p.m.)

0.0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
U/UH [-] U/UH [-]
(a) Measurement A; June 06, 2012(2:20p.m. - 3:20p.m.) (b) Measurement B; March 18, 2010(0:24p.m. - 1:24p.m.)

Fig.7 Normalized vertical profiles of mean velocity

Figure 7 shows that a vertical wind profiles in forest canopy data set, we show the results of mixing lengths from respective
obeys the eq.(1).The red lines in the Figure represent wind days in Table 2. Thus, the average lH is about 0.40H when trees
profiles calculated by eq.(1). We obtained the similar results for have their leaves. On the other hand, it is about 0.43H when trees
other days. It is obvious that the measured data closely follow the dont have any leaves. It appears that mixing lengths for the two
exponential profile .Therefore, we can say that normalized cases take close values in the present study.
vertical profiles of mean velocity U(z)/UH obey exponential law
regardless of amount of leaves left on the trees in the present 3.3. THE EDDY DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT
study.
We express the eddy diffusion coefficient as described below;
3.2. MIXING LENGTH
KU = l H u '2 (3)
Mixing length is an important parameter in order to describe
the mechanisms underlying turbulent-transport processes. Since KV = lH v '2 (4)
mixing length is proportional to the width of the mixing zone, we
recognize it as a scale of eddy motion. It would appear that KW = l H w'2 (5)
turbulent eddy causes a significant dispersion effect due to
agitated air motions. In the present study, we calculated the where u, v and w are the fluctuations of the respective wind
values of mixing length by using eq.(2) based on the law of velocity components, U, V, and W, and lH is the mixing length.
Karmans assumption of geometrical similarity, The eddy diffusion coefficient K is equal to the product of the
mixing length and the root-mean-square of velocity fluctuations
lH =
dU dz
(2) of the wind speed.
d 2U / dz 2 The eddy diffusion coefficients of measurement A and B for
each height are shown in Table 3. Their averaged values are
Hence, the mixing length is given from the ratio between two shown in Figure 8. The filled circles represent the average values
consecutive derivatives, for instance, the first and the second of all the data obtained during the measurements. It is shown
derivatives of the mean lateral velocity. In addition, lH takes a that all of KU, and KV and KW in measurement B are larger than
constant value in forest canopy, if U(z) obeys the exponential law those in measurement A. Since the mixing lengths were the same
as shown in the preceding section. On the basis of the present order, it is thought that values in standard deviation are the main
cause for the difference among the two.
Table 2 - Summary of the results of mixing length
Measurement data l H [m] the ratio of l H to H 4. Eddy structure
June 14,2011 6.08 0.26 Quadrant analysis is one of methods for identifying the
June 17,2011 8.52 0.37 turbulent structures. In quadrant analysis, two out of three
A June 06,2012 8.63 0.38
fluctuating components u, v, w are plotted in a two-
dimensional coordinates plain, which can be divided into four
June 08,2012 13.49 0.59 different regions by two coordinate axes. Figure 9&10 show the
average 9.18 0.40 results from quadrant analysis. Figure 9 is a chart by the data in
March 18,2010 9.17 0.40 June 14, 2011 (in a period of 10 minutes) and Figure 10 is a chart
by the data in March 26, 2011. Here, u, v, w are the
March 22,2010 14.34 0.62
longitudinal, transversal and vertical fluctuating velocities,
B March 26,2011 8.99 0.39 respectively. It is shown that the case B takes larger values in the
March 28,2011 7.18 0.31 standard deviation than the case A in all data, and in both cases
average 9.92 0.43
they become smaller in downward direction. Wind speeds and
directions are the same in both cases, but a difference only lies in
 Table 3 - Summary of the results of eddy diffusion coefficient
2
Ku [m /s] Ku [m2/s] Ku [m2/s] Kv [m2/s] Kv [m2/s] Kv [m2/s] Kw [m2/s] Kw [m2/s] Kw [m2/s]
Measurement data
(22.5m) (14.6m) (7.1m) (22.5m) (14.6m) (7.1m) (22.5m) (14.6m) (7.1m)
June 14,2011 6.03 2.66 1.41 3.08 1.80 2.09 3.69 2.04 1.11
June 17,2011 8.65 4.35 3.70 6.16 3.65 2.29 4.40 2.57 1.93
A June 06,2012 12.05 7.89 5.97 7.19 5.18 4.55 4.81 3.06 3.43
June 08,2012 11.30 8.19 5.73 9.55 5.43 3.58 6.46 3.20 4.34
average 9.51 5.77 4.20 6.49 4.02 3.13 4.84 2.72 2.70
March 18,2010 8.60 7.43 7.19 7.88 6.36 5.52 4.88 4.82 4.04
March 22,2010 13.13 8.36 8.28 17.07 16.81 12.87 9.93 8.81 6.58
B March 26,2011 8.95 8.30 7.23 8.89 8.35 5.48 4.67 3.93 3.08
March 28,2011 7.68 6.46 5.80 8.50 7.22 5.62 4.93 4.10 3.15
average 9.59 7.64 7.13 10.58 9.68 7.37 6.10 5.41 4.21

1.1 1.1 1.1

1.0 1.0 1.0
0.9 0.9 0.9 KW
KU KV
0.8 0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6 0.6
z/H [-]

z/H [-]
z/H [-]

0.5 0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3 0.3
0.2 Mesurement A 0.2 Mesurement A 0.2 Mesurement A
0.1 Mesurement B 0.1 Mesurement B 0.1 Mesurement B
0.0 0.0 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
2 2 2
KU [m /s] KV [m /s] KW [m /s]
(a) (b) (c)

Fig.8 Eddy diffusion coefficient

the leaf area density. Regarding correlations between u and w, (1) Normalized vertical profiles of mean horizontal velocity
the products falling in the second quadrant (u < 0, w >0) can be U(z)/UH obeys exponential law regardless of leaf density in the
identified as ejection, while those in the forth quadrant (u > 0, forest canopy provided that there is a finite size of PAD.
w < 0) can be thought as sweep. The remaining two quadrants (2) Measured mixing lengths lH are equal to about 0.40H when
can be identified as interaction between ejection and sweep trees have their leaves. On the other hand, they are slightly
(Wallace et al., 1972). The second and forth quadrants, greater and roughly equal to 0.43H when trees have no leaves.
representing ejection and sweep, respectively, are typical motions (3) Conspicuous Difference in standard deviation of fluctuating
concerned with generating of turbulent energy. As shown in components is seen between full leaves and no leaves.
Figure 9 (b), when trees have their leaves, it was found that (4) Using a four-quadrant analysis, it is found that, when leaves
correlations between u and w are negative and the degree of are full, the products uw (correlations of two fluctuating
leaning is clearly visible. On the other hand, as shown in Figure components) take predominantly negative values, and a pair of
10 (b), when trees dont have any leaves, it was found that ejection and sweep events are visible in the canopy layer.
correlations between u and w are not clear, and in fact they have
only small negative values. Hence, we conclude that ,when trees List of Symbols
have their leaves, negative signs of uw lead active to sweep and
ejection motions, caused by a pair of motions of high-velocity b Attenuation constant
fluid parcels from upper layer moving downward into the forest g Gravitational Acceleration, m/s2
canopy, followed by relatively low-velocity fluid parcels from H Canopy Height, m
lower layer in the forest moving upward to the open air. On the K Eddy Diffusivity, m2/s
other hand, when trees dont have leaves, the vertical fluctuating l Mixing Length,m
components are significantly smaller than those of horizontal L Monin-Obkhov Stability Length,m
components, indicating that the turbulent eddies have a horizontal T Temperature,
structure. T0 Potential Temperature,
U,V,W Wind Velocity Components, m/s
5. Summary and conclusions u,v,w fluctuation of the respective wind velocity components
x,y,z Coordinates
We have presented eight field measurements of wind u* Friction Velocity, m/s
velocities in a oak forest on a complex topographical terrain,
using three 3-D ultrasonic anemometer-thermometers mounted Greek
on the 20m tall observation tower, during a period of there yeas
from 2010 to 2012, and the following conclusions are obtained. von Karman Constant
 8 8 8
6 22.5m R = -0.16 6 22.5m R = -0.34 6 22.5m R = 0.23
4 4 4
2 2 2

w [m/s]
v [m/s]

w [m/s]
W ' [m/s]

W ' [m/s]
V ' [m/s]

0 0 0
-2 -2 -2
-4 -4 -4
-6 -6 -6
-8 -8 -8
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
u' [m/s]
U [m/s] u' [m/s]
U [m/s] ' [m/s]
Vv [m/s]

8 8 8
6 14.6m R = -0.20 6 14.6m R = -0.34 6 14.6m R = -0.0092
4 4 4
2 2 2
v [m/s]

w [m/s]

w [m/s]
W ' [m/s]

W ' [m/s]
V ' [m/s]

0 0 0
-2 -2 -2
-4 -4 -4
-6 -6 -6
-8 -8 -8
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
U ' [m/s]
u [m/s] U [m/s]
u' [m/s] [m/s]
Vv' [m/s]

8 8 8
6 7.1m R = -0.31 6 7.1m R = 0.11 6 7.1m R = -0.37
4 4 4
2 2
v [m/s]

2
w [m/s]

w [m/s]
W ' [m/s]
V ' [m/s]

W ' [m/s]
0 0 0
-2 -2 -2
-4 -4 -4
-6 -6 -6
-8 -8 -8
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
[m/s]
u' [m/s]
U uU [m/s]
' [m/s] [m/s]
' [m/s]
Vv

(a) u v (b) u w (c) v w

Fig.9 Quadrant analysis (Measurement A; June 14, 2011)

8 8 8
6 22.5m R = -0.18 6 22.5m R = -0.07 6 22.5m R = -0.23
4 4 4
2 2 2
v [m/s]

W ' [m/s]
W ' [m/s]

w [m/s]
[m/s]
V ' [m/s]

0 0 0
-2 -2 -2
w

-4 -4 -4
-6 -6 -6
-8 -8 -8
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
U [m/s]
u' [m/s] Uu' [m/s]
[m/s] v' [m/s]
V [m/s]

8 8 8
6 14.6m R = -0.06 6 14.6m R = -0.09 6 14.6m R = -0.16
4 4 4
2 2 2
w [m/s]
[m/s]

w [m/s]
W ' [m/s]

W ' [m/s]
Vv' [m/s]

0 0 0
-2 -2 -2
-4 -4 -4
-6 -6 -6
-8 -8 -8
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
U '[m/s]
u [m/s] U ' [m/s]
u [m/s] V [m/s]
v' [m/s]

8 8 8
6 7.1m R = 0.25 6 7.1m R = -0.02 6 7.1m R = -0.0029
4 4 4
2 2 2
[m/s]

w [m/s]
[m/s]
W ' [m/s]

W ' [m/s]
' [m/s]

0 0 0
-2 -2 -2
Vv

-4 -4 -4
-6 -6 -6
-8 -8 -8
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
U ' [m/s]
u [m/s] U [m/s]
u' [m/s] Vv [m/s]
' [m/s]

(a) u v (b) u w (c) v w

Fig.10 Quadrant analysis (Measurement B; March 26, 2011)

6. References
[1] Cionco, R.M., A Mathematical Model for air flow in a
Vegetation canopy, J.Appl.Meteorol., 43, 1965, 345-346.
[2] Finnigan, J.J., Turbulence in waving wheat.2 Structure of
Momentum Transfer, Boundary-Layer Meteorol .16, 1979,
213-236.
[3] Fujioka, Y. et al, Measurement of Turbulent Diffusion and
Eddy Structure in Defoliate Forest, Society of Fluid
Mechanics. Japan .273, 2009.
[4] Gao,w, R. H., and Paw, U. K. T., Observation of Organized
Structure in Turbulent Flow within and above a Forest
Canopy, Boundary-Layer Meteorol.47, 1989, 349-377.
[5] Inoue, E., On the Turbulent Structure of the airflow within
crop canopies, J.Meteorol.soc.Japan, 41, 1963, 317-326.
[6] Kanda, M. and, M., Organized Structures Developing
Turbulent Flow within and above a Plant Canopy, using a
Large Eddy Simulation, Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 68,
1994 , 7-257.
[7] Matsuyama, H et al., Comparisons between the Leaf Area
Indices Estimated by a Fish-eye Lens and Those Observed
by the Plant Canopy Analyzer, Journal of Geography.112,
2003, 411-415.
[8] Oikawa, S. and Meng, Y., Turbulence Characteristics and
Organized motion in a surban roughness sublayer,
Boundary-Layer meteorol. 74, 1995, 289-312.
[9] Patrick Schleppi and Marco Conedera, Correcting non-
linearity and slope effects in the estimation of the leaf area
index of forests from hemispherical photographs,
Agricultural and Forest Meteorol. 144, 2007, 236-242.
[10] Raupach MR, Finnigan JJ, Brunet Y., Coherent eddies and
turbulence on vegetation canopies: the turbulence in
vegetation canopies: the mixing layer analogy. Boundary-
Layer Meteorol. 78, 1996, 351-382.
[11] Rotach, M. W., Turbulence Close to a Rough Urban Surface.
Part1: Reynolds Stress, Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 65, 1993,
1-28.
[12] Roth, M. and Oke, T.R, Turbulent Transfer Relationships
over an Urban Surface.I: Spectral Characteristics, Quart. J.
Royal Metorol.Soc. 119, 1993, 1071-1104.
[13] Uno, I., Wakamatu, S, H., and Nakamura, A., An
Observation Study of the Structure of the Nocturnal Urban
Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 45, 1988, 59-82.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Quantitative Evaluation of Carbon Nanotube Fin for Chip Cooling

Y. Yamada1, J. Hirotani 1, T. Ikuta1, T. Nishiyama1 and K. Takahashi1,2,3

1
Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
2
International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (I2CNER)
Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
3
JST, CREST
Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan

Abstract 3 carbon nanotube

The high thermal conductivity and high surface to volume ratio Introduction
of carbon nanotubes make them great candidates as heat
dissipation devices represented by pin fin. However very few As the power density of micro electric and photonic devices
heat transfer coefficients of such nanomaterials have been increases, thermal management becomes more and more
reported so far and their reliability is not enough. In this paper, important. Pin fin is one of the most popular methods for IC chip
we introduce a novel technique to measure the heat transfer cooling. Its performance depends on the thermal conductivity of
coefficient between an individual carbon nanotube and fin material. Since carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have very high
surrounding gases. We use a microfabricated thermal sensor that intrinsic thermal conductivity along axial direction [1, 2, 3, 4]
is composed of an individual carbon nanotube and platinum hot and high surface-to-volume ratio, CNT-based fin structures [5]
film sensor. This is an extension of T-type nanosensor for are considered to be a candidate for chip cooling. However,
thermal conductivity measurement of individual CNT. In order to thermal transport between CNT and surrounding fluids is still
evaluate the heat transfer coefficient, we compare the analytical unknown though many promising applications such as
solution of heat conduction equation with experimental result. nanofluid [6, 7] and gas sensors [8, 9] have been proposed. Not
Before carbon nanotube is set on the Pt hot film, the thermal and only for effective design of CNT fins, but also for insight into the
electrical properties of the film are measured. After that, a carbon interfacial thermal transport, it is highly desired to determine the
nanotube is attached on the Pt hot film. The heat transfer heat transfer coefficient of individual CNT. So far, thermal
coefficient is determined an order of 104 to 105 W/m2K. The transport across the CNT-solid [10, 11, 12] and CNT-liquid [13,
comparison with kinetic theory is also conducted. 14] interfaces have been treated experimentally and theoretically,
but there is no reliable measurement for CNT/gas interface
because of technical difficulties of nanoscale thermal
Nomenclature measurements.
dg diameter of molecular Since free convection or other continuum approximation is no
h heat transfer coefficient longer appropriate for describing heat transfer from a CNT to gas
k thermal conductivity because of small Rayleigh number or effect of gas rarefaction
kB Boltzmann constant [15], kinetic theory of molecules needs to be used [16]. Thermal
n number density of molecular boundary conductance (TBC) between a CNT and air was
v velocity of molecular investigated by classical molecular dynamics (MD) simulation
qv heat generation per unit mass [17], whose value is about 1 105 W/m2K. In addition, TBC
A cross sectional area values between a CNT and surrounding gases (N2, O2) at 1 atm
Cv specific heat per molecule were estimated as 1.1 105 W/m2K and 1 105 W/m2K,
D characteristic length respectively by using a simple gas kinetic model [18]. Though
Kn Knudsen number MD and theoretical studies are powerful tools for investigating
L length interfacial thermal transport precisely, experimental data of a
M mass of single molecule CNT is desired to verify the results of these numerical and
P perimeter theoretical studies.
Pc pressure of chamber
R electrical resistance In the past experimental studies, the heat dissipation from a CNT
S surface area to various gases was evaluated by using electrical heating method,
T absolute temperature however quantitative evaluation of heat transfer coefficient is not
temperature coefficient of resistance reached due to the electrical contact resistance between a CNT
emissivity and electrodes [19]. The other study showed the wide range of
mean free path heat transfer coefficient values between the bundled SWCNTs
Stephan-Boltzmann constant and air as 1.5 103 to 7.9 104 W/(m2K) via a two laser
technique [16]. In addition, Cheng et al. measured heat transfer
Subscripts coefficient between a VO2 nanowires and surrounding air by
imaging the laser-heating induced metal-insulator phase
0 ambient condition transition of the VO2 nanowire [20]. These method are
1 left part of Pt hot film specialized for limited materials, therefore, versatile
2 right part of Pt hot film measurement method for heat transfer coefficient of any kinds of
nanowire is necessary for further exploration of thermal transport
mechanism at nanowire-gas interface.
In this work, we have developed a novel measurement technique
for heat transfer coefficient of an individual nanowire. This
measurement is an extension of T-type platinum hot film sensor
which can measure the thermal conductivity of CNT [21]. Here,
we report the procedure of measurement method and discuss the
measured heat transfer coefficients between an individual CNT
fin and various gases.
Measurement procedure
Platinum nano hot film sensor developed by Fujii et al. [21] is
fabricated on a silicon substrate using electron beam lithography
and physical vapor deposition. The length, width and thickness of
each sensor are measured by scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Their typical values
are 10 m, 450 nm and 40 nm, respectively.
The experimental setup is listed in figure 1. In our measurement,
the temperature of sensor substrate is controlled by peltier device
and the gas pressure is by the vacuum chamber system. The
sensor signal is obtained by DC power supply, standard resister
and voltmeters placed outside of the vacuum chamber. The
voltage and current are measured by 4 terminal methods. Four
kinds of gases are treated; dry air, nitrogen, argon and helium,
which are introduced into the chamber after evacuation up to 2
10-3 Pa. Measurements in the gas environments are conducted at
room temperature condition.
CNT powder synthesized by CVD method is dispersed in the
ethanol in order to obtain an individual CNT. Individual CNTs
were observed by high-resolution transmission electron
microscopy (HRTEM, JEM-3200FSK) as shown in figure 2(a),
before attach to the Pt hot film sensor. One end of a CNT is
attached on the Pt hot film by electron beam induced deposition
(EBID) using a manipulator in SEM, and other end is protruding
from the Pt hot film. Figure 2(b) shows the fabricated sensor. The
CNT is in contact with nothing but the Pt hot film because the hot
film is placed on the edge of the substrate. Pt hot film is heated
by direct current. Heat loss through radiation can be represented
as S(T4-T04), however it is negligible because average
temperature increase of Pt hot film is less than 10 K. Conduction
heat loss from sensor has only two sensor-electrode contact due
to Pt sensor is suspended above the substrate. Our measurement
requires two steps. This is because the heat transfer coefficient of
Pt hot film itself is needed in order to determine the heat transfer
coefficient of CNT. Therefore firstly we measure Pt hot film only,
followed by CNT with the Pt hot film.
Here we introduce the analytical solution of heat conduction
equation in order to determine the heat transfer coefficient of Pt
hot film. Figure 3 shows the coordinate system of Pt hot film, and
here assumes one-dimensional heat conduction and heat
conduction equation with self heating was written by
d 2T
T T0 0
q v hP
2
(1)
dx k kA
The thermal conductivity of hot film is measured in vacuum
condition before gas introduced and it is obtained about 30
W/mK because thin film shows unique property depending on its
deposition condition. If heat transfer coefficient h = 0, equation
(1) represent the temperature profile of Pt hot film at vacuum
condition. The solution of equation (1) is derived
qv A
T C1e mx C 2 e mx T0 (2)
hP
where m = (hP/kA)1/2. According to the coordinate system shown
in figure 3, temperature of junction between electrode and hot
film is T0 and boundary condition are written by equation (3)

T 0 T L T0 (3)

Then two coefficient C1 and C2 are derived

q v A e mL 1
C1 (4)
hP e mL e mL

q v A e mL 1
C2 (5)
hP e mL e mL
Amount of temperature increase after Joule heating of Pt film on
initial temperature T0 is calculated by equation (6)

L
T x T dx
1
T 0 (6)
L 0

The solution can be determined to equation (7),

qv A
T
hP

2qv A e mL 1 e mL 1 R

(7)

Figure 1. Schematic image of experimental setup. Rotary

hPmL e mL e mL
pump and turbo molecular pump were used. Wires are is determined at vacuum condition, where ignore the radiation
connected to platinum hot film sensor by wire bonding and convection heat loss. The temperature profile of Pt hot film
method.
shows broken line at vacuum condition and it changes solid line
at gas condition due to free convection, that is represented
quadratic profile shows in figure 3 because the heat near
electrodes is dissipated to electrodes. In order to determine the
heat transfer coefficient of Pt hot film, we compare with
experimental result and solution with varying the h value in
equation (7).
Using obtained heat transfer coefficient of Pt hot film, here we
can determine the heat transfer coefficient between an individual
CNT and surrounding gas. As shown in figure 4, CNT is assumed
one-dimensional thermal transport as fin structure and heat
conduction equations are given as equation (8) to (10)

d 2T1

qv hP
T1 T0 0 (8)
dx12 k kA

d 2T2
2

q v hP
T2 T0 0 (9)
dx 2 k kA

d 2T3

h3 P3
T3 T0 0 (10)
dx3 2 k 3 A3

Equation (10) represents a CNT as fin structure. Solutions of

equation (8) to (10) are derived as

qv A
T1 C3 e mx1 C 4 e mx1 T0 (11)
hP

qv A
T2 C 5 e mx 2 C 6 e mx 2 T0 (12)
hP

T3 C 7 e nx3 C8 e nx3 T0 (13)

where n = (h3P3/k3A3)1/2. The thermal conductivity of an

individual CNT is assumed several hundred W/mK, that was
measured other CNT of same rod sample and average diameter of
CNT was measured by TEM image as shown figure 2(a) before
attached on the Pt hot film. The length of CNT was measured by
SEM image after attached on the Pt hot film (figure 2(b)).
Analytically derived coefficient C3 ~ C8 are determined by
boundary conditions shown in equation (14) to (18)

Ti = T0, for i = 1,2 (14)

Figure 2. (a) shows TEM image of an individual CNT. (b)
shows SEM image of platinum hot film sensor after attached a T1 L1 T2 L2 (15)
CNT.
T1 L1 T3 0 (16)

h3 A3 T3 L3 T0 = -k 3 A3
dT3
x3 L3 (17)
dx 3

dT3
- k 3 A3 x3 0
dx 3
(18)
dT dT2
kA 1 x1 L1 x2 L2

dx1 dx 2

L1 and L2 are measured by SEM image of figure 2(b). Amount of

temperature increase of Pt hot film can be calculated by equation
Figure 3. Coordinate of Pt hot film and temperature profile of (19)
Pt hot film.
 Determined heat transfer coefficient is shown in figure 6. The
heat transfer coefficient of air is obtained about 9 104 W/m2K,
which is consistent with molecular dynamics prediction [17]. In
figure 6, the diameter of CNT fins in this range does not affect
and similar dependence on gas species is obtained. However the
classical theory based on the continuum assumption is not
enough to explain the current result. Even if in atmospheric
condition, fluid near the CNT has to regard as rarefied gas. A
measure of the extent of gas rarefaction is represented by
Knudsen number defined by

Kn / D (20)
where characteristic length D is diameter of CNT and mean free
path of gas molecule is written by

k BT
(21)
2d g 2 Pc
Figure 4. Coordinate of Pt hot film and CNT. Even shows
temperature profile of hot film. The mean free path is inversely proportional to pressure and it is
about 70 nm at atmospheric condition of air. Hence Kn can be
calculated about 0.6 to 0.8 at measured CNT diameter range. This
T is transition regime and heat transfer coefficient is proportional to
L1 L2 gas pressure, which shows same trend with thicker sample [20].
T1 x T0 dx1 T2 x T0 dx2
1 1 (19)
L1 0 L2 0 In order to calculate the heat transfer coefficient, here we
introduced the kinetic theory and h is described as
After attached CNT on the Pt hot film, the temperature profile
changes to dashed line in figure 4 because heat conducted to the h nvCv / 4 (22)
CNT and dissipated to the surrounding gas. In order to determine
the heat transfer coefficient between CNT and surrounding gas, which means the product of specific heat per molecule and
we compare with experimental result and solution with varying
the h3 value of equation (19).

Results and discussion

Figure 5 shows the electrical resistance change as a function of
heating power in air condition. We can determine the heat
transfer coefficient between Pt hot film and surrounding air by
comparing the R/q of Pt-Air in figure 5 and equation (7) with
varying the h value in equation (7). Heat transfer coefficient
between CNT and surrounding air can be also determined by
comparing the R/q of Pt-CNT-Air and equation (19) with
varying the h3 value. The difference between two gradients is
considered to be caused by difference of temperature profile.

Figure 6. Measured heat transfer coefficient of CNT in

several gas environment and theoretical estimation.

Figure 5. Electrical resistance rise versus supplied electrical Figure 7. The heat transfer coefficient of CNT versus air
power measured in a vacuum and air, with and without CNT pressure.
condition.
number of incident molecules per unit area and unit time. And
here, velocity of molecules is given by
v 3k BT M (23)
that is proportional to M-1/2 because constant temperature is
assumed in the experiment. Specific heat for monoatomic
molecular, Argon and Helium, Cv = 1.5kB and diatomic molecular,
Cv = 2.5kB. Hence the heat transfer coefficient is found that is
proportional to Cv/(M)1/2. Noted here assumes that the molecular
accommodation coefficient equal to 1, which means incident
molecule achieve the thermal equilibrium with the solid surface
after collision with the solid surface. Therefore the actual
accommodation coefficient is less than 1. Hence equation (22)
also indicates the maximum theoretical value of heat transfer
coefficient [22]. Equation (22) is shown in figure 6, and this
indicates the gas dependence of heat transfer coefficient and
which is consistent with experimental results.
Figure 7 shows pressure dependence of heat transfer coefficient
between CNT and air. Between 1 to 0.1 atm, our results are
comparable with kinetic theory. Although 0.1 atm is in transition
regime when considering Knudsen number, further low pressure
is on molecule flow regime. In this regime, the mean free path is
much longer than the diameter of CNT. The heat transfer
coefficient is underestimated by kinetic theory at this regime. It
shows that equation (22) is not enough to explain the heat
transfer coefficient of molecule flow regime.
Conclusions
In order to evaluate the heat transfer coefficient between CNT
and surrounding gases, quantitative experiment is conducted
using Pt nano hot film sensor, coupled with analytical solution of
heat conduction equation. Our experiment successfully gives heat
transfer coefficient which shows similar dependence on gas
species as predicted by the kinetic theory.
Acknowledgments
This work was partially supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant
Number 23360101, 23656153, 23760191 and 24560237. Sensor
fabrication was partially conducted at the Collabo-Station II of
Kyushu University. The HRTEM observation was conducted in
the Research Laboratory for High Voltage Electron Microscopy,
Kyushu University. This work was supported by the JSPS
Institutional Program for Young Researcher Overseas Visits.
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Stokes Flow Through a Tube Lined With a Porous Wall Layer:

An Application to Microvascular Hemodynamics

D.S. Long1,2, E. Hargrave-Thomas2, and R.J. Clarke2

1
Auckland Bioengineering Institute
University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
2
Department of Engineering Science
University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand

Abstract
The Endothelial Glycocalyx Layer (EGL) is a hydrated
gel-like layer located on the inner surfaces of blood
vessels, in order to protect the vascular wall from stresses
produced by the blood flow. There is much interest within
the hemodynamics community in better understanding
transmission of fluid shear stress to the endothelium, not
only to assess potential damage in circumstances where it
is compromised, but also due to its role in mechanical
transduction of signals to and from the endothelial cells
that line the vessel wall. As such, we describe here a three-
dimensional flow model that couples flows within the
porous EGL with those in the vessel lumen. The model
couples together distinct boundary-integral representations
of the flows both within the lumen and the porous EGL. A
Boundary Element Method scheme is developed to solve
the resulting set of integral equations, and from the
resulting simulations we are able to predict the influence
of the EGL upon the flow profile within post-capillary
venules. Perhaps more importantly, however, we are also
able to determine the shear stresses exerted by the flow
upon the EGL. The generality of the scheme makes it an
ideal tool for considering the effect of vessel geometry on
the flow-induced shear stresses, as well as readily lending
itself to inclusions of additional physiological effect, such
as electrochemical and osmotic restoring forces within the
EGL.
Nomenclature
velocity of flow within the lumen
velocity of flow within the EGL
pressure of flow within the lumen
pressure of flow within the EGL
R radius of vessel
L length of the vessel
a radius of lumen
l
dynamic viscosity of fluid within the lumen
f
dynamic viscosity of fluid within the EGL
f
volume fraction of fluid phase in the EGL
s
volume fraction of solid phase in the EGL
K hydraulic resistivity of EGL
k Darcy permeability of EGL
2 on-dimensional resistivity of EGL
Greens Tensor for Stokes Flow
Greens Tensor for Brinkman Flow
Greens Stress Tensor for Stokes Flow
Greens Stress Tensor for Brinkman Flow
Introduction
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a leading cause of
mortality worldwide; In New Zealand, CVD accounts for
40% of deaths annually [1]. An early marker of this
disease involves endothelial dysfunction: the endothelium
loses the ability to maintain homeostasis and, thus, vessel
health is compromised. A key to protecting vessel health
occurs at the interface between circulating blood and the
endothelium. Strategically located at this interface is the
Endothelial Glycocalyx Layer (EGL). The EGL is a
hydrated gel-like layer of membrane-bound
macromolecules that is expressed on the luminal surface of
vascular endothelial cells, through which it is also
regulated. The EGL protects the vascular wall from
stresses produced by the direct exposure to blood flow, or
from CVD risk factors, such as hypercholesterolemia.
However, the EGL is more than an inert physical barrier; it
plays essential roles in transducing biological signals and
mechanical cues from outside the cell to inside the cell.
For example, the composition and physical extent of the
EGL influences the bioavailability of the signalling
molecule nitric oxide (NO) [2]. Diminished bioavailability
or abnormalities in NO signalling is a hallmark of
endothelial dysfunction, which can lead to an increased
susceptibility to CVD [3, 4]. In addition, the EGL exerts a
significant effect on near-wall microfluidics in post-
capillary venules. Additional experimental and
mathematical models of the transmission of fluid shear
stress to the endothelium are needed. As a result, the
interface between circulating blood and the underlying
tissue has drawn considerable attention; numerous studies
have focused on the endothelial glycocalyx layer (EGL)
bound to this interface.
Formulation
The EGL-lined microvessel is modelled as a straight
cylindrical tube of radius, R, that is lined with a porous
wall layer of uniform thickness, R-a. The microvessel has
two distinct domains (see Figure 1): (1) the free lumen (0
r a), and (2) porous wall layer (a r R). Modelling
the fluid in the free lumen of the tube as incompressible velocity vector, and is the unit normal vector pointing
l
and Newtonian having a uniform viscosity, , the flow as into a region.
steady and low-Reynolds number, the dimensionless
momentum and mass conservation equations are given by: The integral equation was solved by the boundary-element
method. The three-dimensional surfaces, , were
= 2 , = 0 discretised into surface elements upon which the flow
velocities and stress tractions were assumed uniform. The
l l
where u is the dimensionless fluid velocity vector in the Stokes flow surface, S , is divided into three surfaces: (1)
l l
free lumen and denotes the dimensionless pressure field inlet, S in, (2) free lumen-layer interface, S int, and (3)
in the free lumen. l f
outlet, S out . Whereas, the Brinkman surface, S is divided
f
into four surfaces: (1) inlet, S in, (2) free lumen-layer
f f f
interface, S int, (3) tube wall, S wall and (4) outlet, S out.

The integral equations were solved subject to the

following boundary and interfacial conditions:

Figure 1 Schematic of a straight, rigid, right circular

cylinder of radius, R and length, L, that is lined with a
uniformly thick (R-a) porous wall layer on its luminal
surface. In addition, an analytically-derived velocity profile was
also prescribed at the inlet and exit [6].
The steady, low-Reynolds number flow through the porous
layer is modelled as a binary mixture that consists of a Results and Discussion
fluid phase and a non-deforming solid phase. The solid
s Figure 2 shows, at two dimensionless axial locations z=1/4
phase has a vanishingly small volume fraction, ,
whereas, the fluid phase has a volume fraction of . In
f and z=3/4, the axial velocity profile, uz, of a Newtonian
addition, the fluid phase is modelled as incompressible and fluid perfused steadily through a tube lined with a porous
f layer of uniform thickness and uniform hydraulic
Newtonian having a uniform viscosity, . The porous
resistivity. The x and y velocity components were
layer has a uniform hydraulic resistivity of K. The numerically zero. The four dimensionless hydraulic
hydraulic resistivity is related to Darcy permeability, k, by
resistivities, 2 considered are 1000, 100, 10, and 1. The
k = /K, which leads to the equations for Brinkman flow lines correspond to the analytical solution and the circular
markers to the numerical results. It is immediately
2 = + 2 , = 0, apparent that at the higher values of resistivity, expected
2 2 f for the EGL, the porous layer is acting to substantially
where, = K R / is the dimensionless hydraulic reduce the shear stress acting upon the vessel wall. This is
f
resistivity of the porous layer, u , is the dimensionless fluid consistent with the notion of the EGLs role in shielding
velocity vector in the layer and denotes the the endothelial cells from high flow shears. The excellent
dimensionless pressure field in the layer. agreement between the analytical solutions, and those
obtained through Boundary Element computations, gives
The boundary integral representation of the x-, y-, and z- us confidence in the reliability of the scheme in situations
velocity components in the free lumen and layer is given where an analytical solution is not forthcoming, for
by [5] example in situations where the EGL has a non-uniform
thickness.
1
(0 ) = (, 0 ) () () Conclusions
4
1
+ (, 0 ) () (), We have developed a boundary element method (BEM)
4 numerical scheme which can be used to compute the
coupled Stokes-Brinkman flow through a porous-lined
where 0 , . Here the subscripts correspond to either vessel. The BEM scheme has been validated in the
the x (i=1), y (i=2), or z (i=3) components, the superscript, situation where the porous lining has uniform thickness
, corresponds to either the free lumen ( = l) or the throughout the length of the vessel, and is seen to give
excellent agreement with the analytical solution under
porous layer ( = f), and are the Green's function
these circumstances. We observe that the presence of the
tensors for Stokes Flow ( = l) and Brinkman flow ( = f)
porous layer acts to dramatically decrease the shear
as given by [8], f is the stress traction vector, is the
stresses exerted upon the vessel wall by flow through the
lumen. This is in keeping with the expected role of the
EGL as a protective barrier for the endothelial cells which
line the vessel wall. Modifying the geometry to consider
situations in which the porous layer is non-uniform, where
it is not generally possible to derive an analytical solution,
is relatively straightforward using this scheme. In practise,
the porous layer is not rigid, but rather elastic, and so an
important future extension of this work is inclusion of
poro-elastic effects, possibly by adopting the biphasic
models considered by Damiano et al. [7]. Other effects that
may merit further consideration in the future are
electrochemical and osmotic restoring forces within the
EGL.
References
[1] Hay, D.R., Cardiovascular Disease in New
Zealand, 2004, in The National Heart Foundation
of New Zealand, P.H. White, Editor 2004.
[2] van den Berg, B.M., et al., Glycocalyx and
endothelial (dys) function: from mice to men.
Pharmacol Rep, 2006. 58 Suppl: p. 75-80.
[3] Noble, M.I., A.J. Drake-Holland, and H. Vink,
Hypothesis: arterial glycocalyx dysfunction is the
first step in the atherothrombotic process. Qjm,
2008. 101(7): p. 513-8.
[4] Chappell, D., et al., The glycocalyx of the human
umbilical vein endothelial cell: an impressive
structure ex vivo but not in culture. Circ Res,
2009. 104(11): p. 1313-7.
[5] Pozrikidis, C., Stokes flow through a permeable
tube. Archive of Applied Mechanics, 2010. 80(4):
p. 323-333.
[6] Damiano, E.R., et al., Variation in the velocity,
deformation, and adhesion energy density of
leukocytes rolling within venules. Circulation
Research, 1996. 79(6): p. 1122-1130.
[7] Damiono, E.R. et al. Axisymmetric pressure-
driven flow of rigid pellets through a cylindrical
tube lined with a deformable porous layer.
Journal of Fluid Mechanics 1996, 314: 163-189
[8] Pozrikidis, C. Boundary Integral and Singularity
Methods for Linearised Viscous Flow. Cambridge
University Press 1992

Figure 2 Normalized axial fluid velocity profiles in the mid-sagittal plane, uz, in the porous wall layer (denoted by shaded
region) and the free lumen at normalized axial locations, z, of 1/4 and 3/4 for three values of 2. For each value of 2, the lines
correspond to the analytical solution and the circular markers correspond to the velocity calculated from the 3-D boundary
element solution. Insets show the analytical solution and boundary element solution for the velocity through the layer.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

The Effects of Elevated Pressure on the Amount of Carbon Dioxide Consumed by

Plants Photosynthesis

H. TAKEISHI1, J. HAYASHI1, A. OKAZAWA2,3, K. HARADA4, K. HIRATA4, A. KOBAYASHI5 and F. AKAMATSU1

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Osaka University, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
2
Department of Biotechnology
Osaka University, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
3
Department of Applied Life Sciences
Osaka Prefecture University, Osaka, 599-8531, Japan
4
Applied Environmental Biology
Osaka University, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
5
On-site Research Center for Sustainability Design
Osaka University, Hyogo, 660-0095, Japan

Abstract Recently, energy demand is increasing in the world mainly

From the viewpoint of energy security, development of
new energy production systems is needed to prevent exhaustion
of fossil fuel. Alternative sources of energy such as solar, wind
and biomass are regarded as new and clean. Biomass is expected
to be one of the most remarkable alternative sources of energy,
because biomass is the product of plant photosynthesis
converting carbon dioxide to organic compounds. Biomass is,
therefore, thought as a carbon neutral alternative fuel. So far, to
use the biomass effectively, it is needed to select an appropriate
plant which has a lot of fuel components (e.g. starch, oil,
terpenes) and investigate its combustion characteristics.
Enormous time and effort are required for searching that kind of
plant because there are tens thousand species in the plant
kingdom. Another method for using biomass effectively is
control of the fuel component in plants by changing their
growing environment, for example, temperature and water
culture medium. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects
of artificially controlled environment, especially elevated
pressure, on the photosynthesis and respiration during plants
growth. The pressure affects not only cells and organelles in
leaves directly but also diffusion coefficients and degrees of
solubility of carbon dioxide and oxygen. In this study,
photosynthesis and respiration of a model plant, Arabidopsis
thaliana, was investigated under elevated pressure in a chamber
made of acrylic and aluminium. Fluorescent lamps were set up
around the chamber as light sources. The photon flux density
(PFD) for the plant was able to be changed from 0 to 70
mol/m2s. The pressure and absolute humidity were varied from
0.1 to 0.5 MPa and from 0.78 to 13 10-2 kg/kg, respectively.
The effects of elevated pressure on the photosynthesis and the
respiration were analyzed by measuring a change in the amount
of carbon dioxide in the chamber. The results clearly showed that
the amount of photosynthesis increases up to 1.5 times with
increasing pressure. The results indicate that the photosynthesis
during plant growth is improved under elevated pressure. There
are possibilities that the obtained results are applicable to
cultivate biomass more efficiently in plant factories in the future.
Keywords: elevated pressure, plants growing chamber, biomass,
photosynthesis, respiration, Arabidopsis thaliana
Introduction
by economic development and population growth in developing
countries. The current major energy sources are fossil fuels and
81% of total energy is supplied by them in the world. However,
there is a growing anxiety of their depletion and effects on the
global warming [1]. Natural energy sources are receiving attention
as alternative energy sources and required to be used more
effectively [2,3].
Biomass is one of the most potential energy sources for
alternative fuels, because it can be converted to various types of
fuels (e.g. gaseous, liquid and solid). Additionally, biomass is
thought as a carbon neutral fuel [4,5]. However, at present,
biomass is not so much used as a source of alternative fuels,
because the amount of heat generation from biomass is less than
that from fossil fuels and a stable supply is difficult to maintain
throughout the year [5-7]. In order to expand use of biomass, it is
necessary to clear up those problems. Some studies which intend
to use biomass effectively as alternative fuels have been
conducted so far. Exploring plants containing high amounts of
fuel components (e.g. starch, oil, terpenes) and investigating the
combustion characteristics of each plant are important to use
biomass effectively [8-14]. These studies require enormous time
and effort because there are tens thousands of plants in the world.
Control of components in plants is another strategy to use
biomass effectively. One of the methods is control of plant
growth conditions to optimize the components. For example, the
amount of vitamins and amino acids in plants are changed by the
variation of temperature and the amount of water of growth
environment[15-19] . Once plant responses to environmental stimuli
are known, we can apply the information to optimize their
components. In this study, atmospheric pressure of plant growing
environment is focused on. Atmospheric pressure of plant
growing environment is important, because it can affect
photosynthesis and respiration directly. Furthermore, from the
viewpoint of energy saving, it is unnecessary to supply additional
energy for keeping the condition of the environment, once
elevated and reduced atmospheric pressure of plant growing
environment has been constructed. The effect of carbon dioxide
pressure on the activity of photosynthesis is known. Previous
study showed that absorption of carbon dioxide by
photosynthesis increased with increasing of partial pressure of
carbon dioxide up to about 3 times[19,20]. So, if the high partial
pressure of carbon dioxide which is made by increasing a
pressure of air promote the absorption of carbon dioxide by
photosynthesis, and if the plants grow efficiently under elevated
or reduced pressure of air, it has a great deal of potential in
industry because it is cheaper than to grow plants in the air
containing different concentrations of carbon dioxide from those
in ambient air.
In the previous studies, it was shown that elevated
concentration of carbon dioxide activated plant photosynthesis [19-
21]
. Additionally, it was indicated that the rate of photosynthesis
was increased in the reduced atmospheric pressure and the
transpiration rate under low air pressures was also increased[22,23].
On the other hand, effects of elevated pressure on plants have not
been cleared. If the elevated pressure activates the photosynthesis,
the productivity of plants (biomass, e.g.) can be increased using
less energy. Thus, in this study, the effects of elevated pressure of
ambient air on the photosynthesis during plants growth were
investigated. Additionally, the effects of elevated pressure on the
respiration during plants growth were also investigated.
Material and methods
To investigate the effects of elevated ambient pressure on
the photosynthesis and the respiration, the plant growing system
enabled to control ambient pressure was developed and the test
plants were put into the developed chamber. Figure 1 shows the
schematic illustration of the chamber. The chamber was able to
elevate ambient pressure up to 0.6 MPa. The caliber () of the
chamber was 170 mm and the height (h) of inside was 330 mm.
The aspect and the top face of the chamber were constructed of
an acrylic tube and a board whose thickness was 15 mm to
observe the growth of plants from all direction. The bottom face
of the chambers was constructed of an aluminum board to control
humidity by a Peltier cooling system. The top face, the aspect and
the bottom face of the chamber were screwed by M10 clinchers
and there were O-rings between each faces and the aspect for
protecting gas leak.
Figure 1. The appearance and the schematic illustration of
the developed chamber.
There were three screw holes in the top face and the
bottom face, respectively. A pressure meter which was able to
measure from 0.1 MPa to 0.6 MPa, a gas supplying valve and a
valve for expanding an air balloon which is set in the chamber
were connected with the screw holes in the top face, respectively.
The air balloon was used in the process of gas sampling in the
experiment under 0.1 MPa to push out the gas in the chamber. A
sewer valve and a gas exhausting valve were connected with the
screw holes in the bottom face, respectively. Cooled and
precipitated water by the Peltier cooling system on the bottom
face was collected at the center of the bottom face and discharged
out of the chamber through the sewer valve. Fluorescent tubes as
a light source were set out of the chamber. Photon flux density
(PFD), in the range of 0 to 100 mol/m2s, was controlled by
adjusting the distance between the light source and the chamber.
A small fan was set in the middle of the chamber. In this design,
light wind from the fan was supplied to the plants. The small fan
was constructed by a propeller with three blades whose lengths
were 40 mm and an electric motor (RF-500TB, MABUCHI).
Figure 2 shows the scheme of the piping arrangement of
the gas supplying system. The gaseous species in a gas bottle was
compressed air. The pressure of compressed air was reduced to
the arbitrary pressure by a regulator, and the gas was sterilize by
the clean filter and supplied into each chamber. The absolute
humidity of compressed air was controlled arbitrarily by the gas
bubbling from the bottom of the 10 L pressure tank and
optimized by adjustments of a flow rate and a volume of water.
The result of this process, the absolute humidity of compressed
air was controlled in the range of 5.1 to 14 against under 0.72
(10-3 kg/kg) without bubbling. The fluctuation of the
compressed air temperature in the chamber was suppressed by
the temperature-controlled air flowing around the chamber. The
absolute humidity and the temperature of compressed air were
measured by a dew-point meter (HMT-334, VAISALA).
Figure 2. The scheme of the piping arrangement of
the gas supplying system.
In this study, the effects of the elevated pressure of ambient
air on the respiration and the photosynthesis were investigated by
measuring concentration of carbon dioxide in the chamber.
However, unfortunately, under the elevated ambient pressure,
carbon dioxide in the air was dissolved in the liquid medium
more easily than under natural ambient pressure. Therefore, it
was needed to inhibit carbon dioxide in the air to be dissolved in
the liquid medium. To solve the problem, the original plant
support device made from silicon tube whose external
diameter() was 8 mm, wall thickness was 1 mm and length was
314 mm was developed (Fig. 3). Both ends of the silicon tube
were connected by a waterproof tape and 10 holes which is about
3 mm in diameter were made on the same plane of the silicon
tube for transplanting (Fig. 3). This original device was able to
reduce the area of air-liquid interface by 98 % and the quantity of
liquid medium by 70 % compared to a flat holder which was 85
mm long, 45mm wide and 30 mm height.
Plants absorb carbon dioxide by the photosynthesis and
evolve carbon dioxide by the respiration. In this study, as
mentioned in the objective section, it was intended to clarify the
effects of pressure on the respiration and the photosynthesis, the
pressure of the ambient was varied from 0.1 MPa (atmospheric
condition) to 0.5 MPa. Processes of the gas exchange were
mainly carried out through stomata on the surface of leaves.
Since stomatal behaviors were affected by humidity of the
ambient [24-26], two different conditions of absolute humidity were
examined in this study. So, there were two humid patterns, such
as, high and low humidity in each pressure condition.
Arabidopsis thaliana was used as the test plants. The plants Therefore this results indicated that the elevated pressure of
which had been incubated in the dark at 4C for 2days to break ambient air influenced the responses of stomata.
dormancy and grown for 10 days in a commercial growth
4
chamber were used in the experiments. The plants were grown on High Humidity

Nomalized variation of CO2 concentration (-)

1/2 MS media (including, sucrose; 1.5 % (w/v) and agar; 0.7 % Low Humidity
(w/w)) during the period from sowing to transplant. The
3
temperature in the growth chamber was maintained at about 23C
with a photoperiod of 16 h/8 h light/dark cycle. PFD in the
growth chamber was about 40 mol/m2s. In order to reduce the 2
inter-plant variability, 10 plants were selected arbitrary from
around 40 plants. The original support device, on which 10 plants
were transplanted containing 8.8 mL liquid medium, was set on 1
the bottom face of the chamber. Before starting an experiment,
the gas in the chamber was replaced by compressed air from a
gas bottle for 5 min. After that, the pressure in the chamber was 0
set at 0.1 MPa. First, the plants were incubated for three hours
under 0.1 MPa. A component of the gas in the chamber was
sampled and the concentration of carbon dioxide was analyzed -1
before and after incubation. Then the gas in the chamber was 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
replaced by supplying gas from a gas bottle for 5 minutes again Pressure (MPa)
before changing the pressure. Next, the same plants were Figure 4. Normalized variation of changing CO2 concentration
incubated for three hours under arbitrary pressure in the range of by respiration.
0.1 to 0.5 MPa. A component of the gas in the chamber was
sampled and analyzed as same as the first experiment. Sampled
gas was analyzed by a micro gas chromatograph Results of the photosynthesis
(CP4900,VARIAN). In this study, temperature, light intensity,
Figure 5 shows the result of the photosynthesis as a
and culture volume were kept 22 2 , 40 5 mol/m2s and 8.8 function of ambient pressure under the conditions of high and
mL for being the equal conditions, respectively. Additionally, low absolute humidity indicating that the absolute humidity has
1000 times diluted Hyponex (10N - 3P - 3K - 0.05Mg - 0.001Mn - little effect on the photosynthesis. The amount of absorbed
0.005B, HYPONeX Japan, Co. Ltd.) was used as the liquid medium. carbon dioxide was increased linearly with the increase of
The number of experiment was four and the average of four pressure up to 1.6 times at 0.5 MPa as compared with 0.1 MPa.
experiments was regarded as the measuring results. The results of The reason may be that elevated pressure promoted carbon
the elevated pressure were normalized by the results of 0.1 MPa dioxide dissolution to the mesophyll and promoted
of the same individual, respectively. photosynthesis.
2
Normalized variation of CO2 concentration (-)

Figure 3. The view of original plant support device

with growing plants.
High Humidity
Low Humidity

Results and discussions
Results of the respiration
Figure 4 shows the variation of the respiration as a function
of ambient pressure under high and low absolute humidity
conditions. The values plotted in Fig. 4 were normalized by the
amount of carbon dioxide obtained from atmospheric pressure
condition. It was found that the amount of released carbon
dioxide by respiration during experiments decreased slightly with
increasing ambient pressure up to near 0.3 MPa under the
condition of low absolute humidity. The amount of released
carbon dioxide by respiration increased with increasing the
ambient pressure from 0.3 to 0.5 MPa.
On the other hand, under the condition of high absolute
humidity, the released amount of carbon dioxide was reduced
linearly with increasing of the ambient pressure to almost zero at
0.5 MPa. It is known that the stomatal opening speed under high
absolute humidity is faster than that under low humidity[27-29].
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Pressure MPa
Figure 5. Normalized variation of changing CO2 concentration
by photosynthesis.
Conclusions
In this study, the effects of elevated pressure of ambient air
on the absorption and the photosynthesis were investigated
experimentally. The results showed that the effect of changing
absolute humidity was small on photosynthesis and the amount of
absorbed carbon dioxide was increased linearly with the increase
of pressure. The effect of absolute humidity on respiration was
large and under high absolute humidity, the amount of released
carbon dioxide by respiration was reduced linearly with the
increase of pressure. So, under high absolute humidity, the
amount of released carbon dioxide by respiration decreased
slightly with increasing ambient pressure and the amount of
absorbed carbon dioxide by photosynthesis increased slightly
with increasing ambient pressure. Therefore, it was indicated that
biomass may grow efficiency under the high humidity and the
elevated pressure.
Acknowledgement
This study was partly supported by the Japan Gas Association.
We would like to thank Mr. Hazama for his contribution to the
experiments.
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[26] Dai, Z., Edwards, G.E., Ku, M.S.B., Control of
Photosynthesis and Stomatal Conductance in Ricinus
communis L. (Castor Bean) by Leaf to Air Vapor Pressure
Deficit1, Plant Physiol., 99, 1992, 1426-1434.
[27] Talbott, L.D., Rahveh, E.Zeiger, E., Relative humidity is a
key factor in the acclimation of the stomatal response to CO2,
J. Exp. Bot., 390, 2003, 2141-2147.
[28] Zhu, J., Talbott, L.D., Jin, X., Zeiger, E., The stomatal
response to CO2 is linked to changes in guard cell
zeaxanthin, Plant Cell Environ., 21, 1998, 813-820.
[29] Bunce, J.A., Effects of humidity on short-term responses of
stomatal conductance to an increase in carbon dioxide
concentration, Plant Cell Environ., 21, 1998, 115120.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Study on utilization of thermal energy by slight temperature difference :
(2) Performance of Peltier element panel
N. Matsuda1, T. Togasaki1, T. Takeda1, and S. Funatani1
1
Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering, Graduate School of Medicine and Engineering
University of Yamanashi, Takeda 4-3-11, Kofu, Yamanashi, 400-8511, Japan
Abstract
This study is to investigate of utilization of thermal energy by
slight temperature difference. In general, the thermal energy to
electrical energy conversion efficiency is low and difficult to use.
In particular, the thermal energy of low temperature around the
open air temperature is often released into the atmosphere,
because it takes extra cost to be converted to electricity. If we
can use low temperature energy without increasing cost, however,
we can build beneficial energy system. So, we tried to generate
the thermoelectric power by using the Seebeck effect of a Peltier
element by slight temperature difference. We investigated the
relationship between generated electricity and configuration of
the Peltier element. An experiment has been carried out using a
panel of which Peltier elements are placed as parallel
configuration. In order to obtain a valid temperature difference
on both sides of the Peltier element, the apparatus consists of a
heater of the high-temperature side and a heat pipe of the low-
temperature side like the CPU cooler. We produced thermal
energy by slight temperature difference of hot water or an electric
heater. Temperature difference between both surfaces of the
Peltier elements was measured by a K-type thermocouple. A
voltage generated by the Peltier elements was also measured
using a digital multimeter. The experiment has been carried out
by changing the number of the Peltier element. In addition, the
experiment has been done by changing arrangement of the
element. It is a series or a parallel connection. The relationship
between the electric voltage and the temperature difference
between heat source and the open air were obtained. When the
number of Peltier element is four and the temperature difference
is 24C, the voltage became 1.1V. It will be possible to make the
electric device by using the Peltier element not only increasing
the number of Peltier element but also increasing the temperature
difference between the element surfaces. In order to know the
performance of the panel of which Peltier elements are placed as
parallel configuration, we also compared with the performance of
a solar panel. This paper describes the experimental apparatus,
method, and detailed experimental condition to compare with the
performance of the solar pane. There is possibility that the
proposed system can be applied to utilise wasting hot water in a
hot springs.
Introduction
At present, in Japan, There is large amount of unused energy and
it is being wasted. According to Agency for Natural Resources
and Energy of Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, unused
energy is listed as follows, (1)Sewage and wastewater, (2)
Exhaust heat of cleaning work, (3)Exhaust heat from the
ultrahigh-pressure underground transmission line, (4)Exhaust
heat of substation, (5)Heat of rivers and seawater, (6)Exhaust
heat of factory, (7)Exhaust heat of subway and underground city
and (8)Heat of snow ice. Unused energy is generic name of
energy which has not been used so much. The government of
Japan has focused on the use of unused energy in development of
new energy. There are various kinds of unused energy and one
of them is exhaust heat. Exhaust heat in energy are consumed is
not being used mostly; small amount them has been used
effectively. That is discharged into the open air without use
validly. The exhaust heat has been discharged from various
places (automobile, factory, incinerator, etc.). In addition, natural
energy such as solar heat and geothermal heat has not been
effectively utilized. In general, conversion efficiency from
thermal energy to electrical energy is low and difficult to use.
In particular, the thermal energy of low temperature (around
room temperature) is often exhausted into the atmosphere,
because the cost of converting from thermal energy to electrical
energy is expensive. If the low temperature energy can be used
without increasing cost, the beneficial energy system can be built.
If this large amount of energy of exhaust heat can be collected
and can be used effectively, it is possible to inhibit consumption
of fossil fuels whose amount of deposit limited and to reduce the
amount of carbon dioxide act as a greenhouse gas and suppress
the environmental destruction. Effective use of energy of exhaust
heat is thought as one of the key problems in the 21st century [1].
In this study, the thermoelectric power is generated by using the
Seebeck effect of a Peltier element by slight temperature
difference. The relationship between generated electricity and
configuration of the Peltier element is also studied. The
performance of Peltier element is compared to that of solar panel
by using generated voltage.
Experimental apparatus and experimental methods
In this study, Peltier element which is thermoelectric conversion
module was used for generating power because it has the
advantage of generating electricity by slight temperature
difference [2,3]. Firstly, preliminary experiments to examine the
relationship between power voltage and layout method of Pertier
element was carried out. In order to obtain a valid temperature
difference on both sides of the Peltier element, the apparatus
consists of a heater (high-temperature side) and heat pipes and
fins (the low-temperature side). The heater was set at the bottom
side and heat pipes and fins were set at the top side [4,5]. The
experiment has been carried out by changing the number of the
Peltier elements (1,2,3,4). Power generation voltage was
measured at each experimental conditions and it was compared
with the temperature difference between heat source and open air.
Connection method (connected parallel or series) of multiple
sheets of Peltier element was also evaluated and examined.
 used for keeping the temperature of water-cooling jacket in
constant.

Fig.1 Preliminary experimental apparatus (Schematic view)

In the preliminary experiment, the number of Peltier element and

the connection method were decided. Fig.3 Experimental apparatus (Schematic view)

The power of Peltier element was compared to the solar panel Power generation of the solar panel was also measured at the
whose shape was the same as that of the optimized connection same time of the experiment of Peltier element and voltages of
shape decided by preliminary experiments. 64 pieces of Peltier each method are compared. These experiments were carried out
elements were paved on the water-cooling jacket at equivalent of by unifying the area and running time. Heat flux and quantity of
the area of solar panel (350mm350mm). In order to obtain a heat were different. High-temperature side of Peltier element was
valid temperature difference on both sides of the Peltier elements, set at 40C because temperature of exhaust heat of hot springs
the experimental apparatus consists of a silicon rubber heater and bath is 40C. Low-temperature side of Peltier element was
(350mm350mm, 100V, 700W) was set on the high-temperature set at 20C because average temperature of the sewage in Japan
side and a water-cooling jacket (350mm350mm30mm) was set is about 21C. The specification of the solar panels used in this
on the low-temperature side. In addition, 13 temperature experiment was shown in Table 1.
measurement points were set up on the experimental apparatus.
12 points were set on the low-temperature side of the Peltier
Table 1 Specific of solar panel
elements and the high-temperature side of these elements. One
temperature measurement point was set for measuring the
temperature of outlet water. Detail of installation position of Solar cell polycrystalline silicon module
thermocouples is shown in Fig.2. Grounded-type T-type Frame aluminum alloy
thermocouples were used to measure the surface temperature of operating temperature limit -20C40C
Peltier elements, ungrounded-type K-type thermocouple is used
to measure the temperature of outlet water. Maximum output[W] 10W
Maximum power voltage[V] 17V
Maximum power current[A] 0.59A
Dimension[mm] 35035035

Experimental result

Preliminary experiment

Fig.4 shows the relationship between temperature difference and

power generation voltage at various numbers of Peltier elements.
Experimental results were evaluated by electric power generation
voltage because the experiment was carried out at unloaded
condition without current.

Fig.2 Layout drawing of thermocouples

Temperature difference between high-temperature side and low-

temperature side of Peltier element was set as parameter.
Temperature of heater was changed from 40C to 55C and
power generation voltages were measured. Schematic view of
experimental apparatus is shown in Fig.3. Cool pump was also
Fig.4 Effect of the number of Peltier element
When the number of Peltier element is four and the temperature
difference is 24C, the voltage becomes 1.1V. When the number
of Peltier element changed to one, the voltage became 0.3V. The
result shows that four pieces of Peltier elements has
approximately 3.7 times of voltage than that of one piece. When
the number of Peltier elements was four and the electric voltage
was 0.4V, the temperature difference became 11.8C. But when
the number of Peltier element was one and the electric voltage
was 0.4V, the temperature difference became 28.1C. Therefore,
the higher voltage power generation becomes possible from a
slight temperature difference by increasing the number of Peltier
elements. Furthermore, when the temperature difference of each
side becomes larger, higher voltage was generated.
Secondly, electric voltage depends on the connection method of
Peltier element. Generated voltages were compared on the case
of two pieces of Peltier elements (Table 2).
Table 2 Comparison of connection
Temperature [C] Electric
Heat Open Temperature voltage
source air difference [V]
Serial 40.4 20.4 20.0 0.280
Parallel 40.5 20.4 20.1 0.410
(Two pieces of Peltier Element)
It shows that the case of parallel connection has the voltage
approximately 1.5 times higher than that of a serial connection.
The reason of such a difference is considered to be the difference
of heat receiving area. It was found that electric power generation
by slight temperature difference increases with the number of
Peltier element and with the area of heat receiving by parallel
connection.
Electric power generation by Peltier element
The experiment was carried out by 64 pieces Peltier elements
which was paved on the water-cooling jacket and high-
temperature side was heated up by silicon rubber heater. The
experimental data was obtained with intervals of 1C from 35C
to 55C (temperature of heater). Experimental results are shown
in Fig.5. Experimental results were evaluated by electric power
generation voltage along with preliminary experiment.
Fig.5 Relationship between temperature difference of heating
side and cooling side of Peltier element and electric voltage
It shows the relationship between temperature difference between
each side of Peltier and generated electric voltage. According to
the result, electric power generation voltage was approximately
13.9V when the temperature difference was approximately
13.0C. It was considered that Electric power generation voltage
increased in proportion to temperature difference. Therefore, high
electric power generation voltage was obtained by giving a
greater temperature difference between high-temperature side
and low-temperature side of the Peltier element.
Comparative experiments with solar cells
The experiment was carried out for comparing the electric power
generation voltage of Peltier element with the solar panel. The
temperature of heater was set to about 40C and that of water
jacket was set to about 20C. The experiment was carried out for
one day (24 hours). In addition, experimental results were
evaluated by electric power generation voltage along with
preliminary experiment.
Fig.6 Variation of electric power generation voltage and
temperature difference of Peltier element (1day)
The result is shown in Fig.6. It shows the variation of electric
power generation voltage and temperature difference between
high-temperature side and low-temperature side of Peltier
element. The result shows that the temperature of heat source and
water were set up at constant. But temperature difference has
been changed because the experimental apparatus was influenced
by the fluctuation of outside temperature. In addition, electric
power generation voltage was changed depending on the
temperature difference of Peltier element.

Fig.7 Comparison of electric power generation voltage in case of
Peltier element and solar panel (1day)
Comparison of electric power generation voltage in case of
Peltier element and solar panel is shown in Fig.7. It shows the
variation of electric power generation voltage. Maximum voltage
of Peltier element was approximately 8.95V and average value
was approximately 8.53V. In addition, electric power generation
voltage was shown low value as approximately 8.53V. It will be
influenced by high temperature of open air and water temperature
of cooling side. On the other hand, electric power generation of
using solar panel has been strongly depending on the amount of
solar radiation of the sun. Therefore, electric power generation
was limited from sunrise to sunset. Maximum voltage of solar
panel was approximately 19.5V and average value was
approximately 10.3V. Furthermore, experimental result was
evaluated by comparing time integral value of voltage. Time
interval of integration was set to 1 minute which is the interval of
data acquisition. The integral value of Peltier element was
204.7Vh and that of solar panels was 246.9Vh. It found that the
amount of electricity generated by solar panel was approximately
1.21 times larger than that of Peltier element. In this experimental
condition at 24 hours, the way of power generation using solar
panel was found to be efficient.
Conclusions
As a result of experiment of thermoelectric power generation by
using slight temperature difference, the following results were
obtained.
In this study, it was able to confirm the electric power generation
voltage of approximately 13.9V when given a temperature
difference of approximately 13.0C between the high-
temperature side and low-temperature side of the Peltier element.
In this experimental condition, the result was evaluated as a
parameter to the temperature difference of high-temperature side
and low-temperature side of Peltier element, and then it has been
found that there is a nearly linear relationship between electric
power generation voltage and this temperature difference. The
following thing was considered through this result. This nearly
same linear relationship is seen also when temperature difference
decrease and increase. Be inferred from this that, and be able to
power generation at any temperature difference in the
temperature range driving of the Peltier element.
As a result of experiment of comparison by using Peltier element
and solar panel, the following findings were obtained. In an
experiment using a Peltier element, the electric power generation
voltage was found to be strongly dependent on the surface
temperature difference of the Peltier element. Average value of
electric power generation voltage could be confirmed at 8.53V.
In addition, power generation using solar panel is dependent on
the hours of sunshine; average value of electric power generation
voltage could be confirmed at 10.3V. In addition, comparison
results shows that the value of integral of the Peltier element was
204.7Vh; that of solar panels was 246.9Vh. It was found that the
amount of electricity generated by solar panel has become
approximately 1.21 times larger than that of electricity generated
by Peltier element. Then, in this experimental condition at this
study, it was found to be able to get more electric power
generation voltage element when solar panel was used. It is
superior to the power generation of Peltier element. However, it
will be presumed that is possible to power generation equivalent
of solar panel, when each side of Peltier element were given
temperature difference than in experimental condition.
References
[1] Takayuki TOGASAKI, Tetsuaki TAKEDA, Study on
application of thermal energy by slight temperature
difference, The Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers
Kanto Branch Vol.18, 2012, pp.265-266
[2] The Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers (representative
person Yoichiro Matsumoto), JSME Textbook Series Heat
Transfer, 2011
[3] The Ceramic Society of Japan All Rights Reserved,
Thermoelectric conversion materials, Nihon Kougyou
KeizaiShinbun Inc.
[4] S.W.Chi, Practical Technology Series HEAT PIPE
THEORY AND PRACTICE, Japan Center for Economic
Research, 1978
[5] P.D.DUNN, D.A.REAY, Heat Pipes, Gakkensya Co., Ltd.,
1979
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
A study on Freezing Damage of Plant Cell
Akemi Eguchi1, Takako Ninagawa2, Akira Narumi3, Tadashi Konishi4 and Yasuhiro Iida5
1
Toyo Engineering Works, LTD., Tokyo 140-8635, Japan
2
Graduate Student, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kanagawa Institute of Technology, Atsugi 243-0292, Japan
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kanagawa Institute of Technology, Atsugi 243-0292, Japan
4
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Oita National College of Technology, Oita 870-0152, Japan
5
Department of Applied Bioscience, Kanagawa Institute of Technology, Atsugi 243-0292, Japan
Abstract
This research was carried out to discuss the possibility of the
new cryopreservation technique without giving the damage to
cell. It was largely divided into two experiments. One was to
clarify the freezing damage mechanism by visualizing the
transition behaviours from the extracellular freezing to
intracellular one in the plant cell using our developed
cryomicroscope equipped with the high speed camera, cooled
CCD camera and normal CCD camera. The other was to discuss
the possibility to keep the supercooling at lower temperature or
during longer time by adding the micro energy to the plant cell.
As a result, the addition of micro electrical current we proposed
could make the ice crystal formed finer and make the temperature
at the release of supercooling lower in the range of 3 C ~12C.
Nomenclature
I Electric current (A)
T Temperature (C)
Degree of Supercooling (C) = |temperature at the
Ts
realease of supercooling|
Ts The difference in degree of supercooling (C)
t Time elapsed from the start of cooling (s)
t Time elapsed from the start of intracellular freezing
Vc Cooling rate
Deformation degree of the cell= (the area of cell at the
completion of intracellular freezing that before the
start of intracellular one) / (that at start)
Deformation ratio of the cell = ( the area of cell at the
* competition / that at start) at load of current / (the area
of cell at the competition / that at start) at no load
Introduction
The cryopreservation is one of the most essential techniques to
food and medical fields. On the other hand, it has been pointed
that ice crystal formed in cryopreservation may give some fatal
damage to the cell[1]~[3]. Therefore, a cryopreservation technique
that gives no damage to the cell has recently attracted special
attention from those interested in food and medical industry. In
addition, considering the prediction of high possibility that food
crisis will certainly come to us with the abrupt increase of world
population, it is very significant to develop the cryopreservation
technique as soon as possible. Concerning cryopreservation, it is
well known that the occurrence of intracellular freezing causes the
death of cell. The cause is generally considered that ice crystal
formed in intracellular freezing injures plasma membrane.
However, the moment has been not yet proved. That is, it is just
surmised from the difference in plasma membrane between before
and after intracellular freezing and is mere hypothesis. Uemura et
al. [4] challenged to capture the moment using high-speed video
camera. The result was not successful. It is very significant to
capture the moment and to understand the mechanism of damage
to cell due to ice crystal in order to develop cryopreservation
technique.
Under the above background, this research was carried out to
clarify how ice crystal injures the plasma membrane and to find
the method of reducing damage of cell due to ice crystal. To do it,
first of all, the observation system was constructed to visualize
the forming behaviour of ice crystal in cell. The cryomicroscopic
equipped with three cameras; the high-speed video camera, the
cooled CCD camera, the normal CCD camera, was used for the
observation system. Here, microscopy having the cooling stage is
referred to the cryomicroscopy. Plant tissue and protoplast (no
cell wall) were mainly used for a living specimen. The
experiment was performed, varying the cooling rate. The cooling
and freezing processes of specimen from the start of cooling to
the completion of intracellular freezing were observed. These
results were discussed from the viewpoints of the moment of
transition from extracellular freezing to intracellular one, the
deformation due to the progress of intracellular freezing, and the
temperature at intracellular freezing.
Some studies [5] on the method of reducing the damage to cell
due to ice crystal were tried. The most [6] were made using actual
food materials such as fish and vegetable on the practical side.
From micro viewpoint of cell scale, there are some studies on
cold acclimation by Yoshida et al. [7],[8]. However, at present, the
available method of reducing the damage to cell due to ice crystal
has been not found yet. In this research, the various methods of
the load of micro energy (electric current, electric field and
magnetic field) to cell were performed to find the available
method. There results were discussed from the viewpoints of ice
crystal formed and the lowering of temperature at the occurrence
of intracellular freezing. As a result, it is found that the load of
micro electric current is the effective method of reducing damage.
Experimental Apparatus and Procedures
The cryomicroscopic system used in this research is shown in
Fig 1. Here, cryomicroscopy is referred to the microscopy having
the cooling stage. Inversed microscopy was used in this research.
The cooling was performed by flowing liquid nitrogen into the
cooling stage. Cooling rate was controlled by the combination of
liquid nitrogen and heater. Cooling rate is varied from 0.5 C/min
to 100C/min. Nitrogen gas was flowed into cooling stage to
prevent the cloud of its observation window. Three cameras;
high-speed camera, normal CCD camera and cooled CCD camera,
were equipped with cryomicroscopy. The each purpose of three
cameras used in this research is shown in table 1. Plant was used
for the test specimen, considering easiness to make the specimen
with living. Saxifrage stolonifera, Jerusalem artichoke, Daucus
(a) Tissue
Carota L. and Allium cepa L. were used among plant in this
research. The two types of tissues (row of cell) and protoplasts (a
(Saxifrage stolonifera)
cell having no cell wall) were adopted for the specimen of
observation. As an example, Figure 2 shows microscopic
photographs of the tissue and protoplast, respectively.
This research tried the various methods of the reduction of
freezing damage to cell. Here, we describe about the load of
50m
micro electrical current to cell that shows the reduction effect in
the various methods. Figure 3 shows the schematic of load
method of micro electric current to cell. Micro electric current
with rectangular wave pattern was loaded to plant tissue via water. (b) Protoplast
Current was varied from 1A to 100A. Frequency was varied
from 1Hz to 1000Hz. (Daucus Carota L.)

Table 1 Roles of each camera

Figure 2 Microscopic photographs of specimen
type of
Role
camera
CCD Observation of whole tissue from the start of
camera cooling through freezing to thawing.
Thermocouple(1)
High speed Catch the phenomenon called flashing that ice
camera crystal covers entirely in the cell at a moment.
Cooled Judgement for the life or death of cell, pH
CCD measurement and observation of cell membrane
camera using fluorescence dye
Tissue

Halogen Thermocouple(2)
PF
lamp
Vacuum grease
Cooling rate
programmable
controller
Condenser
Electric
Digital thermometer Thermo-couple (2)
Cooling stage Stimulator IR camera
and cooling pump
Optical fiber thermometer

Cooled CCD camera Figure 3 Schematic of the load method

of the electric current to the tissue

Objective
EF
Image
processor Shutter
CCD camera Experimental Results and Discussions
The case of no load of electric current
Mercury lamp
Figure 4 shows the photographs of typical progress of ice
AF crystal in the intracellular freezing obtained by high-speed
High speed camera camera. The white bar is 50m. Hereafter, the bar in the
Liquid Nitrogen following figures shows 50m in the same way. Seeing Figure
Nitrogen gas 4(b), ice crystal occurred suddenly at the neighborhood of cell
OLYMPUS, Model; IX71 wall progresses along the normal direction. After that, ice crystal
progresses along the cell wall at a moment with the progress to
PF: polarizing filter, EF: excitation filter, AF: analyzing filter normal direction of (b) (Figure 4(c)). Finally, ice crystal
progresses to center of cell and progress is completed (Figure
4(d)). Here, t is time elapsed from the occurrence of ice crystal.
Figure 1 Schematic of the Cryomicroscopic System
Arrow line is the progress direction of ice crystal.
 Figure 5 shows the typical difference in ice crystal formed due Here, we paid special attention to the deformation of cell due to
to cooling rate. Figure 5 (a) and (c) are the case of 1.0C/min. the progress of ice crystal, considering that there is the relation of
Figure 5 (b) and (d) are 100C/min. It is seen that the ice crystal damage to the deformation of cell. The deformation of cell was
formed in the case of 100C/min is finer than in the case of estimated using the photographs of high-speed camera. Figure 6
1.0C/min. and that the progress of ice crystal is faster in the case shows the deformation of the case of 10C/min as an example of
of 100C/min than the case of 1.0C/min. estimation. Here, the deformation degree is defined as the
increase ratio of a cells area before intracellular (white broken
line) to that at the completion of ice crystal progress. Figure 6(d)
Ice Crystal Progress of Ice Crystal Growth shows that the distinguished deformation occurs due to the
progress of ice crystal. Furthermore, Figure 6 (e) to (h) is the
enlarged photographs of cell wall between Figure 6 (a) and (b).
These photographs seem to capture the interesting moment of
breaking the cell wall due to transition from extracellular freezing
to intracellular one. Figure 7 shows the relation of the degree of
deformation along with the degree of supercooling ( =
(a) t =0ms (b) t =4ms (c) t =13ms (d) t =17ms solidification point of water the release of supercooling) to the

[Temperature of specimen is about 15.8 C]

25 0.100
Figure 4 Typical Intracellular Freezing Process

Deformation Degree of the Cell

0.090

Degree of Supercooling Ts(C)

20 0.080
Dendritic Crystal
0.070

15 0.060

Ts 0.050

10 0.040
(a) t =7ms (b) t =7ms
0.030

5 0.020

0.010

0 0.000
1 0.1 10 100 1000
(c) t =21ms (d) t =14ms
1.0C/min 100C /min Cooling Rate Vc(C/min)
Figure 7 The Relation between Degree of Deformation and
Figure 5 Difference of Ice Crystal formed Degree of Supercooling due to Cooling Rate
Cell configuration at t'=0ms
Progress of ice growth Displacement of cell

50
m
(a) t'=0 ms (b) t'=5 ms (c) t'=13 ms (d) t'=21 ms
Zoom (262K)

Cell Wall Ice Crystal

10
m
(e) t'=0 ms (f) t'=2 ms (g) t'=3 ms (h) t'=4 ms

Figure 6 Transition Behaviours from Extracellular Freezing to Intracellular One with High Speed Camera
[t': Time after the beginning of transition, White broken line: cell configuration before transition (at t'=0 ms)]
cooling rate. Here, lateral axis is cooling rate. Left longitudinal
axis is degree of supercooling. Right longitudinal axis is the
degree of deformation. This figure tells that the degree of
deformation and the degree of supercooling become less
remarkable and higher with the increase of cooling rate,
respectively. This result corresponds to the fact that rapid
freezing is commonly used in preserving food materials such as
tuna.
Ice Crystal Progress of ice growth
than in the case of tissue. Figure 9 shows the fluorescent
photograph using FM1-43[9]. It is seen that plasma membrane can
be distinguished clearly due to fluorescent dye. However, from
these figures, it cannot be judged whether or not there is any
damage to plasma membrane.
The case of load of electric current
Next, this research tried the various methods of the reduction of
freezing damage to cell. The various methods were the load of
micro electric current, electric field or magnetic field to the cell.
As a result, it was found that the load of micro electrical current
to cell showed the distinguished reduction effect among the
various methods.

In the load of electric current, we first checked the effect of heat

generation due to loaded of electric current on the measuring
results. When micro electric current was loaded, how much
(a) t=0ms (b) t=83ms (c) t=153ms
temperature rise of the cell inside the cooling stage without cover
was checked using 4 different kinds of temperature sensor;
optical-fiber-thermometer, two thermocouples and thermography,
respectively. Then, the effect of the load of electric current on
measuring value by thermocouple used as data throughout this
experiment was also investigated. Figure 10 shows the results.
Lateral axis is time elapsed from the start of load of current.
(d) t=261ms (e) t=298ms (f) t=393ms Temperature increases with the progress of time. After 20min,
temperature seems to be almost constant. Because 20min is too
Figure 8 Intracellular freezing process of protoplast long to reach the constant, there seems to be the possibility of
room temperatures rise. Anyway, it is found that temperature rise
(Cooling rate: Vc=1 C /min)
is below 1.5C even though the case of 100A. Their temperature
difference due to measuring sensor was within 0.6 C. On the
parallel to the above experiment, temperature distribution of the
tissue was measured using thermography with 640480
resolutions attached to macro lens (25m). Figure 11 shows the
temperature profile along the white line in the case of the load of
10 A. Here, white dot line shows the size of tissue. It is seen
that there is the temperature change of 0.3~0.5C in the
neighborhood of electric pole and 0.5~0.8 C inside of the tissue.
From these both results, it is judged that the effect of heat
(b) After extracellular generation due to the load of electric current on temperature rise
(a) Before cooling and measuring accuracy can be negligible.
freezing
(t=0s, T=25 C) (t=1750s, T=4.2 C) Next, we show the difference in the ice crystal formed between
with and without the load of electric current in Figure 11. The
photographs of Figure 12 were obtained by high-speed camera
(electric current I=10A, cooling rate Vc=10C/min). While the
distinguished dendritic ice crystal is seen in the case of no current,

Thermo-couple(1) Optical Fibaer

Thermo-couple(2) IR camera
28.0
(c) After intracellular (d) After thawing
freezing
(t=2000s, T=8.3 C) (t=3200s, T=10 C) 27.5
Temprature (C)

Figure 9 Fluorescent photograph of protoplast

27.0
(Cooling rate: Vc=1 C /min)

Figure 8 and 9 show the case of the protoplast of Jerusalem 26.5

artichoke. Figure 8 shows the moment from the start of
intracellular freezing to the completion of one. Because
protoplast has no cell wall, it is easy to observe the behaviour in 26.0
the neighbourhood of plasma membrane. This figure shows that
ice crystal formed in the neighbourhood of plasma membrane at
first and that it progresses in the direction of arrow before the 25.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
completion of intracellular freezing. The progress pattern of ice
Time (min)
crystal is similar to that of the case of tissue, but it takes longer
time in the case of protoplast to compete intracellular freezing Figure 10 The effect of heat generation due to the load of current
no dendritic but fine ice crystal is seen in the case of the load of experiment. As the electric current is higher and the cooling rate
current. Furthermore, the ice crystal progresses more slowly in is higher, the temperature at the release of supercooling becomes
the case of the load of current than in the case of no load. These lower. The increase is in the range of 3 C ~12C.
results tell that the load of electric current have an effect on ice
crystal formed in the cell.
Vc=1C/min Vc=10C/min Vc=100C/min
1.00
0.3C~0.5C
3~

Deformation Ratio *
0.95

0.90

0.85
0.5C~0.8C
0.80

0.75
Figure 11 Temperature profile along the line in the tissue
0.70
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Ice Crystal Progress of ice growth Electric Current I (A)
Figure 13 The effect of electric current on the deformation of cell

Vc=1C/min Vc=10C/min Vc=100C/min

16
The increase of the Degree of Supercooling Ts (C)

(a) t =0ms (b) t =3ms (c) t =5ms (d) t =12ms

[Temperature of specimen is about 8.6 C.] 14
(i) No electric current
12

Ice Crystal Progress of ice growth

10

6
(e) t =0ms (f) t =3ms (g) t =10ms (h) t =20ms
[Temperature of specimen is about 14.5 C.] 4
(ii) With electric current (10A)
2
Figure 12 The behaviour of transition to Intracellular Freezing
t: Time after the beginning of Intracellular freezing.
0
0.1 1 10
Figure 13 shows the reduction effect due to the load of electric Electric Current I (A)
current on the deformation of cell. Here, the deformation is
Figure 14 The effect of Electric current
expressed in terms of deformation ratio. Deformation ratio * is
defined as the ratio of the above mentioned deformation degree at on the release of supercooling
the load of electric current to that at no load. Lateral axis is the
load of electric current. Longitudinal axis is the deformation ratio. From these results, it is found that there is some possibility of
The reduction effect of the deformation of cell due to intracellular reducing the damage of cell and preserving a living plant tissue
freezing increases with the increase of the electric current. The under lower temperature due to the load of electric current to the
lower is the cooling rate, the reduction effect is the more tissue. We can find the hint to the effective way of
distinguished. cryopreservation technique.

Figure 14 shows the effect of electric current on the release of

supercooling. Longitudinal axis shows the increase of the degree
of supercooling at the cases of the load of electric current to that
in the case of no load. (the increase of the degree of supercooling
Ts = the degree of supercooling in the case of the addition of
current the average of the degree of supercooling in the case of
no current). That is, the value shows that higher is this value, the
temperature at the release of supercooling is lower. From Fig.12,
it is seen that the temperature at the release of supercooling
becomes lower due to the load of electric current in every
Conclusions
We obtained the following knowledge through this research.
They are summarized as conclusions.
1. The moment of transition from extracellular freezing to
intracellular one could be captured by the cryomicroscopic
system constructed in this research.
 2. It was found that there is the characteristic difference in ice
crystal formed due to cooling rate.
3. The degree of deformation is inversely proportional to the
degree of supercooling. The degree of deformation is more
distinguished with the decrease of cooling rate.
4. The load of micro electric current to cell is effective to the
reduction of its damage. The load of current makes ice crystal
finer and makes its progress slower and makes the temperature at
the release of supercooling lower in the range of 3 C ~12C.
References
Muldrew, K. and McGann, LE., The Osmotic Rupture
Hypothesis of Intracellular Freezing Injury, Biophysical Journal,
66 (2 PT 1), 1994,532-541.
[1] Steponkus, PL., Dowgrert, MF. and Gordon-Kamm, WJ.,
Destabilization of the Plasma Membrane of Isolated Plant
Protoplasts during a Freeze-Thaw Cycle: the Influence of
Cold Acclimation, Cryobiology, 20, 4,1983, 448-465.
[2] Acker, JP. and McGann, LE., Membrane Damage Occurs
during the Formation of Intracellular Ice, Cryo Letters, 22, 4,
2001, 241-254.
[3] Uemura, M., Nakagawara, C., Kawamura, Y., Yoshida, S.,
Etoh, T. and Takehara, K., Analysis of Intracellular Freezing
Process of Plant cells with Cryomicroscope and High-Speed
Video Camera, Japanese Society for Cryobiology and
Cryotechnology, 48, 2, 2002, 129-133.
[4] Xianglan, B., Shirakashi, R., and Nishio, S., The Dielectric
Loss Characteristic of Ice by Dielectric Heating Method for
the Thawing of Foods or Biomaterial, Refrigeration, 75, 872,
2000, 452-454.
[5] Yoshimoto, R., Okahisa, N., Kawanishi, H., Yamanishi, T.,
Toyosu, K., Yuasa, N., Miura, T., Obama, K. and Washio,
M., The Effect of Alternating Electric Fields on the Frozon
Fish, Tokushima Prefecture Industrial Technology Center
Report, 20, 2011,15-19.
[6] Uemura, M. and Yoshida, S., Studies on Freezing Injury in
Plant Cells, Plant Physiol., 80, 1986, 187-195.
[7] Murai, M. and Yoshida, S., Evidence for the Cell Wall
Involvement in Temporal Changes in Freezing Tolerance of
Jerusalem Artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.) Tubers
during Cold Acclimation, Plant Cell Physiol., 39(1), 1998,
97-105
[8] http://www.invitrogen.jp/catalogue/molecular_probes/cell_b
io_new/tool_celltrace/neuro_fm.shtml
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena:

TRACE Modeling of Spent Fuel Pool Safety Analysis in SBO

Hui-Chen Wang1, J.R. Wang2, H.T. Lin2 and C. Shih1

1
Institute of Nuclear Engineering and Science, National Tsing Hua University,
101 Section 2, Kuang Fu Rd., HsinChu, Taiwan
2
Institute of Nuclear Energy Research, Atomic Energy Council, R.O.C.,
1000, Wenhua Rd., Chiaan Village, Lungtan, Taoyuan, 325, Taiwan
Abstract
In general, the nuclear power plant (NPP) safety analysis is
performed by the thermal hydraulic codes such as TRACE,
RELAP, and RETRAN, etc. TRACE is an advanced thermal
hydraulic code for NPP safety analysis. The development of
TRACE is based on TRAC, integrating RELAP5 and other
programs. In this research, TRACE is used to perform this
analysis of the spent fuel pool.
After the cooling system of the spent fuel pool failed, the fuels
were becoming uncovered roughly in 2.7 days which made the
cladding temperature of the fuels raised. Subsequently, the metal-
water reaction of the fuels occurred in 3.5 days. The metal-water
reaction made the cladding temperature sharply increased. The
above phenomenon may cause the safety issue of the fuels.
Besides, the sensitivity analysis of the fire water spray in the
spent fuel pool is performed in order to avoid the generation of
the metal-water reaction. This sensitivity analysis focuses on the
effect of the mass flow rate, water temperature, and spray time of
the fire water in the spent fuel pool.
1. Introduction
The safety analysis of the nuclear power plant (NPP) is very
important work in the NPP safety. During the Fukushima
accident in Japan, the earthquake caused the cooling system of
the spent fuel pool failed and the safety issue of the spent fuel
pool has been generated in Fukushima NPP. The Chinshan
nuclear power plant (NPP) is the first NPP in Taiwan which is
the BWR/4 plant and the original rated power for each unit is
1775 MWt. After the project of MUR (Measurement Uncertainty
Recovery) for Chinshan NPP, Unit 2 started MURPU
(Measurement Uncertainty Recovery Power Uprate) from April 6,
2008 for Cycle 23 and Unit 1 started MURPU from November 8,
2008 for Cycle 24. The operating power is 101.7% of the original
designed rated power, which is 1805 MWt now. If a Fukushima-
like accident occurs, the cooling system of the spent fuel pool
would fail, resulting in the increasing of water temperature which
may make the water level decrease constantly. Therefore, the
uncovered fuels may raise the cladding temperature of the fuels,
and lead to the metal-water reaction.
CFD are similar [3]. For these reasons, spent fuel pool could be
properly modelled by TRACE code.
The geometry of the Chinshan NPP spent fuel pool is 12.17 m
7.87 m 11.61 m with the initial condition of 60 C (water
temperature) / 1.013 105 Pa. Besides, the total power of the
fuels is roughly 8.9 MWt initially. The pool is modelled by the 3-
D VESSEL hydraulic component which allows to simulate a
flow calculation in (x, y, z) Cartesian- or (r, , z) Cylindrical-
geometry. In this study, the Cartesian representation has been
selected and the VESSEL component is of dimensions with 14
axial levels, 1 X dimension cell, and 1 Y dimension cell. In the
axial direction, from axial level 1 to level 11 contain water and
from axial level 12 to level 14 are full of air, as shown in Figure
1. Figure 1 also presents the axial level lengths of TRACE model.
Figure 2 presents the TRACE model used to simulate the
Chinshan nuclear power plant spent fuel pool. The fuels are
modelled by the CHAN component which inlet is connected to
axial level 2 of the VESSEL component and outlet is connected
to axial level 7 of the VESSEL component, and the CHAN
component is divided into 25 cell levels. Additionally, the height
ratio of VESSEL and CHAN components is presented in Figure 2.
The heat source of the spent fuel pool is the decay heat of the
fuels and is simulated by a power component of TRACE, using
the power table to simulate the power varying during the
transient. The decay heat data of the fuels come from the Startup
and Operations Report [4]. Besides, this model is also capable of
simulating of the heat conduction between the racks of the fuels
and the pool, where one heat structure component of TRACE is
used to simulate the heat exchange in the spent fuel pool and the
fuels racks.
Furthermore, the safety analysis of the spent fuel pool for
Chinshan NPP in an SBO assumes that the normal cooling
system of the spent fuel pool is failed so that the coolant inlet and
the coolant outlet in the normal cooling system are not modelled.
Therefore, the FILL component is used as the fire water spray
system into the spent fuel pool, and the BREAK component
simulates the spent fuel pool building which is used as pressure
boundary condition.
As shown in Figure 3, there is the animation model to present
some important parameters in the spent fuel pool during the
accident.

2. Model Description

The purpose of this study is to examine the safety analysis of the

spent fuel pool in SBO for Chinshan NPP.
The spent fuel pool analysis using TRACE code, which is
developed by U.S. NRC [1], are conducted [2][3]. Referring to
previous research [2], it shows that TRACE predictions of spent
fuel pool agree with measured data (F. Sanchez-Saez et al., 2012).
Additionally, the spent fuel pool analysis results of TRACE and

Figure 1. The axial levels of the spent fuel pool
Figure 2. The TRACE model of the spent fuel pool
Figure 3. The animation schematic diagram of the spent fuel pool
3. Analysis results
During Japans Fukushima accident, the cooling system of the
spent fuel pool failed. Therefore, in this study the SBO accident
without fire water spray system is analysed using the model
shown in Figure 2 while FILL component is not functioning and
the simulation results are shown in Figures 4-7.
Figure 4. The water temperature in the spent fuel pool
From Figure 4, the water temperature in level 1 to level 8 of the
spent fuel pool increases at beginning. Because there are fuel
rods placing in that region, as the spent fuel pool loses the
coolant circulation ability, the temperature in that region
increases first. From Figure 1, axial level lengths for level 1 to
level 8 are so small that the results for level 1 to level 8 are pretty
similar during the simulation. Additionally, there is buoyancy
phenomenon which results in an upward flow because the density
of hotter water is smaller, and then the water temperatures in
level 9 to level 11 increase. As presented in Figure 4, the water
temperature in each level of spent fuel pool rises to a maximum
temperature and then begins to decrease. That is because the
water temperature will first increase towards the saturation
temperature corresponding to static pressure in each level, and
pool water level decrease, which is shown in Figure 6, due to the
evaporation of the water, causing the decrease of static pressure
and saturation temperature in each level. As the pool water level
drops, water temperature in each level becomes saturation
temperature corresponding to atmospheric pressure, which is
373.15 K.
Figure 5 shows that the upper Zch had the higher water
temperature in channel. Combining the water temperature
distribution in Figure 4 and Figure 5, it can be found that when
natural circulation is established in the pool, water in the channel
flows upwards and a zone between the fuel and the pool walls
function as a downcomer.
 Figure 5. The water temperature in the channel
Figure 6. The water level of the spent fuel pool
Figure 6 shows the pool water level history during the accident.
Within 7.66 hours after the SBO occurred, the pool water level
increased slightly because of the change in density, and then the
boiling phenomenon around the fuel rods caused the water level
gradually decreasing. After 65.2 hours, water level dropped to
fuel rods top. At that moment, the heat transfer area between
water and rods became small, resulting in rapid drawdown until
the heat transfer reached the equilibrium then the decreasing rate
of water level slowed down.
Figure 7. The peak cladding temperature
After the occurrence of the SBO, the cooling system in the spent
fuel pool was not functioning, causing the fuel cladding
temperature rising for some time. After that the fuel cladding
temperature was kept the same as the water temperature until the
fuel rods were uncovered. When the fuel rods were uncovered in
about an hour, steam could also take away part of the heat. Hence,
the fuel cladding temperature did not rise immediately. Then the
uncovered fuel rods still made the fuel cladding temperature
raised. In this period of time, the slug flow and Taylor cap bubble
flow dominated the flow regime. Finally, the metal-water
reaction of the fuel rods occurred in 84.36 hours. The metal-
water reaction made the cladding temperature sharply increased
and might generate the film-boiling of the fuel rods.
4. Sensitivity Studies
There are several topics in the sensitivity studies conducted to
investigate the different parameters affecting to mitigate the
consequences in the SBO accident, which include: (a) fire water
spray time, (b) fire water spray mass flow rate, and (c) fire water
spray temperature.
4.1. Study of Fire Water Spray Time
According to the analysis results of last section, if the SBO
accident occurs without any alternate water replenishment
measure, fuel rods will be uncovered. In order to verify how the
effect mitigates the consequence of the SBO, the fire water spray
time are selected to be analysed. In this sensitivity study, there
are concerns about spray time, which include fire water spray
time with the cases of pool level reaching top of fuel and 2/3 fuel
height. Additionally, there are some settings for spray system,
including spray mass flow rate with 12.66 kg/s (= 200 gpm),
spray temperature with 298.15 K, and spray system stopped
when the pool level reached 11 m.
Figure 8 shows the different changes in water level under the
different setting of fire water spray time. The water level
decreases to the top of fuel rods in 65.2 hours and the 1/3 fuel
rods are exposed in 68.6 hours after an SBO occurs.
Figure 8. The water level of the spent fuel pool for sensitivity (b)
study of fire water spray time
Figure 9. The water temperature in the spent fuel pool
Fire water began to spray while pool level reached
(a) top of fuel, (b) 2/3 fuel height.

The phenomenon before fire water spray in Figure 9 and Figure

10 is almost identical with Figure 4 and Figure 5. It is worth
mentioning that there is a two-phase mixed region on the surface
of water in spent fuel pool. In the results, the water temperature
oscillates because steam has been discharged from the surface of
water and the fire water has begun to spray. Moreover, after
starting watering, the water temperature increases towards the
saturation temperature corresponding to static pressure in each
level. And then after stopping spray, the pool water level
decreases due to evaporation of the water, causing the decrease
of static pressure and saturation temperature in each level.

(a)

(a)

(b)
Figure 10. The water temperature in the channel
Fire water began to spray while pool level reached
(a) top of fuel, (b) 2/3 fuel height.
Figure 11. The peak cladding temperature for sensitivity study of
fire water spray time
Figure 11 presents the fuel cladding temperature history during
the accident in this sensitivity study. It could be found that if
spraying at the moment that the fuel rods are just uncovered, it
can effectively restrain the rise of the fuel cladding temperature;
however, if spraying when the 1/3 fuel rods are exposed, the fuel
cladding temperature will increase about 112 K. But peak
cladding temperature is still at a very low level and away from
the temperature that induces the metal-water reaction.
Also, if the fire water spray time is later than the pool level
reaching to the 2/5 fuel height, the fuel cladding temperature will
increase to the temperature generating the metal-water reaction.
4.2. Study of Fire Water Spray Mass Flow Rate
For the normal operation, the fire water mass flow rate is 12.66
kg/s (= 200 gpm). During the SBO accident, the situation
becomes more complicated as fire water capacity must be
restricted to control the fire water spray mass flow rate.
Therefore, a sensitivity study was performed to investigate the
impact of controlling the spray mass flow rate. In this sensitivity
study, there were divided into two parts: (1) fire water began to
spray while pool level reached top of fuel, (2) fire water began to
spray while pool level reached 2/3 fuel height. Also, the spray
mass flow rate were selected with the cases of 6.33 kg/s (= 100
gpm), 9.49 kg/s (= 150 gpm), 12.66 kg/s (= 200 gpm), and 15.82
kg/s (= 250 gpm) for both of two parts.
Part 1-fire water began to spray while pool level reached top of
fuel:
First, the water level change in the first part is shown in Figure
12. It could be clearly seen that while fire water mass flow rate is
getting lower, it will take a longer time to restore the pool water
level.
Figure 13 shows the fuel cladding temperature change in this part
of the sensitivity study. It can be found that the fuel cladding
temperature oscillates gently after starting watering. That is
because the fuel rods are just uncovered but coming into contact
with the fire water, and then producing the vibrations. Although
the water temperature in spent fuel pool and channel is not
presented, the temperature changes of the fuel cladding and water
are supposed be closely related.
Figure 12. The water level of the spent fuel pool for sensitivity
study of fire water spray mass flow rate (beginning to spray
while pool level reached top of fuel)
Figure 13. The peak cladding temperature for sensitivity study of
fire water spray mass flow rate (beginning to spray while pool
level reached top of fuel)
Part 2- fire water began to spray while pool level reached 2/3 fuel
height
From Figure 15, before fire water started to spray, the fuel
cladding temperature had already risen to 487.5 K. Additionally,
at the beginning of spraying, there was no way to reduce the
cladding temperature effectively, and the fuel cladding
temperature in the case of lowest mass flow rate reached 525.5 K,
but the cladding temperature is still away from the temperature
that induces the metal-water reaction. After that, the fuel
cladding temperature of each case decreased.
Figure 14. The water level of the spent fuel pool for sensitivity
study of fire water spray mass flow rate (beginning to spray
while pool level reached 2/3 fuel height)
Figure 15. The peak cladding temperature for sensitivity study of
fire water spray mass flow rate (beginning to spray while pool
level reached 2/3 fuel height)
4.3. Study of Fire Water Spray Temperature
The water temperatures are different in summer and winter.
Therefore, a sensitivity study was selected to investigate the
impact of fire water spray temperature. In this sensitivity study,
there were also divided into two parts: (1) fire water began to
spray while pool level reached top of fuel, (2) fire water began to
spray while pool level reached 2/3 fuel height. Additionally,
there were cases with spray temperature of 288.15 K, 293.15 K,
298.15 K, and 303.15 K for both of two parts.
Part 2- fire water began to spray while pool level reached 2/3 fuel
height
It can be found that the results of different spray temperature are
quite similar, as shown in Figure 16 and Figure 17. The likely
reason for the similarity is that the mass flow rate of 12.66 kg/s
(= 200 gpm) to watering can be described as a drop in the bucket,
comparing with the volume of spent fuel pool. Accordingly, there
is no significant difference in the temperature. In fact, even the
maximum temperature difference is only 15 degrees.
In this paper, only the second part, fire water began to spray
while pool level reached 2/3 fuel height, is demonstrated since
the simulation results of the first part are also similar between
different spray temperatures.
5. Conclusions
In this study, TRACE is used to perform safety analysis of the
spent fuel pool in an SBO. Moreover, several sensitivity studies
of the fire water spray in the spent fuel pool are performed in
order to investigate the effect of the mass flow rate, water
temperature, and spray time of the fire water during SBO.
According to the sensitivity results, the mass flow rate based on
the same spray time is the most sensitive parameter. Additionally,
for all ranges of parametric sensitivity studies, the metal-water
reaction never occurs. The results can help to evaluate the safety
issue of the Chinshan NPP spent fuel pool suffering from
Fukushima-like scenarios.
 [4] ANP-2772(P) Revision 0, Startup and Operations Report
Chinshan Unit 1 Cycle 24, AREVA NP Inc., 2008.

Figure 16. The water level of the spent fuel pool for sensitivity
study of fire water spray temperature (beginning to spray while
pool level reached 2/3 fuel height)

Figure 17. The peak cladding temperature for sensitivity study of

fire water spray temperature (beginning to spray while pool level
reached 2/3 fuel height)

References

[1] U.S. NRC, TRACE V5.0 Theory Manual, Division of Safety

Analysis, Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research, 2010.
[2] F. Sanchez-Saez*, S. Carlos, J. F. Villanueva, S. Martorell.
SPENT FUEL POOL ANALYSIS USING TRACE CODE,
PHYSOR 2012 Advances in Reactor Physics Linking
Research, Industry, and Education, Knoxville, Tennessee,
USA, April 15-20, 2012.
[3] J. R. Wang, H. T. Lin, Y. S. Tseng, and C. Shih. Application
of TRACE and CFD in the spent fuel pool of Chinshan
nuclear power plant, International Journal of Engineering
and Technology Innovation, 2011.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Large Eddy Simulation of Film Cooling with Swirling Coolant Air
Y. Oda1, K. Takeishi1 and T. Oshio1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
Abstract
Large Eddy Simulation (LES) of a film cooling with a swirling
coolant jet has performed for a circular hole at the blowing ratio
of 0.5 and 1.0. The numerical domain includes a hexagonal
cavity connected to the coolant guide channel, where two slant
jets provide internal cooling and generate forced swirling motion
of the film coolant before it entering into the coolant passage. As
a result, it is found that penetration of film coolant jet into
mainstream is suppressed by the swirling motion at blowing
ration of 1.0, and it result in a notable improvement of the film
cooling effectiveness compared to the non-swirling case.
Swirling flow in the film-cooling hole affects the velocity
distribution in the exit plane of the hole, and the flow direction of
the coolant jet approach to zero degree (parallel to the film-
cooled wall) on the one-side and the penetration into mainstream
is suppressed. In addition, the duration of swirling motion in the
film coolant is found to be comparable with that of kidney
vortices seen in non-swirling case. This seems to be preferable
because the excess swirled motion may enhance heat transfer
from hot mainstream to film-cooled surface.
Nomenclature
d film-cooling hole diameter
M blowing ratio, cuc/u
angle of slant jet inside a hexagonal cavity
film cooling effectiveness (non-dimensional temperature)
Introduction
Gas turbines are used for aircraft propulsion and land-based
power generation. Developments in turbine cooling technology
play a critical role in increasing the thermal efficiency and power
output of advanced gas turbines. Gas turbines vanes and blades
are cooled externally by film cooling. It is achieved by injecting
relatively cooler air (film coolant) from the internal coolant
passages out of the blade surface in order to form a protective
layer between the blade surface and hot gas-path flow. The
interaction between the film coolant and mainstream forms a
shear layer, where the mixing of them occurs and leads to the
decay of the film cooling performance along a blade surface.
It is important for film cooling to improve the cooling efficiency
with an allowable coolant flow rate, because the excess use of the
coolant can result in the decrease of thermal efficiency of gas
turbines. Thus, it is required for new film cooling techniques to
achieve wider and longer coverage of the coolant with a
minimum coolant flow rate. When simplest circular holes are
employed, it is known that the film coolant often penetrates into
mainstream and generates a pair of kidney-shaped vortices by the
interaction between mainstream and film cooling jet. The
downwash of the vortices entrains the hot mainstream below the
film coolant jet, and drastically decreases the film cooling
effectiveness on turbine blade surfaces. Thus, shaped film
cooling has been one of the most attractive inventions by
incorporation of the exit shaping to the film holes, which results
in lower momentum coolant injection jets with greater surface
coverage.
There have been so many studies on film cooling. A review paper
by Goldstein [1] summarized early works in this area and Bogard
and Thole [2] reviewed latest one. Early investigations on film
cooling were flows blowing through inclined discrete holes
including Eriksen and Goldstein [3] and Bernsdorf et al. [4]. The
efforts to improve film cooling efficiency by adopting film
cooling holes with expanded exits have been made
experimentally by Goldstein and Eckert [5], Bell et al. [6],
Takeishi and Aoki. [7] and Yu et al. [8]. Excellent summary
paper on shaped film cooling was published by Bunker [9].
Several new ideas to control anti-kidney vortex structure are
presented. Kusterer et al. [10] investigated two film cooling
arrangement with different compound angles, and Heidmann [11]
proposed additional cooling air jets in a circular film cooling hole
to control and to crash the kidney type vortex.
Kuya et al. [12] studied the effect of swirled film cooling air on
film cooling effectiveness by using a twisted tape in a circular
cooling hole and found the improvement of film cooling
effectiveness with swirling coolant flow. But, there was no
description and experimental results to understand the
mechanism of the film cooling with swirling flow. Recently,
Takeishi, et al. [13] has invented a new film cooling technique, in
which some swirling motion was added to the coolant flow inside
the guide channel with a simpler and realistic method than that
with a twisted tape. Their PSP (Pressure Sensitive Paint), LIF and
PIV measurements of the film cooling effectiveness and flow
fields have demonstrated that this new film cooling method can
improve the cooling efficiency both in circular and shaped film
cooling holes, by preventing the penetration of the coolant in
circular holes and by achieving the effective diffuse of the
coolant at the hole exit in shaped holes.
In this study, large eddy simulation was performed to examine
the detailed interaction mechanism between the hot mainstream
and the swirling coolant flows over a flat surface.
Film Cooling with a Swirl of Coolant Jet
As shown in Figure 1, experiment by Takeishi, et al. [13] was
conducted using a scale-up model of a film cooling hole installed
on the bottom surface of a low-speed wind tunnel. The test
section is 300 mm wide, 300 mm height, and 1950 mm long. A
film cooling hole is located 950 mm downstream from the exit of
the contraction section. The geometry of circular film cooling
hole is similar as that used by Takeishi and Aoki [7]. The guide
channel to the exit of film cooling hole was inclined at 30
toward the main flow direction. The diameter of the guide
channel, d, was 5 mm.
 Experiment [13] LES
Mainstream velocity, U 20 m/s
Turbulent intensity 0.36%
Boundary layer thickness, 25 mm
Film hole diameter, d 5 mm
Blowing ratio, M = cuc/u 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 0.5, 1.0
Slant angle of the two jets, 0, 10, 20, 30 0, 30
Table 1. Conditions in experiments and LES.

Figure 1. Wind tunnel and close-up of test section equipped with Figure 2. Schematic of computational domain for LES.
a circuler film hole, guide channel, and plenum with two slant
jets to produce swirl motion of film coolant.
flows, it is regarded as necessary to include the whole structures
of the test section in the computational domain, that is, a film
Swirling motion of film coolant was induced inside a hexagonal hole, a guide channel, and a plenum sections should be included
plenum by two slant jets, which are inclined at degree toward in the present case as shown in Figure 2. This is because the
the vertical direction and installed in a staggered position as internal flow in the plenum and the guide channel determines the
shown in Figure 1. The two jets generate swirling flows inside velocity distribution inside the film cooling hole, i.e., the velocity
the plenum, and this swirling flow enters into a guide channel profile at the exit plane of film hole, which gives a significant
keeping the angular momentum until the exit of film cooling hole. effect on the external flows where the mixing of mainstream and
The slant angle of the jets was changed as = 0, 10, 20, 30 in film coolant jet occurs.
their wind tunnel tests. The experimental conditions are shown in
Thus, a reliable approach for LES of film cooling flows generally
Table 1.
includes the whole structure in the computational domain.
The hexagonal structure of plenum was designed with a concept Unstructured or multi-block structured grid can be applied to this
to juxtapose them without void space, because the two jets also kind of complex geometry. In this study, therefore, multi-block
act as impinging jets to cool the internal surface of the endwall. structured grids were employed to simulate this complex flow
By this structure, the internal pressure of the plenum can be configuration.
locally adjustable to keep an optimal coolant flow rate under
In LES, following filtered conservation equations of mass,
different external pressure conditions, which depends on the
momentum and energy were solved in the general coordinate
endwall location in real gas turbines.
system.
In the experiments, spatial distributions of film cooling
effectiveness were measured on the bottom wall (y/d = 0) by PSP 1 JU k
and at some cross sections (x/d = 0, 2, 4 and z/d = 0) by LIF. The 0 (2)
film cooling effectiveness can be defined as follows, based on J k
heat and mass transfer analogy.
u i 1 JU k u i k P kl u i

(C C ) (C Cc ) (T T ) (T Tc ) (1) t J k xi k J k l
(3)
k
where C is concentration of oxygen and acetone in PSP and LIF,
1 2 J D
respectively. PIV measurement of velocity fields was also J k e x j ij

conducted at x/d = 0, 2, 4 and z/d = 0. The detail of experimental
procedure was shown in the reference [13]. T 1 JU k T kl T 1 k
J T (4)
t J k J k l J k e x j x j

Large Eddy Simulation
In this study, LES (Large Eddy Simulation) was performed to k l 1 l ui l u j

simulate film cooling flows with a swirling coolant jet in the kl J , Dij
xm xm 2 x j l xi l

above-mentioned experiments. For the simulation of film cooling

3 J , e e PrSGS
Sub-grid scale (SGS) stress was based on the eddy viscocity
concept and the SGS eddy viscosity e was given by Mixed-
Time-Scale (MTS) model by Inagaki, et al. [14] as follows.
e C MTS k esTs (5)
1 1
C
TS1 T (6)
k Dij
es
k es u k u k
2
(7)
The model parameters, CMTS and CT, are set to 0.05 and 10. The
notation, ( ) , denotes the filtering operator, for which the
Simpson rule is adopted. is a grid filter width. For temperature
fields, SGS heat flux was modeled using the constant SGS
Prandtl number of 0.5. Note that kinematic pressure P in Eq. (3)
is defined as P/ + ii/3, including the diagonal components of
the residual stress.
The governing equations are solved with a finite difference
method on a collocated grid system. Spatial derivatives were
basically approximated by a 2nd-order central difference. For the
convective term of momentum equations, a skew-symmetric
form of 2nd-order central difference was applied to assure
conservation of kinetic energy. For the convective term of the
energy equation, a TVD scheme with the Roes superbee flux
limiter [15] was applied. For time integration, a fractional step
method was used, coupled with a fully-implicit scheme for the
molecular diffusive terms and the second-order Adams-Bashforth
method was used for the remaining terms.
The dimensions of a mainstream domain of the present LES are
10 < x/d < 40, 0 < y/d < 15, and 12 < z/d < 12 in stream-wise,
wall-normal, and span-wise directions, respectively, where the
coordinate origin is located at the downstream end of film
cooling hole. An orthogonal structured grid was employed for the
mainstream domain, and the numbers of grid points were 200
50 145 in x, y and z directions, respectively. Time step was set
at t = 5 10-7 sec. The total number of structured-grid blocks is
thirteen, and the data transfer at the interfacial grid points
between structured-grid blocks was realized by a tri-linear
interpolation.
At the inflow boundary of the mainstream domain, a slightly
modified version of RFG (Random Flow Generation) method by
Smirnov, et al. [16] was employed to simulate fluctuating
velocities in a turbulent boundary layer of the mainstream. The
RFG procedure of Smirnov, et al. is a modified version of
Kraichnans method [17], and involves scaling and orthogonal
transformation operations applied to a continuous flow-field
generated as a superposition of random Fourier modes, i.e. the
sum of sine and cosines with random phases and amplitude. The
first step in reconstruction of fluctuating velocity field is to find
an orthogonal transformation tensor aij that would diagonalize a
given Reynolds stress tensor rij.
amianjrij = mnc2(n) (8)
aikakj = ij (9)
where c(n) = {c1, c2, c3} are the square root of eigenvalues of
Reynolds stress tensor, and thus they play the role of turbulent
fluctuating velocities in the principal axis coordinates produced
by transformation tensor aij. Then, an intermediate velocity vi are
constructed as follows:
p
N
2
vi ( x , t ) n
i cos(k nj x j n t) qin sin( k nj x j n t) (10)
N
n 1
x j 2x j L , t 2t , V L , k nj k njV c( j ) (11)
pin ijk nj d kn , qin ijk nj d kn (12)
in , in , n N (0, 1) , k nj N (0, 1/2) (13)
where L, and V are the length, time and velocity-scales of
turbulence, ijk is the permutation tensor used in vector product
operation and N(M, ) means a normally distributed random
variable with mean M and standard deviation . Numbers kjn, n
represent a sample of n wave-number vectors and frequencies of
the modeled turbulence spectrum below.
E ( k ) 16(2 )1 / 2 k 4 exp( 2k 2 ) (14)
Final fluctuating velocities will be obtained by applying a scaling
and orthogonal transformation to the intermediate velocity field vi
after the scaling by a factor of c(i).
wi = c(i)v(i) (15)
ui = aikwk (16)
Inflow boundary conditions of LES with RFG procedure require
rij, and V as input data in addition to averaged velocity Ui at
grid points of the boundary. These inputs can be obtained or
estimated by experiments and preliminary simulations using
RANS, LES, and DNS. In engineering-oriented problems like
film cooling flows in gas turbines, RANS simulations are easily
available for this purpose. It is worth noting that the RFG
procedures [16] or its simplified version by Batten, et al. [18]
also require Reynolds stress rij to be realizable in a sense that c2(n)
must be positive (or zero) in orthogonal transformation by Eqn.
(8), or in Cholesky decomposition of rij in the Battens method.
However, realizability of Reynolds stress is not always satisfied
in RANS simulations.
Therefore, in this study, Durbins constraint [19] on time-scale of
turbulence, , was applied to ensure the realizability of Reynolds
stress rij as input for the above RFG procedure. Thus, rij is
estimated at the film-hole exit by the following equations.
rij = 2t Sij + (2/3)kij (17)
t = CV) 2
k 2k 3
min , 2 , V = k1/2 (19)
3V C 8 Sij
2
where Sij, k and are the strain rate tensor, turbulence kinetic
energy and turbulence dissipation rate, respectively, and C is a
model constant being 0.09. Consequently, this slightly modified
RFG procedure requires Sij, k and as input data. This provides
flexibility in the choice of RANS models or methods of data
acquisition in experiments.
Thus, in this study, an input data at the inflow boundary was
obtained from a preliminary 2-D RANS analysis with a k-
realizable model. Based on the boundary layer thickness
measured by the Pitot tube in the wind tunnel experiments, the
input data are extracted from the computed plane where the
 (a) = 0, M = 0.5
Figure 3. Effect of swirling coolant on film cooling effectiveness at M = 0.5; comparison between LES and PSP results.
(a) = 0, M = 1.0
Figure 4. Effect of swirling coolant on film cooling effectiveness at M = 1.0; comparison between LES and PSP results.
boundary layer thickness reaches 20 mm in 2-D RANS
simulation of a parallel plate channel. The number of modes was
set at N = 200 to ensure the resulting statistics is independent of
N [20].
For other boundaries, a periodic condition was employed in
spanwise (z) direction. No-slip condition is applied on the solid
walls with a Neumann condition for pressure. The symmetric
condition was applied at y/d = 15. At the outflow plane at x/d =
40, the convective outflow condition was applied to all variables
including P.
U for = u, v, w or T (20)
t x
P P P P
U U (21)
t x L M = 1.0 of non-swirling case, which is then followed by the
where the second term in the r.h.s. of Eq. (21) was added to set a
far-downstream P (= 0) at a distance of L (= 5 m) from the
outflow plane [21].
For thermal boundary conditions, mainstream temperature T and
film coolant temperature Tc were given uniformly as 330 and 300
K ( = 0 and 1) at their inflow planes, respectively. On the solid
walls, thermally insulating conditions was applied. Periodic
condition was employed in z direction.
(b) = 30, M = 0.5
(b) = 30, M = 1.0
Results and Discussion
Figures 3 and 4 show the effect of swirling coolant on time-mean
film cooling effectiveness at M = 0.5 and 1.0, respectively, by
LES and PSP (Pressure Sensitive Paint) measurement, which is
conducted by Takeishi, et al. [13]. In each figure, left two figures
show non-swirling case at = 0 for LES (top) and PSP (bottom),
respectively, and right two figures show swirling case at = 30
for LES (top) and PSP (bottom), respectively. Note that curved
arrows in left figures denote top view of the rotational direction
of swirled coolant inside a cavity below. As observed by the PSP
experiments, LES predicts the effect of blowing ratio M on film
cooling effectiveness correctly, i.e., the film effectiveness is
decreased with an increase of the blowing ratio from 0.5 to 1.0
both for swirling and non-swirling cases. As shown in Figure 4(a),
the initial decrease of film effectiveness was observed in PSP at
recovery at downstream. This is caused by the detachment of film
coolant jet from the wall by the penetration into the mainstream.
The detached film coolant is immediately reattached to the wall
downstream the cooling hole. The present LES successfully
predict the initial decrease at M = 1.0 and the effect of blowing
ratio on the span-wise width of film-cooled area both at M = 0.5
and 1.0. From Figures 3 (b) and 4 (b), it is confirmed that the
addition of swirling motion to film coolant jet is effective to
increase film cooling effectiveness on the wall both at M = 0.5
and 1.0. Especially, at M = 1.0, the penetration of film coolant jet
 (a) = 0, M = 1.0
Figure 5. Effect of swirling motion in film coolant on the time-mean non-dimensional temperature at M = 1.0.
(a) = 0, M = 1.0
Figure 6. Effect of swirling motion in film coolant on the time-mean velocity and vorticity fields at M = 1.0.
into mainstream is suppressed by the swirling motion, and it
result in a notable improvement of the film cooling effectiveness.
Figures 5 (a) and (b) show the effect of swirling motion in film
coolant on the time-mean spatial distribution of the film coolant
at x/d = 0 and 1 for = 0 and 30, respectively, at M = 1.0.
Figures 6 (a) and (b) show the cross-sectional velocity vector and
the contour map of streamwise vorticity. Note that solid line in
Figure 6 denotes an isoline of = 0.1. For non-swirling case,
well-known kidney shape structure was observed at x/d = 1 in
Figure 5 (a). The kidney-like distribution is formed by the
interaction between the film coolant jet and mainstream, as
shown in Figure 6 (a). In this case, a secondary flow (red arrows)
seems to be induced outside the film coolant by the internal
kidney-vortex pair (blue arrows) and lifts up the film coolant
from the wall. On the other hand, at a swirling condition, strong
upward flow is observed at x/d = 0 in the positive z/d region,
while weak upward flow is observed in the negative z/d region.
(b) = 30, M = 1.0
(b) = 30, M = 1.0
Though the strong upward flow induces a secondary flow, which
may lift up the film coolant from the wall, weak upward flow
suppresses the generation of secondary flow in the opposite side.
This allows the film coolant to be attached on the wall in the
downstream region and attains higher film cooling effectiveness
than non-swirling case at M = 1.0.
To examine the flow field near the film-cooling hole exit, we
have examined flow angles at the exit plane of the cooling hole.
Figure 7 shows a schematic of swirled coolant flows near the
film-hole exit and the definition of the flow angles xy and zy. On
the right side, a concept of flow field decomposition is shown
schematically for two cross-sections at z/d = 3 and 3. Based on
this concept, flow inside the film cooling hole is decomposed into
the axial component and tangential velocity component by the
forced swirling motion. In the negative z/d region, the resultant
velocity of the axial jet velocity and tangential swirling velocity
is expected to become horizontal, which is parallel to the bottom
 Figure 7. Schematic of swirled coolant flows near the film-hole exit and the definition of flow angles xy and zy.

Time-mean flow angles, xy Time-mean non-dimensional temperature

Figure 8. Time-mean flow angles and non-dimensional temperature near the film-cooling hole exit.

wall of the main-flow channel. On the other hand, in the positive
z/d region, direction of the resultant velocity is expected to be
vertical, which is wall-normal direction.
To confirm the flow concept shown in Figure 7, Figure 8 shows
time-mean flow angles in the exit plane of the cooling hole and
non-dimensional temperature and velocity vectors at z/d = 3 and
3. As shown in Figure 8 (a), time-mean flow angle xy of non-
swirling case is almost uniform at 30 degree, which is the same
value as the angle of film coolant passage. On the other hand, in
the swirling case, the flow angle becomes almost zero degree in
the negative z/d region and becomes more than 50 degree in the
positive z/d region. This is also confirmed by the velocity vector
and contour map of non-dimensional temperature at z/d = 3 and
3. The penetration of the film coolant jet is clearly suppressed at
z/d = 3, while the coolant jet penetrates into the mainstream at
z/d = 3. Consequently, it seems that these numerical observation
supports the flow concepts shown in Figure 7.
Finally, to examine the duration of swirling motion in the film
coolant, we have examined the magnitude of circulation inside
the film coolant at constant x/d cross-sections. The boundary
between the film coolant and mainstream is defined by the isoline
of non-dimensional temperature at 0.1. Figure 9 shows stream-
wise distribution of the coolant circulation for non-swirling and
swirling cases. Red and green lines show the coolant circulation
obtained by the integration of positive and negative streamwise

(a) = 0, M = 1.0
(b) = 30, M = 1.0
Figure 9. Streamwise distributioin of coolant circulation.
vorticity, respectively. That is, the summation of red and green
lines shows the ordinary value of flow circulation. From Figure 9
(a), positive and negative coolant circulations show symmetrical
distributions, which imply the existence of kidney vortex pair. It
almost decays at x/d = 4. Note that the total of red and green
values (= black line) keeps almost zero throughout the channel.
On the other hand, in the swirling case, the total coolant
circulation (black line) show negative values due to the swirling
motion forced inside the hexagonal cavity. However, this
swirling motion rapidly decays downstream, and the effect is
almost diminishes at x/d = 4. These results suggest that the forced
swirling motion in the film coolant does not reach far
downstream and the effect is limited to the region from x/d = 0 to
5. This seems to be preferable because the excess swirling motion
may enhance the turbulent convective heat transfer from the hot
mainstream to the film-cooled vane surface in real gas turbine
applications.
Conclusions
In this study, Large Eddy Simulation (LES) of a film cooling
with a swirling coolant jet has performed for a circular hole at M
= 0.5 and 1.0. The numerical domain includes a hexagonal cavity
connected to the coolant guide channel, where two slant jets
provide internal cooling and generate forced swirling motion of
the film coolant before it entering into the coolant passage. By
the current LES, following conclusions are obtained.
(1) At blowing ration of M = 1.0, penetration of film coolant jet
into mainstream is suppressed by the swirling motion, and it
result in a notable improvement of the film cooling effectiveness
compared to the non-swirling case.
(2) Swirling flow in the film-cooling hole affects the velocity
distribution in the exit plane of the hole. On the one side, the flow
direction of the coolant jet approach to zero degree and the
penetration into mainstream is suppressed, while on the other
side the flow direction approach to 50 degrees.
(3) The duration of swirling motion in the film coolant is found
to be limited to the downstream region from x/d = 0 to 5. This
seems to be preferable because the excess swirled motion may
enhance heat transfer from hot mainstream to film-cooled surface.
References
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[8] Yu, Y, Yen, C. -H. Shin, T. I. -P. and Chyu, M. K., Film
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technology, J. of Heat Transfer, 127, 2005, pp. 441-453.
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the lateral ejection angle of double-jet holes on the film
cooling effectiveness for high blowing ratios, ASME Paper
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film- cooling hole concept, ASME paper GT2007-27528,
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Kimoto, H., An application of swirling jet to film cooling,
Proc. JSME Thermal Engineering Conference, Sendai, 2004,
No.04-28. (in Japanese)
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cooling with swirling coolant flow, WIT Trans. on
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Scale SGS model with fixed model-paramters for practical
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Heat and Fluid Flow, 17, 1996, pp.89-90.
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena:
Modelling Sedimentation in Lakes
A. Babylon, R. McKibbin and W. Sweatman
Institute of Information and Mathematical Sciences
Massey University, Auckland 0632, New Zealand
Abstract
The problem is of sedimentation in lakes, in particular, Lake
Okutama in Tokyo. It was presented by Tetsuya Shintani [5], an
environmental engineer from Tokyo Metropolitan University.
The lake is used as a reservoir for the city, but the water is pol-
luted with suspended sediment particles that need to be removed
before the water can be used. This paper will set up models for
the lake and behaviour of the sediment particles in it using three
different coordinate systems, Cartesian, polar and spherical co-
ordinates. Graphical results have been produced and verified
for the Cartesian coordinate model only.
Nomenclature with SI units
~u fluid flow [m s1 ]
c sediment concentration [kg m3 ]
t time [s]
~q flux [kg m2 s1 ]
D dispersion coefficient [m s1 ]
S sediment settling speed [m s1 ]
MI sediment release mass [kg m1 ]
MR sediment release rate [kg m1 s1 ]
Q volume flux [m3 s1 ]
A(r) cross sectional area [m2 ]
H depth of lake from surface of water [m]
density [kg m3 ]
max lake depth angle [rad]
max lake width angle [rad]
Introduction
Sedimentation is the process by which particles suspended in
a fluid settle downward due to gravity. Sediment particles can
be introduced into water in many ways ranging from by natural
non-point sources, such as particles contained in water run-off
after a storm, to man-made point sources, such as waste dis-
charges from factories [6].
As mentioned above, suspended sediment particles in a lake
used for domestic water supply need to be removed. The de-
position of sediment particles is also a problem. In the case of
a dammed river, sediment particles settle to the bottom of the
reservoir due to low flow rates in deep water. These particles
build up over time and the reservoir needs expensive and regu-
lar maintenance dredging. Therefore, exploring the behaviour
of sediment particles is of particular importance.
Calculating the suspended sediment particle concentration in a
water body can be used to describe the behaviour of not only
the water quality after the release of sediment particles into a
river or lake, but also the changes in the river or lake bed due to
deposition. Such results could be used for water resources and
environmental management.
The focus here will be on sedimentation in dammed rivers. In
the particular problem the river considered runs through a val-
ley. It has been dammed at one end to form a reservoir, an artifi-
cial lake used to store water. It is the reservoir that is of most in-
terest here. The lake widens downstream and also slopes down-
ward at a very mild angle. It has a varying bathymetry with both
v-shaped and u-shaped cross-sections. The water has some tur-
bidity, with fine sediment particles appearing to be suspended
in the water.
This problem includes two components, fluid flow and sediment
particle movement. It is assumed that the sediment particles
dont affect the fluid flow but the fluid flow does affect the be-
haviour of the particles. The fluid flow model is therefore solved
first and then used as a transportation mechanism for the sedi-
ment particles.
The fluid flow model will depend on the estimated shape of the
lake. If the lake has a uniform cross-section along its length
then the fluid flow speed will be constant. If, however, the cross-
section of the lake changes along its length then the flow speed
will vary. If the lake gets wider or deeper further downstream
then the velocity of the fluid flow will decrease further down the
lake. Details on this will be discussed below.
When the sediment particle behaviour model is overlain on the
fluid flow model the sediment particles will move together with
the flow of the lake. Sediment particles disperse and also settle
when released into a fluid. This can be observed by releasing a
small amount of sand or similar material into a stream of water.
The particles of sand initially spread out but eventually will set-
tle to the bottom of the stream. The spreading of the particles is
due to turbulence in the system. More complicated systems can
have different rates of dispersion in different directions depend-
ing on the properties of the fluid flow. If the dispersion mech-
anism is isotropic, as assumed here, then the rate of spreading
will be the same in all directions. The fluid flow speed at any
point in the lake remains the same over time but since the be-
haviour of the sediment particles changes over time, time de-
pendence has to be taken into account. The sediment particles
are assumed to reach terminal velocity instantaneously after re-
lease.
The river and lake are assumed to be free of any sediment par-
ticles at the beginning. Sediment particles are released into the
lake at a predetermined location and time. No sediment parti-
cles fall into the lake through the surface of the water and no
sediment disperses upward through the bottom of the lake. Any
sediment particles that happen to be at the top of the lake are
dragged downward due to gravity. Settling causes sediment par-
ticles to accumulate at the bottom of the lake.
It would be difficult to model a whole river and corresponding
reservoir so only a small section is considered here. The begin-
ning of the model lake is taken at the end of the river. No sed-
iment particles are assumed to come from upstream. In reality
the river ends in a lake which ends in a dam. For modelling pur-
poses however the end of the lake will be taken a distance up-
stream of the dam so the fluid flow of the lake continues passed
the end of the model considered.
Mathematical Model
The mathematical model for the fluid flow is described in terms
of velocity ~u. This can be either a constant or a varying function
of the downstream length variable.
The mathematical model [2, 3, 4, 5] is built using the following
advection-dispersion equation:
c This means that the vertical flux of the pollutant at the surface
+ ~q = source. (1)
t is zero. So the dispersion in the vertical direction is balanced
The flux includes advection (fluid flow), dispersion and settling
components so:
~q = c~u Dc Sc~k. (2)
Note that S is in the direction of gravity, that is, opposite the
normal vector ~k which points directly upwards.
The source term may include a constant which is either an
amount of sediment particles MI , for instantaneous release, or
a rate MR , for continuous release. Delta functions determine
where the sediment particles are released and either a delta or a
Heaviside step function is used to determine when the particles
are released. If the sediment particles come from a point source
then the source term will have three delta functions defining
the injection location. Since a line source is considered here
only two delta functions will be included. The delta function
involving the variable which is held constant should be ignored.
In fact, the constant variable will be ignored in the rest of the
model as well.
Conservation of mass is required. This means that the amount
of sediment particles released into the lake at the start is the
same as the sum of the amount of sediment particles in the lake
and the amount that has left the lake after any time. This is
expressed mathematically with the continuity equation:
+ (~u) = 0 (3)
t
Since the lake is assumed to be filled with water the density is
assumed constant so the continuity equation reduces to:
~u = 0 (4)
Then substituting (2) into (1) and using (4):
c c
+ ~q = + (c~u Dc Sc~k) (5) particles will be injected into the lake at the first time step. In-
t t
c continuous the injection mass is added to the value of the node
= +~u c Sc ~k (Dc) (6)
t point at the injection site at each time step.
= source (7)
So the mathematical model is:
c
+~u c Sc ~k (Dc) = source (8)
t
Boundary Conditions
The problem requires one initial condition and six boundary
conditions. The lake is assumed free of any sediment particles at
the beginning. The initial condition therefore is an empty lake
into which sediment particles are injected at a predetermined
location.
Consider the flux term ~q = c~u Dc Sc~k where c~u is the ad-
vective flux, Dc is the dispersive flux and sc~k is the falling
flux.
No sediment particles pass through the surface of the water.
exactly with gravitational settling. In vectorial form this is
(Dc Sc~k) ~k = 0. (9)
The sides of the lake are assumed to be vertical and no sediment
particles can escape through the sides of the lake. Nor can any
sediment particles pass through the lake bed, instead they settle
on top of it. So the component of the dispersive fluxes normal
to the lake bed and normal to the sides of the lake are zero:
(Dc) ~n = 0. (10)
The lake model considered has been cut off before it reaches
the dam so the advection dispersion equation is solved at the
last point observed in the lake. Two boundary conditions are
needed for the length direction. As the advection dispersion
equation is being solved at the end of the lake both boundary
conditions must go at the start. Since no sediment particles will
come into the lake from upstream and no sediment particles dis-
perses upstream due to a high fluid flow velocity to dispersion
rate ratio, the boundary conditions are
C = 0 and (Dc) ~n = 0. (11)
Numerical Solution
A two-dimensional numerical solution can be calculated in Mat-
lab. This is done by introducing a line source into the lake
model and then taking a cross-section of the lake through the
line source. A matrix is set up to calculate and store the so-
lution. The size of the matrix will correspond to the number
of increments a lake has been divided into. The number of in-
crements should be chosen small enough to ensure the stability
of the system. Space increment sizes should be similar in size
while the size of time increments should be smaller than those
for space.
As the lake is assumed to be free of all sediment particles at the
start the matrix will be full of zeros to begin with. Sediment
jection can be either instantaneous or continuous. If injection is
An injection site must be chosen by choosing both a height and
a distance at which to release the sediment particles. The corre- c
(13)
sponding indices for the matrix must then be calculated and the t
release value is entered into the corresponding node point.
remains the same. As mentioned above, the fluid flow term ~u
The new values for each node point at each time step are calcu- remains constant. In Cartesian coordinates [1]
lated using finite difference formula and the advection disper-
sion equation. Once the concentration values at each node point
c~ c ~ c~
for a certain time have been calculated the resulting contours c = i+ j+ k (14)
x y z
can then be plotted.

Geometry and Coordinate system selection but fluid flow is only downstream in the x-direction so the fluid
flow term becomes
Coordinate systems must be chosen in which to represent
the lake and its corresponding advection-dispersion equation.
c
Three different orthogonal systems are chosen here. u . (15)
x
The first coordinate system to be discussed will be the Carte-
sian coordinate system. The lake will be taken to be cuboidal or The vector ~k is pointing directly upward opposite gravity which
box-shaped with rectangular sides and square ends. The cross- is in the z-direction so
sections along the lakes width are squares which remain con-
stant along the length of the lake so the fluid flow term will be
constant. The cross-section along the lakes length is rectangular Sc ~k (16)
in shape.
becomes
The next coordinate system used is the polar coordinate system.
The lake is taken to have a constant depth but increasing width
along the length of the lake. So the lake is wedge shaped. The c
. (17)
tip of the wedge must be cut off however to avoid the singular- z
ity at the origin. The cross-sections along the lakes width will
be rectangular in shape and get wider further downstream. As Next [1]
the area of the width-wise cross-section increases further down-
stream the fluid flow velocity will decrease. The fluid flow term 2 c 2 c 2 c
will involve the length direction variable r. The cross-section (c) = + + . (18)
x2 y2 z2
along the lakes length is still rectangular in shape.
The final coordinate system to be discussed will be the spherical Finally the source term for the instantaneous release of a point
coordinate system. The shape involved here is a little harder to source is
explain than the others. In this case the lake gets both wider and
deeper further downstream. The shape of the lake is cut out of MI (x x0 )(y y0 )(z z0 )(t t0 ) (19)
a globe. First cut a vertical wedge out of the hemisphere. That
is, cut along the meridians, or lines of longitude. The shape left
where (x0 , y0 , z0 ,t0 ) is the release point and time. The source
will be that of a slice of watermelon. The cuts made form the
term for continuous release of a point source changes to
sides of the lake. Next cut along the equation so the watermelon
slice has been cut in half. This last cut will form the top of
the lake. The second to last cut, which will be the bottom of MR (x x0 )(y y0 )(z z0 )H(t t0 ) (20)
the lake is made from what used to be the centre of the globe
towards the surface of the globe. Finally the tip at the centre of where (x0 , y0 , z0 ,t0 ) is the release point and start time. Since a
the globe must be cut off as a singularity occurs here in spherical line source is being taken here the delta function (y y0 ) is
coordinates. Note that the width at the top of the lake and at the ignored.
bottom are different so the cross-sections of the lake along its
width arent square but taper down near the bottom, consider So the advection dispersion equation becomes:
an upside down trapezium. The cross-section of the lake along
its length is now almost triangular in shape with the tip of the
triangle cut off. c c c 2 c 2 c 2 c
+~u S D( 2 + 2 + 2 )
t x z x y z
Cartesian Coordinates
= MI (x x0 )(z z0 )(t t0 ) (21)
The advection dispersion equation must be derived first. From for instantaneous release
(8) the advection dispersion equation is:
= MR (x x0 )(z z0 )H(t t0 ) (22)
c for continuous release.
+~u c Sc ~k (Dc) = source (12)
t

Time is independent of the coordinate system so

 Instantaneous Release Contours
10

zdirection [m]
8

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
xdirection [m]

Figure 1: Release point with first contour snapshot taken one day after release and subsequent contour snapshots taken every three
days. The outer most contour level for each contour cluster is 0.01 with each subsequent level increasing logarithmically. The fluid
flow velocity in the lake is six times the settling speed.

Continuous Release Contours

10
zdirection [m]

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
xdirection [m]

Figure 2: Concentration contours for the continuous release of suspended sediment particles. The outer most contour level for each
contour cluster is 0.01 with each subsequent level increasing logarithmically. The fluid flow velocity in the lake is four times the settling
speed.

Following from above the boundary conditions are as follows:
Top:
c
D Sc = 0
z lowest concentration level while the innermost contour has the
Bottom:
c high as sediment particles continue to be injected in. The con-
D =0
z
Start:
c steady state.
C = 0, D =0
x
Contours
Examples of contours for both instantaneous and continuous re-
leases have been included here.
Consider Figure 1. It contains a release point as well as sev-
eral snapshots of concentration contours at evenly spaced times
after instantaneous release. As expected each snapshot shows
contours moving downward towards the bottom of the lake as
well as to the right in the direction of the fluid flow. The outer
most contour in each contour cluster is at a concentration level
of 0.01 with the remaining contour levels increasing logarithmi-
cally. The first set of contours is taken one second after the re-
lease of sediment particles. There are a large number of contour
lines indicating a high concentration level in the centre of the
contour cluster. The number of contour lines decreases and the
contour lines move further away from one another as the sedi-
ment particles move down the lake. This is due to dispersion.
The concentration gradient decreases as the sediment particles
spread out. The concentration of sediment particles decreasing
as the sediment particles spread out over a larger area.
Next consider Figure 2. It contains one snapshot of contours for
the continuous release of sediment particles. Again, as expected
the contours settle downward due to gravity as well as moving
to the right in the direction of the fluid flow. The contours near
the release point are densely packed to indicate a high concen-
tration gradient. Further away from the release point the contour
lines are further away from one another and indicate a low con-
(23) centration gradient. As before, the outermost contour has the
highest. The concentration level at the release point is always
(24) centration values for continuous release will eventually reach a
steady state and the contours will no longer change shape af-
ter a certain time. The contours in figure 2 above have reached
(25)
Settled Sediment
The distribution of settled sediment particles may be of interest
for dredging purposes. Figure 3 shows the amount of settled
sediment particles along the bottom of the lake after instanta-
neous release. It corresponds to the instantaneous release con-
tours in figure 1. Recall that the release point was at a height
of nine meters above the bottom of the lake and a distance of
two meters from the start of the lake. As expected, very little of
the sediment particles has settled near the start of the lake. This
is due to the sediment particles being advected down the lake
with the fluid flow. The amount of settled sediment particles
increases as the dispersed suspended sediment particles reach
the bottom of the lake. By the time the contour clusters have
reached the bottom of the lake the sediment particle concentra-
tion is low and the supply of suspended sediment particles has
been depleted so the amount settling on the bottom of the lake
decreases.
Figure 4 shows the rate of sediment particles settling along the
bottom of the lake with continuous release. It corresponds to
the continuous release contours in figure 2. The distribution of
settled sediment particles for instantaneous release is similar to
the rate of sediment particle settling for continuous release. So
the distribution of the settled sediment particles for continuous
release would be similar to that of instantaneous release. The
 Settled sediment particles [kg m 2]
Settled sediment along the bottom of the lake
0.015

0.01

0.005

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
xdirection [m]

Figure 3: Settled sediment for instantaneous release.

3
x 10
3
Rate of sediment settling along the bottom of the lake
Settling rate [kg m2 s1]

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
xdirection [m]

Figure 4: Rate of sediment settling on the bottom of the lake for continuous release.

amount of settled sediment however would be higher as there is

continuous injection of sediment particles into the lake. c 1 c c
c = e~p + e~ + ~k (29)
r r z
Polar Coordinates
in polar coordinates so
In polar coordinates the lake is assumed to widen downstream
while maintaining a constant depth. As the cross-sectional area
along the width of the lake increases further downstream the 1 c 1 1 c c
fluid flow velocity decreases. (c) = (r ) + ( )+ ( )
r r r r r z z
The flux at a distance r from the origin is Q = u(r)A(r). Keep 1 c 2 c 1 2 c 2 c
= + + + (30)
in mind that the distance term r must start at some value larger r r r2 r2 2 z2
than zero as a singularity occurs at r = 0. So the fluid flow
velocity is So the advection dispersion equation is:

Q Q
u(r) = = . (26) c Q c c 1 c 2 c 1 2 c 2 c
A(r) rmax H + S D( + + + )
t rmax H r z r r r2 r2 2 z2
Now the cross-section along the length of the lake in this case = MI (r r0 )(z z0 )(t t0 ) (31)
is rectangular in shape and r and z in polar coordinates corre- for instantaneous release
spond to the x and z from Cartesian coordinates. That is, the
= MR (r r0 )(z z0 )H(t t0 ) (32)
downstream variable is r in polar coordinates and x in Carte-
sian coordinates. Also, the height variable is z in both polar and for continuous release.
Cartesian coordinates. So the fluid flow term and settling terms
become The boundary conditions are as follows:
Top:
c Q c
(27) D Sc = 0 (33)
rmax H r z
and Bottom:
c
D =0 (34)
c z
S (28)
z Start:
c
respectively. Now [1] C = 0, D =0 (35)
r
Spherical Coordinates Top:
c c sin
In this case the lake not only gets wider but also deeper further D( cos ) Sc = 0 (45)
downstream. Note that while in polar coordinates was the r r
angle of the width of the lake it is now the angle of the depth of
Bottom:
the lake. As for polar coordinates the cross-sectional area along c c sin
the width of the lake increases further downstream so the fluid D( cos )=0 (46)
r r
flow velocity decreases. The flux is again Q = u(r)A(r). The
area here is estimated by a rectangle whose sides are the arc Start:
lengths of the lake. So A(r) = r2 max max and then c
C = 0, D =0 (47)
r
Q Q
u(r) = = . (36) Conclusion
A(r) r2 max max
Models for the transportation of suspended sediment particles
The fluid flow is assumed to come radially from the origin so in three different coordinate systems where developed and the
the fluid flow term will be Cartesian coordinate model was tested. Both instantaneous and
continuous release models were presented. Contour graphs and
Q c settled sediment particle distribution plots were produced to vi-
. (37) sually display the results of the model.
r2 max max r
More areas are left to be explored. The model assumed sedi-
Now [1]
ment particles of uniform size. Different sized sediment parti-
cles could be introduced into the model to better describe the
c c c sin physical system. A vertical temperature profile could be in-
= cos (38)
z r r cluded in the model and the behaviour of suspended sediment
particles over the yearly seasons could be examined. This could
so the settling term is involve different dispersion rates in different directions due to
stratification, making the model non-isotropic. As it is unknown
c sin() c exactly where and how the sediment particles are being intro-
S(cos() ). (39) duced into the lake, different shaped and sized release points or
r r
areas could be considered to help find a practical solution for
Now improving water quality.

c 1 c 1 c References
c = ~er + e~ + e~ (40)
r r r sin()
[1] Hsu, H.P., Applied Vector Analysis, San Diego, Harcourt
in spherical coordinates so Brace Jovanovich, 1984.

[2] Kevorkian, J., Partial Differential Equations: Analytical

1 2 c 1 1 c Solution Techniques, Second Edition, New York, Springer,
(c) = (r )+ (sin() ) 2000.
r2 r r r sin() r
1 1 c [3] McKibbin, R., Mathematical Modelling of Aerosol Trans-
+ ( ) (41)
r sin() r sin() port and Deposition: Analytic Formulae for Fast Com-
putation iEMSs Fourth Biennial Meeting, International
2 c 2 c cos() c
= + 2+ 2 Congress on Environmental Modelling and Software,
r r r r sin()
Barcelona, Spain, July 2008
1 2 c 1 2 c
+ + (42) [4] McKibbin, R., Mathematical Modelling of Aerosol Trans-
r2 2 r2 sin2 () 2
port and Deposition: Effect of Dispersion Coefficients on
Predicted Ground Deposits The 21st International Sympo-
So the advection dispersion equation is: sium on Transport Phenomena, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan,
November 2010

c Q c c sin() c [5] Shintani, T., & Nakayama, K., An Object-oriented Ap-

+ S(cos() ) proach to Environmental Fluid Modelling The 21st Inter-
t r2 max max r r r
national Symposium on Transport Phenomena, Kaohsiung
2 c 2 c cos() c 1 2 c
D( + 2+ 2 + 2 2) City, Taiwan, November 2010
r r r r sin() r
= MI (r r0 )( 0 )(t t0 ) (43) [6] Zhen-Gang, J., Hydrodynamics and Water Quality: Mod-
for instantaneous release elling Rivers, Lakes and Estuaries, New Jersey, Wiley-
Interscience, 2008
= MR (r r0 )( 0 )H(t t0 ) (44)
for continuous release.

The boundary conditions then are:

23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Heat Transfer Characteristics of V-Shaped Pin-Fin Channels with Wavy Endwalls

A. Koyama1, K. Takeishi1 and Y. Oda1

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan

Abstract cooling, impingement cooling, film cooling and pin-fin cooling

have been investigated and adopted to keep the turbine blades
Heat transfer characteristics of V-shaped pin-fin channels with and vanes below the allowable metallurgical temperature limit.
wavy endwalls (45 and +45 degree) have been investigated to Especially, normal pin-fin channel (Figure.1 (a)) has been used
improve the cooling efficiency of the trailing edges of gas turbine for cooling of the trailing edges of the turbine blades and vanes.
vanes. The time-mean local heat transfer coefficient profiles were Pin-fin cooling technique is a cooling technology that promotes
obtained by naphthalene sublimation method which is based on convective heat transfer by installing cylinders called pin-fin in
the heat and mass transfer analogy, and they were also obtained the channel.
by Large Eddy Simulation (LES). A Normal pin-fin channel with As reviewed by Chu, et al. [1], thermo-hydraulic performance of
flat endwalls and V-shaped pin-fin channels with wavy endwalls short pin-fin arrays has been widely investigated by Sparrow, et
were tested and compared with each other. As a result, the time- al. [2], Metzger, et al. [3, 4], VanFossen, et al. [5], and Chyu, et
mean average heat transfer coefficient of +45 degree V-shaped al. [6]. Important results of these studies in 1980s were gathered
pin-fin channel with wavy endwalls was higher than the others. in a review paper by Armstrong, et al. [7]. Takeishi, et al. [8] has
This is because the turbulent mixing of heat and momentum were investigated the overall heat transfer characteristics of short pin-
enhanced by flow separation and reattachment from the hill of fins with and without turbulence promoters on an endwall.
wavy endwalls. Recently, Miyake, et al. [9] and Oda, et al. [10] extended the
former study by Takeishi to measure the local heat transfer
Nomenclature coefficient by using naphthalene sublimation method, which are
A Surface area very important for the cooling design of combustor liners and
Cp Specific heat of air at constant pressure trailing edge section of turbine blades and vanes. Arik, et al. [11]
d Pin diameter has reviewed pin-fin cooling in gas turbines applications in a part
f Friction factor of his paper. These basic research reveals important parameter
H Pin height for pin-fin cooling, such as pin-fin aspect ratio, lateral spacing,
h Heat transfer coefficient axial spacing, shape, in-line or staggered array pattern, and the
hd Mass transfer coefficient number of rows of pin-fins.
K Thermal performance coefficient However, most studies only treat basic and simple arrangement
Nu Nusselt number of pin-fin channel with flat endwalls. Being inspired by Takeishi,
n Empirical constant et al. [12], in this study, we introduce V-shaped pin-fin channels
P Pressure loss with wavy endwalls (Figure.1 (b), (c)) to improve the cooling
P1 Spanwise pitch of pin-fin efficiency of pin-fin cooling. These have wavy endwalls and V-
P2 Streamwise pitch of pin-fin shaped pin-fins inclined at 45 degree in a main stream direction.
Pr Prandtl number The cooling efficiencies of these pin-fin channels were measured
pw Saturated naphthalene vapor pressure in the air by a mass transfer experiment using naphthalene sublimation
R Gas constant method and predicted by LES. In addition, we have examined the
Re Reynolds number mechanism of the enhanced heat transfer in these complex pin-fin
Sc Schmidt number
St Stanton number
Tw Naphthalene surface temperature
te Flow exposure time
W Channel width
Sublimation depth of naphthalene layer flow
Density of air
s Density of solid naphthalene
(a)Normal
Introduction
Demands for higher gas turbine thermal efficiency are increasing
with requirements for lower fossil fuel dependence and lower
emissions. One of the most effective means to improve the gas
turbine thermal efficiency is to raise turbine inlet temperature
(TIT). However, as TIT increases further, turbine blades and
vanes will be exposed to higher temperature gas stream and will (b)+45 deg V wavy (c)-45 deg V wavy
be subjected to severer thermal conditions. Thus sophisticated
cooling technologies such as rib-roughened serpentine flow Figure 1. Type of pin-fin channels

Dryer Compressor
Figure 2. Schematic layout of experimental apparatus
Figure 3. Schematic layout of pin-fins
Figure 4. Schematic layout of measurement apparatus
channels by LES.
Experimental method
In this study, we used naphthalene sublimation method to
measure time-mean local heat transfer coefficient. Naphthalene
sublimation method is a technique based on heat and mass
transfer analogy to convert time-mean local mass transfer rate
into the time-mean local heat transfer rate (Goldstein, et al., [13]).
By this analogy, the local mass transfer coefficient, which is
calculated from the local naphthalene sublimation depth, can be
converted to the local heat transfer coefficient.
Figure 2 shows the schematic layout of experimental apparatus
for the mass transfer measurement using naphthalene sublimation
method. The test section is a rectangular channel equipped with
pin-fins, of which both ends are attached to the top and bottom
endwalls of the channel. The channel length is 341.6 mm and the
height and width are 18.7 and 35.8 mm, respectively. The test
section has an entrance section with a mesh screen followed by a
contraction section to realize uniform flows upstream the pin-fin
channel. A downstream part of the bottom endwall of the channel
can be separated, and a smooth naphthalene layer was molded
over the endwall by a casting method. Dry air was supplied from
a compressor into the test section through a regulator and a mass
flow controller. Pressure loss at pin-fin channel was measured by
a differential pressure gauge. The temperature of naphthalene
layer of bottom endwall of the channel was measured by
thermocouples.
Figure 3 shows the schematic layout of pin-fins, which are placed
in a staggered manner in terms of the main stream direction. The
number of rows of pin-fins in main stream direction is six or
seven. As shown in Figure 3, the number of pin-fins in spanwise
direction is two or three, while the three pin-fins mean one
perfect pin-fin plus two half pin-fins. Important geometric
parameters, such as pin-fin diameter d, pin-fin height H, pin-fin
aspect ratio H/d, main stream pitch P1, spanwise pitch P2, and
channel width W are listed in Table 1. V-shaped pin-fins are
mounted with inclined angles of +45 degree or 45 degree in
main stream direction. The hill height and concave depth of wavy
endwalls are about 1.3 mm. As shown in Table 1, Reynolds
number in this experiment was 1000, which is based on a pin-fin
diameter and a mean velocity at the cross section of rectangular
channel (WH).
Each mass transfer experiment by naphthalene sublimation
method was performed in the following procedures. Firstly,
reagent grade (98% pure) naphthalene crystals were melted on a
pan with an induction heater until they boiled rapidly. After the
naphthalene temperature became about 380 K, the melted
naphthalene was poured into the mold preheated at about 330 K.
When the mold was cooled to room temperature and naphthalene
was solidified, a cover plate of the mold was struck with a
hammer to be removed. Secondly, the initial surface profile of
naphthalene layer was scanned with a two-axis auto-traverse and
a laser displacement sensor, which has a measurement depth of
focus 1 mm with a resolution of 0.1 m and a linearity error of
0.3%. Figure 4 shows the schematic layout of measurement
apparatus. Thirdly, after the air blowing lasting for 120 minutes,
the surface profile of naphthalene layer was scanned again. Then,
local naphthalene sublimation depth was calculated as the local
change of surface position from the initial values.
The local mass transfer coefficient is calculated from the
following relation.
hd = (RTw/pw)(s/te) (1)
where R is the gas constant, Tw is the naphthalene surface
temperature, pw is the saturated vapor pressure of naphthalene in
the air, s is the density of solid naphthalene, is the depth of
naphthalene sublimation, and te is the flow exposure time. The
thermo physical properties of naphthalene were obtained from
Goldstein, et al. [13]. The local mass transfer coefficient can be
converted to the local heat transfer coefficient by using the
analogy between heat and mass transfer.
h = hdCp(Sc/Pr)1-n (2)
Where is the density of air, Cp is the specific heat at constant
pressure, Sc is the Schmidt number, Pr is the Prandtl number, and
n is the empirical constant being 0.4 in this experiment.
Table 1. Pin-fin channel size and experimental conditions
+45 deg V 45 deg V
Normal
wavy wavy
Pin-fin diameter
d 9
(mm)
Aspect ratio H/d 2.08
Streamwise
P1/d 1.98
pitch
Spanwise pitch P2/d 1.72 2.42
Channel width W/d 3.98
The number of
- 6 7
rows of pin-fins
Reynolds
Red 1000
number
Numerical method
In this study, numerical simulations using Large Eddy Simulation
(LES) were conducted to compare predicted results with the
measured data obtained by naphthalene sublimation method for
Red = 1000, in order to reveal the heat transfer mechanism in
these complex pin-fin channels. For LES analysis, we used our
in-house multi-block LES code with a mixed-time-scale sub-grid-
scale model, under an assumption of a constant sub-grid-scale
Prandtl number.
Figure 5. Meshes on the bottom wall of pin-fin channel
The filtered conservation equations of mass, momentum and
energy for incompressible flows of present LES can be expressed
in the general coordinate system as follows.
Table 2. Pin-fin channel size, the number of total cells, and the
1 JU k maximum of wall y+
0 (3)
J k +45 deg V 45 deg V
Normal
wavy wavy
ui 1 JU k u i k P 1
2( e ) J Dij (4)
k

Pin-fin diameter
d 9
t J k xi k J k x j (mm)
Aspect ratio H/d 2.08
T 1 JU T 1
k
k T Streamwise
( e ) J (5) P1/d 1.98
k pitch
t J k
J x j x j Span pitch P2/d 1.72 2.42
The number of 1.13
1 l ui l u j
, 3 J , e e PrSGS total cells
-
million
1.32 million
Dij
2 x j l xi l
The maximum
- 2.1 1.2 1.4
of wall y+
Subgrid-scale stress was based on the eddy viscosity concept and
the SGS eddy viscosity e was given by Mixed-Time-Scale
(MTS) model by Inagaki, et al. [14] as follows.
periodical condition in the streamwise direction with a constant
e C MTS k es Ts (6) pressure gradient, which is estimated by experiments to give a
target flow rate of Red = 1000.
TS1 k es C
1
T Dij
1
(7) In addition to the main stream periodicity, flow and heat transfer
is assumed to be periodical in the span direction. Therefore,
k es u k u k periodic boundary condition was applied to the spanwise
2
(8)
direction boundaries of the domains. Figure 5 shows meshes on
The model parameters, CMTS and CT, were set to 0.05 and 10. The the bottom wall of pin-fin channel. The multi-block method was
notation, ( ) , denotes the filtering operator, for which the employed to form hexahedral meshes in the entire volume of the
computational domain. For thermal boundary conditions,
Simpson rule was adopted. is a grid filter width. For
constant wall temperature condition was applied to the top and
temperature fields, SGS heat flux was modeled using the constant
bottom endwalls. Since the surfaces of pin-fins were mass
SGS Prandtl number of 0.5. Note that kinematic pressure P in
transfer inactive in the experiment, adiabatic conditions were
Equation (4) is defined as p/ + ii/3, including the diagonal
applied to the pin-fin surfaces. To simulate periodically fully
components of the residual stress.
developed heat transfer, the inlet bulk mean temperature was
The governing equations were solved with a finite difference fixed at 300K. Table 2 shows pin-fin channel size, the numbers
method on a collocated grid system. Spatial derivatives were of total cells, and the maximum of wall y+ of each pin-fin channel.
basically approximated by a 2nd-order central difference. For the
convective term of momentum equations, a skew-symmetric Result and Discussion
form of 2nd-order central difference was applied to assure
conservation of kinetic energy. For the convective term of the Tables 3 and 4 show the results of naphthalene sublimation
energy equation, a TVD scheme with the Roes superbee flux method and LES, respectively, showing Reynolds number, the
limiter [15] was applied. For time integration, a fractional step time-mean average Nusselt number of bottom endwall, pressure
method was used, coupled with a fully-implicit scheme for the loss, and cooling efficiency considering the pressure loss, which
molecular diffusive terms and the second-order Adams-Bashforth is defined by Eq (9).
method was used for the remaining terms. P 3 A 3 St
1 2 1 1

K f 3 Nu f 3 (9)
In the present flow configuration, pin-fin geometries vary in a
Kn
n n St n
P A f
n Nu n fn
repeating manner along the main stream direction, leading to a
fully developed flow after a sufficient entrance length. And
experimental results shown later indicate that the flow and heat where K is the thermal performance coefficient, P is pressure
transfer are fully developed after the fifth row. Since the present loss, A is surface area, St is Stanton number, f is friction factor,
numerical analysis is intended to simulate periodically fully and Nu is Nusselt number. The subscript of n denotes the value of
developed flow and heat transfer in the pin-fin channels, we set a normal pin-fin channel with flat endwalls.
 Nu
Table 3. The result of naphthalene sublimation method
+45 deg 45 deg
Normal
V wavy V wavy
Re 1000 1000 1000
Time-mean average
20.9 23.5 26.8
Nu of bottom endwall
Pressure loss
194 99.4 153
(Pa/m)
Cooling efficiency 1.000 1.405 1.388 flow
(a)Normal
Table 4. The result of LES
+45 deg 45 deg
Normal
V wavy V wavy
Re 920 968 900
Time-mean average
20.78 18.05 20.00
Nu of bottom endwall
Pressure loss
180 90.0 140
(Pa/m)
Cooling efficiency 1.000 1.076 1.054

(b)+45 deg V wavy

Tables 3 and 4 show that +45 deg V wavy gives the highest
cooling efficiency in this study. Because the pressure loss of +45
deg V wavy is much lower than the others, while the time-mean
average Nusselt number of the bottom endwall of +45 deg V
wavy is comparable with the others.
Figures 6 and 7 show the distributions of time-mean local Nusselt
number on bottom wall by naphthalene sublimation method and
LES, respectively. From these figures, it is confirmed that the
distributions of time-mean local Nusselt number of naphthalene
sublimation method and LES correspond well. High local Nusselt
number regions are observed in front of the pin-fins in all three
cases. This indicates that horseshoe vortices are formed and (c)-45 deg V wavy
promote heat transfer in these regions. But high local Nusselt
Figure 7. Distributions of time-mean local Nusselt number
Nu of bottom endwall by LES

number regions in front of pin-fins of +45 deg V wavy were

smaller than the others. This indicates that the scale of horseshoe
vortices is small in +45 deg V wavy case. Wakes are observed
behind pin-fins in normal and +45 deg V wavy cases. On the
other hand, those are not observed in 45 deg V wavy case. High
local Nusselt number regions are also observed at the concave
flow regions behind the pin-fins in +45 deg V wavy and 45 deg V
wavy cases. This seems to be because the flow separation and
(a)Normal reattachment occurs in these regions due to the existence of the
wavy endwalls. That is why low local Nusselt number regions are
observed at concave regions at the both side of pin-fins.
Figures 8, 9, and 10 show the snapshots of instantaneous local
Nusselt number on the bottom wall of each pin-fin channel by
LES. In the normal pin-fin case, (a) and (d) show high local
Nusselt number regions at the upper or lower sides of pin-fins,
respectively, where heat transfer is promoted by the leg of
horseshoe vortex. The leg of horseshoe vortex swings to upper
and lower sides due to the vortex shedding from the normal pin-
fin, i.e. Karman vortex. This periodic motion sweeps away the
dead water region behind the pin-fin, and therefore locally low
(b)+45 deg V wavy (c)-45 deg V wavy Nusselt number region behind normal pin-fin becomes much
smaller than others. And the vortex shedding from the pin-fin
Figure 6. Distributions of time-mean local Nusselt number seems to increase pressure loss in normal pin-fin. In +45 deg V
of bottom endwall by naphthalene sublimation method wavy case, Fig. 9 (a), (b), (c) and (d) show that low local Nusselt
number regions are observed behind pin-fins. And no sweeping
 Nu Nu

flow
(a) (b) flow
(a)

(c) (d)

Figure 8. Distributions of instantaneous local Nusselt number

of bottom endwall of normal by LES (b)

Nu

flow (c)
(a)

(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 9. Distributions of instantaneous local Nusselt number
of bottom endwall of +45 deg V wavy by LES
motion by the vortex shedding is observed behind pin-fins. Thus,
the pressure loss in +45 deg V wavy case becomes lower than the
others. In 45 deg V wavy case, Fig. 10 (a), (b), (c) and (d) show
that there are low local Nusselt number regions at the both sides
of pin-fins.
Figures 11 and 12 show the distributions of velocity at x/d cross
sections of each pin-fin channel by LES. In both cases, flows
(d)
Figure 10. Distributions of instantaneous local Nusselt number
of bottom endwall of -45 deg V wavy by LES
along the upper and the lower pin-fins are running along pin-fins
front surface, and flows the right and left of pin-fins are running
at right angles to pin-fins inclination. And the distribution of
vertical velocity at the concave region behind the pin-fins is the
positive direction, and the distribution of vertical velocity at the
concave region at the pin-fins both side is the negative direction.
This seems to be because the flow separation and reattachment
occurs in these regions due to the existence of the wavy endwall.
In this study, Reynolds number was set at 1000, which is based
on a pin diameter and a mean velocity at the cross section of
rectangular channel. Now, we introduce another Reynolds
number redefined by using hydraulic diameter and maximum
mean velocity at the minimal flow cross-sectional area. Table 5
shows the original and redefined Reynolds number. From this
table, if the same redefined Reynolds number is used in all cases,
+45 deg V wavy is expected to show higher cooling efficiency
than the others.
Figure 13 shows the distributions of instantaneous local Nusselt
number on bottom wall and temperature at y/d cross section by
LES. Figure 14 shows distributions of instantaneous local Nusselt
number on bottom wall and vertical velocity at y/d cross section
by LES. Above the high local Nusselt number regions, flow
temperature is found to be lower and vertical velocity shows the
negative values. On the other hands, near the low local Nusselt
number regions, flow temperature is higher and vertical velocity
shows positive values. It seems local flow impingement to the
endwall have effects on the heat transfer enhancement largely.
 w [m/s] w [m/s]

(a)Distribution of vertical velocity at x/d cross sections (a)Distribution of vertical velocity at x/d cross sections
flow flow
v [m/s] v [m/s]

(b)Distribution of span velocity at x/d cross sections (b)Distribution of span velocity at x/d cross sections

Figure 12. Distributions of velocity at x/d cross sections Figure 11. Distributions of velocity at x/d cross sections
of -45 deg V wavy by LES of +45 deg V wavy by LES

Nu Nu

flow (a)Normal (y/d = 0.4) flow (a)Normal (y/d = 0.4)

w [m/s] T [K]

(b)+45 deg V wavy (y/d = -0.66) (b)+45 deg V wavy (y/d = -0.66)

(c)-45 deg V wavy (y/d = -0.52) (c)-45 deg V wavy (y/d = -0.52)
Figure 14. Distributions of instantaneous local Nusselt number Figure 13. Distributions of instantaneous local Nusselt number
of bottom endwall and vertical velocity of bottom endwall and temperature at y/d cross section by LES
at y/d cross section by LES

Table 5. Original and redefined Reynolds number Conclusions

+45 deg 45 deg In this study, heat transfer on the endwall of each of pin-fin
Normal channel has been investigated by both experiments and numerical
V wavy V wavy
Original Re 1000 1000 1000 simulations, for Red = 1000 or with constant pressure gradients,
Redefined Re 934.8 694.5 1010 which are expected to give Red = 1000 in periodic flow
simulations. Distributions of time-mean local Nusselt number of
the endwalls were obtained by the naphthalene sublimation
method and LES for normal pin-fin channel with flat endwalls
and V-shaped pin-fin channels with wavy endwalls (45 and +45
degrees). As a result, the following conclusions were obtained.
(1) +45 deg V wavy is the highest cooling efficiency in this
study. Because pressure loss in +45 deg V wavy case is
much lower than the others, and time-mean average Nusselt
number of bottom endwall of +45 deg V wavy is
comparable with the others.
(2) The distributions of time-mean local Nusselt number of the
endwalls by naphthalene sublimation method and LES
correspond well.
(3) The flow separation and reattachment occurs in the concave
region due to the existence of the wavy endwalls. And this
flow separation and reattachment promotes heat transfer on
the endwalls.
Acknowledgments
Special thank is due Mr. Kitada for helping and discussing to this
experimental research works.
References
[1] Chyu, M.K., Hsing, Y.C., Shih, T.I.-P. and Natarajan, V.,
Heat transfer contributions of pins and endwall in pin-fin
arrays: effect of thermal boundary condition modelling,
Trans. ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, 1999, vol. 121,
pp. 257-263.
[2] Sparrow, E.M., Ramsey, J.W. and Altemani, C.A.C.,
Experiments on in-line pin fin arrays and performance
comparisons with staggered arrays, Trans. ASME Journal of
Heat Transfer, 1980, vol. 102, pp. 44-50.
[3] Metzger, D.E., Berry, R.A. and Bronson, J.P., Developing
heat transfer in rectangular ducts with staggered arrays of
short pin fins, Trans. ASME Journal of Heat Transfer, 1982,
vol. 104, pp. 700-706.
[4] Metzger, D.E., Fan, C.S. and Haley, S.W., Effects of pin
shape and array orientation on heat transfer and pressure loss
in pin fin arrays, Trans. ASME Journal of Engineering for
Gas Turbine and Power, 1984, vol. 106, pp. 252-257.
[5] VanFossen, G.J., Heat-transfer coefficients for staggered
arrays of short pin fins, Trans. ASME Journal of
Engineering for Power, 1982, vol. 104, pp. 268-274.
[6] Chyu, M.K. and Goldstein, R.J., Influence of an array of
wall-mounted cylinders on the mass transfer from a float
surface, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 1991, vol. 34, no. 9, pp.
2175-2186.
[7] Armstrong, J. and Winstanley, D., A review of staggered
array of pin fin heat transfer for tubine cooling applications,
Trans. ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, 1988, vol. 110,
pp. 94-103.
[8] Takeishi, K., Nakae, T., Watanabe, K. and Hirayama, M.,
Heat transfer characteristics of a flow passage with long pin
fins and improving heat transfer coefficient by adding
turbulence promoters on a endwall, ASME Paper 2001-GT-
178, 2001.
[9] Miyake, Y., Oda, Y., Takeishi, K., Motoda, Y. and
Sugimoto, S., Heat transfer characteristics of pin-fin arrays
with ribs to cool combustor liners, Proc. of 2nd International
Forum on Heat Transfer, 2008, Tokyo, CD-ROM: 239.
[10] Oda, Y., Takeishi, K., Motoda, Y., Sugimoto, S. and Miyake,
Y., Heat transfer characteristics of pin-fin arrays with ribs to
cool combustor liners, Journal of Thermal Science and
Technology, 2009, pp. 507-517.
[11] Arik, M. and Bunker, R.S., Electronics packaging cooling:
technologies from gas turbine engine cooling, Trans. ASME
Journal of Electronic Packaging, 2006, vol. 128, pp. 215-225.
[12] Takeishi, K., Oda, Y., Miyake, Y. and Motoda, Y.,
Experimental and Numerical Study on the Convective Heat
Transfer and Pressure Loss in Rectangular Ducts with
Inclined Pin-Fin on a Wavy Endwall, ASME Paper GT2012-
69625, 2012.
[13] Goldstein, R.J. and Cho, H.H., A review of mass transfer
measurements using naphthalene sublimation, Experimental
Thermal and Fluid Sci., 1995, vol. 10, pp. 416-434.
[14] Inagaki, M., Kondoh, T. and Nagano, Y., A Mixed-Time-
Scale SGS model with fixed model-paramters for practical
LES, Trans. ASME Journal of Fluids Engineering, 2005,
127, pp.1-13.
[15] Roe, P.L., Characteristic-based schemes for the Euler
equations, Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech., 1986, 18, pp. 337-365.
[16] Choi, I.K., Kim, T., Song, S.J. and Lu, T.J., Endwall heat
transfer and fluid flow around an inclined short cylinder, Int.
J. Heat Mass Transfer, 2007, vol. 50, pp. 919-930.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Tracer Transport: Appearing or Disappearing Sub-layer in a Groundwater
Aquifer
A. Ali, R. McKibbin and W. L. Sweatman
Institute of Information and Mathematical Sciences
Massey University, Albany Campus, Auckland, New Zealand
Abstract
Chemical species such as tracers or dissolved pollutants are
spread by flow in groundwater aquifers. The solutes are ad-
vected downstream along fluid flow and are dispersed in all di-
rections due to mainly mechanical dispersion as fluid passes
through the complex porous structure. Groundwater aquifers
are composed of a layered structure generally formed by dif-
ferent events in the geological processes that formed them.
The physical properties of each layer such as permeability
and porosity are nearly uniform vertically but differ from
those above and below. Typically the layers are not horizon-
tal and their thicknesses are not uniformly constant. There-
fore, the advection-dispersion equations that model the three-
dimensional fluid and species transport have coefficients that
depend on the layer thicknesses and composition. Even if the
aquifer is homogeneous, or if some of the layers are not spread
over the entire aquifer region, it can be discretized vertically for
computational simplification.
Here, the fluid is assumed isothermal and incompressible, flow-
ing in a rigid porous matrix. The fluid flow is assumed steady,
while the species concentration may change with time. The
fluid flow speed and species concentration are assumed to take
vertically-averaged values within each layer; flows are matched
at the interlayer boundaries by using continuity conditions. The
aquifer thicknesses and the slopes of the layer interfaces are
both assumed small relative to the horizontal extent of the sys-
tem. Lateral and vertical changes in concentration within the
aquifer may occur by advection and dispersion. Varying thick-
nesses of the layers and different permeabilities cause interlayer
fluid transfer carrying pollutant along with it.
Some examples are used to illustrate the formulation of the
method. Results include the artificial layering of both confined
and unconfined aquifers to compute dispersion from instanta-
neous pollutant releases. Fluid flow and solute transport in a
confined and an unconfined aquifer is illustrated that how the
method deals with sediment lenses of finite area.
Nomenclature
g gravitational acceleration
fluid dynamic viscosity
fluid density
q total volume flux per unit width
K porous matrix permeability
matrix porosity
Introduction
Groundwater aquifers are usually composed of sedimentary lay-
ers of different physical properties such as porosities, thick-
nesses and permeabilities. These properties may also vary
within each layer in both horizontal directions. The fluid flow
and pollutant transport has been investigated in [5] when layer
interfaces are parallel in a confined aquifer by using simplified
layered models. The possibility of application of simplified
models on vertical discretization of groundwater aquifers into
natural layers of different physical properties has been explored
by [6] in confined aquifers. The work has been further ex-
tended for more general cases in confined and phreatic aquifers
by [1, 2].
As tracer is advected in each layer of the aquifer, it disperses in
both horizontal directions as well as in vertical direction. The
dispersed amount is determined by the coefficient of dispersion
D, which is suggested to be proportional to the fluid speed [3, 4].
The constant of proportionality is known as dispersivity having
dimensions of length and being a pure matrix property. The lon-
gitudinal dispersivity is generally larger than both the horizontal
and the vertical transverse dispersivities [7].The molecular dif-
fusion is negligible as compared to the mechanical dispersion
for practical purposes. The horizontal and vertical dispersion
coefficients are taken as constants for simplification.
A one-dimensional confined aquifer of varying thickness is
taken as an illustration of fluid flow and tracer transport that has
a sub-layer of finite length that appears and disappears within
the aquifer. The sub-layer is assumed to have the permeability
that is different from the permeability of the rest of the aquifer.
The tracer transport as a result of instantaneous release within
this aquifer is compared with tracer transport in a totally homo-
geneous aquifer of the same thickness profile.
In the phreatic aquifers one needs to determine the phreatic sur-
face as part of the fluid flow analysis. The phreatic surface gra-
dient is proportional to the dynamic pressure gradient that is a
driving force for the fluid. Again, a comparison of fluid flow
and tracer transport between an aquifer that has an appearing
and disappearing sub-layer (of different permeability from the
rest of the aquifer) and a totally homogeneous aquifer is pre-
sented. The fluid flow and the pollutant transport in a phreatic
aquifer of non-planar base has already been discussed in [1].
Model Equations
The dynamic pressure in a confined aquifer composed of N sed-
imentary layers of permeabilities Ki and slowly varying thick-
nesses hi (x, y); 1 i N satisfies [2]
   
P P
hK + hK = 0, (1)
x x y y
where h = N N
i=1 hi and K = i=1 hi Ki /h. The total volume flux
vector through the whole aquifer q(x, y) = (qx (x, y), qy (x, y))
[m2 s1 ] is
 where n N is the number of layer in which the phreatic surface
1 N
 
P P lies. Once, the phreatic surface is determined, the total volume
q(x, y) = , hi (x, y)Ki (x, y), (2)
x y i=1 flux q(x, y) is given by

while the total volume flux through the ith layer is

 
Kg zt zt
q(x, y) = (zt z0 ) , . (8)
x y

hi (x, y)Ki (x, y)

qxi , qyi = N h (x, y)K (x, y)
qx , qy . (3) The total volume flux qn (x, y) through the nth layer that contains
j=1 j j
the phreatic surface is

Now the fluid flux ri (x, y) [m s1 ] from the ith layer to the i +
1th layer, normal to the layer interface, is
Kn (zt zn1 )
qn (x, y) = q(x, y), (9)
n1


  j=1 j j z j1 + Kn (zt zn1 )
K z
qx i qy i
ri (x, y) = ri1 (x, y) + , (4)
x y
and the the total volume flux qi (x, y) through all the lower layers
where r0 (x, y) = rN (x, y) = 0. 1 i < n is

The tracer transport equation for the ith layer of the aquifer with
porosity i (x, y), thickness hi (x, y)and fluid total volume flux Ki (zi zi1 )
qi = (qxi , qyi ) satisfies qi (x, y) = q(x, y). (10)
n1


j=1 K j z j z j1 + Kn (zt zn1 )

ci All other fluid and tracer transport equations (4), (5) and (6)
i h i remain the same for the phreatic aquifers.
t
   
ci ci
= qxi ci + i DHi + qyi ci + i DHi A Lens in a Confined Aquifer
x x y y
  A one-dimensional varying thickness confined aquifer with a
1 + sgn(ri1 )
+ i1 + ri1 ci1 sub-layer of finite length is considered here for illustration. It is
2
  assumed that the permeability of the sub-layer Kl is smaller than
1 sgn(ri1 ) the permeability K of the rest of the homogeneous aquifer. For
+ i1 + ri1 ci
2 the purpose of implementation of numerical procedure, the sub-
layer can be assumed to exist all over the extent of the aquifer
 
1 + sgn(ri )
+ i ri ci with a negligible constant thickness > 0 where it does not ex-
2
  ist. This is reasonable assumption, as (4) suggests that if thick-
1 sgn(ri )
+ i ri ci+1 ness of this sub-layer is very small, then almost all of the fluid
2 entering from any of the neighbouring layers goes into the other
+i hi fi (x, y,t), (5) neighbouring layer. That is, this narrow sub-layer acts almost as
an interface. Moreover, if 0 is the porosity and DV0 is the co-
efficient of horizontal dispersion in this narrow sub-layer, then
where ci (x, y,t) [kg m3 ] is the tracer concentration and
the combined effect of dispersive transfer coefficient c (x, y) be-
fi (x, y,t) [kg m3 s1 ] is the source term averaged over the
tween the two neighbouring sub-layers i and i + 1 across this
layer thickness, DHi [m2 s1 ] is the coefficient of the horizontal
narrow sub-layer can be written as
dispersion and i (x, y) is the interlayer dispersive transfer coef-
ficient between the layer i and i + 1, given by
1 hi /2 /2 /2 hi+1 /2
1 hi /2 hi+1 /2 = + + +
= + 0 i N, (6) c i DVi 0 DV0 0 DV0 i+1 DVi+1
i i DVi i+1 DVi+1
hi /2 hi+1 /2
+ as 0.
where DVi is the coefficient of vertical dispersion in the ith layer i DVi i+1 DVi+1
and obviously 0 (x, y) = N (x, y) = 0.
Now, if the sub-layer of finite length (lens) is as shown in Fig-
In the phreatic aquifers, one needs to determine the phreatic ure 1 and 3, it can be assumed to be present and have infinites-
surface before investigating the tracer transport. If z0 (x, y) be imal thickness all along the length of the aquifer where it does
the bottom impervious surface of the aquifer, zN (x, y) be the not exist.
top free surface and z1 (x, y), z2 (x, y), , zN1 (x, y) be the layer
interfaces, then the phreatic surface zt (x, y) satisfies [1] The whole aquifer, then, can be discretized vertically in further
sub-layers for implementation of the simplified layered model.
Figures 1 and 3 show contour plots of tracer concentration after
" ( )# two different times of instantaneous tracer release mass 1 [kg] at
zt n1
Ki (zi zi1 ) + Kn (zt zn1 ) the indicated position. The sub-layer has a lower permeability
x x i=1 here and seems to behave as more resistant to the fluid and tracer
flow (Figure 1). Moreover, it traps tracer within it as tracer flows
" ( )#
zt n1
+ Ki (zi zi1 ) + Kn (zt zn1 ) = 0
y y i=1
(7) through it and keeps leaking while most of it has passed through
the neighbouring higher permeable regions (Figure 3).
 4 4

3 3
z [m]

z [m]
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
x [m] x [m]

Figure 1: The tracer concentration contours plotted after 0.5 [s] Figure 3: The tracer concentration contours plotted after 1.5 [s]
of instantaneous release at the position marked as a red rectan- of release.
gle. The sub-layer (marked) has a lower permeability.

4
4
3
z [m]

3
2
z [m]

2
1
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
0 x [m]
0 2 4 6 8 10
x [m]

Figure 4: The tracer concentration contours plotted after 0.5 [s]

Figure 2: The tracer concentration contours plotted after 0.5 [s] of instantaneous release at the position marked as a red rectan-
of instantaneous release at the position marked as a red rectan- gle. The aquifer is totally homogeneous.
gle. The aquifer is totally homogeneous.

All the parameters used in these simulations are listed in Ta-

Same amount of tracer transport is simulated in a totally ho-
mogeneous aquifer of same thickness profile except it does not
have a finite sub-layer of different permeability. This aquifer is
also vertically discretized into further sub-layers and the resul-
tant contour plots are shown in Figures 2 and 4. The asymme-
try caused by the lesser permeable sub-layer is obvious. All the
contours in Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 are plotted on a logarithmic
scale in increasing order from the outer contours to the inner
ones and same colors are plotted at same levels.
ble 1.
A Lens in a Phreatic Aquifer
Consider a one-dimensional homogeneous phreatic (unconfined
at the top) aquifer with permeability K and horizontal base that
has a lens of different permeability Kl in the water table as
shown in Figure 5. The total volumetric flux per unit width
qx must be constant in this case when there is no source or sink
for the fluid.

Fluid Flow Analysis

Parameters Values Dimensions Suppose the lens top and bottom interfaces are lt (x) and lb (x);
total volume flux qx 1 m s2 x1 < x < x2 . The phreatic surface zt (x) satisfies [1]
permeability of aquifer K 2 m2
permeability of lens Kl 1 m2
coefficient of horizontal disper- 0.5 m s1
2
Kzt dz

sion DH
dx
t
x0 x x1

m2 s1

coefficient of vertical disper- 0.05 qx
sion DV = [Klb + Kl (lt lb ) + K(zt lt )] dz
dx
t
x1 x x2
g

aquifer porosity 0.1 -

Kzt dz

dx
t
x2 x xL
(11)
Table 1: The parameter values used for the confined aquifers.
The resultant predicted phreatic surface when zt (x0 ) = h0 = 3.5,
based on parameters values listed in Table 2 is plotted in Fig-
ure 5. Figure 6 shows phreatic surface for a totally homoge-
neous aquifer with same zt (x0 ). One can see the difference in
the phreatic surfaces when there is a lens of different permeabil- 4
ity and when the aquifer is totally homogeneous.
3

z [m]
z [m]
2
4
phreatic su 1
3 rface
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
2 h0 x [m]
1
fluid flow
0 x [m]
x1 x2
0 2 4 6 8 10
Figure 7: The tracer concentration contours plotted after 0.5 [s]
of instantaneous release at the position marked as a red rectan-
Figure 5: The predicted phreatic surface when the aquifer has
gle. The permeability of the sublayer (marked) is lower than
permeability K and the lens has lower permeability Kl .
that of the rest of the aquifer.

The right hand side of (11) is constant. Thus, in case of Kl < K,

The same simulation is carried out for the same amount of tracer
the coeffecient of dzt /dx decreases in the vicinity of this sub-
release in the homogeneous aquifer with all same parameters
layer as compared to the regions where it is not present. Hence,
except the fact that it does not have any less permeable mid-
zt (x) has higher slope (or dynamic pressure) in the vicinity
dle sub-layer. The resultant concentration contours are plotted
of less permeable sub-layer. In other words, higher dynamic
in Figures 8 and 10 after the same two times of release. The
pressure gradient is needed in the zone of less permeable lens
contours are plotted at a logarithmic scale in increasing order
to maintain the same constant total volume flux qx . The dy-
from the outer contour to the inner ones. The same colours in
namic pressure gradient in phreatic aquifers is proportional to
all Figures 7, 8, 9 and 10 represent same concentration value.
the phreatic surface gradient.

z [m]
4
4
phreatic su
3 rface
3
z [m]

2 h0
fluid flow 2
1 1
0 x [m]
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
x [m]
Figure 6: The predicted phreatic surface in a homogeneous
aquifer of permeability K.

Figure 8: The tracer concentration contours plotted after 0.5 [s]

Tracer Transport of instantaneous release at the position marked as a red rectan-
Once the phreatic surface is predicted for both the homogeneous gle. The aquifer is totally homogeneous.
aquifer and the aquifer containing sub-layer of finite length, it
is discretized vertically into further sub-layers to implement the
All the parameters used in these simulations are listed in Ta-
model. The sub-layer of finite length is extended further to the
ble 2.
whole extent of the aquifer with very small thickness as dis-
cussed before. Figures 7 and 9 show tracer concentration con-
tour plots after two different times of instantaneous 1 [kg] mass
release at the indicated position.
 In this paper, the concept of simplification of fluid flow and
tracer transport modelling is further extended where some sub-
4 layers appear or disappear within the total extent of the aquifer.
The fluid is considered isothermal and incompressible while the
3 tracer or solute is assumed soluble to maintain matrix porosity
and permeability constant with time.
z [m]

1 References
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 [1] Ali, A., McKibbin, R. and Sweatman, W. L., Fluid flow
x [m] and solute transport in unevenly-stratified groundwater
aquifers, in Porous Media and its Applications in Sci-
ence, Engineering, and Industry, Fourth International Con-
ference, Potsdam, Germany, June 17 22, 2012, editor
K. Vafai, American Institute of Physics, 2012, 1453.
Figure 9: The tracer concentration contours plotted after 1.5 [s]
of instantaneous release. [2] Ali, A., McKibbin, R. and Sweatman, W. L., Simpli-
fied modelling of pollutant transport in stratified ground-
water aquifers, in International Environmental Modelling
and Software Society (iEMSs) 2012 International Congress
on Environmental Modelling and Software Managing Re-
4 sources of a Limited Planet, Sixth Biennial Meeting,
Leipzig, Germany, editors R. Seppelt, A. Voinov, S. Lange
3 and D. Bankamp, 2012.
z [m]

2 [3] Bear, J. and Bachmat, Y., Introduction to modeling of trans-

port phenomena in porous media, Kluwer, Dordrecht, Hol-
1 land, 1991.
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 [4] Bear, J. and Verruijt, A., Modeling groundwater flow and
x [m] pollution, D. Reidel, Dordrecht, Holland, 1978.

[5] McKibbin, R., Groundwater pollutant transport: transform-

ing layered models to dynamical systems, An. St. Univ.
Ovidius Constanta, Ser. Mat, 17, 2009, 183196.
Figure 10: The tracer concentration contours plotted after 1.5
[s] of instantaneous release. [6] McKibbin, R., Some aspects of modelling pollution trans-
port in groundwater aquifers, in Proceedings of CIAM
2010, Conference on Industrial and Applied Mathematics
6-8 July 2010, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia, ed-
itors L. H. Weiranto and S. Pudjaprasetya, 2010, 916, 9
Parameters Values Dimensions
16.
total volume flux qx 1 m s2
permeability of aquifer K 0.263 m2 [7] van Herwaarden, O. A., Spread of pollution by dispersive
permeability of lens Kl 0.0263 m2 groundwater flow, SIAM Journal of Applied Mathematics,
fluid density 1 kg m3 54, 1994, 2641.
fluid dynamic viscosity 1 kg m1 s1
gravitational acceleration g 9.8 m s2
coefficient of horizontal disper- 0.5 m2 s1
sion DH
coefficient of vertical disper- 0.05 m2 s1
sion DV
aquifer porosity 0.1 -

Table 2: The parameter values used for the phreatic aquifers.

Conclusions
The simplified fluid flow and the tracer transport models have
been discussed in this paper where the vertical discretization of
the aquifer in naturally occurring sub-layers is used as a sim-
plification criteria. The transport equation for each such sub-
layer, then, has coefficients that are constant at each point of
the horizontal plane. These coefficients are allowed to change
horizontally within each layer.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Frosting Behaviours of Surface-treated Heat Exchangers

according to Fin Pitch
K. Kim1 and K.-S. Lee1*
1
School of Mechanical Engineering Hanyang University,
222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 133-791, Republic of Korea
* Corresponding author

Abstract

Frosting experiments were conducted on surface-treated

(hydrophilic and hydrophobic) louvered-fin heat exchangers with
varying fin pitch, and the frosting behaviours of the rows were
investigated. The surface treated heat exchangers exhibited the
higher air-side pressure drop and heat-transfer rate at 16-FPI (fins
per inch) unit than 18-FPI, and the hydrophobic shows the higher
overall heat transfer rate than the hydrophilic unit due to the frost
retardation. Also, for the hydrophobic unit, no leading edge effect
was observed under the given frosting condition.

Nomenclature
FP Fin pitch, mm
FPI Fins per inch
P Air-side pressure drop, Pa
Q Heat transfer rate, kW
Qa Air flow rate,m3/min
t Operating time, min
wa Absolute humidity, g/kgDA
s Static contact angle,
Introduction
In the general condition for designing the heat exchanger,
because fin surface area increasing as fin pitch decreasing, a heat
exchanger with lower fin pitch exhibits higher heat transfer due
to the higher fin density. However, as the fin pitch continues to
decrease, the ratio of heat transfer for a given fin surface reaches
a critical point. Moreover, under winter conditions, air-passage
blockage occurs earlier in outdoor units of heat pumps with
smaller fin pitches. Therefore, when designing outdoor units for
heat pumps, it is important to consider both cooling
(condensation) and heating (evaporation) conditions.
Most of the existing article papers for louvered fin heat
exchanger according to a fin pitch have been investigated under
cooling (dry or wet) condition. Saiz Jabardo et al[1] investigated
the convex louvered fin heat exchanger under the dry condition,
and reported that fin pitch affected slightly on the heat transfer
rate, and significantly on the air-side pressure drop. Wang et al
[2] investigated louvered fin heat exchangers under
dehumidifying condition. As a result of the study, j-factor had a
minor relation with to fin pitch, but f-factor increased as
decreasing the fin pitch. Phan et al[3] investigated f and j-factor
of 2 and 3rows louvered fin heat exchanger under the wet
condition according to fin pitch. As a result of experiments, the j-
factor decreased, and the f-factor increased as fin pitch decreased.
Therefore, hydrophilic, hydrophobic surface treated louvered
heat exchanger used for heat pump were conducted the frosting
experiment, and performance of heat exchanger and surface
treatment effect according to fin pitch were investigated.
Fig.1 Experimental set-up
Experiment
Figure.1 shows the experimental set-up for frosting
experiment. The set-up is consisted of a test section (conducting
frosting experiment), a climate chamber (controlling the
temperature and humidity of air), a recirculation section
(connecting other sections and acting for air-passage), a
refrigeration section (controlling the temperature and flow rate of
cold refrigerant for frosting experiment), and defrosting section
(controlling the temperature and flow rate of warm refrigerant for
defrosting experiment) [4,5]. The refrigerant used in the
experiment was ethylene glycol solution for mass ratio 1:1. The
louvered fin was coated by the hydrophilic(static-surface contact
angle, s=3), hydrophobic (s=130). For investigating the effect
of fin pitch on the frosting and defrosting behavior, each surface
treated heat exchangers had 16, 18 FPI (fin pitch were 1.59, 1.41
mm).
Results and discussion
Figure 2 shows the air-side pressure drop of the surface treated
heat exchangers with 16-FPI and 18-FPI (Ta,dry =3.0C, Ta,wet
=1.5C, Tref= -9.5C, Qa= 150 m3/hr). As regards the surface
treatment, at the same fin pitch, the air-side pressure drop was the
higher for the hydrophilic surface than the hydrophobic treated
unit. The hydrophobic surface showed the lower air-side pressure
drop due to frost retardation. In terms of fin pitch, at the start of
the experiment, the 18-FPI units had a slightly higher air-side
pressure drop than the 16-FPI units, due to the higher fin density.
However, at the end of the experiment (tf = 40 min), the 16-FPI
units had the higher air-side pressure drop than 18 FPI for both
hydrophilic and hydrophobic.
 250 0.3
Ta,dry(oC) Ta,wet(oC) Tref(oC) Qa(m3/hr) Surface type
3.0 1.5 -9.5 150 Hydrophilic
16 FPI
200
16 FPI 0.2
Pa [Pa]

Q [kW]
18 FPI
150

18 FPI
0.1
100
Ta,dry(oC) Ta,wet(oC) Tref(oC) Qa(m33/hr) Surface type
3.0 1.5 -9.5 150 Hydrophilic

50 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
t [min] t [min]

(a) Hydrophilic treated units (a) Hydrophilic treated units

250 0.3
Ta,dry(oC) Ta,wer(oC) Tref(oC) Qa(m3/hr) Surface Type
3.0 1.5 -9.5 150 Hydrophobic
16 FPI

200
0.2
pa [pa]

Q [kW]

18 FPI
150 16 FPI

0.1

100
Ta,dry(oC) Ta,wet(oC) Tref(oC) Qa(m3/hr) Surface Type
18 FPI
3.0 1.5 -9.5 150 Hydrophobic

50 0.0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
t [min] t [min]

(b) Hydrophobic treated units (b) Hydrophobic treated units

Fig.2 Air-side pressure drop Fig.3 Variation of heat transfer rate

0.24

Figure 3 shows the heat transfer rate for surface treated heat
exchangers. As a result of experiments, the 16 FPI (in respect of
Qlat Qlat
the fin pitch) and the hydrophobic (in respect of surface treated) 0.18
showed the higher heat transfer rate than other units. The
hydrophobic unit showed the smaller reduction of heat transfer
Qave[kW]

rate than others at the middle stage of the experiment due to the
0.12
frost retardation [6].
Figure 4 indicates the sensible and latent of overall heat
transfer rate for the experimental time (tf=40 min). The difference 0.06
of sensible heat transfer rate between the 16-FPI and 18-FPI was
insignificant, but the 16-FPI showed the around 30% higher
latent heat transfer rate than 18-FPI. The 18-FPI had higher fin Qsen Qsen
density than the 16-FPI, so the 18-FPI unit had higher product 0.00
16 2FPI 183FPI
value of hA(convection heat transfer coefficient and total fin
surface area). However, since the two heat exchangers showed Fig.4 Comparison of sensible and latent components of the
the similar sensible heat transfer rate, so the 18-FPI had smaller overall heat-transfer rate of the hydrophobic heat exchanger
temperature difference (T) between the air-side and fin surface
than the 16 FPI. Therefore, because the temperature of air was around 0.8C higher fin surface temperature, and the hydrophilic
kept the same, so fin surface temperature at 18-FPI was higher unit also showed similar tendency. The higher surface
than the 16-FPI at the given experimental condition. As a result temperature of the heat exchanger made frost growth slower, in
of measuring the fin surface temperature with using given experimental condition, so the 18-FPI showed lower air-
thermocouples and infrared camera, the 18-FPI showed the side pressure drop as indicated in the Figure 1.
 Fig.5 Frost behaviour of the hydrophilic heat exchanger
according to fin pitch (first row)
Figure 5 shows the front side of the surface treated heat
exchanger at 40 min of experimental time. In general, the air-side
pressure drop is proportional to the blocking ratio[7] of heat
exchanger, and 16-FPI showed the higher blocking ratio than the
18-FPI. Also, as mentioned in the previous paragraph, the 18-FPI
had less active frost growth than 16-FPI and 18-FPI due to the
higher surface temperature.
Figure 6 shows the hydrophobic treated heat exchanger in 1st
and 2nd rows according to the fin pitch (tf=40 min). Since, the 18-
FPI unit had higher surface temperature of the heat exchanger, it
induced stronger effect of frost retardation effect. The condensed
water on the 1st row fin surface remained longer as a liquid water
droplet, and the probability for condensed water scattering from
1st row to the 2nd row increased. As a result, as FPI increase, the
less condensation water remained on the 1st row of fin surface. At
2nd row, differences of blocking ratio according to FPI were
insignificant. This may be attributed to the fact that lower fin
pitch heat exchanger (18-FPI) showed the less active frost growth
due to higher fin surface temperature, but the amount of scattered
water from the 1st row into 2nd row was the higher at 18-FPI due
to the stronger frost retardation. Thereby, these two phenomena
made insignificant difference of blocking ratio between the heat
exchangers at the 2nd row.
Therefore, critical fin pitch for the most active heat transfer
rate was existed for surface treated heat exchanger, under the
present experimental condition which based on the heating
condition of heat pump, and critical fin pitch was around the 16-
FPI, and the hydrophobic heat exchanger showed the higher
overall heat transfer rate due to the frost retardation effect.
Conclusions
The surface treated louvered heat exchangers with 16, 18 FPI
(Fins Per Inch) were conducted for frosting experiment. The heat
exchanger fins were coated by hydrophilic, hydrophobic surface
treatment. As a result of experiments, the hydrophobic showed
the frost retardation effect, it had less reduction of heat transfer at
the middle of the experiment. The hydrophilic showed the higher
blocking ratio at 1st row than the 2nd row (leading edge effect),
but the hydrophobic showed the higher blocking ratio at 2nd row.
The 16-FPI hydrophobic unit showed the highest overall heat
transfer rate between the tested heat exchangers.
Fig.6 Frost behaviour of the hydrophilic heat exchanger
according to fin pitch (first row)
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Energy Efficiency & Resources
of the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and
Planning (No. 2009T100200137) grant funded by the Korea
government Ministry of Knowledge Economy
References
[1] Saiz Jabardo, J. M., Bastos Zoghbi Filho, J. R. and
Salamanca, A., Experimental study of the air side
performance of louver and wave fin-and-tube coils, Exp.
Thermal Fluid Sci. 30, 2006, 621-631
[2] Wang, C. C., Lin, Y. T. and Lee. C. J., Heat and
momentum transfer for compact louvered fin-and-tube heat
exchangers in wet conditions, Int. J. Heat and Mass
Transfer, 43, 2000, 3443-3452
[3] Phan, T. L., Chang, K. S. Y. Kwon, C. J. and Kwon, T.,
Experimental study on heat and mass transfer characteristics
of louvered fin-tube heat exchangers under wet condition,
Int. com. Heat and Mass Transfer., 38, 2011, 893-899
[4] Kim, J. S., Yang, D. K. and Lee, K. -S., Dimensionless
correlations of frost properties on a cold cylinder surface,
Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, 51, 2008, 3946-3952
[5] Kim, K., Kim, J. -S. and Lee, K. S, Characteristics of frost
formation on two-dimensional fins and its empirical
correlations, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, 53, 2010, 2670-
2675
[6] Kim, K. and Lee, K. -S., Characteristics of Frosting and
Performance Evaluation under Wet Condition for Surface-
Treated Louvered-Fin Heat Exchanger, Int. J. Heat and
Mass Transfer, 55, 2012, 6676-6681
[7] Jhee, S., Lee, K. S. and Kim, W. S., Effect of surface
treatments on the frosting/defrosting behavior of a fin-tube
heat exchanger, Int. J. Refrigeration, 25, 2002, 1047-1053
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Temperature Distribution Measurement in Natural Convection around

Vertical Heated Flat Plate by Using Inverse Abel Transform and
Phase-Shifting Interferometer
E. Shoji1, A. Komiya2, J. Okajima2 and S. Maruyama2
1
School of Engineering
Tohoku University, 6-6-04, Aramaki Aza Aoba Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8579, Japan
2
Institute of Fluid Science
Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, 980-8577, Japan

Abstract kinematic viscosity, m2s-1

This study proposes an approach for experimental measurement
of two-dimensional temperature distributions in laminar natural
convection around a vertical flat plate. The key points of the
approach are inverse Abel transform and a slightly curved plate.
The experiment was conducted by a quasi common path phase-
shifting interferometer. An integral projection of axisymmetric
temperature field was produced by the interferometer. The
temperature distributions in radial direction were derived from
the integral projection using inverse Abel transform. At first, the
interferometer system was validated. After the validation, the
temperature distributions derived from inverse Abel transform
were compared with analytical solutions to validate the approach.
From the validations, it is confirmed that the reduction of noises
is significant for the accurate temperature measurement by the
approach.
Nomenclature
a an integral interval in inverse Abel transform, m
Bi Biot number, -
f focal length, m
g gravitational acceleration, ms-2
h heat transfer coefficient, Wm-2K-1
I intensity of beam, Wm-2
J Bessel function, -
k heat conductivity of fin, Wm-1K-1
K Gladstone-Dale constant, m3kg-1
l fin length, m
Lt thickness of the slightly curved vertical plate, m
N refractive index of air, -
P fin perimeter, m
r axis along a radial direction, m
R radius of a slightly curved plate, m
S cross section area of fin, m2
T Temperature, K
Tw wall temperature, K
T ambient temperature, K
T* dimensionless temperature, -
x axis along the plate length direction from the tip, m
y axis perpendicular to x and z from the plate tip, m
z optical axis, m
thermal diffusivity, m2s-1
volumetric thermal expansion coefficient, T-1
optical path length difference between test beam and
l configuration of Mach-Zehnder interferometer requires many
reference beam, m
fin efficiency, -
polarization angle of beam, rad
wavelength of optical source, m
density of air, kgm-3
0 density of air in standard condition, kgm-3
phase-shift between test beam and reference beam, rad
line integral value of density, kgm-3
dimensionless stream function, -
similarly parameter, -
angular frequency of beam, rads-1
p plasma frequency, s-1
0 eigenfrequency of air molecule, s-1
u Velocity vector, ms-1
g gravitational acceleration vector, ms-2
Introduction
An investigation of heat transfer mechanism in natural
convection is important in diverse applications. Accordingly, it is
necessary to understand flow and temperature fields in natural
convection (e.g., to raise the efficiency in heat exchangers)[1].
Therefore, numerous experiments to study natural convection
have been done, focusing on temperature fields.
There are many experimental methods for the measurement of
temperature fields to study natural convection fields.
Conventional temperature measurement methods have employed
thermocouples[2][3], liquid crystal[4], and optical
methods[5][6][7]. The use of non-contact measurement
techniques is desirable for the investigation of flow fields, since a
sensor such as thermocouple and measurement probe disturb the
flow fields. For this reason, density-sensitive flow visualization
methods i.e. optical methods have long been established to obtain
information about flow and temperature fields.
Typical optical methods include shadowgraphy, Schlieren
method and interferometry. Both the shadowgraphy and
Schlieren method can evaluate the field qualitatively[5]. On the
other hand, interferometry can do quantitative evaluation. Mach-
Zehnder interferometry is one of the interferometry. That
interferometer has long been applied to study flow fields, such as
natural convection since it presents interference fringes, which
are interpreted as isothermal lines in the case of two-dimensional
temperature distribution. Nevertheless, a conventional Mach-
Zehnder interferometry has some drawbacks, e.g. visualization
area size, sensitivity to air disturbance and phase and spatial
resolutions.
The first drawback is visualization area size. The conventional
large optical elements to extend visualization area. The difficulty
of manufacturing accurate optical elements, such as lenses and
beam-splitters, restricts the elements size. Thus, the visualization
area size of the interferometer has been enlarged by changing the
conventional optical configuration of Mach-Zehnder
interferometer.
The second one is sensitivity to air disturbance. A conventional
Mach-Zehnder interferometer is sensitive to air disturbance
because there are large difference in the optical paths between
test and reference beams. The disturbance of interference fringes
influences the resultant temperature profiles, thereby causing the
experimental error. The effects of air disturbance have been
reduced by introduction of a quasi common path.
The third drawback is the phase and spatial resolutions. They
depend on the wavelength of the optical source and the number
of interference fringes, respectively. This is because a density
field is obtained by contrasting information on interference
fringes, i.e., the profile is obtained by only the peaks of
brightness and darkness lines or points in a conventional
interferogram. In order to overcome this problem, a phase-
shifting technique was proposed[8]. The phase-shifting technique
is an image processing technique, which converts the
conventional interferogram to 8bit gray image, called
phase-shifted data. Phase-shifted data has higher phase and
spatial resolutions than a conventional interferogram.
Some phase-shifting interferometers, which are a combination of
a polarizing Mach-Zehnder interferometer and the phase-shifting
technique, was also developed[10][11][12]. Special optical
systems were designed to implement the technique in the
interferometers. Nevertheless, previously developed optical
elements have problems, which are time resolution and
availability to CCD camera. Thus, the authors designed a phase-
shifting Koester prism to introduce the phase-shifting technique
to the optical system.
The authors have developed a quasi common path phase-shifting
interferometer to overcome the three drawbacks as mentioned
above[9]. The interferometer features a quasi common path, a
non-conventional configuration and the phase-shifting technique.
In addition, the phase-shifting Koester prism was installed to the
quasi common path phase-shifting interferometer in this study.
The quasi common path phase-shifting interferometer achieve
accurate measurement. Nevertheless, in measurements using
interferometry, the three-dimensional structure affects the
temperature measurement results in the case where the
temperature fields have the three-dimensional distribution[9].
Hence, many techniques regarding a reconstruction of three-
dimensional temperature distribution have been
performed[13][14].
On the other hand, the reduction of the effect of three-
dimensional configuration is also significant in the case of the
phenomena, which can be generally treated as two-dimensional
phenomena. Hence, this study focuses on laminar natural
convection fields around a vertical heated flat plate. The
phenomenon is the most fundamental natural convection treated
as two-dimensional phenomena.
For the measurement of temperature field of the natural
convection, this study focuses inverse Abel transform and a
slightly curved plate. Inverse Abel transform is a transformation
method, which can reconstruct a distribution in radial direction
from integral projection obtained from an axially symmetric field.
The slightly curved vertical plate forms an axisymmetric
temperature field. Given the temperature field is approximately
the same as temperature field in natural convection around a
vertical heated flat plate, the temperature field can be obtained by
inverse Abel transform, the slightly curved plate and the
interferometer system.
The objective of this study is an experimental measurement of
two-dimensional temperature distributions by the reduction of the
three-dimensional effects. The natural convection field around
the slightly curved vertical plate was visualized and measured
using the quasi common path phase-shifting interferometer. At
first, comparison between experimental data and analytical
solution on optical path length difference was conducted to
validate the interferometer. After the validation, temperature
distributions were derived by the approach. The measured
temperature distributions were compared with analytical solution
on temperature to validate the approach.
Experimental apparatus and Procedure
Quasi Common Path Phase-Shifting Interferometer
Figure 1 shows the schematic of the quasi common path phase-
shifting interferometer. A basic concept of the interferometer was
proposed by the authors[9]. As shown in Fig. 1, the optical
configuration has three-dimensional structure. This
interferometer was designed to accomplish four objectives: to
reduce the air disturbance effect, to achieve a large visualization
area, to improve phase, spatial and time resolutions, and to apply
to various flow fields, such as forced convection.
Figure 2 shows a top view of the interferometer configuration. In
the interferometer, He-Ne laser ( = 632.8 nm) is used as
optical source. The output power of the He-Ne laser is 10m W.
He-Ne laser passes through a ND filter and a spatial filter which
consists of an objective lens and pin-hole. The ND filter and the
spatial filter are set to control the intensity of laser beam and
reduce spatial noises of the optical source, respectively. The
beam passes a plano-convex lens (f = 200 mm) for collimation.
The collimated beam, whose diameter is about 15 mm, reflects a
flat mirror and split into test and reference beams by a polarizing
beam splitter. The polarization direction of these two beams are
perpendicular each other.
The test beam passes through a plano-convex lens (f = 100 mm)
to be extended. The expanding beam passes through a cylindrical
lens to reduce astigmatism effect of two concave spherical
mirrors, which has about 300 mm diameter and 3000 mm focal
length. The test beam reflects a flat mirror and a concave
Fig. 1. Schematic of quasi common path phase-shifting
interferometer.

(m)
(e)
(l)
(a) He-Ne laser
(b) ND filter
(h) (d)
(c) Spatial filter
(d) Plano-convex lens
(e) Flat mirror
(d)
(f) Palarized beam splitter
(g) Cylindrical lens
(h) Concave mirror (e)
(i) Visualization area
(j) Aberrarion correction lens (d)
(k) Phase-shifting Koester prism
(l) Imaging lens (f)
(m) CCD camera (e)
Fig. 2. Top view of configuration of quasi common path phase-shifting interferometer.
spherical mirror to form a collimated beam and passes through an
visualization area. The beam reflects the other concave mirror
and converges. The converging light reflects a flat mirror and
passes through a plano-convex lens (f = 150 mm) for collimation.
The collimated beam passes through an aberration correction lens
for correction of optical system aberration.
On the other hand, the reference beam reflects six mirrors, which
has high surface accuracy and reflectance in regard to He-Ne
laser. The reference beam path was set close to the test beam path
to reduce the effects of the air disturbance. The two mirrors of
the six mirrors reflect the both of test and reference beams.
Hence, this interferometer is a quasi common path interferometer.
The quasi common path is more insensitive to air disturbance
than the optical path of conventional Mach-Zehnder
interferometers.
Two beams are combined by another polarizing beam splitter.
Since the polarized planes are still perpendicular each other, the
two beams never interfere. Then the combined beam enters an
image processing unit.
The image processing unit consists of a phase-shifting Koester
prism, lenses for control of the size of the combined beam, a
CCD camera with an imaging lens. The combined beam by a
polarizing beam splitter passes two plano-convex lenses which
are used to adjust the beam diameter.
The beam enters the phase-shifting Koester prism and is split into
four beams. The detail of the phase-shifting Koester prism is
described in a section Phase-shifting Koester Prism. The output
beams in the same direction are converged by a plano-convex
lens(f =500 mm). The converged beams pass through an imaging
lens and are acquired by a CCD camera. The detected images are
processed to obtain phase-shifted data by specially developed
software.
In the interferometer, concave mirrors were used to extend
visualization area. Many large optical elements are not needed
6000 mm
(e)
(d)
(e)
(h)
3000 mm
(e)
(e)
(d)
except the two concave mirrors in the configuration.
Nevertheless, astigmatism, which is an aberration caused by
oblique incidence to a concave spherical mirror, occurs in the
configuration[15]. Thus, the cylindrical lens was set to reduce
astigmatism effect. The cylindrical lens was used to reduce the
astigmatism in a configuration of Schlieren method[16]. In
addition, the two concave spherical mirrors have spherical
aberration due to their shape. Hence, aberration correction lens
was set to correct the aberrations. The aberration correction lens
was specially designed. By the lens, visualization area was
extended to about 200 mm 200 mm.
Phase-Shifting Technique
The phase-shifting technique was installed to conduct accurate
measurement. The phase-shifting technique is an image
processing technique, which converts the interferogram to an 8-
bit (0255) gray image, called phase-shifted data.
The phase-shifted data are obtained from three interferogram
in different polarization state expressed as equation (1).
I ( x, y, 2 ) I ( x, y, 4 )
( x, y ) arctan 3 3 3 , (1)
I ( x, y, 2 ) 2 I ( x, y,0) I ( x, y, 4 )
3 3
where is the phase shift between the reference beam and the
test beam, x and y are the locations in two-dimensional Cartesian
coordinate systems, I() is the intensity of beam which is
detected by the CCD sensor in each pixel. The symbol denotes
the polarization state of the beam.
The intensities in three interferogram of different polarization
state are calculated in each pixel by equation (1). Hence, the
spatial resolution depends on not the number of interference
fringes but the spatial resolution of a CCD camera. In
conventional interferogram, temperatures or densities are
obtained only on interference fringes without relation to the
resolutions of sensors. Thus, the technique provides a substantial
improvement in the spatial resolution.
In a conventional interferometer, the phase resolution is half
of the wavelength. On the other hand, the phase resolution in the
phase-shifting technique is defined by apparatuses, such as the bit
number of CCD camera. The phase resolution in this study
becomes more than 100 times better than a conventional
interferogram by the phase-shifting technique.
Phase-Shifting Koester Prism
Fig. 3. Schematic of phase-shifting Koester Prism.
As expressed in equation (1), the three interferogram in different
polarization state are necessary in the phase-shifting technique.
To acquire the three interferogram, Maruyama et al. adopted
three CCD cameras[2]. Besides, Komiya et al. developed a
rotating polarizer[3]. Nevertheless, availability to CCD camera
and time resolution become problems in the three CCD cameras
and the rotating polarizer, respectively.
Accordingly, a phase-shifting Koester prism was designed to
acquire the interferogram in this study. The prism has features as
follows;
Split a beam into 4 beams and filter each beam.
Output 4 beams in the same direction.
The Koester prism achieved that three interferograms are (a) (b)
obtained by one CCD and sampling rate depends on only the
Fig. 4. Processing screen of four images by phase-shifting
performance of a camera. Figure 3 shows a schematic of the
Koester prism.
phase-shifting Koester prism.
The combined beam by the second polarized beam splitter in the
interferometer enters the prism. Firstly, the beam was split into was not achieved by the three-dimensional structure[9]. Thus, the
two beams. At this time, the two beams are the same polarization slightly curved plate and inverse Abel transform were used to
states but different intensities. measure the two-dimensional temperature distribution using
interferometry.
One beam, which reflects at the first split, passes through a
polarizer to block the reference beam. By the polarizer, only the Figure 5 shows a schematic of the slightly curved vertical plate.
test beam is output from the prism. Hence, this beam produces a The tip of the plate is angled at 30 degrees with respect to the x-
shadowgraph. The beam also passes through a ND filter to axis, which reduce disturbances of the leading edge such as
control the intensity at the output. vortex formation at the tip.

The other beam passes through a quarter-wave plate, which is
placed at angle /4 of the polarized test and reference beams. The
two linearly polarized beams become clockwise or counter
clockwise circularly polarized beams. The beam was split into
three beams. The three beams are also the same polarization
states but different intensities. At the output, the three beams pass
through polarizers and ND filters to acquire the three
interferogram in different polarization state and to make the
intensities of the three beams the same, respectively. The three
interferogram are obtained in this way.
The plate was heated by a silicon rubber heater attached, and a
thermocouple was attached to measure the surface temperature.
The material of the plate is copper that has its high thermal
conductivity. The thickness Lt and the radius value R are 5 mm
and 95 mm respectively. Enough large radius is required to
generated the natural convection field where the effect on curve
of heating surface can be neglected. In addition, the uniformity of
surface temperature is validated by calculating the plates Biot
number and fin efficiency of the plate[18]. The Biot number, Bi
is described as

Figure 4 shows the typical processing screen of obtained four hLt

images by the prism. Figure 4 (a) shows an obtained image by
the phase-shifting Koester prism with one CCD camera. A
shadowgraph, the third image from left, and three interferogram
in different polarization state are shown. On the other hand, Fig.
4 (b) shows the processing results. The left image is a phase-
shifting image and the right image is a shadowgraph in the right
hand of the screen. In this way, phase-shifted data can be
obtained with one CCD camera. A shadowgraph is also obtained.
It means that quantitative measurements as well as qualitative
measurements are conducted simultaneously.
Curved Vertical Plate
Temperature measurement in natural convection around a
vertical heated flat plate using interferometry a vertical flat plate
Bi , (2)
k
where h is the heat transfer coefficient, Lt is the thickness of the
plate, and k is the thermal conductivity of the plate, namely
copper. From equation (2), the Biot number was calculated as a
value of 610-5 in the case that the heat transfer coefficient is
6.98 Wm-2K-1. The heat transfer coefficient was derived from
the correlation between the Nusselt number and Rayleigh number
proposed by S. W. Churchill[19]. Thus, the temperature profile
of the plate could be assumed to be uniform in the region where
the heater was attached.
The region, where the heater was not attached, is considered to
be a fin in the experimental apparatus. The fin efficiency of the
plate was also calculated. Here, the fin efficiency of tip, which is
 The difference of optical path length l is expressed as
equation (5).
Holding fixture

l ( y)

no ( y, z ) nr dz, (5)

where z is the optical axis, y is an axis perpendicular to z, n is a

220 mm refractive index, the subscripts o and r mean the test beam and
30 reference beam, respectively. Refractive index n is converted to
density by Gladstone-Dale relation as expressed by equation (6).
n 1 K , (6)
Silicon rubber heater x
z where is density, K is Gladstone-Dale constant.
Slightly curved plate y
The difference of optical path length can be converted to a line
integral value distribution of density y as shown in equation
Fig. 5. Schematic of the curved vertical plate.
(7) using equation (6).

l ( y)
angled at 30 degrees, was calculated to estimate the uniformity of
the surface temperature.
( y)

o ( y, z ) r dz
K
. (7)

Here, Abel transform[17] is expressed in,

Then, fin efficiency is described as
a r (r )
J1 2hPl 2 kS
( y) 2 dr , (8)
1 y
r 2 y2
, (3)
hPl 2 kS J 0 2hPl 2 kS
where r is a radial axis, a is an integral interval. Inverse Abel
where l is the fin length, P is the fin perimeter, and S is the cross- transform can be derived from equation (8) as follow,
sectional area. J0 and J1 are the zero order and the first order
Bessel function of the first kind, respectively. In the calculation, d ( y )
1 a dy
the fin length is defined as the length from the tip of the plate to
the lower tip of the silicon rubber heater. The fin efficiency of the
(r )
y y r2
2
dy. (9)

plate calculated from equation (3) is 0.999. Thus, the surface

temperature could be assumed to be uniform in the experiment. Equation (9) can be rewritten using partial integration as follow,

1 (a) (r ) (a r )
Experimental Condition and Procedure 2 2 1 2


(r ) a . (10)
The plate was set in the visualization area of the interferometer ( y) (r ) y ( y 2 r 2 ) 3 2dy
and precisely adjusted at the right position by the holding fixture. r
The experiments were conducted in a room maintained at 20C
and the plate was heated to 40C, 60C and 80C. Thus, the line integral value distribution ycan be converted to
a radial distribution of density (y) by inverse Abel transform in
Then, the local Rayleigh number under the experimental cases where the density distributes axsymmetrically. Given air is
condition was calculated to judge whether the flow conditions assumed to be ideal gas, the density is converted to temperature
were laminar or turbulent. A local Rayleigh number is expressed according to the equation of state. Hence, temperature
as distributions can be evaluated with removing the effect of three-
dimensional structure.
g (Tw T ) x3
Rax , (4) Analytical Solution

In this study, a semi-analytical solution of laminar natural
where x is a location on the axis along the plate from the plate tip,
convection from isothermal vertical flat plate[20] was used as
g is gravitational acceleration, is volumetric thermal expansion
analytical solution. The governing equations of natural
coefficient, is kinematic viscosity, is thermal diffusivity, Tw is
convection, in which boundary layer approximation and
wall temperature, and T is ambient temperature. From
Boussinesq approximation were applied, are described as
equation (4), the local Rayleigh number range in the experiment
follows[18].
was less than 2.0107. Accordingly, the natural convection fields
visualized were the laminar flow. u 0, (11)

Analysis u u 2u (T T )g, (12)

Inverse Abel Transform u T 2T , (13)

Inverse Abel transform is a transformation method which can
convert a line integral value into a radial distribution in the case
where a physical quantity distributes axsymmetrically. In the
measurement using interferometers, a difference of line integral
along optical path length difference between the test beam and
reference beam was obtained.
where u is a velocity vector, g is a gravitational acceleration
vector and T is air temperature. Equations. (11), (12), and (13)
are the continuity equation, momentum equation, and energy
equation, respectively.
 Copper plate 50 mm Copper plate 10 mm

(a) (b) (a) (b)

(c) (d) (c) (d)

Fig. 6. Visualization results of natural convection around Fig. 7. Magnified visualization results of natural convection
slightly curved vertical plate, around slightly curved vertical plate,
(a) initial state (b) 40C (c) 60C (d) 80C. (a) initial state (b) 40C (c) 60C (d) 80C.

In this analysis, two-dimensional natural convection is visualization area is 35 mm 35 mm in Fig. 7. Some interference
considered. For the two-dimensional natural convection problem, fringes are observed clearly and there is no interference fringes
two ordinary differential equations, shown below, have been caused by residual aberration in the field of view.
derived by applying variable transformation to the governing Comparison with Analytical Solution on Optical Path Length
equations. Difference
3 2( )2 T * 0, (14) The optical path length difference distributions were compared
with analytical solution to validate the interferometer system
T *'' 3Pr T *' 0, (15) separately from inverse Abel transform. Given the temperature
field of analytical solution distributes axisymmetrically, the
where is the dimensionless stream function, T* is the optical path length difference distributions of analytical solution
dimensionless temperature, and Pr is the Prandtl number. The in axis symmetric field can be obtained by Abel transform i.e.
double and triple primes refer to second and third derivatives equation (8).
with respect to a similarity parameter . The similarity parameter
is defined as, Figure 8 shows the comparison result between experimental data
and analytical solution on the distributions of optical path length
14
y Grx difference distributions. Good agreements were obtained in the
, (16) case of 40C and 60C. On the other hand, there is a difference in
x 4
the case of 80C. In the analysis, a relation between density and
refractive index was assumed to be linear in Gradstone-Dale
where Grx is local Grashof number. The semi-analytical solution relation as shown in equation(6). However, the assumption is not
can be obtained by solving equations (14) and (15) numerically. appropriate in the experimental condition. Thus, a relation
between density and refractive index derived from Lorentz
Results and Discussions oscillation model was applied to validate the Gladstone-Dale
Visualization Results relation in the experimental condition.

Figure 6 shows phase-shifting images of the natural convection Nitrogen and oxygen are large percentage composites of air.
fields for visualization in each experimental condition. The They could be considered non-polar gases. Thus, air can be
visualization area is 200 mm 200 mm. Interference fringes assumed as a sort of non-radiative gas. Here, the refractive index
appeared in the right side of the plate are generated by natural for non-radiative gas is expressed[21] as
convection. The structure of the natural convection was observed
in large visualization area from Fig. 6. The other interference p
2
n 1 2 , (17)
0 0
fringes are caused by residual aberration. 2

In addition, magnified images were obtained as shown in Fig. 7

because interference fringes are unclear in the thermal boundary where 0 is the density of air under the standard condition, is
layer due to insufficient CCD camera resolution. The location of the beam frequency, p is the plasma frequency, and 0 is the
150 mm distance from the plate tip was magnified. The eigenfrequency of an air molecule.
 2.5 to the analytical solution under the experimental condition.
Difference of optical path length l, m

Experimental data
Tw=40C In addition, a noise is observed in Fig. 8. The noise is caused by
2.0 Tw=60C
an alignment problem in image processing of three interferogram.
Tw=80C
Analytical solution
Phase-shifting processing using phase-shifting Koester prism
1.5 requires a correct alignment since three images were obtained in
Tw=40C
Tw=60C different position of one CCD sensor.
1.0 Tw=80C
Comparison with Analytical Solution on Temperature
0.5 The differences of optical path length were obtained accurately
from the interferometer. Thus, the temperature distributions were
0.0 obtained by the difference of optical path length difference l
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 and inverse Abel tranform equation (10). The resultant
Distance from the surface y, mm temperature distributions were compared with the analytical
Fig. 8. Comparison between experimental data and solution. Figure 10 shows the comparison between experimental
analytical solution using equation (6) on optical path length data and analytical solution on temperature.
difference.
The experimental data show the same tendency as an analytical
solution. Nevertheless, a temperature fluctuation is observed. The
cause of fluctuation is thought to be the noise as observed in
Difference of optical path length l, m

2.5
Experimental data
Fig. 8 and Fig. 9. In addition, the noise from the alignment
Tw=40C problem is increased in the processing of inverse Abel transform.
2.0
Tw=60C It means that the noise reduction in the phase-shifting processing
Tw=80C is important for the approach.
1.5 Analytical solution
Tw=40C
Tw=60C Concluding remarks
1.0 Tw=80C
The temperature measurement method in two-dimensional
natural convection by inverse Abel transform and phase-shifting
0.5
interferometer has been proposed in this study. The following
conclusions were reached.
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 (1) The temperature measurement using inverse Abel transform
Distance from the surface y, mm and s slightly curved plate was proposed.
Fig. 9. Comparison between experimental data and
(2) The interferometer system was validated. A noise caused by
analytical solution using equation (17) on optical path length
an accurate alignment of three images was observed.
difference.
(3) The temperature distribution in natural convection around a
vertical heated flat plate was obtained. The resultant
80 Experimental data temperature distributions were compared with analytical
Tw=40C solution.
Temperature T, C

Tw=60C
Tw=80C (4) In the resultant temperature distributions, temperature
60
Analytical solution fluctuation caused by the noise was observed.
Tw=40C
Tw=60C (5) Reduction of the noise by an accurate alignment of three
40 Tw=80C images is indicated to be significant to conduct the approach
accurately.

20
0 2
Distance from the surface y, mm
Fig. 10. Comparison between experimental data and
analytical solution on temperature.
The optical path length difference distributions of analytical
solution in axis symmetric field was obtained using
equation (17). Figure 9 shows the comparison between
experimental data and analytical solution on the distributions of
optical path length difference distributions. The results denote the
same tendency in Fig. 8. Thus, the cause of the difference is not
the assumption. It is known that the Boussinesq approximation is
not appropriate for natural convection where the difference
between the surface and ambient temperatures is large[22]. The
difference is thought to be caused by applying the approximation
Acknowledgments
4 6 8 10 12 This work was supported by a special research student of
international leading researcher hatchery program in Tohoku
university Global COE program.
References
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[3] Aihara T., Maruyama S., Kobayakawa S., Free
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structures in laminar natural convection in a cubic enclosure, approximation for liquids and gases, International Journal
Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, 2, 1989, 3444. of Heat and Mass Transfer, 19, 1976, 545551.
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Academic Press, 1970.
[7] Merzkirch W., Flow Visualization, Academic Press, 1987.
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proceedings and its applications, Proceedings of Photo
Instrument Engineering, 2544, 1995, 74.
[9] Shoji E., Komiya A., Okajima J., Maruyama S.,
Visualization and measurement of natural convection
temperature fields around a vertical heated plate by phase-
shifting interferometer, Proceeding of 22rd International
Symposium on Transport Phenomena, tracking number 62,
2011.
[10] Maruyama S., Shibata T., Tsukamoto K., Measurement of
diffusion fields of solutions using realtime phaseshift
interferometer and rapid heattransfer control system,
Experimental Thermal and Fluid Sciences, 19, 1999, 3448.
[11] Komiya A., Maruyama S., Precise and short-time
measurement method of mass diffusion coefficients,
Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, 30, 2006, 535
543.
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Development of phase-shifting interferometry for
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solutions, Optics and Lasers in Engineering, 50, 2012,
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temperature reconstruction, Experimental Thermal and Fluid
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[14] Michael Y. C.,Yang K. T., Recent developments in axial
tomography for heat transfer and fluid flow studies,
Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, 4, 1991, 637647.
[15] Hecht E., Optics, Pearson, 2003.
[16] Prescott R., Gayhart E. L., A method of correction of
astigmatism in Schlieren systems, Journal of the
Aeronautical SciencesJanuary, 1951, 69.
[17] Deutsch M., Beniaminy I., Derivative-free inversion of
Abels integral equation, Applied Physics Letters, 41, 1982,
2728.
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mass transfer, Wiley, 2001.
[19] Churchill S. W., Chu H. H. S., Correlating equations for
laminar and turbulent free convection from a vertical plate,
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 18, 1975,
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[20] Osratch S., An analytical of laminar free convection flow
and heat transfer about a flat plate parallel to the direction of
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Effects of Slot on the Cooling Performance of

a Plate-fin Heat Sink with an Impinging Flow

T.H. Kim1, G.H. Kwon2, S.J. Kim2, K.H. Do1,

B.-I. Choi1, Y.S. Han1, M.B. Kim1 and Y.W. Lee1
1
Department of Plant Safety Technology,
KIMM, 305-343, South Korea
2
School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Systems Engineering
KAIST, Daejeon 305-701, South Korea

Abstract only retains the high heat transfer coefficient but also experiences
a low pressure drop [2].
In this paper, the effect of slot on the cooling performance of a
plate-fin heat sink with an impinging flow is experimentally
presented under the fixed pumping power condition. The effect
of slot is experimentally investigated by changing slot length
from 5 mm to 40 mm under the several pumping power. The heat
sink size is fixed as 40 mm (length) 40 mm (width). Also, heat
sink height is changed from 5 mm to 25 mm under fixed channel
width (0.95 mm) and fin thickness (1.0 mm). From the
experimental results, it is shown that the thermal performance of
a heat sink with the slot impinging flow is better than that of a
heat sink with the entire impinging flow. In other words, an
optimum slot length with minimum thermal resistance of the heat
sink is existed under the fixed heat sink geometry. The optimum
slot length decreases as the pumping power increases. When the
pumping power is large, the small slot length is effective for
cooling the heat sink. However, the optimum slot length
increases as the heat sink height increases. It means that the slot
impinging flow is not effective compared to the entire impinging
flow for cooling the heat sink when the heat sink height is large.

Nomenclature Figure 1. Heat sink with a slot duct

H height of a heat sink [m] Due to this, many previous researchers have studied the fluid
k thermal conductivity [W/moC] flow and heat transfer characteristics of a plate-fin heat sink with
L length of a heat sink [m] an impinging flow [2-7]. In the case of the heat sink with an
Qnet heat rate [W] impinging flow, Kim and Kuznetsov [8] mentioned that fluid just
P.P pumping power [W] bypasses the heat sink instead of penetrating into the heat sink
Rth thermal resistance [oC/W] due to the flow resistance of the heat sink. The fluid does not
S slot length of a duct [m] uniformly impinge at the inlet of the heat sink and much fluid
T temperature [oC] flows into a part of the inlet near the outlet having low flow
W width of a heat sink [m] resistance. As a result, the fluid cannot sufficiently penetrate into
wc channel width [m] an interior part of the heat sink and then the effective cooling of
ww fin thickness [m] the heat sink becomes difficult. Therefore, for improving the
cooling performance of the heat sink with an impinging flow, slot
Subscripts impinging flow is suggested as shown in Figure 1. The slot
Amb ambient impinging flow can help the fluid to penetrate into the interior
HS heat sink part of the heat sink and improve the cooling performance of the
opt optimum heat sink. However, under the pumping power condition, as the
slot length decreases, although the effective cooling area for
Introduction improving cooling performance of the heat sink increases, the
flow resistance of the heat sink increases and the flow rate
Effective cooling technology is essential for reliable operation of
decreases. Therefore, there exists the optimum slot length for
advanced electronics with small size and high heat generation [1].
maximizing the thermal performance of the heat sink with
In various types of cooling systems, a plate fin heat sink is the
impinging flow under the fixed pumping power condition. Kondo
most widely used type of cooling device due to the benefits of
et al. [9] presented that the optimum slot length of the heat sink is
easy fabrication and high thermal performance. The thermal
about 1/6 of the heat sink base length regardless of the heat sink
performance of the plate-fin heat sink is governed by flow
geometries and the pumping power. However, Kondo et al. [9]
direction as well as its geometrical configuration and flow rate. A
performed the experiments under the high pumping power
plate-fin heat sink with an impinging flow has higher cooling
condition and did not consider heat sinks fin geometry.
capability compared with that of a parallel flow because it not
Therefore, it is hard for the optimum length to be fixed as about
1/6 of the heat sink length.
In this paper, the effect of slot on the cooling performance of a
plate-fin heat sink with an impinging flow is experimentally
studied under the fixed pumping power condition. The effect of
slot is experimentally investigated by changing slot under the
several pumping power and heat sink height.
Experimental apparatus
distribution at the base of the heat sink is measured until the
change in the temperature is smaller than 0.1 in a 10 minute
period. We conducted experiments under several pumping power
condition. The pumping power is calculated by multiplying the
measured flow rate and pressure drop. The range of the pumping
power from 0.0008 to 0.011 W is covered in the present
experiment. Each experiment is conducted 4 times.
Air flow from a mass flow meter

Honeycomb

H=5mm H=10mm H=15mm H=25mm

Vertical
wind tunnel
(a) Tested heat sinks

Heat sink

S=5mm S=10mm S=20mm S=30mm S=40mm

Thin film
(b) Tested slot ducts heater
Teflon block
Figure 2. Tested heat sinks and slot ducts Thermocouples

In this section, the experimental portion of the present study is Figure 3. Layout of the experimental apparatus
described. The heat sink size is fixed as 40 mm (L) 40 mm (W).
Also, heat sink height (H) is changed from 5 mm to 25 mm under
fixed channel width (wc = 0.95 mm) and fin thickness (ww = 1.0
mm) as shown in Figure 2(a). The tested heat sinks are made of
aluminum alloy 6061 (k = 170W/mK) and no additional surface Impingement
Impingement
Inlet slot
inlet slot
treatment is applied. The slot length (S) is varied from 5 mm to
lennut dniW

40 mm as shown in Figure 2(b). The general layout and a photo Heat sink
of the experimental apparatus are shown in Figures 3 and 4,
respectively. The gas flows into the wind tunnel from a pressure Teflon block
tank through a metering valve and a mass flow meter. The flow
meter is used for measuring the flow rate in the wind tunnel
(D08-8C, Sevenstar electronics). The wind tunnel walls are made Power supply
of acrylic (k = 0.86W/mK). In order to measure the pressure
difference between the inlet and the outlet of the heat sink, a DAQ Mass flow
pressure tap is positioned on the wind tunnel wall and is controller
Pressure sensor
connected to a manometer (FCO510, Furness). To measure the
temperatures at the base of the fins, five 30 gauge J-type
thermocouples (Omega) are mounted through 3 mm deep holes Figure 4. Experimental appartus
of a base plate having 5 mm thickness. The relative positions of
thermocouples for temperature measurement are shown in Figure
Results and discussion
3. The maximum heat sink base temperature is measured from
readings of five thermocouples. An Agilent 34970A DAQ is used Validation
to transport data measured by the thermocouples. From the
analysis of the experimental uncertainties, maximum First of all, to check the validity of the present study, the
uncertainties for measurement of the pressure drop and the experimental results of the pressure drop and thermal resistance
temperature are estimated to be 5% and 2%, respectively. The of a plate-fin heat sink with an impinging flow, one of the
heat sinks are heated by electrical heaters fabricated using experimental cases, are compared to numerical results obtained
stainless steel with 0.025mm thickness sandwiched by Kapton by using ICEPAK. Figure 5(a) shows that the experimental
films. To reduce heat loss, the bottom of the heater is insulated results of the pressure drop are in good agreement with the results
with Teflon. The heat loss is determined from a surface presented by Kim et al. [6] within 15% error. In addition, as
temperature measurement of the test section. To calculate the net shown in Figure 5(b), experimental results of the thermal
heat flux at the bottom of the heat sink, the estimated heat loss is resistance also correspond well to the numerical results within
subtracted from the electric power supplied to the heater. The 17% error. The thermal resistance of the heat sink is determined
heat supplied from the power supply is calculated by measuring as equation (1).
the voltage drop and the current through the heater. The THS - TAmb
maximum heat loss is about 5% of the supplied heat. Rth = (1)
A typical test procedure is as follows: Flow rate is set by Qnet
regulating the metering value. The heater is then powered up to a where THS is the average temperature of the bottom of the heat
heat load of 10W and allowed to stabilize. The temperature sink.
Based on these comparisons, it is clear that the experiments in mm and the pumping power is 0.8 mW, respectively. 40 mm slot
this study are properly conducted. length (S) means that a slot duct covers an entire heat sink. As
shown in Figure 6, the thermal resistance of the heat sink with 30
40 Pressure Drop [Pa] mm slot length is lower than that of the heat sink with 40 mm slot
L = W = 40 [mm], H = 25 [mm], S = 40 [mm] length. In general, there are two methods for improving the
35 wc = 0.95 [mm], ww = 1.0 [mm]
cooling performance. One is increasing cooling area and another
Numerical Results
Present study
is increasing flow rates of the coolant for increasing the
30
convective heat transfer coefficient. In this case, the smaller slot
Pressure Drop [Pa]

25 makes much fluid penetrate into the interior part of the heat sink
and an effective cooling area increase. Therefore, the thermal
20 performance of the heat sink is improved as the slot length
decreases. However, as shown in Figure 6, when the slot length is
15 below 30 mm, the thermal resistance of the heat sink increases as
the slot length decreases. In this case, as the slot length decreases,
10
the flow resistance of the fluid increases and the flow rate of
5
which the fluid penetrates into the interior part of the heat sink
decreases under the constant pumping power condition.
0 Therefore, the thermal performance of the heat sink gets worse.
50 100 150 200 According to two conflicting effects, there exists an optimum slot
Flow rate [LPM] length of the heat sink with an impinging flow.
(a) Pressure drop
Effect of Height on the Optimum Slot Length of a Heat Sink with
1.4 Thermal Resistance [oC/W] an Impinging Flow
L = W = 40 [mm], H = 25 [mm], S = 40 [mm]
1.3 wc = 0.95 [mm], ww = 1.0 [mm] 5.0
Numerical Results L = W = 40 [mm], wc = 0.95 [mm], ww = 1.0 [mm]
1.2 4.5
Present study Pumping Power = 1.8 [mW]
Thermal Resistance [oC/W]

H = 5 [mm]
1.1
4.0 H = 10 [mm]
Thermal Resistance [oC/W]

H = 15 [mm]
1.0
H = 25 [mm]
3.5
0.9

0.8 3.0

0.7 2.5
0.6
2.0
0.5
1.5
0.4
50 100 150 200
1.0
Flow Rate [LPM] 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
(b) Thermal resistance Slot Length [mm]
Figure 5. Validation of experimental results (a) P.P = 1.8 [mW]
4.0
Effect of Slot on the Thermal Performance of a Heat Sink with an L = W = 40 [mm], wc = 0.95 [mm], ww = 1.0 [mm]
Impinging Flow Pumping Power = 5.1 [mW]
3.5 H = 5 [mm]
H = 10 [mm]
3.6
Thermal Resistance [oC/W]

o H = 15 [mm]
Thermal Resistance [ C/W]
3.0 H = 25 [mm]
3.5 L = W = 40 [mm], H = 10 [mm]
wc = 0.95 [mm], ww = 1.0 [mm]
3.4 Pumping Power = 0.8 [mW] 2.5
Thermal Resistance [oC/W]

3.3
2.0
3.2

3.1 1.5

3.0
1.0
2.9 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Slot Length [mm]
2.8
(b) P.P = 5.1 [mW]
2.7
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Figure 7. Effect of height on the thermal performance of a heat
Slot Length [mm] sink with an impinging flow
Figure 6. Effect of slot on the thermal performance of a heat sink Figure 7 shows a relationship between the thermal resistance and
with an impinging flow the slot length with varying the height of a heat sink. Regardless
of varying the height of a heat sink, there exists optimum slot
In this section, the effect of slot on the thermal performance of a
length with minimum thermal resistance. As shown in Figure 7,
heat sink with an impinging flow is presented. Figure 6 shows the
the optimum slot length is not fixed. It varies with varying the
experimental results when the height of the heat sink (H) is 10
height of a heat sink. For quantitatively analyzing the optimum L = W = 40 [mm], wc = 0.95 [mm],
slot length, experimental data are fitted by a numerical analysis 4.0 ww = 1.0 [mm], H = 5 [mm]
method using a B-spline function. As a result, the optimum slot P.P = 1.8 [mW]
length is determined as shown in Table 1. As shown in Table 1, P.P = 5.1 [mW]
3.5 P.P = 11.1 [mW]
as the height of the heat sink increases, the optimum slot length

Thermal Resistance [oC/W]

increases. In other words, the effect of the slot on the thermal
performance of the heat sink is large when the height of the heat
3.0
sink is small. When the height of the heat sink is small and the
fluid is supplied into the heat sink using the entire jet (S = L), the
fluid does not penetrate into the interior part of the heat sink but 2.5
bypasses the heat sink due to high flow resistance of the heat sink,
as shown in Figure 8.
2.0
P. P. [mW] H [mm] Sopt [mm] Rth,opt [oC/W]
5 17.0 3.09
10 21.5 2.16 1.5
1.8 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
15 28.4 1.79
20 32.9 1.52 Slot Length [mm]
5 9.5 2.28 (a) H = 5.0 [mm]
10 18.7 1.57 L = W = 40 [mm], wc = 0.95 [mm],
5.1 3.0
ww = 1.0 [mm], H = 25 [mm]
15 23.7 1.28
20 30.3 1.19 P.P = 0.8 [mW]
P.P = 1.8 [mW]
Table 1. Optimum slot length according to the height of the heat P.P = 5.1 [mW]
sink 2.5
Thermal Resistance [oC/W]
S
2.0
H

1.5
L
(a) S = 40 mm (S = L)
S 1.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Slot Length [mm]
H (b) H = 25.0 [mm]
Figure 9. Effect of pumping power on the thermal performance
L of a heat sink with an impinging flow
(b) S = 10 mm (S < L)
H [mm]
P.P [mW] Sopt [mm] Rth,opt [oC/W]
Figure 8. Flow field obtained from numerical results 1.8 17.0 3.09
(L = 40 mm, H = 10 mm, Flow rate = 30 LPM) 5.0 5.1 9.5 2.28
11.1 5.5 1.85
0.8 39.3 2.00
Effect of Pumping Power on the Optimum Slot Length of a Heat 25.0 1.8 32.9 1.52
Sink with an Impinging Flow 5.1 30.3 1.19
Table 2 Optimum slot length according to the pumping power
Figure 9 shows a relationship between the thermal resistance and
the slot length with varying the pumping power. As shown in
Figure 9, the optimum slot length varies with varying the Conclusion
pumping power. For quantitatively analyzing the optimum slot In this paper, the effect of slot on the cooling performance of a
length, experimental data are fitted by a numerical analysis plate-fin heat sink with an impinging flow is experimentally
method using a B-spline function. As a result, the optimum slot presented under the fixed pumping power condition. From the
length is determined as shown in Table 2. As shown in Table 2, experimental results, it is shown that the thermal performance of
as the pumping power increases, the optimum slot length a heat sink with the slot impinging flow is better than that of a
decreases. When the height is 5 mm, the optimum slot length is heat sink with the entire impinging flow. In other words, an
much less than the entire slot length. Specially, at the large optimum slot length with minimum thermal resistance of the heat
pumping power, the optimum slot length is only 13% of the sink is existed under the fixed heat sink geometry. The optimum
entire slot length. It means that the slot significantly affects the slot length increases as the height of the heat sink increases under
improvement of the thermal performance of the heat sink at the the constant pumping power. When the height of the heat sink is
large pumping power due to the increased effective cooling area. fixed, the optimum slot length decreases as the pumping power
When the height is 25 mm, the optimum slot length exists near increases. When the pumping power is large, the small slot length
the entire slot jet length. When the pumping power is 0.8 mW, is effective for cooling the heat sink. When the pumping power is
the optimum slot length is almost same as the entire slot length. It small and the height of the heat sink is large, the slot does not
means that the slot does not affect the improvement of the affect the improvement of the thermal performance of the heat
thermal performance of the heat sink when the height is large and sink with an impinging flow.
the pumping power is small.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the principal research programs of
the Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials (KIMM) of
Republic of Korea.
References
[1] Chu, R.C., Heat Transfer in Electronics Systems, Proceeding
of the 8th International Conference on Heat Transfer, New
York, 1987, 293-305.
[2] Jang, S.P. and Kim, S.J., Fluid Flow and Thermal
Characteristics of a Microchannel Heat Sink Subject to an
Impinging Air Jet, ASME J. Heat Transfer, 127, 2005, 770-
779.
[3] Biber, C.R., Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer in an
Isothermal Channel with Impinging Flow, IEEE Trans.
Compon. Packag. Manuf. Technol. Part A, 20(4), 1997,
458-462.
[4] Duan, Z. and Muzychka, Y.S., Experimental Investigation of
Heat Transfer in Impingement Air Cooled Plate Fin Heat
Sinks, ASME J. Electronic Packaging, 128, 2006, 412-418.
[5] Duan, Z. and Muzychka, Y.S., Pressure Drop of
Impingement Air Cooled Plate Fin Heat Sinks, ASME J.
Electronic Packaging, 129, 2007, 190-194.
[6] Kim, D.-K., Kim, S.J., and Bae, J.-K., Comparison of
Thermal Performances of Plate-fin and Pin-fin Heat Sinks
Subject to an Impinging Flow, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer,
52, 2009, 3510-3517.
[7] Do, K.H., Kim, T.H., and Kim, S.J., Analytical and
Experimental Investigations on Fluid Flow and Thermal
Characteristics of a Plate-fin Heat Sink Subject to a
Uniformly Impinging Jet, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 53,
2010, 2318-2323.
[8] Kim, S.Y. and Kuznetsov, A.V., Optimization of Pin-fin
Heat Sinks Using Anisotropic Local Thermal
Nonequilibrium Porous Model in a Jet Impinging Channel,
Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A, 44, 2003, 771-787.
[9] Kondo, Y. and Matshshima, H., Study of Impingement
Cooling of Heat Sinks for LSI Packages with Longitudinal
Fins, Heat Transfer-Japanese Research, 25(8), 1996, 537-
553.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Study on utilization of thermal energy by slight temperature difference
(1) Basic performance of Peltier element
T. Togasaki1, N. Matsuda1 , T. Takeda1,and S. Funatani1
1
Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering, Graduate School of Medicine and Engineering
University of Yamanashi, Takeda 4-3-11, Kofu, Yamanashi, 400-8511, Japan
ABSTRACT
This study is to investigate of a utilization of thermal energy by
slight temperature difference. An experiment has been carried out
using the Peltier element and the phenolphthalein solution. We
obtained the basic performance of Peltier element, configuration
of elements, and so on. We also tried to make a kind of toy using
Peltier elements and hot water. This paper describes the
experimental apparatus, method, and detailed experimental
condition to change the color of test device using the hot water of
40C. It is found that color of the phenolphthalein solution using
the electrolytic solution which poured in calcium lactate can be
changed by the Peltier device. In order to increase an electric
voltage by the Peltier device to 5V, the booster circuit is
combined to the experimental apparatus. The electricity
generation becomes high efficiency when the Peltier elements
were placed parallel configuration. We have obtained the voltage
required to change the color of the phenolphthalein solution by
the experiment. The voltage decreased when electrolysed in
electrolytic solution, however, because of characteristics of the
booster circuit. It was found that, therefore, a discoloration
reaction became weak. In order to prevent the decreasing of the
voltage, it is important not only to reduce the area of contacting
surface between the electrolytic stick and the electrolytic solution
but also to adjust the injection dose of calcium lactate. The color
of the phenolphthalein solution can be changed more vividly by
this countermeasure.
1. INTRODUCTION
There are various kinds of unused energy in Japan. Temperature
difference energy, exhaust heat energy, etc. Especially, thermal
energy of low temperature difference is difficult to use because
conversion efficiency to electric energy is low. However, if
thermal energy can be used without additional cost, it is hoped to
establish a useful energy system because it used to be discarded
energy. Japanese often taking bath and the quantity of
household bath is about 200. There are many hot-spring resorts
in Japan. Hot water in the bath has enormous quantity of energy
but hot water after taking the bath was thrown away in most
families.
In Japan, convert to electric from unutilized heat of the hot-spring
is generally[1]. In this study, the temperature difference was
conducted by heat pipes and electric power was generated by
using Peltier devices. Electric power generation used thermal
energy of 40C hot water for utilizing thrown away heat. The
power generation from temperature difference was also
visualized by using chemical reaction.
2. Experimental apparatus and visualization method
2.1 Experimental apparatus
The schematic and photograph of an experimental device are
shown in Fig.1. Fig.2 shows the schematic drawing of the
experimental apparatus. The Seebeck effect of the Peltier device
was used for thermal energy conversion. In order to obtain the
temperature difference required for generating electricity of
Peltier device, Heat transport system was built using a CPU
cooler at the low temperature side which had heat pipes as shown
in Fig.1[2]. Difference of temperature was enlarged by using heat
pipes. The high temperature side of the Peltier device was heated
by heated water.
2.2 Visualization method
For visualizing the power generation by temperature difference,
following technique by using chemical reaction was used.
Electrolysis solution which added the phenolphthalein is known
as a pH indicator. When the solution was charged DC voltage,
the color of it near the negative pole changes to red. That is
caused by the fact of the hydroxyl ion which produces electrons
from phenolphthalein solution. When the DC voltage is charged
to the calcium lactate solution used as an electrolytic solution, the
reaction is expressed as following equation (1).
C6 H10CaO5 Ca 2 CH 3 CH (OH ) COO (1)
The chemical equation of the cathode side is expressed by
following chemical equation (2).
2Ca 2 4H 2 O 2Ca(OH ) 2 2H 2 (2)
Equation (2) shows that hydroxide ion is generated on the
cathode side. If the hydroxide ion and the phenolphthalein
solution were reacted, the chemical equation will be as shown as
equation (3).
H 2 A 2OH A2 2 H 2O (3)
A C20H12O4
The principle of the turning red reaction is that phenolphthalein
solution and a hydroxyl ion react and generate a conjugated
double bond. The level of voltage required for turning red can be
shifted by changing the concentration of calcium lactate which is
used as an electrolysis solution. The result of preliminary
experiment shows that the brightness of red is increased when
implantation rates of calcium lactate and the charged voltage was
increased. The threshold voltage of turning red is about 1.5 V.
 Water Outside air Temperature Electric
temperature[] temperature[] difference[] voltage[V]
Case1 40.4 20.4 20 0.28
Case2 40.5 20.4 20.1 0.41
Case3 39.8 20.4 19.4 0.31
Case4 40.3 20.4 19.9 0.51
Case5 40.5 20.4 20.1 0.36
Case6 40.6 20.4 20.2 0.38
Case7 40.3 20.4 19.9 0.67

3.3. Drive condition of booster circuit

Fig.1 Schematic drawing and photo of apparatus
In order to carry out color change of the phenolphthalein solution
by electrolysis, it was found by the exploratory experiment that
the voltage more than 1.5 V is required. Fig3 shows the result of
visualization of phenolphthalein solution at each voltage. It
shows that the colour turns red from 2V and the colour becomes
vividly when the voltage is 5V. Therefore, voltage booster circuit
MHT77X-5 V-KIT was used for the visualization experiment
because low input voltage can be boosted to 5 V. Fig4 shows a
circuit diagram of a booster circuit. The number of Peltier device
was set from one to four. When two or more Peltier devices were
used, they were arranged in parallel. In this experiment,
minimum temperature difference for driving a 5V booster circuit
at each number of Peltier devices was compared.

3.4. Experimental result of booster circuit

Fig5 shows the result of the voltage generated at each number of

Fig.2 Schematic drawing of experiment Peltier devices. The temperature difference required for driving
the 5V booster is shown in Fig.6. In this case, Peltier devices
were arranged in parallel. When the number of Peltier devices
3. Experimental methodology
was one, minimum temperature difference for driving was about
3.1. Experimental conditions 27.1C. When the number of Peltier devices was two, three and
four, minimum temperature difference for driving was about
The arrangement of Peltier devices was studied for generating the 21.3 C, 17.5 C and 13.0 C.
voltage for operating a booster circuit. The high temperature side
of the Peltier device was set about 40C. The number of Peltier The experimental result shows that the threshold value for
devices was set from two to four. The arrangements of Peltier driving the booster circuit was 0.41V. The booster circuit is
devices were parallel or pilled. Experimental conditions in controllable if a temperature difference is controllable. Therefore,
Table1 are described as follows, a booster circuit can play a role of a switch.
Case1: Pilled up two Peltier devices
Case2: Paralleled two Peltier devices
Case3: Piled up three Peltier devices
Case4: Paralleled three Peltier devices
Case5: Piled up four Peltier devices
Case6: Pilled up and paralleled (2x2) Peltier devices
Case7: Paralleled four Peltier devices

3.2. Experimental results of arrangement study

Experimental results are shown in Table1. It shows that the

voltage becomes larger when Peltier device is arranged in parallel.
It has same trend if the number of Peltier devices increase to
three or four.

Table 1 Relationship between electric voltage and Fig.3 Result of visualization experiment
temperature difference in various geometry of Peltier device
 The number of Peltier device was four and they were arranged in
parallel. Outside temperature was 20.6C. High temperature side
of the Peltier element was 40 C.

3.6. Experimental result of visualization

Fig.7 shows the result of visualization. Lactic acid calcium was

Fig.4 Circuit diagram of MHT77X-5 V-KIT
injected for 0.01g. The color was influenced by the amount of the
water solution. Fig.7 shows that phenolphthalein solution was
coloring red in every conditions. The color also turned red in
every condition even in the other injection volume. The intensity
of red becomes weaker when the amount of an electrolyte
solution increase to 30ml, 50ml. Table2, Table3, and Table4
shows the threshold voltage where the color changes. When the
injection volume of calcium lactate increases from 0.01g to 0.1g,
the threshold voltage falls. When the amount of electrolytic
solutions was increased, the voltage dropped. The principle of the
booster circuit is that it accumulates and discharge electric power
quickly. Therefore, lactic acid calcium becomes the load which
causes drop of voltage and it cause the output voltage unstable.
0.01g of lactic acid calcium will be the most optimum condition
because the voltage drop is comparatively small.

There is the other method to prevent a voltage drop. The voltage

drop can be reduced by reducing the surface area that is reacting
and the load becomes small. Fig.8 shows an example of
visualization that copper wire was used instead of the carbon rod.

Fig.5 The result of the thermal energy conversion by the

difference in the number of sheets of a Peltier device

Fig.7 Result of visualization experiment using 0.01g

C6H10CaO6

Table 2 Reaction voltage on 0.01g C6H10CaO6

Fig.6 Required temperature difference to boost voltage
C6H10CaO6 0.01[g]
3.5. Visualization method Water solution [ml] Initial voltage[V] Reaction voltage[V]
10.0 4.98 3.45
The visualization system consists of booster circuit, 30.0 4.98 2.90
phenolphthalein solution, carbon rod as an electrolysis stick and 50.0 4.98 2.50
calcium lactate solution as an electrolytic solution. The
experimental condition was set as follows. Calcium lactate which
was dissolved 0.01 g in 10, 30, 50 ml of water, added in small Table 3 Reaction voltage on 0.05g C6H10CaO6
quantities phenolphthalein solution and the density was
uniformed. In the next experiment, the injection volume of C6H10CaO6 0.05[g]
calcium lactate was changed to 0.05g, 0.1g. The effect of each Water solution [ml] Initial voltage[V] Reaction voltage[V]
parameter was studied by the series of experiments. 10.0 4.98 3.95
30.0 4.98 2.30
50.0 4.98 2.08
Table 4 Reaction voltage on 0.1g C6H10CaO6

C6H10CaO6 0.1[g]
Water solution [ml] Initial voltage[V] Reaction voltage[V]
10.0 4.98 3.70
30.0 4.98 2.29
50.0 4.98 2.03

Fig.9 Prototype of visualization equipment.

Table 5 Relationship between a Peltier device and outside air

temperature for the color reaction.

Number of peices of Required temperature Maximum outside air Minimum outside air
a Peltier device difference to boost voltage[C] temperature [C] temperature [C]
Four pieces 13C 23C 29C
Three pieces 17.5C 18.5C 24.5C
Two pieces 21.3C 14.7C 20.7C
One piece 27.1C 8.9C 14.9C

Fig.8 Result of visualization experiment 5. Conclusions

4. Applications In this study, the temperature difference was conducted by heat

This visualization method is applicable to something like a toy
which has thermal conversion equipment, booster circuit and
visualizing device. Fig.9 shows the prototype of visualization
equipment. Visualization equipment is compact and possible to
build in various kinds of equipment. The contact lens storage
container and the rubber ball were used for the container of the
equipment. Copper wire was used as electric poles. The container
was sealed in order to prevent leaking of electrolytic solution.
The visualization system for expressing temperature of hot water
had built.
As an example of visualization equipment, a system which use
40 C hot water and turns the colour of liquid to red was
proposed. The threshold temperature of changing the colour was
set to 40 C because the temperature of bath is around 40 C.
The method to change the threshold temperature is to change the
number of sheets of the Peltier device. Table 1 shows the
required number of sheets for changing the colour to red at
around 40C. It shows that temperature difference for operating
the booster circuit depends on the number of sheets. When the
temperature difference was lacked, the chromogenic reaction of
an electrolytic solution will not happen. However, this method
can be used only when the temperature of bath is much larger
than the threshold temperature. Therefore the circuit should be
cut off when the voltage is too large. By applying this
improvement, this system will become practical to detect the
comfortable temperature of bath.
pipes and electric power was generated by using Peltier devices.
The power generation from temperature difference was also
visualized by using chemical reaction.
(1) Optimum arrangement of Peltier device is the arrangement
in parallel.
(2) Relationship between temperature difference for boosting
the circuit and the number of sheets of a Peltier device was
studied.
(3) The effect of slight temperature difference was visualized by
using a phenolphthalein solution and calcium lactate.
(4) It is necessary to reduce the amount of the electrolyte
solution as a solution and control the injection volume of
calcium lactate because the voltage drop is generated by the
reaction of phenolphthalein
Acknowledgments
I gratefully appreciate the financial support of HAKKO Electric
Company Limited that made it possible to complete my thesis.
References
[1] Uraie, A., Utility of Power Generation by Temperature
Difference, Proceedings of the Kushiro National College of
Technology, 2003, pp.17-21.

[2] Takefuji, Y., The temperature difference exhaust heat

utilization power generation, Clean energy, 2010, pp.55-59.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Effects of Inclination Angle on the Cooling Performance of

a Natural Convective Heat Sink with Plate-Fins

K.H. Do1, T.H. Kim1, Y.S. Han1, B.-I. Choi1, M.B. Kim1 and Y.W. Lee1

1
Department of Plant Safety Technology
Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials, Daejeon, 305-343, Republic of Korea

Abstract energy is converted into thermal energy in the cell, and the cells
experience a high heat load that reduces their efficiency if they
In this study, the effect of the inclination angle on the thermal are not properly dissipated to the environment. Moreover, since
performance of a natural convective heat sink is investigated for the III-V cell is relatively small (typically 1 cm2), it produces a
concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) module cooling. For this high-flux hot spot. This region on the CPV module can have a
purpose, experiments are conducted for various heat sink heat flux several times higher than the module average, thus
geometries, input power, as well as inclination angle. Based on resulting in exceedingly high local temperatures that can
the experimental data, a thermal resistance correlation for a dramatically degrade performance and system reliability [3].
natural convective heat sink with plate-fins is suggested. From Therefore, a cooling device is an essential part of the CPV
the comparison between the proposed general correlation and the system design to prevent both short-term and long-term
previous studies, the proposed correlation predicts well the degradation.
effects of inclination angle and fin spacing on the thermal Studies on the cooling devices for CPV systems based on passive
performance of the natural convective heat sink with plate-fins. and active methods have been extensively carried out, as
Finally, it is shown that optimal fin spacing strongly depends on summarized in a review by [4]. Active cooling usually involves
the inclination angle. circulating cooling water through a thermally conductive tube
upon which the cells are mounted. In passive cooling, the
Nomenclature surrounding air circulates over a heat sink mounted on the cell.
A area [m2] Several research groups used a metal plate as a heat sink for
cp heat capacity [J kg-1 K-1] cooling the photovoltaic module [5-7]. Zhu et al. [8] used the
g gravity acceleration [m s-2] heat exchanger using water for cooling densely packed solar cells.
H fin height [m] Furthermore, Cheknane et al. [9] suggested a cooling module that
h heat transfer coefficient [W m-2 K -1] consists of a heat sink and a heat pipe for cooling concentrator
k thermal conductivity [W m-1 K -1] solar cells.
L heat sink length [m] In this study, a cooling device for a single PV cell is considered.
nfin number of fins According to Royne et al. [4], passive cooling is enough to work
Nu Nusselt number well for single-cell geometries at quite high solar concentration
Pr Prandtl number levels. Therefore, the present study mainly focuses on passive
T temperature [o C] cooling using natural convection heat sinks as a cooling device
T temperature difference [o C] for a single PV cell. Many earlier studies have focused on natural
t fin thickness [m] convective heat transfer from heat sinks consisting of plate-fins,
W heat sink width [m] as summarized in the extensive review by Kraus and Bar-Cohen
volume expansion coefficient [K -1] [10]. Elenbaas [11] was the first to conduct a detailed study of
fin efficiency heat transfer for vertical plate-fin heat sinks. Starner and
kinematic viscosity [m2 s-1] McManus [12] as well as Welling and Wooldridge [13] have
inclination angle [o or radian] studied the heat transfer from heat sinks experimentally. Van de
density [kg m-3] Pol and Tierney [14] developed a correlation between the Nusselt
Subscripts number and Elenbaas number by using the experimental results
amb ambient of Welling and Wooldridge [13]. Bilitsky [15] performed a
base base plate comprehensive investigation of natural convection heat transfer
f fluid from several heat sinks that differed in fin height and fin width.
rad radiation Further, numerical studies have been performed by Culham et al.
sur surface [16,17], Narasimhan and Majdalani [18], and others [19-21]. On
w wall the other hand, an extensive literature survey did not reveal any
work on the subject of free convection underneath a downward-
Introduction facing-inclined hot fin array except for Mittelman et al. [22].
Because a downward facing fin array is not the preferred
Concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) is seen as one of the ways to orientation for effective cooling by natural convection, this
reduce the cost of solar electricity, because it replaces the problem has been neglected in the past. However, the
expensive solar cell with a less expensive optical concentrator architectural design requirements of modern telecommunication
such as a mirror and lens [1]. However, in the CPV system, equipment and CPV system give preference specifically to such
conversion efficiency from absorbed solar energy to electrical hidden cooling devices. Therefore the exploration of this subject
energy is typically in the range of 35% to 39% for commercial has begun only recently [22].
triple-junction III-V cells [2]. The remainder of the absorbed
The main purpose of the present paper is to propose a thermal As shown in Fig. 1(a), the experimental apparatus consists of a
resistance correlation as a design tool of a natural convective heat heat sink assembly, a supporting plate, a power supply (Agilent
sink for CPV module cooling. Special emphasis is laid on the Technologies, Inc., E3633A), a data acquisition system (Agilent
effect of the inclination angle on the thermal performance of the Technologies, Inc., 34970A), an IR camera (NEC San-ei
natural convective heat sink with plate-fins since the inclination Instruments, Ltd., TH9100MR). The schematic of the generic
angle of the heat sink located on the backside of the CPV module structure of the tested heat sink assembly is shown in Fig. 1(b),
changes, when CPV systems are adjusted by sun tracking and the heat sink dimensions are listed in Table 1. Heat sinks
systems throughout the day [23]. We conduct an extensive were developed by assembling plate-fins, which are made of
experimental study for various heat sink geometries, input power aluminum alloy 5052 with a thermal conductivity of 138 W/mK,
as well as the inclination angle. On the basis of the experimental onto a base block, which is made of aluminum alloy 6061 with a
data, a correlation is newly proposed for estimating the thermal thermal conductivity of 167 W/mK, by interference fitting. For
performance of the natural convective heat sink with plate-fins maintaining the constant temperature condition at the heat sink
according to the inclination angle. From the comparison between base, a copper heat spreader of thickness 10 mm was applied to
the proposed correlation and the previous studies, the effect of the bottom of the heat sink. An electrical heater provided heat to
the fin spacing on the thermal performance of the natural the heat sink. In order to reduce the contact thermal resistance, a
convective heat sink is examined for two limiting cases: the thermally conductive compound (TC 5080, Dow Corning) was
vertical orientation and the horizontal orientation facing used at all contacting surfaces of the heat sink assembly. A 5 mm
downward. Finally, optimal fin spacing as a function of the thick Bakelite plate was attached to the electrical heater to
inclination angle and the temperature difference for a specific minimize heat loss from the heater.
geometry is discussed.

Experimental Investigation Heat L(=W) t H s

sink (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (deg)
In order to evaluate the thermal performance of natural
convective heat sinks with plate-fins, experiments were A 50 4.6 0,30,50,60,70,80,90
conducted with varying fin spacing, fin height, and input power, B 50 6.6 0,30,50,60,70,80,90
as well as inclination angle. C 50 10.2 0,10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,90
D 50 14.2 0,30,50,60,70,80,90
E 25 10.2 0,30,50,60,70,80,90
F 224 1.0 75 10.2 0,30,50,60,70,80,90
ter
pu

Computer
m

G 50 2.8
Co

H 50 29.4
I 50 41.6 Vertical only [24]
a
Ca IR
er
bly

m
m

J 50 52.2
s
se

r
ete

Angle Gauge
As

tim
nk
Si

ul

Heat Sink Assembly

Heat Sink Assembly Heat Sink
K 50 105.4
lM

Assembly
at
He

* Not in* scale

Not in scale
a

* Not in scale
git
Di
y
pl
up

Computer Table 1. Dimensions of tested heat sinks

rS

Computer Computer
we
Po

IR IR IR
DC

Heat Sink Assembly CameraCamera

s

Camera
TC

Input power (qin) in the range of 2070 W was supplied to the

le
sca

Supporting Plate
in
ot

film heater and calculated by multiplying the voltage drop and

*N

m
ste

the current, and it was measured with a digital multimeter

Sy

Thermocouples
Q
DA

Computer Computer
Computer TCs TCs TCs
(FLUKE289). In the present study, the effect of the inclination
ter

angle, which is defined as the angle of the heat sink base plate
pu
m
Co

DAQ System DAQ

DCSystem
DAQ System Power Supply Digital
DC PowerDC Power
SupplySupply
Multimeters DigitalDigital Multimeters
Multimeters with the vertical orientation, on the thermal performance of the
natural convective heat sink with plate-fins was investigated. To
(a) Experimental apparatus do so, the inclination angle of the heat sink assembly, which
varied in the range of 0o to 90o, was precisely adjusted and
Bottom Plate
measured by using the angle gauge installed in the supporting
(Bakelite) Film Heater plate as well as a digital protractor (SmartTool Technologies,
Pro-3600), respectively. Nine J-type thermocouples were
attached to the bottom of the heat sink. The temperature
distribution at the bottom of the heat sink was measured and
W
H recorded at the steady-state condition which indicates the
g temperature variation was less than 0.1 oC for 2 min. Each test
was conducted three times.

Results and Discussion

Plate-fin
Heat Sink
y
z
Based on the temperature measurement results, the thermal
resistance of the natural convective heat sink with plate-fins is
L considered and defined as
x
Heat Spreader
s Tw Tamb
Rth (1)
t
qtotal

(b) Plate-fin heat sink assembly where Tw, Tamb, and qtotal are the heat sink-based temperature,
ambient temperature, and the net heat transfer rate, respectively.
Figure 1. Schematics of experimental apparatus and (b) tested With Eq. (1), the uncertainty analysis of the thermal resistance is
plate-fin heat sink assembly performed as given by
 12 2.4

U R U q U T
2 Experimental Modified Previous
2 Data Correlation [27]

(2) 2.2 Heat sink A

Rth q T (s = 4.6 mm)

2.0 Heat sink D

Thermal Resistance, Rth (K/W)

(s = 14.2 mm)

1.8
where UR, Uq, and UT are uncertainties of the thermal resistance,
the net heat transfer rate, and the temperature difference between 1.6
the heat sink base and the ambient fluid, respectively.
1.4
To accurately estimate the net heat transfer rate from the heater to
1.2
the heat sink (qtotal), it is necessary to correct the input power for
heat losses on the bottom and side surfaces of the heat sink 1.0
assembly as shown in Eq. (3). For these corrections, the heat loss
by convection was calculated by using correlations proposed by 0.8

Fujii and Imura [25] and by Churchill and Chu [26], and the heat 0.6
loss by radiation (qrad) was calculated using Eq. (4).
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
qtotal qin qloss qin qconv qrad (3) Inclination Angle, (Deg)

(a) Thermal resistances according to s and (H = 50 mm)

qrad L W Tsur
4

Tamb
4
(4)
2.8

where is Stefan-Boltzmann constant, is the emissivity, and

Experimental Modified Previous
2.6 Data Correlation [27]

Tsur is the bottom surface temperature of the heat sink assembly, 2.4 Heat sink E
(H = 25 mm)
respectively. The emissivity is taken to be 0.9. Tsur was measured
Thermal Resistance, Rth (K/W)
2.2 Heat sink F
by the IR camera as shown in Fig. 1(a). 2.0
(H = 75 mm)

Effect of the Inclination Angle 1.8

1.6
Figure 2 presents the experimental data for the thermal resistance
according to fin spacing and fin height as well as the inclination 1.4
angle, together with a modified version of a previous correlation 1.2
suggested by Bar-Cohen et al. [27]. The modified correlation for 1.0
the thermal resistance of the plate-fin heat sink is obtained
0.8
through the replacement of g by gcos and can be expressed by
0.6
the following equation:
0.4
1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Rth (11)
Inclination Angle, (Deg)
h fin Afin hbase Abase
(b) Thermal resistances according to h and (s = 10.2 mm)
where , hfin, hbase, Afin, and Abase are fin efficiency, fin heat
transfer coefficient, base heat transfer coefficient, fin surface area, Figure 2. Comparison of the present experimental results and the
and area of the base without fins, respectively. On the assumption modified version of a previous correlation suggested by Bar-
that heat transfer from the fin tip is negligible, these parameters Cohen et al. [27] (qin = 20 W)
are given as
As shown in Fig. 2(a), for a large fin spacing (s = 14.2mm), the
modified correlation is in close agreement with the experimental
2h fin 2h fin
tanh H H (12) results within the range of 0o 60o. On the other hand, when
k fint k fint the inclination angle is larger than 60o, the thermal resistance

results obtained from the modified correlation significantly
hbase Nubase k f L overestimates those obtained from the experimental data. This is
(13) because the modified correlation expressed as Eq. (11) is derived
h fin Nu fin k f s on the assumption that the inflow from the open front edge of the
interfin channel is negligible. However, the presence of the heat
Abase L W n fin s sink base along on edge of the parallel-plate channel, which is in
(14) contrast with the open edge at the tip of the fins, introduces an
Afin 2n fin LH inherent asymmetry in the flow field. The resulting three-
dimensional flow pattern generally involves some inflow from
Nubase 0.59 RaL cos
1/4
(15) the open edge. For a large fin spacing and small inclination angle,
the effect of the inflow from the open front edge on the thermal
1 2 performance of the plate-fin heat sink is negligible. As the
576 2.873 inclination angle increases, this influence can no longer be
Nu fin (16)
El cos El cos
2 12 neglected since the heat transfer by the inflow from the open
edge at the tip of the fins is relatively dominant, as compared
with that by the flow induced from the heat sink inlet. In the case
g Tw Tamb Pr L3 of a small fin spacing (s = 4.6 mm), the thermal resistance results
RaL (17)
2 found by using the modified correlation significantly deviate
from the experimentally obtained thermal resistance data for the
g Tw Tamb Pr s 4 entire inclination angle. On the basis of the results, heat transfer
El (18) enhancement by inflow from the open edge at the tip of the fins
L 2 should be taken into account for the natural convective heat sink
with small fin spacing regardless of the inclination angle. Figure where El is the corrected Elenbaas number given by
2(b) depicts the thermal resistance results with respect to fin
2
height and inclination angle under constant fin spacing. Due to 4.447 H
0.6507
L
0.2812
the aforementioned reason, the deviation between the El El 1 (23)
experimental and correlation results for the thermal resistance
2 124.3 s s
increases as either fin height or inclination angle increases.
Consequently, for relatively small fin spacing with long and high where is the inclination angle of the heat sink base plate with
fins and a large inclination angle, the inflow from the open edge the vertical orientation and its unit is radians. By substituting Eqs.
at the tip of the fins may result in a significant decrease in the air (12), (14), (20), and (22) into Eq. (11), a thermal resistance
temperature between the fins, and it may dramatically alter the correlation considering the inflow effect can be expressed as
thermal performance of such heat sinks.

1
Afin 3.5 1 3.5
0.09112El 0.6822 0.5170El 0.2813
3.5

Thermal Resistance Correlation 1 s

Rth
kf Abase

1/4
In this study, to accurately predict the thermal performance of a
0.56 Ra cos

L
natural convective heat sink with plate-fins according to its L
geometry and inclination angle, a thermal resistance correlation for 0 85
that considers the inflow effect is suggested. The thermal

1
Afin 3.5 1 3.5
0.09112El 0.6822 0.5170El 0.2813
3.5
resistance of a heat sink is defined as Eq. (3). For the plate-fin (24)
heat sink, the net heat transfer rate can be approximated by 1 s
Rth
kf Abase 1/5

qtotal n fin q fin hbase Abase Tw Tamb 0.58 Ra
(19) L
L

for 85 90
where qtotal, nfin, and qfin are the total heat transfer rate removed
from a heat sink, the total number of fins, the heat transfer rate All the fluid properties are evaluated at the film temperature
from a single fin, and the heat sink base-to-ambient temperature defined as the average temperature of the heat sink base and the
difference, respectively, and the area of the base without the fins, ambient fluid. In Fig. 3, it is shown that the correlation
Abase is given in Eq. (14). The heat transfer coefficient along the corresponds to experimental results within 10%, which means
exposed area of the heat sink hbase is calculated from the Nusselt that this correlation can be used to determine the thermal
number correlation for the vertical, inclined, and horizontal plate resistance of the plate-fin heat sink for the wide range of fin
facing downward, as presented by Fujii and Imura [25], and is spacings, fin height, and inclination angle facing downward. The
given as present correlation is applicable for El values in the range of 0.5 -
2106, L/s values in the range of 2 80, H/s values in the range
kf
0.56 RaL cos
1/4
for 0 85 of 3 9, and values in the range of 0 90o.
L (20)
hbase
k
0.58 f Ra1/5 for 85 90

L
L 3
Heat sink A
2.5
Heat sink B
By applying the Murray-Gardner assumptions provided in Kern 2 Heat sink C
and Kraus [28], and assuming that the fin tip is insulated, the heat Heat sink D
transfer rate from a single fin can be expressed as 1.5 Heat sink E
Heat sink F
2h fin (21)
Rth,Experiment (K/W)

2h fin
q fin Lk fint Tw Tamb H tanh H 1
k fint k t +10%
fin
where kfin, t, and hfin are the thermal conductivity, thickness of the
fin, and the fin heat transfer coefficient, respectively. In order to
0.5 -10%
obtain the fin heat transfer coefficient for the plate-fin natural
convective heat sink, especially with a vertical orientation, Bar-
Cohen et al. [27] suggested the composite Nusselt number
correlation on the basis of the asymptotic values for the closely
spaced channel condition and the isolated plate limit, as shown in 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Eq. (16). However, these asymptotic values are obtained from the
assumption that there is no inflow from the open front edge
between fin spacings, and hence, the fin Nusselt number or the
fin heat transfer coefficient is underestimated for relatively small
and large fin spacings. Moreover, as the inclination angle
increases, the effect of heat transfer enhancement by the inflow
plays a more important role, as mentioned before. In this work,
the fin heat transfer coefficient that considers the inflow effect
with respect to not only the geometrical configuration of the heat
sink, such as fin spacing and fin height, but also to the inclination
angle, is obtained, on the basis of the present experimental data.
According to Bar-Cohen et al. [27] and Churchill and Usagi [29],
the fin heat transfer coefficient correlation takes the form of
kf 3.5
h fin 0.09112 El 0.6822 0.5170 El 0.2813
s entire range of fin spacings and fin heights as well as inclination
Rth,Correlation (K/W)
Figure 3. Comparison of thermal resistances between the present
experimental data and the proposed correlation
Figures 4 and 5 show the comparison between the prediction
results obtained by using the proposed correlation and the
corresponding experimental results for the thermal resistance,
together with the previous correlation results under fixed fin
height and fixed fin spacing, respectively. As fin spacing
decreases and the fin height and inclination angle facing
downward increase, the previous correlation results from Bar-
Cohen et al. [27] largely deviate from the present experimental
results for the thermal resistance, as shown in these graphs. On
1 3.5 the other hand, the thermal resistance values based on the
3.5
(22) proposed correlation well predict the experimental data for the
 2.6 Bar-Cohen et al. [27]
angles. This is because the present correlation successfully Experimental Bar-Cohen et al. Present
q in
includes the effect of heat transfer enhancement by the inflow 2.4
Data [27] Correlation

from the open edge at the tip of the fins, which is accomplished 20 W
2.2
by varying the heat sink geometry and the inclination angle.

Thermal Resistance, Rth (K/W)

36 W
2.0
50 W
1.8
3.0 Experimental Bar-Cohen et al. Present Bar-Cohen et al. [27] 70 W
q in
Data [27] Correlation
1.6
2.8
20 W

2.6 1.4
36 W
2.4 1.2
Thermal Resistance, Rth (K/W)

50 W
2.2
1.0
2.0 70 W Present Correlation
0.8
1.8

1.6 0.6
Present Correlation 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
1.4
Inclination Angle, (Deg)
1.2

1.0 (a) Heat sink E (H = 25 mm)

1.6 Bar-Cohen et al. [27]
0.8
Experimental Bar-Cohen et al. Present
q in
Data [27] Correlation
0.6
1.4 20 W
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Thermal Resistance, Rth (K/W)

Inclination Angle, (Deg) 36 W

1.2 50 W
(a) Heat sink A (s = 4.6 mm)
70 W
Experimental Bar-Cohen et al. Present Bar-Cohen et al. [27]
q in
Data [27] Correlation 1.0
2.0 20 W

0.8
1.8 36 W
Thermal Resistance, Rth (K/W)

50 W
1.6
0.6
70 W Present Correlation
1.4
0.4
1.2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Inclination Angle, (Deg)
1.0
(b) Heat sink C (H = 50 mm)
0.8
Bar-Cohen et al. [27]
Experimental Bar-Cohen et al. Present
q in
0.6 1.2 Data [27] Correlation
Present Correlation
20 W
0.4
Thermal Resistance, Rth (K/W)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 36 W
1.0
Inclination Angle, (Deg) 50 W

(b) Heat sink C (s = 6.6 mm) 70 W

0.8
Experimental Bar-Cohen et al. Present
q in
Data [27] Correlation Bar-Cohen et al. [27]

1.4 20 W
0.6
36 W
Thermal Resistance, Rth (K/W)

1.2 50 W
0.4
Present Correlation
70 W

1.0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Inclination Angle, (Deg)

0.8 (c) Heat sink F (H = 75 mm)

Figure 5. Experimental results for thermal resistances according
Present Correlation
to inclination angle and fin height at the given fin spacing (s =
0.6
10.2 mm)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 In addition, two limiting cases are considered for validating the

Inclination Angle, (Deg) present correlation: the vertical orientation and the horizontal
orientation facing downward. If the inclination angle reaches zero,
(c) Heat sink D (s = 14.2 mm) the corrected Elenbaas number El given in Eq. (23) is equal to
Figure 4. Experimental results for thermal resistances according the Elenbaas number El. In Fig. 6(a), the thermal resistance for
to inclination angle and fin spacing at the given fin height (H = the heat sink with vertical orientation obtained from the present
50 mm) correlation is compared with that obtained from the experimental
results according to the fin spacing. In this case, the thermal
resistance correlation is exactly same as the correlation for the On the other hand, Dayans correlation [30] based on the
natural convective heat sink with vertically oriented plate-fins, analytical solution that applies the integral method not only
which was recently reported by our group [24], and can deviates from the experimental results but also cannot evaluate
accurately evaluate the thermal performance of the natural the optimal fin spacing because the prediction results
convective heat sink with vertical orientation in the wide range of monotonically decrease with decreasing fin spacing. This
fin spacings. Figure 6(b) represents the comparison of the deviation can be attributed to the assumption that the boundary
thermal resistance for the heat sink among the experimental data, layer, excluding the surface edge neighborhood, is entirely
the present correlation, and a closed form correlation proposed by outside the rectangular fin arrays. It only covers the moderate fin
Dayan et al. [30], when the inclination angle approaches 90o. spacing and limited fin height. Therefore, the present correlation
According to the results obtained from the present correlation in precisely estimates the thermal resistance of the heat sink for the
Fig. 6(b), the thermal resistance for qin = 50 W decreases at a two limiting cases.
small fin spacing and tends to increase smoothly thereafter. Also,
the optimum fin spacing corresponding to thermal resistance is Consequently, the proposed correlation of the thermal resistance
about 10.5 mm; this value is 0.804 K/W. The reason for the for the natural convective heat sink with the inclination angle in
existence of the optimal fin spacing can be explained as follows. the present work predicts well over a wide range of parameter
When fin spacing is large, the increase in flow rate induced by values, as compared with previous suggested correlations [27,30].
the buoyancy force leads to a reduction in the thermal resistance Furthermore, this correlation could be utilized for designing,
of the heat sink. However, with decreasing fin spacing, the analyzing, and optimizing the thermal performance of natural
pressure drop between plate-fins substantially increases although convective heat sinks to function as a passive cooling system for
the apparent heat transfer area increases, following which the a high CPV module.
thermal resistance also increases. Hence, there exists an optimum
condition at moderate fin spacing because of two competing Conclusion
phenomena, and the present correlation accurately predicts the On the basis of the extensive experimental data, we have
experimental results within a relative error of 5%. proposed a general correlation for estimating the thermal
performance of a natural convective heat sink with respect to heat
sink geometries, input power, and the inclination angle for CPV
2.0
q in
Experimental
Eq. (24) ( = 0 o ) module cooling. It was clearly shown that the proposed
Data
correlation remarkably estimates the effects of inclination angle
1.8 36 W
and fin spacing on the thermal performance of the natural
50 W convective heat sink with plate-fins, as compared with previous
Thermal Resistance, Rth (K/W)

1.6
correlations. In addition, we have investigated that optimal fin
1.4 spacing is highly dependent on the inclination angle and
temperature difference for a specific geometry. Therefore, it is
1.2 shown that the proposed general correlation can provide useful
insights into the design of such types of heat sinks for CPV
1.0 module cooling.
0.8
Acknowledgment
0.6 This work was supported by the principal research programs of
the Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials (KIMM) of
0.4
Republic of Korea and the Korea Research Foundation Grant by
10 100
the Korean Government..
Fin Spacing, s (mm)

(a) Vertical orientation (H = 50 mm) References

1.15
Experimental Dayan et al.
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23 rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Experimental Study of the Airflow Rate in a Fin-tube Heat Exchanger for a
Heat Pump under Frosting Conditions
H.Y. Ye1 , J.S. Park1 and K.S. Lee1,*
1
School of Mechanical Engineering
Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Sungdong -gu, Seoul 133 -791, Republic of Korea
*
Corresponding author, ksleehy@hanyang.ac.kr
Abstract
In this study, changes in the airflow rate of a fin-tube heat
exchanger for a heat pump under frosting conditions were
analyzed. The variation in the air-side flow rate and pressure drop
was measured with respect to various operating parameters,
including the initial air velocity, air temperature, tube-wall
temperature, and absolute humidity.
Nomenclature
P Pressure [Pa]
x Distance [m]
Dynamic viscosity[kgs/m2]
K Permeability
ua Air velocity [m/s]
Density [kg/m3]
C Inertia drag factor
B.R. Blocking Ratio
Introduction
The frost layer that forms on a heat exchanger at temperatures
below 0 not only acts as a thermal insulator between the
cooling surface and the surrounding humid air but also
significantly reduces the thermal performance o f the device
because the air channel becomes smaller, and hence a greater
pressure drop is generated. When designing a heat exchanger, its
performance under frosting conditions should be analyzed to
delay performance reduction and increase the operating
efficiency. There fore, the development of a model for predicting
the performance of a heat exchanger under frosting conditions is
essential for handling the aforementioned problems.
Lee et al. [1] used the similarity of heat and mass transfer and
defined the log-mean temperature difference between the air and
refrigerant, including sensible and latent mo mentum o f heat
transfer, to calculate the thermal performance of a heat exchanger
under frosting conditions. In their model, the frost layer was
described by a modified diffusion equation for predicting frost-
layer growth and an energy equation for evaluating the heat
transfer inside the layer [2]. Yang et al. [3] obtained heat transfer
coefficient correlations of cold plate and cylinder surfaces under
frosting conditions and proposed a mathematical model to
evaluate the frosting behavior of a fin-tube heat exchanger under
frosting conditions. In their model, a blocking ratio (which
represents the extent of the airflow blockage between the fins of a
heat exchanger) was used for predicting the airflow rate with
respect to frosting time. However, their model was based on heat
exchangers for refrigerators, and the fin space of a heat
exchanger for a refrigerator is much larger than that of a heat
exchanger for a heat pump. Therefore, it is not appropriate to
apply their model to heat exchangers for heat pumps.
Padhmanabhan et al. [4] proposed a semi-e mpirical model that
predicted non-uniform frost growth on a heat exchanger. In their
model, an undesirable air distribution due to frost non-uniformity
was handled with an air redistribution algorithm. However, they
assumed a constant airflow rate with respect to frosting time, and
thus their model cannot predict the performance reduction that
accompanies airflow reduction due to frost growth. Most
previous researchers have either neglected the changes in the
airflow during the frost-formation process or restricted their
attention to heat exchangers with certain shapes under specific
operating conditions. Therefore, to predict the perfor mance of a
fin-tube heat exchanger for a heat pump under frosting conditions,
it is essential to develop a model that can predict the changes in
the airflow during the frost-formation process.
In this study, the changes in the airflow rate of a fin-tube heat
exchanger for a heat pump under frosting conditions were
analyzed. The variation in the air-side flow rate and pressure drop
was measured with respect to various operating parameters,
including the initial air velocity, air temperature, tube-wall
temperature, and absolute humidity. The relationship between the
airflow rate and the pressure drop during the frost-formation
process was analyzed with respect to various operating
parameters.
Experiments
Fig. 1 shows the setup used in the experiments. The setup
consisted of a test section (where the fin-tube heat exchanger was
installed), a climate chamber (to maintain constant air
temperature and humidity), a recirculation section (to connect the
other components and act as an air pathway), and a refrigeration
section (to regulate the temperature and flow rate of the
refrigerant for the frosting-condition experiments). Each part of
the experimental apparatus could be controlled independently. A
solution of ethylene glycol with a 1:1 weight ratio was used as
the refrigerant.
A fin-tube heat exchanger with two rows and 18 fins per inch (a
widely used configuration for heat pumps) was used in the
experiment. The geometric parameters of the tubes and fins are
given in Table 1. The refrigerant circuit of the heat exchanger
had a Z-type configuration to maintain a uniform temperature in
the first and second rows. The refrigerant circuit and the position
of the blocking ratio measurement point are shown in Fig. 2. The
blocking ratio during the frosting process was captured using a
borescope with an outer diameter of 4 mm and a view angle of
90, and the image was transmitted to a computer by a CCD
camera. In the early stage of the experiment (within 23 minutes),
Fig. 1 Diagram of the experimental apparatus

a large temperature difference developed between the refrigerant- Fig. 2 Diagram of the experimental fin-tube heat exchanger
side inlet and outlet due to the thermal inertia of the heat
exchanger, and the frost growth was non-uniform. Therefore, the
frost thickness was measured at five points around and between The second term on the right-hand side of Eq. (1) is proportional
the tubes, and the thickness was averaged over the total frontal
to the square of the air velocity and represents the pressure drop
area. The frost thickness was measured in pixels, using the
due to inertial effects. Under the experimental conditions, the
Vision program from National Instruments. The blocked area and
Reynolds number for the fastest air velocity is 4,650, which is
total area were calculated by Visions particle-analysis function. much s maller than the critical Reynolds number (500,000).
The energy balance between the air side and the refrigerant side
Therefore, a laminar flow through the heat exchanger can be
satisfied the ASHRAE standard 3378 [5] except in the early
assumed, and inertial effects can be neglected. The pressure drop
stages of the experiment, when thermal inertia affected the data.
through the heat exchanger can then be simplified as follows:
Before the experiment, the air and refrigerant were recirculated
for over 30 minutes to minimize the thermal inertia effect of the
acrylic wall in the test section and the refrigerant pipes.
dP
ua (2)
dx K
Results and discussion
In this section, the changes in the airflow rate are analyzed with
Here the reciprocal of the permeability (1/K) is the airflow
respect to various operating parameters. The operating conditions
resistance. The airflow resistance increases with decreasing flow
were based on those of the heat pump, and are listed in Table 2.
area due to frost growth, and hence the permeability is affected
The air-side flow rate, pressure drop, and blocking ratio were
by the blocking ratio.
me asured during the frost-formation process.
In Fig. 4, the reciprocal of the permeability with respect to the
A fin-tube heat exchanger for a heat pump can be modeled as a blocking ratio is shown for different air temperatures (5, 7, and
porous medium, as the fins are very densely spaced, and the
11 ). The absolute air humidity was maintained at a constant
structure is repeated periodically in the airflow direction. The
value. As this figure indicates, the reciprocal of the permeability
pressure drop within a porous medium can be calculated using
(1/K) increased with increasing air temperature for a given
the DarcyForchheimer equation [6], which incorporates inertial blocking ratio. The blocking effect of the frost layer on the flow
and viscous effects: is greater at higher frost density because the frost layer is a
porous structure. Therefore, the reciprocal of the per meability
was higher at higher air temperatures because the frost density
dP 1 2 increased at higher air temperatures.
u a Cu a (1)
dx K 2
In Fig. 5, the reciprocal of the permeability with respect to the
blocking ratio is shown for different tube-wall temperatures (-7, -
11, and -15 ). A s this figure indicates, the reciprocal of the
The first term on the right-hand side of Eq. (1) is proportional to permeability (1/K) increased with increasing tube-wall
the air velocity and represents the pressure drop due to viscosity.

Geometric parameter Values Geometric parameter Values

Number of depth rows 2 Tube diameter 7 mm
Number of tubes per row 8 Fin thickness 0.12 mm
Transverse tube pitch 20.7 mm Fin space 1.41 mm
Longitudinal tube pitch 13 mm Fin type Plane fin
Tube length 150 mm Tube arrangement Stagger
Table 1. Configuration parameters of the heat exchanger
 Conditions Va Ta Tw Wa
5
[m/s] [ ] [ ] [kg/kg] 6x10 Baseline
Baseline 2 7 -11 0.00434 Low air temperature
5 High air temperature
Low initial air velocity 1.5 7 -11 0.00434 5x10
High initial air velocity 2.5 7 -11 0.00434
5
Low air temperature 2 11 -11 0.00434 4x10
High air temperature 2 5 -11 0.00434

1/K
Low wall temperature 2 7 -15 0.00434 5
3x10
High wall temperature 2 7 -7 0.00434
Low air humidity 2 7 -11 0.00371 5
2x10
High air humidity 2 7 -11 0.00496
5
1x10
Table 2. Experimental conditions

temperature for a given blocking ratio. Denser frost develops at
higher tube-wall temperatures; this phenomenon is similar to the
influence of air temperature. However, the effect o f air
temperature o n the reciprocal of the permeability is much greater
than that of tube-wall temperature because air temperature has a
greater effect on frost density than tube-wall temperature has.
According to the experimental correlation of Mao et al. [7], the
frost density is 22% higher (lower) with a 4 increase (decrease)
in air temperature. On the other hand, the density of frost is
increased by 22% for increasing the cooling surface temperature
of 4 , but decreased by 10% for increasing the cooling surface
temperature of 4 . Therefore, the i mpact of tube-wall
temperature on frost density is small compared with the impact of
air temperature. As a result, the impact of air temperature on the
reciprocal of the permeability is greater than the impact of tube-
wall temperature.
In Fig. 6, the reciprocal of the permeability with respect to the
blocking ratio is shown for different absolute air humidities
(0.00371, 0.00434, and 0.00496 kg/kg). As this figure indicates,
the impact of air absolute humidity on the reciprocal of the
permeability is small compared with the impact of air and tube-
wall temperature. According to the experimental correlation of
Mao et al. [7], the frost density is changed by 56% with a 10%
increase or decrease in the relative air humidity at an air
temperature of 7 . Therefore, the impact of absolute air humidity
is much smaller than that of the other operating parameters.
20 40 60 80 100
BR
Fig. 4 The reciprocal of the permeability with respect to the
blocking ratio for various air temperatures (5, 7, and 11 )
Conclusions
In this study, changes in the airflow rate and pressure drop of a
fin-tube heat exchanger for a heat pump were analyzed under
frosting conditions. The variation in the air-side flow rate and
pressure drop was measured with respect to various operating
parameters, including the initial air velocity, air temperature,
tube-wall temperature, and absolute humidity. The following
conclusions can be drawn from the experiments:
1. The pressure drop through a heat exchanger for a heat pump
can be simplified according to Darcys law, as the airflow within
the heat exchanger is laminar under heat pump operating
conditions.
2. The reciprocal of the permeability (1/K) in Darcys law, which
represents the airflow resistance, is determined by the blocking
ratio and the density of the frost layer.
3. The operating parameters influence the air flow resistance (1/K)
in the following order of importance: air temperature, tube-wall
temperature, and air humidity. The effect of air humidity is very
small.

0.07
Baseline 5
Low initial air velocity 6x10 Baseline
0.06
High initial air velocity Low tube wall temperature
5 High tube wall temperature
5x10
0.05
5
4x10
Qa [m3 /s]

0.04
1/K

5
3x10
0.03
5
2x10
0.02
5
1x10
0.01
0 50 100 150 200
20 40 60 80 100
P [Pa]
BR
Fig. 3 P Q curve of the fin-tube heat exchanger under frosting
Fig. 5 The reciprocal of t h e permeability with respect to the
conditions
blocking ratio for various tube-wall temperatures (-7, -11, and -
15 )
 References
5
6x10 Baseline
Low air humidity
[1] Lee, T.H., Lee , K.S. and Kim, W.S., An Analysis for
5 High air humidity Predicting the Thermal Performance o f Fin- Tube Heat
5x10
Exchanger under Frosting Condition, Korean Journal of Air-
5
Conditioning and Refrigeration Engineering, 8, 1996, 299
4x10 306.
[2] Lee K.S., Kim W. S. and Lee T.H., A One-Dimensional
1/K

5
3x10
Model for Frost Formation on a Cold Flat Surface,
5 International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 18, 1997,
2x10
4359-4365.
5
1x10 [3] Yang, D.K., Lee K.S. and Song S., Modeling for predicting
frosting behavior of a fin-tube heat exchanger, International
Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 49, 2006, 1472-1479.
20 40 60 80 100
[4] Padhmanabhan, S.K., Fisher D.E, Cremaschi L. and
BR
Moallem E., Modeling Non-uniform Frost Growth on a Fin-
Fig. 6 The reciprocal of the permeability with respect to the and-tube Heat Exchanger, International Journal of
blocking ratio for various absolute air humidities (0.00371, Refrigeration, 34, 2011, 2018~2030.
0.00434, and 0.00496 kg/kg)
[5] ASHRAE Standard 3378, Method of Testing Forced
Circulation Air Cooling and Air Heating Coils, American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, 1978.
Acknowledgments
[6] Ward C. J., Turbulent Flow in Porous Media, Hydraul. Div.,
This work was supported by the Energy Efficiency & Resources Proceeding of the American Society of the Civil Engineers,
of the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and ASCE, 5, 1964, 1-11.
Planning (2010T100200475) grant funded by the Korea
government Ministry of Knowledge Economy. [7] Mao, Y., Besant, R.W. and Rezkallah, K.S., Measurement
and Correlations of Frost Properties with Airflow over a Flat
Plate, ASHRAE Transactions, 98, 1992, 65-78
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Experimental Study on the Flow Characteristics around the Header of Plate-

Fin Heat Exchanger
T.S. Jeong1, S.H. Lee1, X.C. Tu1 and H.B. Kim1, 2
1
School of Mechanical Engineering
Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 660-701, Korea
2
Reaserch Center for Aircraft Parts Technology
Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 660-701, Korea

Abstract region to improve the fluid distribution to the heat exchangers.

The quantitative and qualitative flow visualization in the header
configuration of plate-fin heat exchanger was experimentally
performed. The experimental model of plate-fin heat exchanger
only has the header part and main heat exchanger was excluded.
The effect of different header angle, 30, 45 and 60,
respectively was investigated. The Reynolds number based on the
hydraulic diameter was 100. Conventional digital particle image
velocimetry was used to measure the instantaneous velocity
fields of the header region and the qualitative flow visualization
using dye injection and hydrogen bubble method were applied to
capture the qualitative flow structure inside and around the
header. The result showed the existence of the separation bubble
behind the header of plate-fin heat exchanger. As the distributor
angles increased, the region of strong momentum fluid moved
from left to right section of the distributor.
Introduction
The plate-fin heat exchangers have been widely used in
aerospace, chemical and mechanical engineering fields. It is a
kind of compact heat exchangers with an excellent performance
in heat energy dissipation. The plate-fin heat exchanger has the
unique advantage than the other heat exchangers. The contact
area of plate-fin heat exchanger in unit volume was four times
larger than spiral type heat exchanger and five times larger than
shell-tube type heat exchanger respectively [1]. In addition, the
plate-fin exchanger could run under multiphase working fluid
condition [2].
Lots of studies to improve the performance of plate-fin heat
exchanger have been carried out and many design parameters
related with the performance were revealed. Wang et al. [3]
carried out a numerical simulation to summarize the effect of fin
arrangement on the heat transfer rate and pressure drop using
CFD analysis. The simulation result demonstrated that the
velocity and temperature for serrated design are more uniform
than that of plain fin case. Peng et al. [4] numerically studied the
heat transfer Colburn factor and friction factor characteristics of
the serrated fin in plate-fin heat exchangers. Park et al. [5]
studied design optimization of vortex generator with plate-fin
heat exchangers using the optimization method. One of the
important parameters affected heat exchanger performance is the
header configuration. The even distribution of working fluid with
the minimal head loss is the critical criterion of good header
configuration.
Many researches were performed to enhance the uniform
distribution of fluid in the heat exchanger numerically or
experimentally. Wen et al. [6] showed the misdistribution of fluid
flow structure in the conventional design of plate-fin exchanger.
And they suggested the additional baffled plate in the header
Lee et al. [7] investigated the effect of different aspect ratio in the
side-entry type distributor and inlet Reynolds number and they
presented the optimised combination of aspect ratio and inlet
Reynolds number. According to the CFD study of the velocity
field in header and tube assemblies under high Reynolds number
condition, Gandhi et al. [8] emphasised the importance in the
design of tube diameter, number of tubes and their detailed
location. Reneaume et al. [9] proposed a numerical method for
the CAD of plate fin heat exchanger for the prediction of the
optimized performance of the heat exchanger system. Zhang et al.
[10] studied a two-stage-distribution structure in the design of
header configuration and shows the improvement of uniformity
of flow distribution. Jiao et al. [11] experimentally studied the
relation among the inlet, first and second headers diameters and
suggested the optimised value.
Most of parametric studies on the header configuration have been
carried out in terms of whole system. The studies about the
header part itself were very few.
In this study, we experimentally investigated the flow
characteristics inside the header configuration of plate-fin heat
exchanger using the quantitative and qualitative flow
visualization method by varying the angle of headers. This study
will give better insight to design the improved header parts of
plate-fin heat exchanger.
Experimental Apparatus and Method
The variation of flow structure inside and around the header part
was investigated by changing the header angle configurations,
30, 45 and 60, respectively. The 1:1 acrylic header models
based on the commercial plate-fin heat exchanger were made.
The height of the distributor was 5 mm. the width of the
distributor inlet and outlet were 50mm and 100mm respectively.
In the distributor, the width of channel is 3 mm, and the height is
5 mm. The models only include the header part and the heat
exchanger part was excluded in this study. Figure 1 shows the
detailed model geometry with the coordinate. The Reynolds
number based on the hydraulic diameter of distributor inlet
section was 100.
Particle image velocimetry (PIV) was used to measure the
instantaneous velocity fields of the distributor. A CCD camera of
1.6k1.2k pixel resolution was used to capture particle images
around the distributor. Two head ND:Yag laser with delay
generator used to grab the particle image. 800 instantaneous
velocity fields were acquired for each experimental condition.
The mean flow properties were calculated using ensemble
average method. Conventional cross-correlation based DPIV
method with window offsetting to increase the spatial resolution
of the instantaneous velocity vectors was applied. The final
interrogation window with 50% overlapping was 1616 pixels.
 (a) Distributor model

(a) PIV method

(b) Channel geometry of distributor

Figure 1. Schematic diagrams of experimental models and its
geometry

Silver coated hollow glass sphere was used for the seeding
particle of PIV measurement.
Qualitative flow visualization was also performed using the dye
injection and hydrogen bubble method. Although qualitative flow
visualization is subjective, it can give the first insight of the fluid
flow and help to understand the complex flow structure.
The dye was injected at the upstream area and passed through the
distributor channel and finally shows the streamline in the elbow
area of distributor region. Food color with white halogen lamp (b) Flow visualization using dye injection
was used. Due to the contamination of working fluid, dye
injection method can be used within short time period. The dye
injection method was used to visualize the flow inside the header.
Especially, the location between the straight channel and inclined
channel was visualized.
The hydrogen bubble method using electrolysis is free to the
contamination problem of dye injection. In addition, hydrogen
bubble method can visualize the time line using the pulsating
signal. Therefore, it can clearly visualize the velocity difference
of fluid flow. Tungsten wire with a diameter of 25 m is used as
negative electrode and hydrogen bubble was generated in this
wire. Aluminium plate was used as an anode and located in front
of the header. The tungsten wire was installed along the spanwise
direction at the inlet of the distributor. We added sodium sulfate
as an electrolyte. DC power supply with pulse generator was used
to make the time line of hydrogen bubble. The outlet of header
was visualized using the hydrogen bubble and we clearly saw the
velocity difference at the outlet and the spanwise flow motion
was also visualized. In this method, He-Ne laser was used for the
light source. All visualization images were grabbed using the
digital video camera.
Figure 2 shows the experimental apparatus of quantitative and (c) Flow visualization using hydrogen bubble method
qualitative flow visualization. Figure 2. Schematics of experimental apparatus
Results and Discussions
The mean velocity vector fields inside the distributor with different
distribution angles were measured by using conventional PIV
method. Figure 3 shows the velocity vectors with the speed contour
as the background color when the Reynolds number was 100.
Uniform distribution of fluid is important to improve the heat
exchanger performance and the results clearly show the change of
fluid distribution along the different angle of distributor. When the
angle is small, the fluid has the strong momentum at the left part
and as the angle increases, the strong momentum region moves to
the right part.
The qualitative results of the flow structure in the distributors were
presented using dye injection and hydrogen bubble method as
shown in Figure 4 and 5. Figure 4 is the dye injection image and it
showed the complex flow patterns at the connector region. It
showed the existence of separation bubbles at the left wall of
inclined channel.
In case of 30 angle, the connection between the straight channels
and the inclined channels are well matched. On the other hand, the
distributors of 45 and 60 angle have the mismatched connections.
This makes the different channel flow fields among the channels.
This is the same results shown at Figure 3. The speed inside the (b) Model 2
inclined channel of 30 angle became smaller as the inclined
channel length became larger. However, in cases of 45 and 60
angle, the flow speed inside the inclined channel shows random
distribution. We believe this is due to the mismatch of channel at
the connection region.
Figure 5 presented the flow visualization at the outlet region of
distributor model using hydrogen bubble method. Because of the
exact same time of bubble generation using the timing control.
Hydrogen bubble method can visualize the time line. From the
figure, we can confirm the PIV results of Figure 3. The left part of
30 angle has the faster flow and as the angle increases, the right
part has the faster flow region. The hydrogen bubble visualization
also shows the strong spanwise velocity component when the angle
is smaller. This means that the 30 angle model takes longer
distance to achieve the uniform distribution of fluid. One distinct
characteristic is the existence of separation bubble at the left wall
region at the outlet of the header. The size of bubble became bigger
as the angle became smaller. This bubble can contribute the head
loss of the header part.

(c) Model 3
Figure 3. Averaged velocity fields comparison among the
distributors

Conclusions
In this study, we experimentally investigated the flow
characteristics inside of the distributor of a compact plate-fin heat
exchanger by varying the header angle. From the PIV result, as the
header angle increases, the local strong momentum region moves
from left to right location.
(a) Model 1
In case of 30 angle model, the matched connection makes the
similar flow structure at the connection region and other models
show the complex flow due to the mismatched connection parts. In
the outlet region, 30 angle model shows the strong spanwise
direction velocity and larger separation bubble region at the left
wall of outlet. We believe these characteristics make the longer
distance for achieving the flow uniformity.
This study only shows the flow structure variation of header and
after the combination with the heat exchanger part, we can
conclude the effect of this difference of flow structure to the
performance of heat exchanger.

(a) Model 1

(a) Model 1

(b) Model 2

(b) Model 2

(c) Model 3
Figure 5. Flow visualization of distributor outlet using hydrogen
bubble method

(c) Model 3
Figure 4. Channel flow visualization using dye injection method
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Priority Research Centers Program
(2011-0031384), the Pioneer Research Center Program (2012-
0001055) and Basic Science Research Program (2012-008918)
through the National Research Foundation (NRF) of the Republic
of Korea funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and
Technology. The author (T. S. Jeong, S. H. Lee, X. C. Tu) was
financially supported by the BK21 project.

References
[1] The Standard of the Brazed Aluminum Plate-fin Heat
Exchanger Manufacturers Association, ALPEMA, 2000.
[2] Feldman, A., Marvillet, C. and Lebouche M., Nucleate and
Convective Boiling in Plate Fin Heat Exchangers, Heat and
Mass Transfer,43, 2000,3433-3442.
[3] Wang, Y.Q., Dong, Q.W., Liu, M.S. and Wang, D., Numerical
Study on Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers with Plain Fins and
Serrated Fins at Low Reynolds Number, Technol.Chem.Eng.,
32(8), 2009, 1219-1226.
[4] Peng, H. and Ling X., Numerical Modeling and Experimental
Verification of Flow and Heat Transfer over Serrated Fins at
Low Reynolds Number, Experimental Thermal and Fluid
Science, 32, 2008, 1039-1048.
[5] Park, K.W and Choi, D.H., Optimal Design of a Heat
Exchanger with Vortex Generator, Transaction of the KSME,
2004, 1219-1224.
[6] Wen, J., Li, Y.Z., Zhou, A.M. and Ma, Y.S., PIV
Investigations of Flow Patterns in the Entrance Configuration
of Plate-fin Heat Exchanger, Chinese J. Chem, Eng., 14(1),
2006, 15-23.
[7] Lee, E.C., Kang, H., Heo, J.Y., Kim, Y.C., Park, J.H. and Cho,
S.Y., Numerical Study on the Distribution Characteristics of
Aluminum Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers According to the
Distributor Aspect Ratio, Journal of KSME, 35(8), 2011, 805-
814.
[8] Gandhi, M.S., Ganguli, A.A., Joshi, J.B. and Vijayan, P.K.,
CFD Simulation for Stream Distribution in Header and Tube
Assemblies, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 90,
2012, 487-506.
[9] Reneaume, J.M., Pingaud, H., Niclout, N., Optimization of
Plate Fin Heat Exchangers a Continuous Formulation,
Institution of Chemical Engineers Transfer,78, 2000, 849-859.
[10] Zhang, Z. and Li, Y.Z., CFD Simulation on Inlet
Configuration of Plate-Fin Heat Exchangers, Cryogenics, 43,
2003, 673-678.
[11] Jiao, A.J., Zhang, R. and Jeong, S.K., Experimental
Investigation of Header Configuration on Flow
Maldistribution in Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger, Applied Thermal
Engineering, 23, 2003, 1235-1246.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Investigation of the Factors Affecting Aggregation of Submicron Particles

by Brownian Dynamics Simulation

M. Watanabe1
1
Department of Engineering and Applied Sciences
Sophia University, Tokyo 102-8554, Japan

Abstract flow angular velocity vector on the aggregate

The factors affecting the shape of aggregates of submicron
particles are studied by Brownian dynamics simulation, which
considers particleparticle, particlecluster, and clustercluster
aggregation. A Langevin equation that includes fluid resistance,
Brownian force, and external forces is solved for submicron
particles. It is assumed that particles are sphere and that the
drag acts on the particles according to Stokess law. The effect
of slip flow is considered by employing the Cunninghams
correction coefficient. The Brownian force is generated using
random numbers. Concerning aggregates, translational and
rotational motion equations are solved. The Brownian force
acting on the aggregate is calculated as sum of the Brownian
force acting on individual particles composing the aggregate.
The aggregation model deals with all collisions as a perfectly
inelastic collision, so that several aggregates are formed
simultaneously and collisions among multiple aggregates occur.
Aggregate formation in a stationary gas surrounded by reflection
boundaries is simulated. Gas temperature affects the
aggregation shape because the shielding effect of the aggregate
branch changes with change in the probability density
distribution of Brownian force due to an increase in the gas
temperature. The change in the aggregation shape appears to
depend on area size and particle number density. The particles
form a blocky shape in a small area with high particle number
density. In contrast, as the area increases and the particle
number density decreases, the branching of the aggregate
increases. When the wall is periodic boundary, the branch grows
more freely.
Nomenclature
m particle mass
v particle velocity
g gravitational acceleration
Kn Knudsen number
Cc Cunninghams correction coefficient
a particle radius
gas viscosity
FB Brownian force
trelax momentum relaxation time
gas velocity
U
R1, R2 uniform random number
2 variance
V translation velocity of an aggregate
M mass of an aggregate
Np total number of particles including the aggregate
arms square mean value of ri
distance from the center of gravity of the aggregate to
ri
the i-th constituent particle
B Calculation method
Fagg Brownian force acting on the aggregate
R transformation matrix
angular velocity
coordinate system
TRB Brownian Torque
relative displacement vector of the constituent particle
ri
from the center of gravity on spatial coordinate system
Df fractal dimension
B fractal pre-factor
s surface shape factor
v volume shape factor
Introduction
After-treatment technologies to remove particulate matter emitted
from diesel engines, such as a diesel particulate filter (DPF), are
important because reducing soot through improvements in
combustion has limitations. Since pressure loss by DPFs causes
a drop in engine power, DPFs need a high adsorption efficiency
that can help minimize the pressure loss. Furthermore, DPFs
demand a long regeneration cycle, affecting fuel efficiency. For
optimal performance, DPFs need to capture soot uniformly.
Improving DPF performance requires an understanding of the
motion and agglomeration of soot particles. However, it is
difficult to obtain time-series data on soot particle behaviour by
experiments directly, because, the primary soot particle measures
scores of nm in diameter, whereas secondary particles, which are
aggregates of primary particles, are several m across. To
address this difficulty, some researchers have conducted
numerical simulations of soot particle motion and their resultant
aggregation on a wall. Sbrizzai et al. and Bensaid et al. [1][3]
calculated the flow in a microchannel and a porous wall of a DPF
using computational fluid dynamics to investigate particle motion
and their deposition position. Similarly, Yamamoto et al. [4]
simulated the flow through a porous filter, whose detailed
structure was obtained using three-dimensional CT images.
Although many numerical studies on soot deposition exist,
almost all studies calculated a single soot particle or the soot
concentration, and ignored the shape of the deposited soot
particles.
To account for the effects of soot structure, some studies include
simulated Brownian force [5], [6]. However, these
investigations have largely been over simplifications and
equations that account for aggregate translation and rotation as
well as momentum exchange when particleparticle, particle
aggregate, or aggregateaggregate collisions occur has not been
solved simultaneously. Therefore, this study conducts
Brownian dynamics simulation that considers aggregate motion,
collision, and agglomeration, and investigates the factors
affecting the shape of aggregates.
Langevin equation
Langevin equation is a motion equation applicable to Brownian z
particles. In this equation, random motion caused by collisions
between a particle and fluid molecules is expressed as the
Brownian force generated using random numbers. The
~
z
Langevin equation is expressed as [7]

dv m
m = mg v + FB (1)
dt CC
~
y
CC = 1
(2)
+ Kn{1.142 + 0.058 exp( 0.999 / Kn )}

where m is the particle mass, v is the particle velocity, g is

gravitational acceleration, m is the friction coefficient, Kn is ~
x
the Knudsen number, and Cc is the Cunninghams correction
coefficient. It is assumed that the particle is sphere and that
drag acts on the particle according to Stokess law. The friction
y
coefficient is given as

m = 6a (3) x
where a is the particle radius and is the gas viscosity. The
Brownian force, FB, satisfies the following equations when k is Figure 1. Spatial coordinate system and aggregation coordinate
the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature, is the Diracs system.
function, and angle brackets show the mean value:

FB = 0 (4)
V=
CC B
M
(
Fagg + Mg + U ) (10)

F B (t ) F B (t ) = 6m * kT (t t )
Np
(5) M = mi (11)
i =1

where * = C C .
M = 6a rms (12)
In simulation of Brownian dynamics, the acceleration term
mdv/dt is negligible because the time step is sufficiently larger
than the momentum relaxation time ( t relax = 1 * = mC C 6a ). 1 Np

Therefore, the motion equation of particle is expressed as

a rms =
Np
ri 2 (13)
i =1
follows:
dv m
m m = mg v + FB (14)
mg v + FB = 0 (6) dt CC
CC
where the subscript i indicates the i-th particle, M is the mass of
The velocity of Brownian particle is expressed as the aggregate, Np is the total number of particles including the
aggregate, arms is the square mean value of ri, ri is the distance
v=
CC B
m
(
F + mg ) (7) from the center of gravity of the aggregate to the i-th constituent
B
particle, and Fagg is the Brownian force acting on the aggregate.
When gas flows with the velocity U, Brownian particle velocity The Cunninghams correction term is calculated using arms.
is obtained as To describe the rotational motion of aggregates, a coordinate that
is fixed on the aggregate and whose origin agrees with the center
v=
CC B
m
(
F + mg + U ) (8)
of gravity of the aggregate is used. In this study, a coordinate
fixed on space is called spatial coordinate system ( O xyz ) and
a coordinate fixed on an aggregate is called aggregate coordinate
The random force is expressed by the BoxMuller method when system ( G ~ x~
y~
z ) (Figure 1). The three axes of aggregate
uniform random numbers are R1 and R2, and is given as
coordinate system are chosen so that they agree with the main
inertia axes. When O agrees with G and Euler angles ( , , )
(
F B = 2 2 ln R1 )
12
cos 2R2 (9) can be determined as shown in Figure2, the transformation
matrix, R, from O xyz to G ~ x~
y~
z is expressed as follows:
where 2 is variance given by 2 = 2mkT t . In this study,
Mersenne twister (MT19937) is employed as a random number cos cos cos sin sin cos sin + cos cos sin sin sin
generator.
R = sin cos cos sin cos sin sin + cos cos cos cos sin
sin sin sin cos cos
Motion equation of aggregate
(15)
The translation velocity of an aggregate, V, is expressed as
 z, z aggregates move until the next Brownian force acts and the
calculation returns to step 1. Then, a new velocity is calculated.
~
x Calculation condition
z , ~
z The selected Knudsen number was 1.36, on the basis of the
particle radius and mean free path of the air at atmospheric
~
y condition. The ratio of particles to fluid was 7.72 102. The
fluid viscosity measured at atmospheric pressure and
y temperatures of 473, 573, and 873 K. The number of particles
(N) in the calculation area was 500. The time step was 1.0
y 106 s. The three forces acting on the particles were Brownian
force, gravity, and drag that is based on Stokes law. The
probability density distributions of the random force are shown in
Figure 3. The width of each distribution extends and the peak
x x, x decreases with increases in fluid temperature. The calculation
was conducted 20 times. Their results were averaged.

Results and Discussion

Aggregation in static gas was investigated with a reflection
boundary in all directions. The calculation area was a cube with
varying dimensions, with a side of 20, 30, 40, 60, and 80D. The
number of particles was constant, allowing comparison of the
final shape of the aggregate. The number density was varied by
changing the calculation area size.
Figure 2. Euler angles and rotation of coordinate axis.
Figure 4 shows spatial distribution of the number of particles at
Similar to the translation motion equation, the angular 473 K. In Figure 4, the horizontal axis shows distance from the
acceleration of an aggregate is negligible. Therefore, the center of gravity of the aggregate and the vertical axis shows a
angular velocity is expressed as number of particles included in spherical shell located in a
distance. The height and position of the peak indicate
CC compactness of aggregates. The width of the distribution relates
= TRB + (16) to aggregate size and length of branches. The width of the
8 a rms
3

distribution expanded and the peak became small and shifted to

where is the flow angular velocity vector on the aggregate the right as the area size increased. It was found that the
aggregate becomes branching as the calculation area expands.
coordinate system and TRB is the Brownian Torque given as
Figure 5 shows fractal dimension of the aggregates formed in
each calculation area. The fractal dimension, Df, is defined as

TRB = R ri FiB (17)
i Df
a
N p = B rms (18)
where ri is the relative displacement vector of the constituent a
particle from the center of gravity on spatial coordinate system.
Aggregation model s
B= (19)
v
In this model, the colliding particles or aggregates are frozen
when they first touch and do not overlap. All particles and
aggregates are treated as a rigid body. It is assumed that there is 0.014
473 K
no destruction of aggregates. Many particles exist in a space
and move simultaneously. All collisions are perfectly inelastic. 0.012 573 K
As a result, several aggregates are formed and collisions among 873 K
probability density

multiple aggregates occur. The algorithm of both the models is 0.01

as follows:
0.008
1. The initial velocity of all single particles and the translation
and rotation velocities of all aggregates are calculated by eqs. (8), 0.006
(10), and (16).
0.004
2. When the first collision occurs before the next Brownian force
acts, all particles and aggregates move until the first collision
0.002
occurs.
3. The new velocity is calculated on the basis of a perfectly 0
inelastic collision in all cases. -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
4. Steps 2 and 3 are repeated until the next collision occurs after Brownian force [10-12 N]
the next Brownian force acts.
Figure 3. Probability density of random force.
5. If the predicted time of the next collision is longer than the
time when the next Brownian force acts, all particles and
 100 1.65
20D reflection
1.60
the number of particles

80 30D periodic
40D 1.55
60
60D

Df
1.50
80D
40
1.45

20 1.40

0 1.35
0.E+00 1.E-06 2.E-06 3.E-06 4.E-06 100 200 300 400 500
0 10 20 30 40
the number of the particles
distance from the center of gravity / D
Figure 6. Fractal dimension of aggregation, which consists of 100,
200, and 500 particles. The boundary condition is a reflection or
Figure 4. Spatial distribution of the number of particles in a periodic.
aggregation, which grows in cubes of various side lengths: 20D,
30D, 40D, 60D, and 80D.
Consequently, the particles collided without any relationship to
1.6 changes in displacement and velocity as a result of changes in
473 K temperature. The Df changed with temperature in other area
sizes because both the particle velocity and the shielding effect
573 K changed with temperature.
1.5
873 K Then, to investigate the effect of the boundaries in detail,
aggregation in static gas was calculated with a reflection or a
periodic boundary. The calculation area was a cube with a side
Df

1.4
1.3
1.2
20 40 60
area size / D
Figure 5. Fractal dimension of aggregation, which grows in cubes
of various side lengths: 20D, 30D, 40D, 60D, and 80D.
where B is the fractal pre-factor, s is the surface shape factor,
and v is the volume shape factor. The Df of a sphere and a disc
are 3 and 2, respectively. Many of the aggregates have a Df in
the range 1.52.5 [8], [9]. The fractal dimension decreased as
the calculation area expanded. The shape and the fractal
dimension changed only slightly in large calculation area.
Although the fractal dimension hardly changed between 60D and
80D, the fractal dimensions of the resultant particle when the area
size was 80D and had a periodic boundary in all directions,
which are Df = 1.25 at 473 K, Df = 1.28 at 573 K, and Df = 1.25
at 873 K, were smaller than that at 80D with the reflection
boundary. This was because while the aggregate orientation
was parallel to the wall at a reflection boundary, the aggregate
orientation was free at a periodic boundary allowing the branch
of the aggregate to grow easily. Similarly, the fractal dimension
decreased as the calculation area expanded. When the
calculation area was small, the particles were crowded and their
orientations were restricted by the reflection wall.
At 20D, changes in temperature had little effect on Df because
the area size was small and particles were crowded.
40D long. The fluid viscosity measured at atmospheric pressure
and temperatures of 573 K. The calculations were performed
with three different numbers of particles: N = 100, 200, and 500.
Other conditions were the same as the calculation mentioned
above. Figure 6 shows the fractal dimension of the aggregate
formed in each condition. When N = 200 and 500, the fractal
dimension with the periodic boundary was smaller than that with
the reflection boundary. This was because, as mentioned above,
80 the periodic boundary allowed the branches of the aggregate to
grow in various directions. On the other hand, the effect of the
boundary condition on the fractal dimension with N = 100 was
different from that with N = 200 and 500. In the case with N =
100 and the reflection boundary, when an aggregate collided with
a wall, the aggregate rotated, its orientation was altered, and other
particles or aggregates easily adhered to the tip of the aggregate.
In contrast, in the case with N = 100 and the periodic boundary,
since the boundary did not cause rotation of the aggregate, other
particles or aggregates approached the trunk of the aggregate
easily.
Conclusions
Aggregate formation in a stationary gas surrounded by reflection
boundaries was simulated. Gas temperature affected the
aggregation shape because the shielding effect of the aggregate
branch changed with the probability density distribution of
Brownian force due to an increase in the gas temperature. The
change in the aggregation shape appeared to depend on area size
and particle number density. The particles formed a blocky
shape in a small area with high particle number density. In
contrast, as the area increased and the particle number density
decreased, the branching of the aggregate increased. When the
number density was small, the branch grew more freely due to
the use of the periodic boundary.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by KAKENHI(22760129).
References
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Numerical Investigation of Particle Deposition in Oscillatory Baffled

Reactors
D. Dewanji, T. S. D. OMahoney, and A. Twerda

Fluid Dynamics, Technical Sciences

TNO, The Netherlands

Abstract
This paper reports the flow characteristics in an Oscillatory
Baffle Reactor (OBR) using Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD). The study includes modeling glass particle-water mix-
ture and sand-water slurry transports at a low oscillating fre-
quency to characterize particle deposition. It is the first numer-
ical study on two-phase flow field for an OBR geometry. The
Eulerian multiphase model with the granular option is used to
simulate the flow field. The selection of this model is based on
the insights obtained from the simulations of sand-water slurry
flow in a non-oscillatory pipeline in which different two-phase
models are separately employed and the results are compared
with the available experimental data. The numerical results for
the slurry flow field of OBR illustrate the developing process of
the volume fraction distributions and mean velocity profiles.
Introduction
An Oscillatory Baffled Reactor (OBR) is a continuous reactor,
which is fitted with equally spaced orifice plate baffles. A main
flow is applied to the reactor, and an oscillatory fluid motion is
imposed on the entire volume of the fluid in the reactor, such
that the interaction of the fluid with the baffle geometry gener-
ates highly effective mixing within each inter baffle cavity, as
well as along the length of the reactor as a whole. A typical
OBR sketch is shown in Fig.1.

Nomenclature

a acceleration
c mass fraction
d diameter
D pipe diameter
f frequency
fdrag drag function
F force Figure 1: A typical OBR geometry
g gravitational acceleration
m mass flow
p pressure OBRs are used in the chemical process and process intensifica-
Reo x0 D , oscillatory Reynolds number tion industry for mixing and reacting of two or more chemical
t time species. For some reactors, catalytic particles are injected to en-
u velocity hance the chemical reactions which take place inside the OBR.
x0 amplitude of oscillation Deposition of these particles on the walls of the reactor can re-
y0 height from pipe center to diameter ratio duce performance and cause problems for cleaning and reactor
Greek symbols reuse. Numerical investigations of OBRs in the past were fo-
volume fraction cused on the complex flow field that develops even for single
dynamic viscosity phase flow at small oscillating Reynolds number (Re0 = 500)
kinematic viscosity [1] and the asymmetry that develops at higher values. At some
p particle relaxation time higher Reynolds numbers, the flow becomes chaotic with the
flow field oscillations displaying period doubling effects [2].
stress-strain tensor
Subscripts In this paper, a numerical study has been carried out to char-
g glass acterize the flow field within an OBR system for a two phase
k phase index flow regime. Nevertheless, before investigating the complex
l liquid OBR flow field, as a first step, sand-water slurry flow trans-
m mixture portation has been studied numerically in a non-oscillatory hor-
p particle, secondary phase izontal pipe used by Skudarnov et al [3]. The CFD study is
q primary phase performed by employing different two-phase models, such as
s sand, solid phase the mixture model or algebraic slip mixture (ASM) model, the
sl slurry basic Eulerian model, and the Eulerian model with the granu-
vm virtual mass lar option. Some previous numerical works [4, 5] for this test
w water setup were carried out by applying only the ASM model while
assuming that viscosity remains constant for the slurry. In the
current study, the influence of various multiphase models on the
solution is illustrated. In addition, a viscosity function is used where F is the body force, p is the pressure, g is the gravita-
to describe the effects of solid volume loading on slurry viscos- tional acceleration, and m is the viscosity of the mixture, which
ity. The computational results are compared with the available is defined as
n
experimental data [3] and the numerical results of Lin et al. [5]. m = (6)
k k
k=1
The CFD study of an OBR has been conducted for sand-water
and glass-water slurry flows at a low oscillation amplitude and In Eqn. 5, the term ud,k refers to the drift velocity for the sec-
frequency. Transient simulation is run using the Eulerian model ondary phase k, which is written as
with the granular option. This model is chosen since it pro- ud,k = uk um (7)
vides an accurate solution for the slurry transport in the non-
oscillatory pipeline. The results demonstrate the developing
process of volume fraction distribution and mean velocity pro- The relative velocity or the slip velocity is defined as the veloc-
files of slurry flow within the OBR. ity of the secondary phase relative to the primary phase:

The paper is structured as follows. In the next section, the uqp = u p uq (8)
mathematical models used in the numerical simulations are de- The relation between the drift velocity and the relative velocity
scribed. This is followed by a detailed description on the geo- is as follows.
n
metrical configurations, grid, boundary conditions, and numer- i i
ud,p = uqp uqi (9)
ical approach. The results for the non-oscillatory pipe and the
i=1 m
OBR are discussed in the subsequent section. Lastly, the major
conclusions are presented. The ASM model implements an algebraic slip formulation for
the relative velocity. The model assumes that a local equilib-
Mathematical Models rium between the phases is reached over a short spatial length
This section briefly describes the various multi-phase models scale. The relative velocity [6] is also written as
that are used to simulate slurry flow through the non-oscillatory p p m
pipe and the OBR. uqp = a (10)
fdrag p

Mixture Model where the particle relaxation time, p , is defined as

The mixture model is used to resolve multiphase flow problems. p d 2p
The model solves the momentum equation and continuity equa- p = (11)
18q
tion for the mixture. Furthermore, it solves particle concentra-
tions from continuity equations for each dispersed phase. An d p is the particle diameter, a is the acceleration of particles,
algebraic expression is used to approximate momentum equa- fdrag refers to the drag function, and p is the particle density.
tions for the dispersed phases.
The RNG k turbulence model [7] is used with different mul-
The continuity equation for the mixture is tiphase models to study the slurry flow transport in the non-
oscillatory pipe, since it is a fully developed turbulent flow.

(m ) + .(m um ) = 0 (1)
t Eulerian Model
where m is the density of the mixture and it is written as The Eulerian model solves momentum and continuity equations
for each phase. Coupling between the phases is implemented
n
through the pressure and interphase exchange coefficients. In
m = k k (2)
this model, the different phases are treated mathematically as
k=1
inter-penetrating continua [8]. In the case of granular flows,
where k is the volume fraction of phase k, k is the density of these equations are closed by application of kinetic theory.
phase k, n is the number of phases, and um is the mass-averaged
mixture velocity, which is defined as The volume fraction for each phase in an n-phase flow is calcu-
lated from the continuity equation
1 n n
!
um = k k uk (3) 1
m k=1 (q q ) + .(q q uq ) = (m pq mqp ) (12)
rq t p=1
In the above equation, mass fraction of phase k becomes
where rq characterizes the volume averaged density of qth
k k phase in the solution domain (phase reference density), q is
ck = (4)
m the volume fraction of phase q, uq is the velocity of phase q,
and m refers to the mass transfer from one phase to the other
By summing up the individual momentum equations for all phase.
phases, the following momentum equation for the mixture is
obtained. The conservation of momentum equation for a fluid phase q in
a fluid-fluid flow is

(m um ) + .(m um um ) = p
t (q q uq ) + .(q q uq uq ) = q p + .q + q q g
h  i t
+. m um + uTm + m g + F n

n
! + (Kpq (u p uq ) + m pq u pq mqp uqp )
p=1
+. k k ud,k ud,k (5)
k=1 +(Fq + Fli f t,q + Fvm,q ) (13)
where q is the stress-strain tensor for qth phase, K pq is the in-
terphase momentum exchange coefficient, u pq is the interphase
velocity, and Fq is an external body force, Fli f t,q is a lift force
and Fvm,q is a virtual mass force for qth phase.
The interphase velocity, u pq , is defined as follows.

1. If the mass of phase p is transferred to phase q, i.e., m pq >

0, u pq = u p .

2. If the mass of phase q is transferred to phase p, i.e., m pq <

0, u pq = uq .

In the present study, there is no mass transfer from one phase

to the other. Nevertheless, the mass transfer terms have to be Figure 2: 3D unstructured grid for the non-oscillatory pipeline
considered for the flow field study that involves vaporization,
melting, solidification and chemical reactions.
Similarly, if mqp > 0, then the interphase velocity uqp = uq and
if mqp < 0, then uqp = u p .

The conservation of momentum equation for the sth solid phase

in a fluid-solid flow is

(s s us ) + .(s s us us ) = s p ps + .s + s s g
t
N
+ (Kls (ul us ) + mls uls msl usl )
l=1
+(Fs + Fli f t,s + Fvm,s ) (14)

where ps is the sth solid phase pressure, Kls is the momentum

exchange coefficient between fluid or solid phase l and solid
phase s, N is the total number of phases, and Fs , Fli f t,s and
Fvm,s are the forces for sth solid phase as defined for Eqn. 13.
In the granular Eulerian model, at least one phase is designated
as a granular phase. Granular phase modeling involves defin-
ing the granular temperature by applying the algebraic model
of Syamlal et al. [8], which accounts for the fluctuating energy
of solids. Granular viscosity and bulk viscosities are modeled
by applying the models of Syamlal et al. and Lun et al. [8],
respectively.
Geometry and Grid
The geometry and the grid description for non-oscillatory hori-
zontal pipe and OBR are as follows.
The length and inner diameter of the horizontal pipeline are
1.4 m and 0.0221 m, respectively. A multi-block unstructured,
non-uniform grid system with hexahedral cells was used to dis-
R
cretize the computational domain. The computational grid for
this pipeline consists of 352, 500 elements.
The OBR geometry consists of an inlet, an outlet, and 13
equally spaced baffles. The length of the reactor is 0.84 m and
its diameter is 0.03 m. The diameter of the baffle orifices is
0.015 m. The axial distance between any two consecutive baf-
fles is 0.045 m, which is 1.5 times the inlet diameter. On the
other hand, the distance between the first baffle and the inlet
and last baffle and outlet is 0.15 m. The computational grid for
the OBR geometry consists of 818, 496 hexahedral elements.
Boundary Conditions
The calculation domain for the non-oscillatory horizontal pipe
is bounded by the inlet boundary, the wall boundary, and the
Figure 3: 3D unstructured grid for the OBR
outlet boundary. The mean velocity inlet and pressure outlet
boundary conditions are applied at the pipe inlet and outlet, re-
spectively. The range of mean velocity of the slurry flow at the
inlet is 1 2.5 ms1 . The volume fraction of sand, s , is 20%.
The densities of water and silica sand are 998.2 kg m3 and
2381 kg m3 , respectively. The mean diameter of sand parti-
cles, ds , is 110 m. Non-slip boundary condition is imposed
on the wall and heat transfer is not considered in the computa-
tion domain. The standard wall function proposed by Launder
and Spalding [7] is used in the near-wall zone. The wall func-
tion is useful to perform an accurate calculation of near-wall
shear stresses for mixture in the algebraic slip mixture model
and for both liquid and solid in the Eulerian model. The tur-
bulence intensity level, I, is set to 4%. A user defined function
(UDF) is used in the Fluent
solver which accounts for the
slurry viscosity and it is a function of the volume fraction of
solid particles. This UDF is constructed by using the viscosity
correlations proposed by Einstein [9] and Guth and Simha [10].
The correlations are as follows.
In the case of low concentration of solid particles ( p < 10%),
the classic Einstein [9] equation is:
r = 1 + 2.5 p (15)
In the case of higher solid concentrations, Guth and Simha [10]
modified the Einstein equation by taking the effect of interac-
tion between solid particles into account:
r = 1 + 2.5 p + 14.12p (16)
where p is the volume concentration of secondary phase p and
r is the relative velocity, which is given as follows. al [3]. The numerical modeling of the sand-water slurry flow
involves the same pipeline geometry, mean velocity, volume
sl
r = (17) loading, sand particle size, and particle density as considered
l

In the above equation, sl and l are the dynamic viscosity of 5000

Slurry mean pressure gradient (Pa/m)

slurry and liquid, respectively. ASM, Ling et al.
Skudarnov et al.
4000 ASM with constant
The wall and outlet boundary conditions applied in the case of ASM with viscosity function
slurry flow simulation for the non-oscillatory pipe are also ap- Euler
3000 Euler granular
plied in the OBR simulations. In addition, a time-varying ve-
locity inlet condition is specified by using a UDF to generate an
oscillatory flow throughout the baffled pipe. The inlet velocity 2000

condition is defined as:

1000
u = 0.004 + x0 sin(2 f t) (18)
0
where f = 1 Hz is the frequency of oscillation and x0 = 0.015 0 0.7 1.4 2.1 2.8 3.5
Slurry mean velocity (m/s)
ms1 is the amplitude of oscillation. For this case, the Reynolds
number, Reo , is 450. Therefore, the flow is laminar.
Figure 4: Comparison of the pressure gradient using different
For the sand-water slurry flow simulation within the OBR, the multiphase models with measurement data
volume fraction of sand (s ) is set to 20%. On the other hand,
the volume fraction of glass particle (g ) for the glass-water in the experiments. The figure shows that at a slurry mean ve-
flow simulation is set to 5%. Both volume fractions put the locity of 1 m/s, the predicted mean pressure gradient using the
flow field in the non-dilute two phase regime, where two-way ASM model with a constant slurry viscosity is close to that of
coupling of solid and liquid phases is non-negligible [11]. The the ASM model prediction of Lin et al [5]. Nevertheless, the
mean diameters of spherical-shaped sand and glass particles are results from the ASM modeling with a constant viscosity value
110 m and 30 m, respectively. The density of glass is 340 kg clearly under-predicts when they are compared with the mea-
m3 . surement data. On the other hand, the ASM modeling with the
slurry viscosity function varying with the volume fraction of
Numerical Solution solid phase results in higher pressure gradients in comparison
with the corresponding experimental data. Figure 4 also shows
The CFD solver, Fluent R
, is used in the numerical investigation
that the results from the granular version of the Eulerian mul-
of solid-liquid flow. For the slurry flow computation through
tiphase model are in better agreement with the measurements
the non-oscillatory pipe, steady state simulations are performed.
than the ASM model and the non-granular Eulerian model. The
The second order upwind discretization scheme is selected for
granular Eulerian model appears to be more appropriate in the
solving the equations of momentum, turbulent kinetic energy,
present case since this model takes friction and collisions be-
and turbulent dissipation energy, while the first order upwind
tween particles into account which are believed to be of impor-
discretization is used for solving the volume fraction equation.
tance in the slurry transport at high volume loading.
The SIMPLEC algorithm [8] is applied in the ASM model to
resolve the coupling between the velocity and pressure. In the
Eulerian model, the Phase Coupled SIMPLE algorithm is used
for pressure-velocity coupling, which is an extension of the
SIMPLE algorithm to multiphase flows. In the investigation of
glass-water and sand-water slurry flow transport within OBR, a
transient solver is run with an initial time step of 0.001 s. The
time step size has been increased gradually to 0.05 s. The num-
ber of internal iterations is 100 for each time step. (a) z/d = 15 (b) z/d = 30

The convergence criterion is based on the residual value of the

calculated variables, such as mass, velocity components, vol-
ume fraction etc. The numerical computation is considered con-
verged when the residuals of the governing equations drop by
more than four orders of magnitude.
A Linux cluster machine is used for parallel computing with 4
(c) z/d = 45 (d) z/d = 60
processors. The computation time for each of the steady state
simulations is about 8 hours. The transient granular Eulerian
Figure 5: ASM results for volume fraction distribution of sand
simulation for the OBR with glass particles was run for 640
at different axial locations
hours and the physical flow time is 80 secs.

Results and Discussion
Non-oscillatory pipeline transport
Figure 4 illustrates the mean pressure gradient for the slurry
flow using different multiphase models and the results are com-
pared with the experimental data as reported by Skudarnov et
The silica sand concentration distribution isograms from the
ASM and the granular Eulerian models are plotted in Figs. 5
and 6, respectively to compare the results of the two models.
The velocity of the slurry in this case is 2 m/s and the solid vol-
ume loading is 20%. The ASM results show the same trend as
the ASM model predictions of Lin et al [5]. On the contrary, the
 (a) z/d = 15 (b) z/d = 30

(a) t=5 sec

(c) z/d = 45 (d) z/d = 60

Figure 6: Granular Euler results for volume fraction distribution

of sand at different axial locations

results from the granular Eulerian model illustrate different vol-

ume fraction magnitude and concentration profiles (see Fig. 6).
The data from both the methods shows that the higher concen-
tration zone is situated in the lower half portion at the bottom
of the pipe, which is due to the gravitational effect. However, (b) t=10 sec
the results from the granular Eulerian model indicates that the
higher concentration zones are situated in the lower part of the
pipeline away from the bottom pipe wall. The computed solid
concentration profiles are similar to the granular Eulerian model
concentration profiles predicted by Kaushal et al. [12], although
both the pipeline geometry and the particle size in the present
study are different from their test case.

(c) t=20 sec

(a) t=5 sec (b) t=10 sec

(d) t=41.5 sec

(c) t=20 sec (d) t=60 sec

Figure 7: Solid concentration distribution at z/D = 5.3

(e) t=60 sec

Oscillatory Baffled Reactor Figure 8: Development of solid concentration within the OBR
cavity over time
OBR simulations have been performed for glass particle-water
slurry and silica sand-water slurry flows at an oscillation fre-
quency of 1Hz.
Glass particle-water slurry flow
Figure 7 illustrates the Eulerian model results for concentration
distribution of glass particles at different flow residence times
with g = 5%, g = 340 kg m3 , w = 998 kg m3 , D = 0.03
m, dg = 30m. The results are plotted in a plane (z/D = 5.3)
situated in between the first and the second baffles. Figure 7a
shows that at t = 5 sec, glass particle volume fraction in the
central region is up to 0.08 and this region is large, suggest-
ing that a considerable amount of particles are suspended in the (a) t=5 sec
primary phase. On the top of the OBR pipeline, the zone with
the volume fraction above 0.08 is relatively small. On the other
hand, solid volume fraction is negligible in the lower portion of

(b) t=10 sec

Figure 9: Glass particle concentration at f = 1 Hz within an

OBR cavity as viewed during the measurements

the bottom half of the OBR, but this region is also small. With (c) t=41.5 sec
the increase of flow time (see Figs. 7b-7d) the region with the
higher particle volume fraction is extended in the upper portion
of the pipeline, with the maximum value rising with time, indi-
cating that more glass particles are settling on the upper wall of
the OBR over time. At t = 60 sec, the volume fraction of glass
on the bottom of the pipeline approaches zero (see Fig. 7d),
with negligible values seen over half the pipe. Figures 7a-7d
further show that the volume fraction isograms of glass parti-
cles in the horizontal direction are largely symmetric, while in
the vertical direction they are decreased gradually from the top
of the pipeline to the bottom.

(d) t=60 sec

0.5

0.4 Figure 11: Axial velocity (in m/s) within the OBR cavity over
0.3
time
0.2 z/D=10
0.1
z/D=15
z/D=21
Figure 8 shows the isograms of solid concentration within the
y

0
first cavity (in between the 1st and 2nd baffles) of the OBR at dif-
0.1
ferent flow residence times, indicating the effect of oscillation
0.2 on the deposition of glass particles. A snapshot is shown (see
0.3 Fig. 9) from an OBR experiment conducted at TNO with glass
0.4
particles, in which the particles have the same size and the slurry
flow oscillates at the same frequency as in the present numer-
0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ical investigation. This experimental work illustrated the sus-
k(y)/g
pension of the glass particles on the upper portion of the OBR
and the highest particle concentration are found in the vicinity
Figure 10: Measured glass particle concentration at f = 1 Hz of the upper wall, thus mimicking the flow field predicted by
the numerical simulations. However, this experiment only gave
qualitative insights into particle suspension and deposition. No
quantitative data are available for validation of particle concen-
trations.
Figure 10 illustrates the granular Eulerian model results for non-
dimensional solid concentration distribution along the vertical
centerline. The results are plotted at different axial locations for
t = 60 sec. The axial stations z/D = 10, z/D = 15, and z/D = 21
in Fig. 10 are located within the 4th , 7th , and 11th cavity, respec-
tively. The vertical centerline is represented by a dimensionless
parameter y0 , which is a ratio of the height from the pipe cen-
ter to the pipe diameter. The figure shows that with an increase
of height in the positive y direction from the pipe center, solid
concentration increases at all axial locations. In the region close
to the top wall of the OBR, the concentration ratio, k (y0 )/g ,
ranges from 4 to 7. Nevertheless, a large quantity of particles
are still found to be suspended in the upper central region of
the primary fluid phase, where the average solid concentration
is 1.5 - 2.5 times the initial volume fraction of solid particles.
On the other hand, the concentration ratio in the lower half of
the OBR decreases gradually from its center and it reaches zero
at the bottom wall. Figure 10 further shows that at z/D = 10,
the concentration level of particles in the central region of the
upper half of the OBR is more in comparison with other axial
locations.
Figure 11 shows the axial velocity isograms for glass particles
in the mid-plane of the first cavity, indicating the time varying
nature of the flow field. However, Figs. 11a- 11d illustrate some
common trends, such as the higher flow velocity regions in the
central portion of the cavity as the glass-water mixture passes
through the baffles and recirculation regions on the upper and
lower portions of the reactor. Furthermore, the flow within the
OBR appears to be largely axisymmetric and no chaotic motion
is observed, owing to the low amplitude of oscillation and low
oscillating frequency.
Sand-water slurry flow
The sand-water slurry flow simulation within the OBR is per-
formed for s = 20%, ds = 110m, s = 2381 kg m3 , dw =
998 kg m3 , f = 1 Hz, x0 = 0.015 ms1 .
(a) t=5 sec (b) t=6 sec
Figure 12: Sand particle concentration distribution at z/D = 5.3
Figure 12 shows the granular Eulerian model results for solid
concentration at two different points in time. The results are
plotted at the dimensionless length, z/D = 5.3, which is located
between the 1st and 2nd baffles. The plots demonstrate depo-
sition of sand particles at the lower half portion of the reactor,
which is due to the gravitational effect. At the upper half of
the pipe, volume fraction of sand is negligible. The particle
concentration is less in the central region of the reactor, indicat-
ing less number of particles are suspended in the primary fluid.
This is due to the low oscillating amplitude of the slurry flow,
which does not significantly influence the motion of particles
that are heavier than the primary fluid phase. Furthermore, the
difference between the slurry mean velocity and the critical de-
position velocity of particle is small, resulting in less impact of
mean flow on particle concentration distribution. Figure 12 also
illustrates negligible changes in sand concentration profiles at
the two different residence times, thus indicating little influence
of the main fluid stream on particle motion.
Conclusion
CFD simulations have been conducted to investigate the be-
havior of two-phase flow within an Oscillatory Baffled Reac-
tor (OBR). The multiphase model for the OBR simulations is
selected based on the numerical study of sand-water slurry flow
transport through a non-oscillatory pipeline. Several multiphase
models have been examined for the non-oscillatory flow simu-
lations to compare their results. The ASM model and the basic
Eulerian model do not accurately predict pressure drop across
the pipeline. The granular version of the Eulerian model with a
slurry viscosity function yields the most accurate predictions for
pressure drop at all flow velocities. Furthermore, the concentra-
tion distribution predicted by the granular Eulerian model and
the ASM model has significant differences.
The granular Eulerian model is also used for the glass-water
mixture and sand-water slurry flow simulations within the OBR
at a low oscillation amplitude and frequency. A time varying
oscillatory velocity inlet condition is used. The glass particles
are mostly suspended in the upper half of the reactor and the
highest solid concentration zone is located in the vicinity of the
upper wall, representing glass particle deposition, which is con-
sistent with glass particle flow behavior observed during exper-
iments. The velocity profiles of glass particles vary with time
but they are largely axisymmetric and do not display any ran-
dom motion. In the sand-water slurry flow, sand particles de-
posit at the lower half portion of the reactor and particle count
is small in the central part of the pipeline. The low amplitude
and frequency of oscillation do not influence the concentration
of sand particles and changes in particle concentration profiles
over flow residence time are negligible.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank their colleagues at TNO, Axel
Lexmond and Marlies van Osch for experimental results from
an OBR and for their assistance and guidance in interpreting the
results.
References
[1] Ni, X., Jian, H., Fitch, A. W., Computational fluid dynamic
modelling of flow patterns in an oscillatory baffled column,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 57, 2002, 28492862.
[2] Roberts, E. P. L., Mackley, M. R., The Development of
Asymmetry and Period Doubling for Oscillatory Flow in
Baffled Columns, J. Fluid Mech., 328, 1996, 1948.
[3] Skudarnov, P. V., Kang, H. J., Lin, C. X., Ebadian, M.
A., Gibbons, P. W., Erian, F. F., Experimental investiga-
tion of single- and double-species slurry transportation in a
horizontal pipeline, In: Proceedings of the ANS 9th inter-
national topical meeting on robotics and remote systems,
2001.
[4] Ling, J., Skudarnov, P. V., Lin, C. X., Ebadian, M. A., Nu-
merical investigations of liquid-solid slurry flows in a fully
developed turbulent flow region, Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow,
24, 2003, 389398.

[5] Lin, C. X., Ebadian, M. A., A numerical study of develop-

ing slurry flow in the entrance region of a horizontal pipe,
Comp. Fluids, 37, 2008, 965974.

[6] Manninen, M., Taivassalo, V., Kallio, S., On the mixture

model for multiphase flow, VTT publications 288,Technical
Research Centre of Finland, 1996.

[7] Launder, B. E., Spalding, D. B., The numerical computa-

tion of turbulent flows, Comp. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng.,
3, 1974, 269289.

[8] ANSYS, Inc. Ansys Fluent 12.0 Theory Guide, April 2009.

[9] Einstein, A., Ann. Phys., 19, 1906, 289.

[10] Guth, E. and Simha, R., Kolloid Z., 74, 1936, 266.

[11] Elgobashi, S., On predicting particle-laden turbulent

flows, Appl. Sci. Res., 52, 1994, 309.

[12] Kaushal, D. R., Thinglas, T., Tomita, Y., Kuchii, S., and
Tsukamota, H., CFD modeling for pipeline flow of fine par-
ticles at high concentration, Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 43,
2012, 85100.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Thermal Property Measurement of Polymer Composite
by Using the 3-omega Method
Dong-Wook Oh, Chan Ho Song, Seok Ho Yoon, Ook Joong Kim and Kong Hoon Lee
Department of Extreme Thermal Systems, Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials,
156 Gajeongbok-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-343, Republic of Korea
Abstract
Polymer composites having higher thermal conductivity
compared to stainless steel (16 Wm-1K-1) at room temperature are
commercially available nowadays. However in most thermally
conducting polymer composites, measuring the correct thermal
property is a challenging problem due to an-isotropic natural of
filler (carbon/glass fibers and etc.) added to argument the thermal
and mechanical properties. In this paper, a novel thermal
property measurement method based on the 3-omega (3) is
proposed. Sensitivity and feasible limit of the 3 method with
boundary mismatch assumption is analysed for measurement
of polymer composites having wide range of thermal
conductivity.
Nomenclature
b half width of the microheater
Cp heat capacity
G Thermal conductance
k thermal conductivity
q complex wave number
Q heat generation from the heater
t thickness of the effective air gap
T temperature
DT temperature oscillation
k integration variable
r density
w angular velocity
Introduction
Due to recent development of high power emitting
semiconductor products such as LED, large demand for high
thermal conductivity plastics are present. However in most novel
polymer composite products, physical properties at room
temperature are reported. When it comes to applying such
polymer composites to a mass production, for example, a
polymer heat exchanger, temperature dependent thermal property
values are needed. Additionally, highly an-isotropic fillers such
as glass/carbon fibres, carbon nanotube (CNT) are commonly
added to argument thermal and mechanical property of the base
polymer. This brings an-isotropy to polymer composite
properties showing as large as an order of magnitude difference
in in-plane (aligned to filler) and out-plane (perpendicular to
filler alignment) thermal conductivities. [1]
The 3-omega (3) method [2] is a well-known method for
thermal property measurement. Conventionally, a the interfacial thermal resistance due to non-prefect contact
microfabrication of a long heater element is needed on a sample
for generation of sinusoidal temperature oscillation. Such a
complex and sophisticated preparation process has limited the
use of the 3 method to thermal property measurement of a thin
film [3] and to applications where micro-scale spatial resolution
is required [4]. In this paper, a modified 3 method combined
with the boundary mismatch assumption [5] is proposed to
measure polymer composite samples without any
microfabrication on the polymer surface. The basic idea of this
technique is similar to the extension of original 3 method to
measure thermal conductivity of liquids. [4, 5] Heat transfer from
the heating element is modelled to two semi-infinite medium as
shown in Figure 1 (a). Since the thermal contact between the
polymer sample and the sensor substrate is not perfect, the
thermal interfacial resistance between the two medium can be
represented by an air gap having the same thermal resistance as
in Figure 1 (b).
Thermal analysis of the proposed method is analysed with
variation in sample and substrate thermal conductivity, effective
air gap thickness and temperature oscillation frequency. The
application limit of this method for polymer composite samples,
having thermal conductivity range from 0.2 to 5 Wm-1K-1, in
terms of effective air gap and the frequency is analysed.
sample
heater
substrate
(a)
effective air
gap thickness
heater
substrate
(b)
Figure 1. Schematic of (a) two semi-infinite mediums of the
sample and the 3 sensor and (b) effective air gap representing
between the sample and the sensor substrate.
Thermal modelling of the modified 3w method
Consider a long metal heater on a smooth surface. A sinusoidal
electric current with an angular frequency of is passed through
a thin film metal heater. The substrate can be any flat, polished
surface that can be compatible for microfabrication. For our
purpose, thermal property measurement of a polymer composite,
a low thermal conductivity material is preferred such as a thick
SU-8 layer (~ 200 mm) coated on a glass wafer or a bare glass
wafer. The patterned metal heater also acts as a thermometer.
The metal temperature also oscillates at an angular frequency of
2 because of the sinusoidal heating at a double the frequency of
the input current. Due to the linear relationship between the
electrical resistance of the metal heater and the temperature, the
temperature oscillation can be measured indirectly by measuring
the amplitude and the phase of the 3 voltage signal. The
amplitude of the temperature oscillation can be used to determine
the thermal properties of the substrate through the solution of the
following equation.
Consider a metal heater with width of 2b on a thick solid
substrate. The relationship between the temperature oscillation
and the heat generation rate can be expressed as (Cahill, 1990)
Q& sin 2 (k b) Q&
DT = dk = F (qb)
pk
0 2 2
(k b) (k + q ) 2 12
pk
i 2wr C p
q=
k
The relationship between the penetration depth and the
temperature oscillation frequency is denoted in Figure 2 for 3
substrates: Al2O3, SiO2 and SU-8. The room temperature thermal
conductivities of Al2O3, SiO2 and SU-8 are 34, 1.3 and 0.2 Wm-
1
K-1, respectively. At the input current frequency in the range of
5 Hz ~ 1 kHz, the thermal penetration depth of SiO2 or SU-8 are
shorter than 100 m.
The thermal penetration depth can be represented as the probing
depth of the 3 heater and can be used to calculate the thermal
conductance (G) of substrate as the following equation.
Q& k (3)
G= =
DT 1 q
Here, Q is the heating power per unit area. Now the thermal
conductance not only becomes a function of the thermal property
of the sample, but also varies with the temperature oscillation
frequency. Figure 3 (a) shows the thermal conductance of Al2O3,
SiO2 and SU-8 with different temperature oscillation frequency.
For SU-8, G ranges from 1 to 100 kWm-2K-1. Calculation of the
thermal conductance of air gap (thickness ranging from 1 nm to
10 mm) at room temperature is presented in Figure 3 (b). By
(1)
comparing the calculated G values, the effective air gap or the
interfacial thermal conductance at the solid-solid interface
becomes comparable to thermal conductance of solid layer at
(2) high temperature oscillation frequency.

where DT represents the complex 2 temperature oscillation, Q 1E+7

the heating power per unit length generated at the metal heater, k Al2O3
the thermal conductivity of the substrate, q the complex thermal SiO2
1E+6
wave number, the angular frequency of the input current, and polymer (SU-8)
Gsample (Wm-2K-1)

and Cp are the substrate density and heat capacity, respectively.

The magnitude of T is the amplitude of the temperature
1E+5
oscillation and the argument is the phase lag between the
temperature oscillation of the heater and the heating pulse. The
amplitude of reciprocal of q, |1/q|, is known as the thermal
1E+4
penetration depth. By simply substituting the infinite integral part
of equation (1) with a function F(qb), the thermal resistance of
the substrate can be expressed as F(qb)/k. The thickness of the
1E+3
substrate must be larger than the thermal penetration depth in 1 10 100 1000
order for equations (1), (2) to be valid. Frequency (Hz)
(a)
1E+7

1E+6
Ggap (Wm-2K-1)

1E+5

effective air gap

1E+4

1E+3
1 10 100 1000 10000
(b) Gap thickness (nm)

Figure 3. Thermal conductance calculation of (a) Al2O3, SiO2 and

Figure 2. Thermal penetration depth of Al2O3, SiO2 and SU-8 for SU-8 with varying temperature oscillation frequency and (b)
temperature oscillation frequency range of 1 to 1000 Hz. effective air gap thickness ranging from 1 nm to 10 mm.
In real, thermal conductance of a solid-solid interface is very
difficult to quantify and estimate.[6] There are many aspects
affecting the actual contact area such as surface roughness,
pressure, existence of moisture and etc. In order for the 3
method to measure the thermal property of the sample in the
proposed geometry, it is best to have the boundary thermal
conductance of the effective air gap (Ggap) much smaller
compared to the thermal conductance of the sample (Gsample). In
order to compare the temperature oscillation amplitude drop at
the interface and at the sample, direct calculation of equation (1)
is performed at different frequency and sample thermal
conductivity.
1 0.2, 1 and 5 Wm-1K-1. The heat capacity and the density values
50 nm
20 nm
10 nm
5 nm
0.1
DTgap /DTsample
The thermal resistance of the interface can be simplified as an
effective air gap where thickness of the gap is much smaller
compared to the heater width. In this case, the temperature
oscillation drop (DTgap) at the interface can be shown as the
following equation.[3] Note that only real term exists in DTgap,
since the thickness is assumed to be negligible.
Q& t (4)
DTgap =
kair 2b
In order to compare DTgap and the temperature oscillation of the
sample (DTsample) quantitatively, equation (1) and (4) are
calculated for 3 samples having the same value of heat capacity
and density as SU-8 but with different thermal conductivities of
of 1200 kJkg-1K-1 and 1190 kgm-3, is used in the calculation.
The heating power of the heater, heater length and the heater
width are assumed to be 1 mW, 2 mm and 10 mm, respectively.

2 nm
The effective air gap thickness is varied from 2 nm to 50 nm. The
calculation results are presented in Figure 4.

0.01 When the sample thermal conductivity is 0.2 Wm-1K-1,

DTgap/DTsample is smaller than 0.05 for effective air gap thickness
smaller than 10 nm as shown in Figure 3 (a). But as the thermal
resistance of the sample becomes smaller, or in other words, the
0.001 thermal conductivity of the sample gets larger, DTgap cannot be
1 10 100 1000
neglect even for the effective air gap thickness of 2 nm, as
(a) Frequency (Hz)
presented in Figures 4 (b), (c).
1 Now we consider the actual thermal conductivity measurement of
the polymer composite sample placed on the 3 device. The
sample of interest is polished and the smooth surface is facing the
heater as shown in Figure 1 (a). The thermal modelling of the 3
0.1 device and the sample system is conducted based on the modified
DTgap /DTsample

boundary mismatch assumption[5]. The 2 semi-infinite medium

is modelled as a thermal resistance from the heater to the ambient.

0.01 The total heat generated from the heater (Qtotal) passes through

either to the substrate (Qsub) or to the sample (Qsample). The

resistance of the effective air gap and the sample is regarded as a
0.001
1 10 100 1000
serial connection where Qgap and Qsample are equal. Denoting the
Frequency (Hz) measured temperature oscillation of the heater in the presence of
(b)
the sample by Ttotal, the following can be shown.
1
1 1 1 (4)
= +
DTtotal DTsub DTgap + DTsample

0.1 Note that Ttotal is the measured temperature amplitude at the

DTgap /DTsample

heater, with the substrate on one side and the sample layer on the
other. Tsub is the heater temperature amplitude due to heat
transport to the 3 device alone. In other words, Tsub is
0.01 measured in vacuum without the sample. A least squares fit of
Tsample calculated from equation (1) can be used to determine the
value of the sample thermal conductivity, if DTgap is much
smaller compared to DTsample or a known value.
0.001
1 10 100 1000 Calculation of DTtotal
(c) Frequency (Hz)
The methodology of the sample thermal property measurement
Figure 4. The ratio of temperature oscillation drop by the with presence of the interfacial thermal resistance between the
effective air gap thickness and the temperature oscillation sample and the 3w device is presented in the previous section.
amplitude of the sample with varying sample thermal Estimation of the actual temperature oscillations of the 3w device
conductivity of (a) 0.2, (b) 1 and (c) 5 Wm-1K-1. with varying sample thermal conductivity and interfacial thermal
resistance are shown in this section.
Figure 5 presents the calculation of in-phase term of Ttotal for 2
temperature oscillation frequency range of 1 to 1000 Hz.
Different cases of sample thermal conductivities and effective air 1
gap thicknesses are presented. The 3w device is assumed to be
fabricated on a SU-8 substrate. Samples having thermal

DTtotal (K)
conductivities of 0.2, 1 and 5 Wm-1K-1 and surface roughness SiO2 substrate
having effective air gap thicknesses of 2, 10 and 50 nm is ksample = 0.2 Wm-1K-1
0.1
calculated. Note that the out-phase term of Ttotal show negligible
difference among calculation cases and thus not shown here. 50 nm in-phase
10 nm in-phase
2 nm in-phase
2 0.01
1 10 100 1000
1
(a) Frequency (Hz)
SU-8 substrate
ksample = 0.2 Wm-1K-1
2
DTtotal (K)

1
0.1
50 nm in-phase

DTtotal (K)
10 nm in-phase
2 nm in-phase
0.1
0.01
1 10 100 1000
(a) Frequency (Hz)
ksample = 1 Wm-1K-1
2 0.01
1 10 100 1000
1 Frequency (Hz)
(b)
DTtotal (K)

1
0.1
DTtotal (K)

ksample = 1 Wm-1K-1 0.1

0.01
1 10 100 1000
(b) Frequency (Hz)
ksample = 5 Wm-1K-1
2 0.01
1 10 100 1000
1 Frequency (Hz)
(c)
Figure 6. The temperature oscillation of the 3w device as thermal
DTtotal (K)

conductivity of sample is varied as (a) 0.2, (b) 1 and (c) 5 Wm-

1
0.1 K-1. The 3w device is fabricated on a SiO2 substrate. The
interfacial thermal resistance at the substrate and sample interface
is varied by taking account the effective air gap thickness ranging
ksample = 5 Wm-1K-1 from 2, 10 and 50 nm.

0.01
1 10 100 1000 Figure 6 presents the relationship between the in-phase term of
(c) Frequency (Hz) Ttotal and the temperature oscillation frequency as the 3w device
is fabricated on a SiO2 substrate. From the calculation results
Figure 5. The temperature oscillation of the 3w device as thermal
shown in Figures 5, 6, sensitivity of the 3w signal to the sample
conductivity of sample is varied as (a) 0.2, (b) 1 and (c) 5 Wm- thermal conductivity and the effective air gap thickness
1
K-1. The 3w device is fabricated on a SU-8 substrate. The measurement can be estimated. If the 3w device is fabricated on a
interfacial thermal resistance at the substrate and sample interface thermally insulating substrate as SU-8, thermal conductivity of a
is varied by taking account the effective air gap thickness ranging sample having an order of magnitude higher thermal conductivity,
from 2, 10 and 50 nm. compared to the substrate (~1 Wm-1K-1), can to be measurable as
long as the thermal resistance at the substrate and sample
interface is maintained lower than an effective air gap of 10 nm.
However, as the sample becomes more thermally conductive, or
in other words, the interfacial thermal conductance at the sample-
substrate interface becomes more comparable to the thermal
conductance of the sample, it becomes more difficult to
distinguish between the thermal resistances of the interface and
the sample itself.
In order to increase the measurement sensitivity of 3w signal to
the thermal conductivity of the sample, the best way will be to
have a smooth interface by the sample by intensive polishing. As
roughness of the sample decreases, the effective contact area at
the substrate-sample interface will increase and consequently the
DTgap/DTsample ratio can be decreased. Since the interfacial
thermal conductance is extremely hard to quantify, it is best to
have it as a negligible term. Having the temperature oscillation
frequency range low can also decrease the effect of the interface
since at low frequency, the thermal penetration depth of the
sample increases. Since the thermal resistance of the sample is
not only a function of the thermal conductivity, increasing the
penetration length can increase the DTgap/DTsample ratio.
Changing the substrate to a better thermal conductor can help the
measurement sensitivity. But careful consideration should be
given in such case. The boundary mismatch assumption neglects
the heat transfer at the sample/substrate interface. This is a
reasonable assumption as long as the thermal diffusivities of the
sample and the substrate are of similar order of magnitude.
Conclusion
A modified 3w method to measure polymer composites having
low to moderate thermal conductivity (0.2~5 Wm-1K-1) is
presented in this research. The measurement sample needs to
have a smooth surface and is placed on a 3w device. There is no
need to pattern a microheater on the sample of interest.
The heat generated from the 3w heater and flow to the device
substrate and to the polymer composite sample. Thermal
modelling is done based on the boundary mismatch model.
Estimation of the 3w temperature oscillations for different
substrate material, sample thermal conductivity and thermal
resistance at the substrate-sample interface are analysed.
In order to increase the measurement sensitivity, it is desirable to
lower the interfacial thermal resistance, measuring temperature
oscillation frequency and increase the substrate thermal
conductivity.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the principle research program
(NK168D) of Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials funded
by Korea Research Council for Industrial Science & Technology
(ISTK).
References
[1] Z. Han, A. Fina, Thermal conductivity of carbon nanotubes
and their polymer nanocomposites: A review, Progress in
polymer science, 36, 2011, 914-944.
[2] D.G. Cahill, Thermal conductivity measurement from 30 to
750 K: the 3 method, Rev. Sci. Instrum., 61(2), 1990, 802-
808.
[3] S.M. Lee, D.G. Cahill, Heat transport in thin dielectric films,
J. Appl. Phys., 81, 1997, 2590.
[4] D.W. Oh, O. Kwon, J.S. Lee, Transient Thermal Conductivity
and Colloidal Stability Measurements of Nanofluids by
Usingthe 3 Method, J. Nanosci. Nanotech., 8(10), 2008,
4923-4929.
[5] F. Chen, J. Shulman, Y. Xue, C. Chu, G.S. Nolas, Thermal
conductivity measurement under hydrostatic pressure using
the 3 method, Rev. Sci. Instrum., 75(11), 2004, 4578-4584.
[6] L. FLETCHER, Recent developments in contact conductance
heat transfer, J. Heat Trans., 110(4B), 1988, 1059-1070.
23 rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
3-Dimensional Flow Structure Investigation through a Stenotic Throat using
Micro Defocusing PIV Methods
1 1
H.S. Ji , H.D. Kim , S.J. Yi , M.J. Kang and K.C. Kim
1
School of Mechanical Engineering Pusan National University, Busan, South Korea
2
Kibo Technology Fund, Busan, South Korea
ABSTRACT
The 3-dimensional flow structure passing the
blood vessel with a stenotic throat are thought to contain
important that can influence the cardiovascular diseases,
one of the major causes of human mortality. From this
sense, the biophysical description of hemodynamic and
hemorheologic behaviour o f blood flow have received
large attention in recent decades. Even though the
complicated blood fl ow feature play an important role in
the development of cardiovascular diseases, it is not easy
to experimentally provide the 3-dimensional blood flow
structure passing blood vessel with a stenotic lesion. There
are lots of studies to investigate the blood flow structure
related to hemodynamic and hemorheological behaviors
on the cardiovascular disorders. Although extensive
experimental and numerical studies have been conducted,
there are still strong needs to reveal the relationship
between fluid dynamics of blood flow and development of
cardiovascular diseases. Modern interdisciplinary
researches have suggested that the fl uid mechanics of
blood flow play an important role in the pathogenesis and
pathophysiology o f v ascular circulatory diseases. In this
study we would like to investigate the 3-dimensional flow
structure passing through a simplified stenosis model
using micro-defocusing PIV method. Figure 1 shows the
defocusing micro-PIV experimental apparatus for 3-
dimensional structure investigation passing through a
stenotic throat.
Keywords: De-focusing Micro-PIV, Hemodynamic,
Stenosis, Coronary artery
INTRODUCTION
Cardiovascular diseases, the leading mortality factor in the
westernized society and nearly the most important cause in the
developing countries, is closely related with various risk
factors including smoking, hypertension, hyper-lipidemia,
diabetes and so on. The flow characteristics of human blood
passing through a stenotic throat for Right Coronary Artery are
thought to contain important information that can be used for
the early detection of cardiovascular disorders, one of the
major causes of death in modern life. From this sense, the
biophysical description of hemodynamic and hemorheologic
behavior of blood flow have received large attention in recent
decades. The complicated blood flow features play an
important role in the development of cardiovascular diseases.
Lee et al (2007) would like to provide fundamental
hemodynamic features of blood flow in extraembryonic blood
vessel of chicken blood using micro-PIV technique based on
high speed flow visualization methods. Although extensive
experimental and numerical studies have been conducted, there
are still strong needs to reveal the relationship between fluid
dynamics of blood flow and development of cardiovascular
diseases. (Liepsch et al., 2002) Moreover hemorheological
parameters such as viscosity, hematocrit of blood, and
deformation and aggregation of red blood cells (RBC)
1 2 1
influence the blood flow in vascular networks. Some of them
have been used exclusively as a representative index for any
specified vascular disorders. There are lots of studies to
investigate the pathogenesis of the cardiovascular disorders
related to hemodynamic and hemorheological behaviors.
Modern interdisciplinary researches have suggested that the
fluid mechanics of blood flow play an important role in the
pathogenesis and pathophysiology of vascular circulatory
diseases. In general, the stenosis has been known to be
generated at the arteries by LDL migration and foam cells
generation. Initial stenosis generated and observed in Coronary
Artery can provide very important clinical information for
development of cardiovascular diseases. LDL migration
generate initially, it appears in the form of foam cell formed in
the coronary and carotid arteries. After removing the stenosis
through a medical procedure, re-stenosis occasionally forms
near the same region. Specifically, the stenosis in retina
arterioles caused by diabetic symptoms on blood vessels can
induce loss of eyesight and increase of blood pressure. To
detect these circulatory diseases as early as possible, it is
important to identify the fluid mechanical pathogenesis of the
vascular stenosis by understanding the flow characteristics of
blood in the stenotic blood vessel. (Berger et al., 2000,
Srivastava et al., 1997)
Despite the clinical importance of cardiovascular diseases, it
is not easy to experimentally provide the pathogenetic
information related with cardiovascular diseases based on
blood flow. These in-vitro experimental results from the blood
flow information at RCA (right coronary artery) with stenotic
throat can provide the fundamental pathogenetic information
for cardiovascular disorder. Recent studies on bio-fluidic fluid
flows have employed a high resolution high speed blood flow
visualization and micro-PIV (particle image velocimetry)
technique as a reliable tool of velocity field measurement.
(Stroud et al., 2000, Ji et al., 2007, Manjunatha et al., 2003)
There are lots of previous studies on the hemorheological
characteristics of blood samples in a stenosis, but most of them
were performed clinically.
In this study, we tried to get the hemodynamic information of
blood flow in a Right Coronary Artery (RCA) with stenotic
throat with varying the alignment angle through in-vitro
experiment, before moving toward the practical clinical
applications. The velocity fields of the blood flow through the
RCA experimental model were measured using a high-
resolution micro-PIV technique. To provide more detailed
hemodynamic information through RCA stenotic vessel model,
numerical simulation was also carried out under same
conditions. Therefore, the flow characteristics of blood flow
and the transport of RBCs in the stenosis were experimentally
investigated in this study.
Experimental Setup
Fig.1 shows the schematic diagrams of de-focusing
Micro-PIV system for the measurement of 2D velocity field
and PDMS channels. To trace the particles in working fluid,
the PMMA Rhodamine B particles of ranging from 1 -20um
in diameter were diluted in de-ionized water and it is
23 rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
(a) Calibration System for De-focusing micro PIV
system
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of experimental setup employed quantitative flow visualization De-focusing micro PIV system
(a) Calibration concept through pin-hole system
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of experimental setup employed quantitative flow visualization De-focusing micro PIV system
introduced into the channel by syringe pump (KDS
scientific) with flow
rates of 5 to 10ml/min. The flow field was illuminated by
halogen lamp (U-LH100-3) attached to the microscope
(BX51) with 20X objective(LUCPlan) and particle images
were acquired through a high-speed camera (PCO1200hs)
consecutively with speed of 1000 to 2000 fps by the
condition of flow rate. The whole channel view was divided
to six sections due to the limitation of view size of 7 x
5.6mm and each flow field was calculated from individual
section by post-processing. Whole flow field was finally
reconstructed by uniting every flow field with linear
interpolation.
The high-speed CMOS camera employed to acquire
temporally resolved particle flow information can capture
flow images at up to 636 fps (frame per second) at a full
resolution o f 1,280 1,024 pixels. Since a continuous
(b) The experimental Set-up for De-fo cusing micro PIV
(b) Fluorescent particle image using pin-hole
halogen lamp was used as the light source, the time interval
(t) between two consecutive images was adjusted by
varying the frame rate. Under these experimental conditions,
the scattering of incident light was negligible, enabling the
detailed evaluation of flow information in the region near
the walls.
To calculate instantaneous velocity vectors from two
consecutive flow images, the FFT based cross-correlation
algorithm was applied. The size of the interrogation
window was 16 16 pixels, with 50% overlap. A total of
1,000 flow images were captured for each experiment. The
instantaneous velocity fields were ensemble-averaged to
obtain the spatial distributions of mean velocity. The
frequency characteristics of the arterial blood flow and the
variation of velocity waveform were assessed by FFT
analysis of the temporally resolved instantaneous velocity
fi eld data.
23 rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Fig. 3 Fluorescent Particle Images through passing micro stensis
To simulate a blood vessel model with stenotic lesion on
RCA, in-vitro experimental model for de-fo cusing
experiments was made of PDMS through a micro-fabricate
technique. The geometric information for blood vessel
model was based on angiogram fo r patient with coronary
artery stenotic lesion. The principle of PIV velocity field
measurement is based on the
displacement o f tracer particles between two consecutive
images captured within a short time interval. The
displacements of particles at each interrogation window are
calculated from the correlation peaks using a cross-
correlation algorithm (Adrian, 1991; Raffel et al., 1998). A
micro-PIV system, which has been used to measure blood
flow (Smith et al., 2003; Sugii et al., 2002), was used to
acquire quantitative velocity field data of blood flow inside
blood vessel model. The tracer particles (RBCs in the vessel
model) in the area of interest were illuminated by a volume,
and by adjusting the depth-of-focus of the microscope,
sharp images o f the RBCs in a thin focal plane were
obtained (Meinhart et al., 1999).
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
Flow characteristics in blood vessel model simulated
based on RCA with stenotic lesion was optically
visualized using a high resolution de-fo cusing micro PIV
technique. Another benefit of this type of experiment was
the short preparation time required fo r blood sample
through an in-vitro vessel model.
Figure 2 shows the basic concept of de-focusing at the
micro-scale experimental measurement. A mast with three
pin-holes, which are arranged at the vertices o f the
equilateral triangle, is positioned on an o bjective lens. The
light from a particle passes through each pinhole and then
reaches three different positions on the image plane. The
distance between the triangle vertices of the images increases
as the particle position moves away in the depthwise
direction from the focusing plane (reference plane). Hence,
the particle positions in depth can be estimated from the size
of the triangular pattern by the defocusing concept. Modern
microscopic objective lenses adopt multi-lenses and complex
configurations. In contrast to macro lens systems, the
distance of the lens vertex to the representative lens plane is
relatively large. In practice, the distance is much larger than
the working distance in a microscope. Moreover, errors of
alignment are exacerbated due to high magnification.
Figure 3 shows the fluorescent particle images through
passing micro-stenosis vessel model. Because of the fo cal
length through passing 3 pin-holes, the particle after passing
the stenotic throat shows the different light intensity and
clearance.
CONCLUSIONS
Flow characteristic in coronary artery with stenotic lesion
was measured in-vitro de-focusing high resolution flow
visualization technique with a high speed CMOS camera.
Fluorescent particle images through passing micro-stenosis
were successfully acquired for 3-dimensional velocity
measurements. In-vitro measurement technique employed
in this study was useful for measuring blood flow in various
experimental studies. Temporally resolved velocity fields
information would be useful for understanding the
hemodynamics and hemorheologic feature related with
pathogenetic information for cardiovascular diseases.
FUTURE WORK
The fluorescent particle images will be estimated using
post-processing methods including 2 frames cross
correlation methods. From these processing procedures, 3
dimensional hemodymic and hemorheologic feature will be
evaluated for cardiovascular diseases development.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the Korea Research
Foundation (National Research Foundation of Korea) Grant
fu nded by the Korean Government (2010 -0016030)
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Carbon Nanotube Temperature Profiler using Platinum Hot Film

J. Amano1 , J. Hirotani1 , T. Ikuta1 , T. Nishiyama1 and K. Takahashi13

1 Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
2 International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research

Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan

3 JST, CREST, Kyushu Umiversity, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan

Abstract Introduction
A novel thermal probe is developed using an individual carbon Since the recent continual miniaturization of electronic devices,
nanotube on a platinum hot-film to investigate the nanoscale understanding energy dissipation and transport in micro- and
temperature distribution, which is expected to have excellent nanodevices is of great importance for the design of energy-
characteristics of robustness and spatial resolution. To confirm efficient circuits and for reliable operation [1]. Nanomateri-
its ability of quantitative temperature measurement, a demon- als such as silicon nanowires, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and
stration was conducted around a metallic thin-film heater of ca. graphene, etc. are considered to be promising for future high
600nm width on SiO2 /Si substrate. In this paper, the measure- performance devices, thus investigating the temperature distri-
ment principle and results are reported. The uncertainty due to bution around these nano-materials are also vital.
the thermal contact resistance between a CNT end and target
surface is avoided by using feed-back system, which enables us Various experimental techniques are existed to obtain the tem-
to measure the real temperature at their contact. Obtained ther- perature distribution in micro and nanoscale. Optical thermal
mal profile is discussed in comparison with a simple 1D heat imaging techniques, such as infrared and laser reflectance tech-
transfer model to evaluate the heat dissipation from the heater niques, whose spatial resolutions are limited to be on the or-
to substrate. der of wavelength. Optical nanoscale temperature measurement
method using near-field optics and fluorescence thermometry
Nomenclature have been proposed [2], but the improvement of the signal in-
tensity is still necessary for further progress.
A cross-sectional area In the past, several contact types of thermal sensors such as
C integrate constant resistance temperature detector (RTD) and thermocouple (TC)
h dissipative conductance were employed so far. For example, a thin Wollaston wire
I electric current mounted in an AFM device [3, 4, 5] was used for thermal con-
k thermal conductivity ductivity measurement, where Pt-core wire is working as the
L length hot-wire anemometry. By combining wire-type TC with AFM,
q heat generation per unit volume and unit time thermal mapping was successfully demonstrated [6]. For all
Q heat generation kind of probes, the spatial resolution is mainly dependent on
R f t thermal contact resistance between a carbon the size of the contact area and these wire-based sensors have
nanotube end and target sample surface pretty large contact area. To overcome this resolution problem,
R p f thermal contact resistance between a Pt hot-film MEMS technology is useful without special skills of crafts-
and a side wall of a carbon nanotube people. Recently MEMS-based scanning thermal microscopy
Rre f electrical resistance at reference temperature (SThM) was built and tested by using a film-type TC consisting
Rstd standard electrical resistance of Pt and Cr films deposited on the tip of AFM cantilever [7, 8].
T temperature SThM is capable of not only the structurally but also thermally
V voltage investigating nanostructures, whose resolution strongly depends
W width on the nature of the probe tip.
x coordinate
temperature-resistance coefficient Nevertheless the recent improvement of spatial resolutions of
SThM, local measurement of temperature fields is impeded by
Subscripts parasitic heat transfer between the tip and the sample via con-
f carbon nanotube duction through both air and the liquid meniscus that exists at
h heater the tip sample interface [8]. Recently, Kim et al. developed
i coordinate an ultra-high vacuum-based SThM technique that is capable of
j Pt-CNT junction in Pt hot film quantitatively mapping temperature fields with 15 mK tem-
p platinum nano hot film perature resolution and 10 nm spatial resolution [9]. However,
t target thermal contact resistance (TCR) between a tip and sample sur-
0 heat sink face is still unknown parameter and TCR is changed as the tip
amb ambient condition is changed after long-time scanning. To further im-
ave average provement of SThM, there are two possible ways. One uses a
sharper tip than the Si-based tip. The other develops the mea-
surement method which is not affected by TCR. T3 (x3 ) = C5 x3 +C6 (6)
CNTs consist of a honeycomb sp2
hybridized carbon network where C1 -C6 are the constants of integration. When the CNT
that is rolled up into a seamless cylinder. Because of extremely probe is not in contact with taget, C1 -C4 are determined by ap-
high Youngs modulus, high aspect ratio, and nanometer-radius plying the boundary condition that the temperature at the film
tip, CNT is more suitable material to the AFM and SThM tip ends is equal to that of the Si wafer, T0 .
than typical silicon-based cantilever. In the past AFM measure-
ments, the high special resolution is achieved by using CNT tip Ti (0) = Ti (L1 + L2 ) = T0 f or 1, 2 (7)
[10]. Higher resolution than 1nm can be achievable by using
Thus the temperature distribution in the Pt film is given as
single-walled CNT but no practical device has been built.
Qp Qp
In this work we have developed novel measurement technique T1 (x1 ) = x2 + x1 + T0 (8)
which can measure the surface temperature quantitatively by 2k p A p (L1 + L2 ) 1 2k p A p
using an individual carbon nanotube (CNT). A one end of CNT
is fixed on the platinum hot film sensor and the other end con- T2 (x2 ) is expressed as same with Equation (8), and the hot-film
tacts with sample surface. Temperature of target sample can temperature at the CNT-Pt junction , T j is obtained by substitut-
be determined from the electrical resistance and pre-measured ing L1 (or L2 ) for x1 (or x2 )
temperature-resistance coefficient of platinum hot film [11]. Qp L1 L2
The problem of the TCR between a CNT end [12] and sam- T j = T1 (L1 ) = T2 (L2 ) = + T0 (9)
2k p A p L1 + L2
ple surface is avoided in our measurement by feedback sys-
tem, which enables quantitative temperature measurement. This In case of that CNT end contact to target surface, boundary con-
method is the extension of measurement method for measuring ditions are expressed as shown below.
thermal conductivity of a CNT [13]. We demonstrate the capa-
bility of our technique by measuring the surface temperature of T1 (0) = T0 (10)
the line-patterned metallic film on the SiO2 substrate. By esti-
mating the thermal conductivity of metallic film and compared T2 (0) = T0 (11)
with one dimensional theoretical heat transfer model, we evalu-
T1 (L1 ) = T2 (L2 ) (12)
ate the heat dissipation from metallic film to SiO2 substrate.
 
Principle of measurement T1 (x1 )  T2 (x2 ) 
k p A p k A
x1 x1 =L1 x2 x2 =L2
p p
The heat transfer model of the senosor is shown in Figure 1, 
where the k is the thermal conductivity, A is the cross-sectional T3 (x3 ) 
= k f A f (13)
area, L is the length of Pt film, xi (i = 1-3) is the coordinate, and x  3 x3 =L f
T0 is the temperature of the heat sink. The subscript p and f de- 
note the Pt and CNT, respectively. The Joule heating induced by T3 (x3 )  T1 (L1 ) T3 (0)
k f A f = (14)
a direct current occurs uniformly in the suspended film with a x3 x3 =0 R p f
constant cross-sectional area. One-dimensional (1D) heat flow 
along the hot-film can supposed here because the aspect ratio T3 (x3 )  T3 (L f ) Tt
k f A f  = (15)
of the film is high enough. Since the experiments conducted x3 x3 =L f R f t
in high vacuum of 103 Pa, the heat convection is neglected.
where the Tt is target surface temperature and R is the thermal
Radiation is also negligible because the average temperature in-
contact resistance per unit area and subscript p- f and f -t de-
crease of the Pt hot film is less than about 10 K. Thus, the heat
note Pt-CNT and CNT-target interface, respectively. By solving
conduction in this film is analysed by the simple 1D equation of
equations (4)-(6), the temperature profiles are obtained and de-
the heat conduction,
tails of the equations of temperature are described in Reference
2 Ti (xi ) [12]. To put it briefly, the temperature of the Pt hot film is af-
kp + q p = 0 f or i = 1, 2 (1) fected by the thermal resistances of a CNT, and by two TCRs.
xi2
Besides, if the CNT touches to lower temperature surface, the
Here Joule heating per unit volume and time, q p is represented
portion of heat in hot film goes to target and temperature pro-
as
Qp file is changed as dotted line in Figure 1. In contrast, if the
qp = (2) CNT end contacts with the higher temperature surface, the heat
A p (L1 + L2 )
comes from surface through CNT and into the Pt film. Thus the
where the heat generation of Pt hot film, Q p is given by Q p = Pt film gets additional heating and the temperature distribution
IV . I is the electrical current and V is the voltage. Heat con- in the film is expected to become dashed-line in Figure 1. How-
duction equation without heat generation in the CNT is given ever, when CNT-junction temperature is same as target surface
by temperature, heat flow through a CNT does not occur and the
2 T3 (x3 ) temperature at the CNT-Pt junction. We can control the hot-
kf =0 (3)
x32 film temperature by changing the heat generation in Pt hot film,
By solving equations from (1) to (3), general solutions of the which makes the hot-film temperature at the CNT-Pt jucntion
temperature are obtained as same with target surface. Therefore the target surface tempera-
ture can be estimated quantitatively when the temperature of Pt
Qp hot-film in non-contact case is constant with that in case that a
T1 (x1 ) = x2 +C1 x1 +C2 (4)
2k p A p (L1 + L2 ) 1 CNT end contacts with target surface.

Qp The temperature of target surface is estimated by Equation (9),

T2 (x2 ) = x2 +C3 x2 +C4 (5)
2k p A p (L1 + L2 ) 2 and we use the average thermal conductivity of the Pt hot film,
Figure 1: Heat transfer model of a suspended platinum nano
hot-film with an individual carbon nanotube probe. Here the V
is the voltmater, I is the electrical current, and Rstd is standard
resistor. The T j and Tt is the hot-film temperature at CNT-Pt
junction and target surface temperature, respectively. The three
red lines denote the temperature distribution along the Pt film
for three cases: CNT-Pt junction temperature, T j is same as tar-
get surface temperature, Tt , higher than target, or lower than
target. The first case also denotes the non-contact case.
Figure 2: SEM image of the fabricated sensor that the one end
of a CNT is fixed on the Pt hot-film and the other is protrude
from the edge of line of silicon substrate. Two Pt electrodes
work as heat sink. Inset figure is the HRTEM image of the
employed carbon nanotube.
Figure 3: Flow chart of the experimental procedure. Here the
Vbe f ore and Va f ter are each represents the voltage of the Pt hot-
film in the non-contact case and contact, respectively. I is read
from constant heating current value of Pt cross-linking section.
which is estimated from the average temperature, Tave and the
premeasured relationship between the thermal conductivity and
temperature in the hot film. Because the relationship between
temperature and resistance is linear in wide range of tempera-
ture, Tave is associated with the electrical resistance of the hot
film, R p as Tave = (R p Rre f )/ + Tre f . Here is the pre-
measured temperature coefficient of resistance of a platinum hot
film, Rre f is the electrical resistance at reference temperature
Tre f . In this study, we set Tre f as 300 K and Tave is estimated
from Rre f at 300 K.
Experiment
A SEM image of fabricated sensor and TEM image of a CNT
end are shown in Figure 2. The CNT protorude from the edge
of SiO2 /Si substrate, thus the CNT end can contact with target
surface. Experimental procedure is explained in Figure 3. First,

Figure 4: Target sample: platinum nano hot film which is not
suspended from SiO2 /Si substrate. The red lines on the Pt heater
show the experimental coordinates. The xlongitudial is along the
Pt heater and xtransverse is perpendicular to the Pt heater. The
both side of the Pt heater are connected to electrodes.
Figure 5: SEM images during measurement. In figure A and
B, temperatures of the both end of the platinum/titanium heater
were measured. The temperature of the center of Pt/Ti heater
(figure C) and at few micron distance from the heater along
transverse direction were measured (figure D), respectively.
electrical current is applied to a Pt hot film, the voltage of the
Joule-heated hot film, Vbe f ore is measured. Then, If the voltage
after contact, Va f ter is not same with Vbe f ore when a CNT end
contacts with target surface, we detach the CNT end from target
surface and increase/decrease applied electrical current to make
the Vbe f ore be unchanged after contact. By repeating this pro-
cess, the gap between Vbe f ore and Va f ter becomes less than the
voltage fluctuation caused by controlled-temperature instability,
and in this time we judge Vbe f ore is same value with Va f ter . Fi-
nally, we calculate the electrical resistance of hot film, R p from
the Vbe f ore (Va f ter ) and applied electrical current I, and estimate
the target temperature Tt by equation (9).
We applied two different electrical current (1.5 mA, 3.0 mA)
and measuring the two direction temperature profiles in each
electrical current value. The one direction is along the heater
(longitudinal) and the other is perpendicular direction to the
heater (transverse).
Figure 5 is the SEM image when a CNT end contact with the
target surface. In this experiment, measured point on the tar-
get is judged by SEM image, however futher progress such as
spatial and temperature resolution is achieved by combining the
AFM system with our measurement method.
Target sample of the patterned Platinum/Titanium film is shown
in Figure 5, and line-patterned heater is connected with two
electrodes. The length and width of the heater is 9.73 m and
604 nm, respectively. The heater thichness is about 50nm (Pt:
41.9 nm, Ti: 8 nm), and film is on the 200 nm-thickness SiO2
layer. Fabricated heater has high aspect ratio in order to be seen
as one-dimensional heat flow along the longitudinal direction.
Result and discussion
Measured temperature profile along the transverse directions is
shown in Figure 6, where measured temperature at the 1 m dis-
tance from the edge line of heater is almost same with ambient
temperature in both cases (1.5 mA, 3.0 mA). Temperature pro-
file for longitudinal direction is also shown in Figure 7. Temper-
ature at the both end of the heater in case 3.0 mA is higher than
that of 1.5 mA because of high heat generation and is consid-
ered to be alomost same with the ambient temperature far from
the heater end. In this study, we simply use the 1D heat transfer
model to estimate how much heat is dissipated to substrate and
the temperature distribution at point x is described as:
2 Th (x) hWh
kh [T (x) Tamb ] + qh = 0 (16)
x2 Ah
where the kh is the thermal conductivity, Wh is the width and
Ah is the cross-sectional are of the heater, h is the interfacial
thermal conductance (ITC) at heater/SiO2 interface and qh is
the Joule heating per unit volume and time expressed as qh =
Qh /(Ah Lh ). Here , Qh is given by Qh = IV and Lh is the length
of the heater. By solving Equation (16), we obtained the general
form of temperature of the heater as
Qv
Th (x) = C1 exp (mx) +C2 exp (mx) + + Tamb (17)
m2 kh Ah Lh
where C1 and C2 are the constants of integration, and m is de-
fined as m = (hWh /kh Ah )1/2 . By solving Equation (17) with
boundary conditions same with Equation (10)-(11), C1 and C2
are determined as:
Qh 1 exp(mLh )
C1 = (18)
m2 kh Ah Lh exp(mLh ) exp(mLh )
Qh 1 exp(mLh )
C2 = (19)
m2 kh Ah Lh exp(mLh ) exp(mLh )
Thus the temperature distribution of the heater is given as a fol-
lowing equation.
Qh
Th (x) =
m2 kh Ah Lh
[ ]
sinh(mx) + sinh (m(Lh x))
1 + Tamb (20)
sinh(mLh )
From the past experiment data of other sample, the thermal con-
ductivity of heater, kh is assumed to be about 35W/mK and
we estimated ITC at heater/SiO2 interface as 22-30 MW/m2 K
by using Equation (20). In this work, simple 1D heat transfer
model is used, where we assume that the temperature of SiO2
is same with the temperature of the both sides of heater. There-
fore discussing the obtained ITC value is future task after fur-
ther investigation that analyzes more precisely the heat dissi-
pation from the heater to substrate by using three-dimensional
heat transfer model.

Figure 6: Target surface temperature distributions perpendicu-
lar to the Pt heater coordinate (transverse direction). The circle
marks denote the 3.0 mA heating case and the square marks de-
note the 1.5 mA heating case. The origin of the x-displacement
is fabricated heater configuraion and coordinates. This picture
is taken by SEM.
Figure 7: Target surface temperature along to the Pt heater (lon-
gitudinal direction). The circle marks denote the 3.0 mA heat-
ing case and the square marks denote the 1.5 mA heating case.
The origin of x-displacement is the left end of the heater. Mea-
surement data are fitted by 1D heat transfer model. Room tem-
perature that experiment conducted in is 302 K in both experi-
ments.
Conclusion
Novel surface temperature profiler using an individual carbon
nanotube is developed, which enable us to measure the surface
temperature quantitatively by feed-back system. In this mea-
surement, the thermal contact resistance between a CNT end
and target surface does not affect and high spatial resolution
can be achieved because of the small radius of CNT end. In this
study, thermal distribution around a metallic thin-film heater is
obtained to confirm the validity of our method and heat dissi-
pation from heater to substrate is evaluated by simple 1D heat
transfer model. Measuring the thermal profile of nanomateri-
als is future task and this method has great potential to reveal
nanoscale heat transport phenomena.
Acknowledgements
This work was partially supported by Grants-in-Aid for Sci-
entific Research (23360101, 23656153, and 24560237) and a
Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Fellows (231457, 24560237). Sensor
fabrication was partially conducted at the Collabo-Station II
of Kyushu University. The HRTEM observations were con-
ducted in the Research Laboratory for High Voltage Electron
Microscopy, Kyushu University.
References
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vice, Nano Research, 3, 2012, 147-169.
[2] Taguchi, Y., Oka, T., Saiki, T. and Nagasaka, Y., De-
velopment of near-field fluorscence lifetime thermetry,
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Anomalous resolutions in scanning thermal microscopy of
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silicon films by scanning thermal microscopy, Interna-
tional Journal of Thermophysics, 23, 2002, 1645-1657.
[5] Lefevere, S., Volz, S. and Chapuis, P.-O., Nanoscale heat
transfer at contact between a hot tip and substrate, Inter-
natioal Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 49, 2006, 251-
258.
[6] Majumdar, A., Carrejo, J. P. and Lai, J., Thermal imag-
ing using the atomic force microscope, Applied Physics
Letters, 62, 1993, 2501-2503.
[7] Shi, L., Plyasunov, S., Bachtold, A., McEuen, P., and
Majumdar, A., Scanning thermal microscopy of carbon
nanotubes using batch-fabricated probes, Applied Physics
Letters, 77, 2000, 4295-4297.
[8] Shi, L. and Majumdar, A., Thermal transport mechnisms
at nanoscale point contacts, Journal of Heat Transfer, 124,
2002, 329-337.
[9] Kim, K., Jeong, W., Lee, W., and Reddy, P., Ultra-high
vacuum scanning thermal microscopy for nanometer res-
olution quantitative thermometry, ACS Nano, 6, 2012,
4248-4257.
[10] Hafner, J., Cheung, C.-L., Woolley, A. and Lieber, C.,
Structural and functional imaging with carbon nanotube
AFM probes, Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biol-
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[11] Zhang, X., Xie, H., Ago, H., Takahashi, K., Ikuta, T., Abe,
H., and Shimizu, T., Applied physics letters; thermal and
electrical conductivity of a suspended platinum nanofilm,
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[12] Hirotani, J., Ikuta, T. and Takahashi, K., Experimental
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DOI:10.1007/s10765-011-1137-1.
[13] Fujii, M., Zhang, X., Xie, H., Ago, H., Takahashi, K.,
Ikuta, T., Abe, H. and Shimizu, T., Measuring the thermal
conductivity of a single carbon nanotube, Physica. Review
Letter, 95, 2005, 065502.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

CFD Study of Turbulent Cross-flow in an In-line Tube Bundle

Youngmin Bae1, Han-Ok Kang1 and Young-In Kim1

1
Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute
Daeduk-daero 989-111, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 305-353, South Korea

Abstract great deal of experimental and numerical studies have been

conducted for several decades, to understand the detailed features
This study numerically investigates the turbulent cross-flow in an of shell-side cross-flow over tube bundles [2,9] as well as to
in-line tube bundle consisting of 10 rows of rods arranged with a develop correlations for pressure drop and heat transfer
constant pitch-to-diameter ratio of 1.5. The three-dimensional coefficients [4,12]. With regard to the velocity and turbulence
unsteady incompressible flow is computed using a large eddy distributions, extensive measurements have also been made using
simulation approach at a Reynolds number of 27000 based on the laser Doppler anemometry (LDA) and particle image velocimetry
inlet velocity and tube diameter. The validity of the numerical (PIV) [1,6]. Clarifying the detailed structures of a cross-flow in
results is assessed by comparing the time-averaged streamwise tube bundles, however, still remains difficult and expensive in
velocity distributions behind the tubes and separation points with experiments.
the experimental data. The flow instability originated from the Understanding the flow characteristics in tube bundles is a
streamwise vortices formed in the near-wake is discussed in the critical prerequisite for an effective and reliable design of a heat
paper, with the emphasis on the spatio-temporal characteristics of exchanger. The flow in tube bundles is characterized by the
wall pressure fluctuation as well as the wavelength of spanwise three-dimensional, unsteady motion of separated shear layers,
non-uniformity. anisotropic vortices over a wide range of length scales and their
interactions, and a high level of turbulence intensity [5,6], which
Nomenclature are strongly dependent on the tube configuration, arrangement,
Cs Smagorinsky constant and flow condition. These complexities often make a numerical
d tube diameter simulation of the tube bundle flow a challenging task. For
p pressure instance, a Reynolds averaged NavierStokes (RANS) approach
p' pressure fluctuation has been widely used for the prediction of a turbulent flow in
Q second invariant of velocity gradient many practical applications, but it has been recognized that
Re Reynolds number RANS models severely underestimate the turbulence level and
S* pitch-to-diameter ratio may not be suitable for the calculation of a tube bundle flow [9].
Sij strain rate tensor On the other hand, a large eddy simulation (LES) technique has
St Strouhal number the potential to provide accurate predictions of turbulent statistics,
u x-direction velocity component and thus it is now considered as a promising tool for studying the
U mean streamwise velocity fundamental features of a turbulent flow in tube bundles [2,3,5].
U0 inlet velocity In the present study, we numerically investigate the turbulent
v y-direction velocity component cross-flow in an in-line tube bundle, which is composed of 10
w z-direction velocity component rows of rods arranged with a pitch-to-diameter ratio of 1.5. By
x streamwise coordinate means of a commercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
xL x-direction distance from tube center code, Fluent 12.0, a three-dimensional LES is performed at a
y transverse coordinate Reynolds number of 27000 based on the inlet velocity and tube
y+ non-dimensional wall distance diameter. The obtained results such as the instantaneous vortex
y first grid spacing at the wall structures, mean velocity profiles, and separation angles are
z spanwise coordinate compared with the experimental data [6] to assess the validity of
the present simulation. The three-dimensional instability
Greeks originated from the streamwise vortices formed in the near-wake
filter width is also discussed in this paper, particularly focusing on the time-
ij Kronecker delta spatial characteristics of wall pressure fluctuation as well as the
wavelength wavelength of spanwise non-uniformity.
kinematic viscosity of fluid
circumferential location
Computational set-up
s separation angle
fluid density Governing equations and numerical methods
ij subgrid-scale stress tensor
z spanwise vorticity In the present study, we consider a three-dimensional, unsteady,
incompressible turbulent flow. Under the assumption of a single-
phase constant-property Newtonian fluid, it is governed by the
Introduction filtered NavierStokes equations as
A turbulent flow in tube bundles has received much attention in a
variety of heat transfer applications. More specifically, a shell- ui
side cross-flow continues to be one of the major concerns in the 0 (1)
design of heat exchangers, steam generators, evaporators, etc. A xi
Figure 1. Schematic of turbulent flow in an in-line tube bundle: Figure 3. Iso-surfaces of normalized second invariant of velocity
x-z (top) and x-y (bottom) planes gradient Q=372 coloured with spanwise vorticity z (21 levels
between -50 and 50)

ui ui u j 1 p 2 ui ij diameter ratio of S*=1.5. In the transverse direction, there are one

(2)
t x j xi xi xi xi full rod and two half-rods of diameter d and span width 3.3d. The
computational domain is extended from 10d upstream to 33.5d
where the overbar denotes the spatial filtering operation. For the downstream in the streamwise direction (or x-direction), and 3d
subgrid-scale (SGS) stresses ij in equation (2), we employ herein in the transverse direction (or y-direction). Note that this is
the classical Smagorinsky model, based on the fact that the almost the same setup as in the experiment of Iwaki et al. [6]
influence of subgrid-scale model is insignificant in case of the except for the number of transverse tubes.
tube bundle flow [10]. The deviatory part of the SGS stress is
As for the boundary conditions, uniform velocity U0 is prescribed
therefore given by
at the inlet, while the outflow boundary condition is imposed at
the outlet. The Reynolds number based on the inlet velocity and
1
ij kk ij 2C s 2 S S ij (3) tube diameter is 27000. The flow periodicity is assumed in both
3 the y- and z-directions. The tube surfaces are treated as stationary
no-slip smooth walls.
where ij is the Kronecker delta, Cs is the Smagorinsky constant
(Cs=0.065), and is the filter width. In equation (3), Sij is the Mesh configuration
strain rate tensor for the resolved scale: A continuous body-fitted mesh is generated by making use of the
geometry and mesh building intelligent toolkit (GAMBIT). As
1 u u j depicted in Figure 2, the computational grids consisting of
S ij i (4)
2 x j xi 4814400 hexahedral volume cells are clustered into tube surfaces,
where 160 and 40 grid points are distributed uniformly in the
circumferential and spanwise directions (or z-direction),
S ij 2S ij S ij
1/ 2
(5) respectively. It should also be noted that the first grid spacing at
the wall is set to be y=0.0008d, and this corresponds to a non-
The governing equations are solved using the commercial CFD dimensional wall distance of y+=1.5.
code, Fluent 12.0, which is based on the finite volume method
(FVM). In the present LES, a segregated and double precision Results and discussion
solver is utilized with semi-implicit methods for pressure linked
Flow characteristics
equations (SIMPLE) algorithm for pressure-velocity coupling [8],
a second-order central differencing method for discretization, and To understand the basic features of a turbulent flow over the in-
a second-order implicit method for time advancement. line tube bundle, instantaneous flow structures are shown in
Figures 3 and 4, using the iso-surface of the second invariant of
Computational domain and boundary conditions
the velocity gradient and streamwise velocity distribution,
Figure 1 illustrates the computational domain and corresponding respectively. It is shown that complex flow phenomena such as
boundary conditions used in our simulation. The in-line tube the interaction of separated shear layer with a downstream row,
bundle is composed of 10 rows of tubes arranged with a pitch-to- three-dimensional vortical structures over a wide range of length

Figure 2. Mesh configuration for LES of turbulent flow through Figure 4. Instantaneous streamwise velocity distributions u/U0
an in-line tube bundle (31 levels between -2 and 4)
 (a) (b) (c)
Figure 5. Comparison of streamwise velocity development U/U0 behind the tubes at (a) the first, (b) second, and (c) third rows: present
solution, measurement by Iwaki et al. [6]

scales, and a high velocity jet behind the last row changing its LES and the measured data is shown to be reasonably good,
direction intermittently are effectively resolved in the LES. Two particularly in the downstream of the second row where the
distinctive flow regions are clearly discernable in the streamwise separation angle does not change significantly. In the experiment
velocity distribution, i.e., the high velocity region in the narrow by Iwaki et al. [6], it was reported that the wake structure behind
passage between adjacent tubes and the recirculation region the first row is much different from the others, leading to
behind the tubes. It is also interesting to note that the increased width of the recirculation region and an upward
recirculation flows differ from row to row. As was shown in the movement of the separation point at the first row. In our
experiment of Iwaki et al. [6], an asymmetric vortex pattern of a simulation, the separation point of the first row is about 90,
large vortex accompanied by a small vortex is most frequently while the separation points at the other rows are in the range of
observed behind the tubes, whereas a symmetric pair of vortices 100~120. This result is consistent with the previous observation
or a single large vortex seldom forms. Furthermore, the vortex
pattern in the wake region is found to be nearly 180 out of phase
with those in the neighboring rows except for the first row. The
wake structures behind the other rows also show similar results.
Comparison with experiment
To further assess the validity of the present LES, Figure 5
compares the time-averaged streamwise velocity (normalized by
U0) distributions behind the first three rows, at several locations
downstream from each tube center. Note that the time-averaged
velocity components in the LES are computed as an average of
the instantaneous values over 40 non-dimensional time (t*=tU0/d),
after the flow reaches a quasi-periodic stage. It can be seen that
the mean velocity profiles agree fairly well with the measurement
[6] in both the inter-tube region and the recirculation region. The
development of a streamwise velocity with distance downstream
(e.g. increase of non-uniformity) is also found to be well
predicted in the present LES.
Figure 6 shows a comparison of the separation points on the
Figure 6. Comparison of separation angle with the experimental
tubes, which are defined by the angle from the front stagnation
data: present solution, measurement of Iwaki et al. [6]
point of each tube. The overall agreement between the present

(a)
(b)
Figure 7. Time histories of spanwise wall pressure fluctuation di-
stribution p'/U02 at (a) =90 and (b) =180 (25 levels between [5] Hassan, Y.A. and Barsamian, H.R., Tube bundle flows with
-1.2 and 1.2)
[6], indicating that the present LES provides reliable predictions
of a turbulent flow across tube bundles.
Spanwise non-uniformity
Figure 7 presents spatio-temporal characteristics of the wall
pressure fluctuation (normalized by U02) at two circumferential
locations up to the fourth row, where is defined by the angle
from the front stagnation point of each tube. At the tube top
(=90) of the first row, the pressure fluctuation exhibits a quasi-
periodic spanwise structure. This non-uniformity has a
wavelength of around one tube diameter /d~1, which is similar
to the mode-B instability of the flow over a single cylinder [7,11].
Further downstream, the spanwise non-uniformity becomes more
chaotic, and the pressure fluctuation increases until a fully
developed state is reached. A similar growth in the pressure
fluctuation is also found at the rear end of the tube (=180).
Moreover, it is interesting to note here that any pressure marks
corresponding to the typical vortex shedding frequency of
St=fd/U0=0.1~0.2 is not discernible at the first four rows. Instead,
the pressure fluctuation associated with the shear layer instability
whose non-dimensional period is approximately 0.65 (or St=1.5)
is noticeable in the present study.
Conclusions
In this study, we numerically investigate a turbulent cross-flow in
an in-line tube bundle consisting of 10 rows of rods arranged
with a pitch-to-diameter ratio of 1.5. With the aid of the
commercial CFD code Fluent 12.0, a large eddy simulation is
performed at a Reynolds number of 27000 based on the inlet
velocity and tube diameter. By comparing the time-averaged
streamwise velocity distributions behind the tubes and the
separation points with the experimental data, it has been shown
that LES provides reliable predictions of a turbulent flow across
the in-line tube bundle. The spatio-temporal characteristics of the
wall pressure fluctuation are also investigated, with a brief
discussion on the spanwise non-uniformity originated from the
streamwise vortices formed in the near-wake. More in-depth
investigations will be pursued in a future study.
Acknowledgments
This study has been performed under a contract with the Korean
Ministry of Educational Science and Technology. The authors
would like to acknowledge the support from KISTI super-
computing center through the strategic support program for the
supercomputing application research [No. KSC-2012-C1-03].
References
[1] Balabani, S., Bergeles, G., Burry, D. and Yanneskis, M.,
Velocity characteristics of the crossflow over tube bundles,
7th International Symposium on Applications of Laser
Anemometry to Fluid Mechanics, 2, 1994, 39.3.139.3.8
[2] Barsamian, H.R. and Hassan, Y.A., Large eddy simulation
of turbulent crossflow in tube bundles, Nuclear Engineering
and Design, 172, 1997, 103122.
[3] Benhamadouche, S. and Laurence, D., LES, coarse LES, and
transient RANS comparisons on the flow across a tube
bundle, International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, 24,
2003, 470479.
[4] Gaddis, E.S. and Gnielinski, V., Pressure drop in cross flow
across tube bundles, International Chemical Engineering, 25,
1985, 115.
the large Eddy simulation technique in curvilinear
coordinates, International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 47, 2004, 30573071.
[6] Iwaki, C., Cheong, K. H., Monji, H. and Matsui, G., PIV
measurement of the vertical cross-flow structure over tube
bundles, Experiments in Fluids, 37, 2004, 350363.
[7] Nakamura, H. and Igarashi, T., Unsteady heat transfer from
a circular cylinder for Reynolds numbers from 3000 to
15000, International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, 25,
2004, 741748.
[8] Patankar, S.V., Numerical heat transfer and fluid flow,
Hemisphere Publishing Co., New York, 1981.
[9] Paul, S.S., Ormiston, S.J. and Tachie, M.F., Experimental
and numerical investigation of turbulent cross-flow in a
staggered tube bundle, International Journal of Heat and
Fluid Flow, 29, 2008, 387414.
[10] Rollet-Miet, P., Laurence, D. and Ferziger, J., LES and
RANS of turbulent flow in tube bundles, International
Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, 20, 1999, 241254.
[11] Williamson, C.H.K., Three-dimensional wake transition,
Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 328, 1996, 345407.
[12] Zukauskas, A. and Ulinskas, R., Banks of plain and finned
tubes, in: Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, Hemisphere
Publishing Co., New York, 1987.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Quantitative Image Analysis of Dynamic Behavior of

Liquid Water Droplets Emerging from GDL of PEMFC

K. Nishida1, T. Tonoike1, J. Tashiro1, S. Tsushima2 and S. Hirai2

1
Department of Mechanical and System Engineering
Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan
2
Department of Mechanical and Control Engineering
Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan

Abstract resolution neutron radiography. Sinha et al. [10] have explored

In order to solve water management issues such as flooding and
plugging in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), it
is essential to more fundamentally understand liquid water
transport between porous electrode and gas channel on cathode
side. This paper presented a novel imaging technique for
quantitatively analyzing the dynamic behavior of liquid water
droplets emerging from the cathode gas diffusion layer (GDL) of
a PEMFC based on background subtraction method.
Furthermore, the local current density measurement was
performed using segment cell structure concept, and the
relationship between the water and current distributions along the
flow path was also investigated. It was found that a large
number of liquid water droplets are generated in the midstream
region of the counter-flow serpentine flow field. High
stoichiometric dry gas flow at the anode and cathode inlets
suppresses the liquid water formation in the catalyst layer, and
decreases the amount of liquid water discharged from the cathode
GDL.
Introduction
Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is a promising
candidate for stationary and automotive applications of its high
power density and low operating temperature. However, there
are several problems associated with water management in order
to achieve high performance operation of a PEMFC. At high
current densities, excessive water generated by the cathode
electrode reaction is rapidly condensed in the catalyst layer (CL)
and porous GDL. When the open pores inside the cathode CL
and GDL are filled with liquid water, oxygen cannot be
sufficiently diffused to the reaction sites. In addition, liquid
water droplets accumulated in the GDL are transported to the gas
channel by capillary forces. If the gas channel at the cathode
side is plugged with liquid droplets, the oxygen flow is blocked
and the fuel cell performance is degraded. These phenomena
known as flooding and plugging are a critical barrier for high
efficiency and high power density. To solve these issues, it is
necessary to elucidate the fundamental phenomena of liquid
water transport between the porous GDL and gas channel at the
cathode.
the possibility of using X-ray micro-tomography to quantify the
liquid water distribution along the GDL thickness of a PEMFC.
Litster et al. [6] developed the fluorescence microscopy
technique for visualizing liquid water in hydrophobic fibrous
media, and applied to ex-situ measurement of the water transport
in a GDL. Although many experimental studies have been
examined as mentioned above, liquid droplet behavior in porous
electrode during PEMFC operation is not quantitatively analyzed.
In this study, the growth behavior of liquid water droplets
emerging from the cathode GDL of a transparent PEMFC is
experimentally visualized by using a digital microscope.
Furthermore, a novel post-imaging technique for quantitatively
evaluating the water droplet emergence from the GDL surface is
established based on background subtraction method.
Background subtraction is a simple but effective approach for
detecting moving objects, and enables to extract the water droplet
outlines clearly. In this image processing, the droplet size
distribution in the cathode channel of the PEMFC can be
quantitatively analyzed, and the effect of inlet gas flow rate on
the water droplet behavior is discussed. In addition, the
relationship between the water and current distributions along the
flow path is also investigated using the segmented current
collector technique.
Experimental
Experimental Apparatus
To perform the image measurement of liquid droplet behavior in
cathode electrode, the direct visualization is conducted using a
transparent fuel cell. Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of
the experimental setup, which consists of a gas supply unit, a
Digital microscope
PC
Electronic load

Previously, many researchers conducted visualization studies to

probe water transport in operating PEMFCs. Liquid water
formation, accumulation and removal in cathode GDL and gas
channel were experimentally investigated by neutron radiography H2 O2
[1,2,3,4,9,12,14,16], soft X-ray radiography [8], X-ray computed Transparent fuel cell
tomography [5,10], and optical visualization using transparent
fuel cell [6,7,11,13,15]. Boillat et al. [2] resolved the water Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup for
distribution between the different layers of the membrane visualizing the liquid droplet behaviour in the transparent fuel
electrode assembly (MEA) in an operating PEMFC using high- cell.
 Segment
current collector
Separator
PEM
GDL Quartz glass
H2
Figure 2. Structure of the transparent fuel cell.
9 8 5 4 O2 1
Segment
current Serpentine
collector flow channel
10 7 6 3 2
Figure 3. Measurement positions of the water behavior and
current distribution in the cathode serpentine flow field.
digital microscope system (HIROX, KH-1300), a transparent fuel
cell, an electronic load (Kikusui, PLZ-164WA), and a personal
computer. The temperature of the transparent cell is maintained
constant by using a ribbon heater and temperature controller.
The microscope lens is set above the transparent cell, and the
liquid water behavior on the cathode side of the operating cell is
optically observed. The working distance between the lens and
the cathode GDL surface is adjusted to 54 mm. The time-series
output voltage and temperature of the operating fuel cell are
recorded by the data logger. The high frequency resistance
(HFR) of the electrolyte membrane is measured by the LCR
meter (HIOKI, 3522-50).
Figure 2 shows the structure of the transparent fuel cell used in
this experiment. A polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM,
Nafion-115) is sandwiched between two hydrophobic GDLs
(Toray, TGP-H-060) in which Pt/C catalyst (Pt: 0.5 mg/cm2) is
loaded. The MEA constructed of the PEM, two catalyst layers
and two GDLs is sandwiched between two copper current
collectors with gold coating. The cathode-side current collector
is divided into 10 segments to measure the current distribution.
Each segment is connected with a separate current line. The
active electrode area of the experimental cell is 5.0 cm2. Two
stainless steel separators, which have a single-serpentine flow
channel, are placed outside the current collectors. These
separators are held together by four M6 bolts and tightened with
a controlled torque. The width, depth and length of the
serpentine channel are 2.0 mm, 2.0 mm, and 10.5 cm,
respectively. To directly observe the liquid droplet behavior in
the cathode flow field, a quartz glass is inserted into the cathode
separator as a window. Pure hydrogen and oxygen as the fuel
and oxidant are fed into the anode and cathode channels in the
counter-flow arrangement without humidification. The
stoichiometries of H2 and O2 are initially set to 5 and 10,
respectively. In this experiment, the influence of inlet gas flow
rate on the water droplets behaviour at the cathode is examined.
O2
Observed Background
image image
(1) Background
subtraction
Droplet size distribution
of water in the cathode
channel
(2) Extraction of (3) Calculation of
droplet outline droplet diameter
Figure 4. Procedure of the image post-processing of liquid droplet
behavior on the cathode GDL surface based on background
subtraction method.
The operating temperature, pressure and current density are 30oC,
1 atm and 0.3 A/cm2. Figure 3 presents the measurement
positions of the water behavior and current distribution in the
cathode serpentine flow field. The cathode gas flows from the
upper right to the lower left. As shown in this figure, the
measurement area is divided into 10 positions along the flow
channel.
Image Processing Based on Background Subtraction Method
Figure 4 shows the procedure of the image post-processing of
liquid droplet behavior based on background subtraction method.
Background subtraction is a simple but effective technique for
detecting moving objects from the difference between the current
frame of an image sequence and the static background image of
the scene. Even if it is difficult to identify transparent water
droplets on the GDL surface, this image processing enables to
extract the droplet outlines clearly. In this procedure, the binary
subtraction image is first obtained by subtracting the background
image from the observed image (Step 1). Subsequently, the
outline of each droplet in the subtraction image is extracted and
its diameter is calculated (Step 2 and 3). The droplet size
distribution of water in the cathode flow field is quantitatively
analysed, and the amount of liquid water discharged from the
GDL can be estimated.
Experimental Procedure
The experimental procedure in this study is as follows:
The pre-operation of the experimental fuel cell is carried out at
0.16 A/cm2 and 20oC for 30 min in order to hydrate the
electrolyte membrane. The HFR of the membrane is
decreased to 650 m cm2, and the sufficient hydration of the
MEA can be achieved in this step.
After the pre-operation, the constant-current operation tests are
performed at 0.3 A/cm2 and 30oC. During cell operation, the
liquid droplet behavior on the cathode GDL surface is
visualized using the digital microscope. The current density
distribution is also monitored by using the segment current
collector. These measurements are carried out separately in
different experiments.
 post-processing based on background subtraction method.
Subsequently, the growth behavior of liquid droplets on the From this image processing, the droplet size distribution of
cathode GDL surface is quantitatively analyzed by the image liquid water in the cathode channel is estimated.

Results and Discussion

Quantitative Evaluation of Liquid Water Droplets Emerging from
Cathode GDL
Figure 5 presents the binary subtraction images of liquid droplets
emerging from the cathode GDL surface at t=360 s after starting
the operation. These images are obtained in the measurement
positions of No.5, 6, 7 and 8. The size of each image is 2.0 mm
x 7.0 mm. The current density is 0.3 A/cm2, and the gas streams
along the anode and cathode serpentine channels are arranged in
counter-flow. The stoichiometries of H2 and O2 are 5 and 10,
respectively. Figure 6 shows the droplet size distribution of
liquid water in the cathode channel at t=360 s. These data are
obtained from the binary subtraction images shown in Figure 5.
(a) No.5 (b) No.6 (c) No.7 (d) No.8 In this calculation, the number of liquid droplets attached to the
channel sidewall is not counted. In the counter-flow fuel cell,
Figure 5. Binary subtraction images of liquid water droplets the number of liquid water droplets in the midstream region of
emerging from the cathode GDL surface at t=360 s after starting No.6 is large compared with that observed in other areas, because
the operation (Measurement positions: No.5, 6, 7 and 8). much water is generated in the active catalyst layer. The
average droplet diameter of water in the position of No.6 is 0.261
10 mm, which is the largest in all areas. Furthermore, as shown in
the subtraction images, several large droplets are agglomerated
Number of droplets [-]

Total number of droplets:22

8
Average droplet diameter:0.209 [mm]
and attached to the channel sidewall.
6

4 Figure 7(a) and (b) exhibit the changes of the number of liquid
2 droplets and the average droplet diameter in all measurement
0
positions of the cathode channel during startup operation
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 (t=160~360 s). No liquid water droplets are observed at the
Droplet diameter [mm]
positions of No.1, 2, 9 and 10 for 360 s. As the time proceeds,
(a) No.5 the number of liquid droplets emerging from the GDL increases
due to the water production in the cathode catalyst layer. The
10
total number in the whole cathode channel reaches over 120 at
Number of droplets[-]

Total number of droplets:25

8
Average droplet diameter:0.261[mm]
6 t=160 s
30
t=180 s
Number of liquid droplets [-]

4
25 t=200 s
2 t=240 s
20 t=280 s
0 t=320 s
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 t=360 s
Droplet diameter [mm] 15
(b) No.6 10

10 5
Number of droplets [-]

Total number of droplets:23

8 0
Average droplet diameter:0.254[mm]
6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Measurement position
4
(a) Number of liquid droplets
2

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.3 t=160 s
Average droplet diameter [mm]

Droplet diameter [mm] t=180 s

0.25 t=200 s
(c) No.7 t=240 s
t=280 s
0.2
10 t=320 s
t=360 s
Number of droplets [-]

8
Total number of total droplets:19 0.15
Average droplet diameter:0.197[mm]
6 0.1
4 0.05
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65
Droplet diameter [mm] Measurement position
(d) No.8 (b) Average droplet diameter

Figure 6. Droplet size distributions of liquid water at the positions Figure 7. Changes of the number of liquid droplets and the
of No.5, 6, 7 and 8 of the cathode channel after 360 s of operation. average droplet diameter during startup operation (t=160~360 s).
 3 10

Number of droplets [-]

from cathode GDL [L/cm ]
Total number of droplets:6
2

t=200 s 8
2.5 Average droplet diameter:0.141[mm]
Amount of liquid water

t=240 s
6
t=280 s
2
t=320 s 4
t=360 s
1.5 2

1 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65
Droplet diameter [mm]
0.5
(a) No.5
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10
Measurement position

Number of droplets [-]

Total number of droplets:22
8
Average droplet diameter:0.208[mm]
6
Figure 8. Distribution of the amount of liquid water discharged
from the cathode GDL surface during startup (t=200~360 s). 4

2
0.4 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65
Current density [A/cm ]
2

Droplet diameter [mm]

0.35 (b) No.6

10
0.3

Number of droplets [-]

Total number of droplets:9
8
Average droplet diameter:0.229[mm]
0.25 6

4
0.2 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
Measurement position 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65
Droplet diameter [mm]

Figure 9. Current density distribution along the cathode flow path (c) No.7
at t=360 s.
10
Total number of droplets:4
Number of droplets[-]

t=360 s. Furthermore, in the case of counter-flow pattern, the 8

number of water droplets becomes large in the midstream region.
The average droplet diameter is in the range of approximately 0.1
to 0.25 mm during startup, as seen in Figure 7(b). The diameter
of liquid water droplets appearing on the porous GDL surface
grows about 0.1 mm quickly. Thereafter, the droplet size
increases gradually with the passage of time. When the size of
water droplets reaches over 0.4 mm in diameter, these droplets
tend to combine to form a large one. The newly agglomerated
droplet immediately adheres to the hydrophilic channel sidewall,
transforming into a liquid film.
Figure 8 shows the distribution of the amount of liquid water
discharged from the cathode GDL surface during startup
(t=200~360 s). These plots are obtained by integrating the
volume of liquid droplets on the GDL surface in all measurement
positions. The shape of all liquid droplets is assumed to be
spherical. The operating conditions are the same as those in
Figure 5. It can be seen that the liquid water distribution has the
maximum value in the midstream region (No.6) of the counter-
flow cell because of much water production. The current
density distribution along the cathode flow path at t=360 s is
provided in Figure 9. During cell operation, the current density
data in each position are almost constant through time. The
current distribution also has the peak in the midstream region of
No.6, and this distribution pattern is similar to that of the liquid
water exhausted from the cathode GDL given in Figure 8.
Effect of Inlet Gas Flow Rate on Water Droplet Behavior in
Cathode Channel
Liquid water formation and accumulation on cathode side are
significantly affected by inlet gas flow rate of both anode and
cathode. This paper investigates the effects of increased dry H2
and O2 flow rates on the water droplet behavior in the cathode
channel of the counter-flow cell.
Average droplet diameter:0.242[mm]
6
4
2
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65
Droplet diameter [mm]
(d) No.8
Figure 10. Effect of increased anode gas flow rate on droplet size
distributions of liquid water at the positions of No.5, 6, 7 and 8 of
the cathode channel (H2/O2 stoichiometry=10/10).
Figure 10 shows the influence of increased anode gas flow rate
on the droplet size distribution of liquid water at the positions of
No.5, 6, 7 and 8 of the cathode channel. These data are
obtained after 360 s of operation. In this study, pure H2 and O2
are fed into the anode and cathode inlets without humidification,
respectively. The stoichiometry of H2 at the anode side is
increased to 10. By comparing Figure 6 and 10, it is found that
the number of liquid droplets at high stoichiometric H2 flow rate
is much less than that at low flow rate. The increase in dry H2
flow rate at the anode inlet reduces the water vapor concentration
in the anode channel, and enhances the back-diffusion of product
water from the cathode to anode. Consequently, the amount of
water condensed inside the cathode CL and GDL decreases and
the number of liquid droplets emerging from the GDL becomes
small.
Figure 11(a) and (b) present the effects of H2 and O2
stoichiometries on the number of liquid droplet and average
droplet diameter in all measurement positions of the cathode
channel. When the stoichiometric ratios of dry H2 and O2
increase, the number of water droplets emerging from the
 H2/O2 stoich.=5/10 volume of liquid droplets on the GDL at t=360 s. With
H2/O2 stoich.=10/10 increases in H2 and O2 stoichiometries, the amount of liquid
30 H2/O2 stoich.=5/20 water emerging from the cathode GDL decreases remarkably
Number of liquid droplets [-]

25 because of the enhanced back-diffusion and water evaporation.

High stoichiometric inlet flows of dry H2 and O2 effectively
20
alleviate liquid water accumulation in cathode GDL and channel,
15 but unfortunately cause membrane dryout.
10
Conclusions
5
To understand the fundamental phenomena of liquid water
0 transport on the cathode side of an operating PEMFC, this paper
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 presented a novel imaging technique for quantitatively analyzing
Measurement position the dynamic behavior of liquid droplets emerging from the GDL
(a) Number of liquid droplets based on background subtraction method. Furthermore, the
local current density measurement was performed using segment
H2/O2 stoich.=5/10
cell structure concept, and the relationship between the water and
H2/O2 stoich.=10/10 current distributions along the flow path was discussed.
0.3 H2/O2 stoich.=5/20 Especially, the following conclusions can be drawn from this
Average droplet diameter [mm]

0.25 study.

0.2 In the counter-flow configuration, a large number of liquid

0.15 water droplets emerge from the cathode GDL in the midstream
region because of much water production at the catalyst layer.
0.1 The distribution of the amount of liquid water discharged from
the GDL also has the peak in the midstream.
0.05

0 The diameter of liquid water droplets on the cathode GDL

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 surface grows approximately 0.1 mm rapidly after emerging.
Measurement position When the size of liquid droplets reaches over 0.4 mm in
(b) Average droplet diameter diameter, these droplets combine together and the newly
agglomerated droplet attaches to the channel sidewall.
Figure 11. Effects of H2 and O2 stoichiometries on the number of
liquid droplets and average droplet diameter in the cathode The current density distribution along the flow path also has
channel at t=360 s. the maximum value in the midstream region of the counter-
flow cell. This distribution pattern is similar to that of the
2.5 H2/O2 stoich.=5/10 liquid water discharged from the cathode GDL.
from cathode GDL [L/cm ]

H2/O2 stoich.=10/10
2
Amount of liquid water

2 With increases in stoichiometries of dry H2 and O2 at the anode
1.5
1
0.5
0
1 2
Figure 12. Distributions of the amount of liquid water discharged
from the cathode GDL surface at different gas stoichiometries.
cathode GDL reduces owing to the suppression of liquid water
formation. At high flow rate of dry H2, the water concentration
in the anode channel is remarkably decreased and the back-
diffusion of water from the cathode to anode is promoted due to
the large gradient of water content in the electrolyte membrane.
On the other hand, the increase in O2 stoichiometry at the cathode
side encourages the water evaporation in the catalyst layer.
However, it should be noted that extremely high stoichiometric
gas flow in the anode and cathode channels causes the membrane
dehydration and decreases the proton conductivity. The average
droplet diameter is in the range of approximately 0.14 to 0.26
mm, as seen in Figure 11(b).
Figure 12 exhibits the distributions of the amount of liquid water
discharged from the cathode GDL surface at different gas
stoichiometries. These data are obtained by integrating the
H2/O2 stoich.=5/20
and cathode inlets, the amount of liquid water emerging from
the cathode GDL decreases remarkably. High stoichiometric
gas flow effectively alleviates water flooding and plugging on
the cathode side, but unfortunately causes membrane dryout.
Acknowledgments
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 This work was supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research
Measurement position
(A) (No.22246024) of Japan Society for the Promotion of
Science (JSPS).
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[6] Litster, S., Sinton, D. and Djilali, N., Ex situ visualization of
liquid water transport in PEM fuel cell gas diffusion layers, J.
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[7] Nishida, K., Murakami, T., Tsushima, S. and Hirai, S.,
Measurement of liquid water content in cathode gas
diffusion electrode of polymer electrolyte fuel cell, J. Power
Sources, 195, 2010, 3365-3373.
[8] Sasabe, T., Tsushima, S., and Hirai, S., In-situ visualization
of liquid water in an operating PEMFC by soft X-ray
radiography, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, 35, 2010, 11119-
11128.
[9] Satija, R., Jacobson, D.L., Arif, M. and Werner, S.A., In situ
neutron imaging technique for evaluation of water
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Liquid Water Saturation in a PEM Fuel Cell Diffusion
Medium Using X-ray Microtomography, Electrochem.
Solid-State Lett., 9 (7), 2006, A344-A348.
[11] Tber, K., Pcza, D. and Hebling, C., Visualization of water
buildup in the cathode of a transparent PEM fuel cell, J.
Power Sources, 124, 2003, 403-414.
[12] Turhan, A., Heller, K., Brenizer, J.S. and Mench, M.M.,
Qualification of liquid water accumulation and distribution
in a polymer electrolyte fuel cell using neutron imaging, J.
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Visualization of Liquid Water Transport in a PEFC,
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Subcooled flow boiling CHF versus outlet subcooling in short tube

Yantao Li1, Katsuya Fukuda2 and Qiusheng Liu3

1
Graduate School of Maritime Sciences
Kobe University, Kobe 658-0022, Japan
2,3
Marine Engineering Department
Kobe University, Kobe 658-0022, Japan

Abstract Ti liquid temperature at tube inlet, K

The flow boiling critical heat fluxes (CHFs) previously measured
on the surface of a vertical cylinder versus subcoolings at each
flow velocity for various pressures, which increased with an
increase in subcooling, were clearly dependent on the pressures
for the lower subcoolings. On the contrary, The CHF values for
the higher subcoolings were almost independent of the pressures
except those for the pressures near atmospheric. The similar trend
of subcooling dependence was also observed in the CHFs on the
tube for intermediate and high subcooling range. The CHFs for
low subcoolings for the cylinder and those for intermediate
subcoolings for the tube agreed within 5 % difference with the
values derived from the correlation for each shape of the test
heater based on the hydrodynamic instability CHF model. On the
other hand, the CHFs for high subcooling, these were
considerably lower than the predicted values by the correlation,
were explained by assuming that the CHFs occur due to
explosive-like heterogeneous spontaneous nucleation in
previously flooded cavities on the surface in nucleate boiling
regime. This assumption was first made for the pool boiling
CHFs for high subcoolings. The object of this paper is to confirm
if the CHF correlation mentioned above can be extended to apply
to the previously existing flow boiling CHF data obtained for the
test sections such as a heated metal strip in a channel with
rectangular cross section, and heated tubes with a diameter and
lengths under wide ranges of conditions.
Nomenclature
cp specific heat at constant pressure, J/(kgK)
D tube inside diameter, m
g acceleration of gravity, m/s2
G mass flow rate, Mg/m2s
coefficient in equations (1) and (4)
K1 and K1(u)
respectively
coefficient in equations (2) and (5)
K2 and K2(u)
respectively
coefficient in equations (3) and (6)
K3 and K3(u)
respectively
L tube length, m
L/D length-to-diameter ratio
P pressure, Pa
Pout outlet pressure, Pa
critical heat flux for saturated condition,
qcr,sat
W/m2
critical heat flux for subcooled condition,
qcr,sub
W/m2
critical heat flux for subcooled condition at
qcr,sub,max
Tsub,out,max, W/m2
critical heat flux for subcooled condition at
qcr,sub,min
Tsub,out,min, W/m2
TB bulk liquid temperature, K
To liquid temperature at tube outlet, K
Tsat saturation temperature, K
Tw heat transfer surface temperature, K
Tsat =(Tw-Tsat), surface superheat, K
Tsub =(Tsat-TB), liquid subcooling, K
Tsub,out tube outlet-subcooling, K
Tsub,out.max subcooled condition at qcr,sub,max , K
u velocity, m/s
Introduction
More sound development of knowledge for the subcooled flow
boiling critical heat flux (CHF) mechanism for the heated tubes
of various inside diameters and lengths with subcooled water
flowing upward for wide ranges of subcooling, flow velocity and
pressure is necessary to derive accurate prediction of the complex
flow boiling CHF phenomena.
Recently high heat fluxes are encountered in a number of
important engineering and science systems such as plasma-facing
components in fusion experimental facilities, high power laser
systems and etc.. In such facilities, the thermal management by
appropriate cooling offers a key of solution for an overall system
design. The critical heat fluxes (CHFs) on the cooling systems
using highly subcooled flow of water at various pressures were
studied recently by many researchers with emphasis on
applications because the subcooled water boiling with phase
change is an attractive cooling system for high heat flux
components.
The knowledge of mechanisms for the subcooled pool boiling
CHFs for wide ranges of independent variables such as
subcooling and pressure is also important for accurate
understanding of subcooled flow boiling CHF mechanism
because the subcooled pool boiling CHF corresponds to a limit of
subcooled flow boiling CHF at zero flow velocity for a tube with
large inside diameter.
The mechanism for subcooled pool boiling CHF for wide ranges
of subcooling and pressure, however, was not well understood
until quite recently. The subcooled water pool boiling CHFs for
wide ranges of subcooling up to 180 K, and the pressures ranging
from atmospheric pressure up to 2.0 MPa have been measured
for the first time by Sakurai et al. [1] using horizontal and
vertical 1.2 mm diam. cylinders with measuring length of 72 mm.
The measured pool boiling CHFs for the subcoolings lower than
about 40 K were clearly dependent on the pressures and those for
the subcooling higher than about 40 K were almost independent
of the pressure except the pressures of around atmospheric. This
result suggests that there exist two different CHF mechanisms for
low and high subcooling. The measured CHFs considerably
disagreed with corresponding values derived from existing
correlations given by Kutateladze[2], Zuber[3], Ivey & Morris[4]
and Elkassabgi & Lienhard[5] except the CHFs for low
subcoolings lower than about 20 K.
The former and the latter CHFs for low and high subcooling were
well expressed by newly developed the subcooled pool boiling
CHF correlations based on the two different CHF mechanisms. It
was assumed by Sakurai et al.[1] that the former and the latter
CHFs occur due to the hydrodynamic instability (HI) and the
heterogeneous spontaneous nucleation (HSN) in originally
flooded cavities on the solid surface with water respectively. The
existence of the HSN and the role of the HSN were clarified by
Sakurai et al.[6,7] experimentally, photographically and
theoretically for non-wetting and wetting liquids such as water,
liquid nitrogen, liquid helium I and ethanol under not only
steady-state but also power transient one.
The HSN phenomenon was observed on the cylinder surface in
previously degassed water before each experimental run by the
high pressure of 5 MPa for a while. The initial boiling due to the
active cavities previously entraining vapor was replaced to that
due to the HSN. As a result of the pre-pressure, a direct transition
to film boiling missing nucleate boiling occurred not only from
transient conduction regime but also from steadily increasing
natural convection regime caused by a steadily increasing heat
input not only in a pool of wetting liquids such as liquid nitrogen,
liquid helium, etc. but also in a pool of water at atmospheric
pressure was observed by Sakurai et al.[1]. Even for the case
without the pre-pressure, the heat transfer crisis at the CHF due
to the HSN in the fully developed nucleation regime caused by a
steadily increasing heat input was observed for the first time for a
pool of highly subcooled water at high pressures. The CHF is
considerably lower than the value derived from the CHF
correlation obtained based on the HI. Namely, there exist two
different mechanisms of the heat transfer crises at the CHF
depending on the levels of subcooling and pressure under steady
state condition. One is due to the HI and the other is due to the
HSN [8,9].
Figure 1. Comparison of prediction with qcr,sub for subcooling with pressure as a parameter in water using equations (1), (2) and (3). The
solid lines show the equations (1) and (2) corresponding to HI. The broken line shows the equation (3) corresponding to HSN.
After that, the flow boiling CHFs for a vertical cylinder in large
round tube, and short tubes with subcooled water flowing upward
were investigated by Sakurai et al.[10] to clarify the CHF
mechanisms based on the HI and HSN and to derive
corresponding flow boiling correlations. The CHFs on a 1.2 mm-
diam. platinum cylinder with the measuring length of 72 mm
vertically located in the vertical round tube with large inside
diameter of 38 mm with water flowing upward were measured
for the flow velocities up to 4 m/s, and for subcoolings from zero
to 150 K at the pressures ranging from 0.143 to 1.503 MPa.
The measured CHFs for subcooling at a fixed flow velocity with
pressure as a parameter were divided into two groups for low and
high subcoolings. It was observed clearly that the CHFs for the
lower subcooling are dependent on the pressures, and those for
the higher subcooling are independent of the pressures except
those for the pressures around atmospheric one. The trend of the
CHF versus subcooling with the pressure as a parameter at a
fixed flow velocity is the same as the trend of the pool boiling
CHF versus subcooling with pressure as a parameter measured
for a vertical or horizontal cylinder. It was assumed based on the
subcooled pool boiling CHF mechanisms previously clarified
that the flow boiling CHFs for low and high subcoolings also
occur due to the HI for low subcoolings and due to the explosive-
like HSN in originally flooded cavities on the cylinder surface for
high subcoolings.
The flow boiling CHFs against inlet subcooling for a vertical
tube of the inside diameters of 6, 9 and 12 mm and the length of
50 mm with water flowing upward were measured by Hata et al.
[11,12] for various flow velocities and for pressures. The
measured CHFs were divided into three groups for inlet or outlet
subcooling. The CHF first decreases down to minimum one,
secondly increases up to a certain one and thirdly also increases
with the increasing rate lower than before one for low, middle
and high inlet or outlet subcooling. It was assumed by Hata et
al.[11,12] and Sakurai et al.[13] that the CHFs for middle and
high subcooling occurs due to the HI and the HSN respectively.
The pool and flow boiling CHF correlations with the same
formulas of pool boiling CHF ones based on the HI and the HSN
with the terms only depending on flow velocity which become
constants for zero flow velocity case were presented. Those are
applicable to not only the subcooled pool boiling CHF for a
cylinder but also the subcooled flow boiling CHF for a cylinder
and a short tube.
On the other hand, recently, the subcooled water flow boiling
CHF data for wide ranges of subcooling, flow velocity and
pressure were systematically measured using short tubes with
various inside diameters by Celata et al. [14], Vandervort et al.
[15] and Mudawar et al. [16]. Especially, it should be noted that
first investigators to give attention that there exist two groups of
subcooled flow boiling CHFs measured for wide ranges of
experimental conditions were Vandervort et al. [15]. They have
pointed out that the former CHFs were stable ones, and the latter
CHFs called as premature ones were unreasonably lower ones,
and beginning near incipient boiling heat transfer becomes very
sensitive. Several test section failed at this instance. They
suggested that the premature burnout may have been the result of
a spontaneous nucleation type instability, though it is difficult to
believe that nucleation can be suppressed for a water system, and
a few remarks are appropriate on this possibility.
It seems reasonable to suppose from our previous studies
mentioned above that the premature failure occurs due to the
explosive-like HSN in originally flooded cavities on the tube
inside circumference surface at a lower limit of HSN surface
superheat in the coexistence with the nucleate boiling due to
active cavities entrained vapor.
In this paper, It is to confirm if the CHF correlation mentioned
above can be extended to apply to the previously existing flow
boiling CHF data obtained for the test sections such as a heated
Figure 2. Comparison of prediction with qcr,sat for pressure in water measured by horizontal and vertical cylinders using equation (1) with
K1=0.17 corresponding to HI.
metal strip in a channel with rectangular cross section, and heated
tubes with diameters and lengths under wide ranges of conditions
by many researchers ( Gunther[17], Celata et al. [14], Vandervort
et al. [15] and Mudawar et al. [16])
The nonlinear characteristics of subcooled pool boiling CHF
for a horizontal cylinder in water
The saturated and subcooled pool boiling CHFs for a 1.2 mm-
diameter commercial platinum horizontal cylinder in a pool of
water for the subcoolings ranging from zero to 180 K at the
pressures from 0.1 to 2 MPa caused by the steadily increasing
heat inputs are shown in Figure 1. The CHFs at all subcoolings
for the pressures lower than about 300 kPa, and at the lower than
about 40 K for the pressures higher than about 300 kPa increase
with an increase in subcooling. On the contrary, the CHFs at the
subcoolings higher than about 40 K for the pressures higher than
about 300 kPa increase with an increase in subcooling. However
those become almost independent of pressure with the increasing
rate of CHF at subcooling lower than that of CHF, qcr,sub, at
subcoolings lower than 40 K.
As mentioned above, the CHFs measured for the subcoolings
significantly disagreed with the corresponding values derived
from well-known existing CHF correlations derived based on the
hydrodynamic instability model given by Kutateladze[2],
Zuber[3], and Ivey & Morris[4] except those at subcooling from
zero to about 20 K as shown in Figure 1.
The saturated and subcooled boiling CHF correlation is as
follows [6]:
[
q cr ,sat = K 1 h lg g g ( l g ) g2 ] 14
(1)
 Figure 3. CHF vs. subcooling for fixed flow velocities of 0, 2.0 and 4.0 m/s at various pressures for vertical cylinder with the curves
derived from obtained from equations (1) and (2) corresponding to HI and others correlations. The one dashed chain line shows equation
(3) corresponding to HSN.
[
q cr ,sub = q cr ,sat 1 + K 2 ( l g ) 0.69 (c pl Tsub h lg ) 1.5
The subcooled boiling CHF, qcr,sub, correlation, equation (2), was
derived modifying the Kutateladze's correlation by taking into
account the non-linear effect of subcooling. The power, 1.5, of
(CplTsub/hlg) in equation (2) was determined based on the
measured CHF data shown in Figure 1. The role of the power
higher than unity included in Kutateladze's correlation may
account for the contribution of extra heat transport due to the
release of superheated liquid in boundary layer nearby the test
heater surface accompanied with rising vapor bubbles from near
surface, instead of the release of saturated liquid supposed in
Kutateladze's correlation.
The calculated CHF curve against subcooling at each pressure
derived from the correlation equations (1) and (2) with the
K1=0.17 and K2=0.87 are shown with the measured
corresponding CHFs in Figure 1. The curve for each pressure for
the subcoolings over the range from zero to about 40 K at the
pressure, and for the subcoolings up to about 80 K at pressures
lower than about 300 kPa agreed with the corresponding CHFs
measured within about5% difference with each other.
On the other hand, the CHFs disagreed with the values calculated
from equation (2) are almost independent of the pressure for the
subcoolings higher than around 50 K at the pressures higher than
about 300 kPa. This result means that there exist the another CHF
mechanism different from the hydrodynamic instability (HI) at
higher pressures for higher subcoolings. Following empirical
correlation representing those CHFs was derived based on
corresponding CHF data.
] (2)
q cr ,sub = K 3 Tsub
0.73 (3)
It should be noted that the saturated pool boiling CHF, qcr,sat, for
vertical and horizontal 1.2 mm diam. cylinders at the pressures
up to 2 MPa in water measured by Sakurai et al.[6] agreed well
with the curve derived from Kutateladze's saturated pool boiling
CHF correlation , equation (1), with a constant, K1, of 0.17
within about 3% error for the both cylinders as shown in
Figure 2. However the CHFs measured by the vertical cylinder at
pressures higher than about 1 MPa show the decreasing trend
from the derived curve. It is supposed that the CHFs switched to
ones resulting from the HSN if those were correctly measured.
The nonlinear characteristics of subcooled flow boiling CHF
for a vertical cylinder in water
All the experiments for a vertical cylinder were carried out by
Kataoka et al. [18].
A platinum vertical test cylinder of 1.2 mm in diam. and 72 mm
in length was located at a center line of a round vertical tube
section of 1425 mm long and 38 mm in inner diameter in the
experimental loop made of SUS304 stainless steel with water
flowing upward. The test cylinder was located at the position of
about 1200-mm downstream from the inlet of the round tube
section.
The pool boiling CHFs for a vertical cylinder of 1.2 mm in
diameter and 7.2 cm in length in a large cylindrical water vessel
of 20 cm in diam. and 60 cm height were measured for the
subcoolings and pressures up to 110 K and 0.983 MPa, replacing the constants of K1, K2 and K3 of equations (1), (2) and
respectively, for comparison with the CHFs in subcooled water (3) to the equations of K1(u), K2(u)and K3(u).
flow boiling
where
The CHFs on a vertical cylinder in water flowing upward were
measured for the ranges of flow velocities up to 4.04 m/s,
K1 (u ) = 0.157 0.398u + 0.488u 0.93 (4)
subcoolings up to 150 K and pressures up to about 1.5 MPa.

Typical CHFs versus subcoolings with pressures as a parameter K 2 (u ) = 0.992 + 0.0698u 0.329u 0.52 (5)
at the flow velocities of 2.0 and 4.04 m/s are shown in Figure 3,
though the CHFs for a velocity of 2 m/s are only those for high
subcoolings for the lack of graph space. K 3 (u ) = 3.81 105 + 8.31 10 4 u 0.79 (6)

The flow boiling CHFs measured which increase with an The flow boiling CHF for a metal strip in a channel of
increase in flow velocity are divided into two CHF groups for rectangular cross section
lower and higher subcoolings. This anomalous trend of flow

Figure 4. Comparison of prediction with qcr,sub for subcooling with pressure as a parameter in water using equations (1) and (2)
corresponding to HI shown with the solid lines and equation (3) corresponding to HSN shown with the dashes line. Gunthers correlation
shows with the one dashed chain line. The arrows show the maximum subcooling, Tsub,out,max at maximum CHF belonging to 2nd region.
The values in parentheses with datum numbers show the pressure at each point.
.
boiling CHFs for subcoolings is similar to that of pool boiling Subcooled water flow boiling CHFs for an electrically heated
CHFs for the subcoolings. The former group of CHFs is metal strip, 3.175 mm in wide suspended lengthwise in a center
dependent on the pressures and the latter group of CHFs is of rectangular cross section, 4.76 mm in wide and 12.7 mm in
independent of the pressures. It is recognized that the heat high 152.4 mm in long, to divide the channel into flow passage
transfer crises at the CHFs belonging to the first group occur due measured for flow velocities of 1.5, 3.8 and 12.2 m/s, outlet
to the HI and those at CHFs belonging to the second group occur subcooling, Tsub,out, up to about 150 K and the pressures ranging
due to the HSN even for forced flow. from 100 kPa to 1131 kPa by Gunther [17] are shown on the
qcr,sub versus Tsub,out graph with the corresponding pressure value
The flow boiling CHFs for the subcoolings measured were well near each datum point in Figure 4.
expressed by the equations (4), (5) and (6) which were given by
The following empirical correlation of the subcooled flow boiling Tsub,out lower than around 70 K at the pressure of around 100
CHF against outlet subcooling which is independent of pressure kPa exist near the corresponding curve derived from equations
was derived by Gunther [17]: (1) and (2) which depend on pressure. Those for the Tsub,out
higher than 70 K at the pressures of 194, 386 and 786 kPa which
qcr ,sub = 71987 u 0.5 Tsub ,out (7) are considerably lower than the supposed qcr,sub resulting from the
HI derived from equations (1) and (2), exist near the curve on the
graph which is independent of pressure, derived from equations.
The subcooled flow boiling CHF data measured by Gunther are
(3) and (10). It is reasonable to suppose that the former CHF
well expressed by the CHF correlations given by equations (4),
occurs due to the HI and the latter CHF occurs due to the HSN.
(5) and (6). K1(u), K2(u)and K3(u) are expressed by following
The result that the qcr,sub data resulting from the HSN for the strip
equations.
test section were explained by equations (3) and (10) suggests
that equations (3) and (10) may be applicable to those for any test
K1 (u ) = 0.12 + 0.0134 u 1.03 (8) sections with various shapes.

K 2 (u ) = 0.86
For the cases of higher flow velocity, u, of 3.8 and 12.2 m/s, the
(9)
former qcr,sub data for the Tsub,out lower than around 115 K, and
the latter qcr,sub for all Tsub,out tested exist near or on the
K 3 (u ) = 0.244 10 6 ( 1 0.395 u + 0.681 u )(10)
0.92
corresponding curves which are depending on pressures, derived
from the equations (1) and (2) corresponding to the HI on the
graph. On the other hand, for the flow velocity of 3.8 m/s, the
The K1(u) and K3(u) are only depend on flow velocity. The K2(u)
lowest qcr,sub obtained for the pressure of 786 kPa, and the qcr,sub
for the test section is almost constant. The K1(u) and K2(u) at
obtained for the pressure of 1131 kPa exist near the curve derived
zero flow velocity are 0.12 and 0.86 respectively. The
from equations (3) and (10) corresponding to the HSN on the
corresponding curves of qcr,sub versus Tsub,out for each flow
graph. The curve represents the qcr,sub at which real burnout
velocity at various pressures given by equations (1), (2) and (3)
occurs due to the HSN. The qcr,sub data at the pressures of around
are shown in Figure 4.
786 kPa for the Tsub,out values of around 140 K exist between
the two curves of HI and HSN on the graph. The qcr,sub data are
For the case of flow velocity, u, of 1.5 m/s, the qcr,sub data for the

Figure 5. qcr,sub versus Tsub,out for a flow velocity of 15 m/s with the corresponding the HI derived from equations (12) and (13)
shown with the solid lines and the HSN curves derived from equation (14) shown with the dashed line. The arrows show the maximum
subcooling corresponding to the L/D ratio and the pressure.
defined as the qcr,sub in transition region. It is reasonable to
suppose that for the flow velocity of 12.2 m/s, the qcr,sub of about
33 MW/m2 at the pressure of 786 kPa is in the transition region.
The supposed HSN curve derived from equations (3) and (10) for
the flow velocity of 12.2 m/s is also shown in the figure.
Correlation for maximum Tsub,out at maximum qcr,sub
belonging to 2nd region
The correlation for the maximum subcooling (Tsub,out),
Tsub,out,max at maximum qcr,sub belonging to 2nd region for a flow
velocity at an outlet pressure for a tube with D and L/D ratio
were derived without effect of flow velocity except very low
flow velocities based on the existing database.
Tsub ,out ,max = 165 Pout
0.33
(L D ) 0.14
(Pout: MPa)
It was confirmed that the experimental Tsub,out,max points agreed
with the corresponding predicted curve calculated from equations
(11) within almost 5 % differences on the graph.
It should be noted that although many CHF prediction methods
have been developed based on experimental CHF database, only
a little work has been done to identify the role of L/D ratio, and
some researchers previously pointed out that effects of pressure,
and tube inside diameter and length on subcooled flow boiling
CHF are very complicated, and there exist no appropriate
explanations of those subjects associated with the CHF.
Subcooled flow boiling CHF for a tube at pressures
The subcooled water flow boiling CHFs for the tube having
0.902 mmID and the L/D ratios of around 23 measured for the
inlet bulk temperature, Ti, ranging from 343 K down to 291 K at
a pressure of 0.34 MPa for a flow velocity of 15 m/s by Mudawar
et al. [16] are shown with the corresponding the HI and the HSN
curves derived from equations (12), (13) and (14) on the qcr,sub
versus Tsub,out graph in Figure 5. The data are also shown in the
table A-5 in Appendices. The CHF correlations for middle and
high Tsub,out including the effect of tube inside diameters, D,
were derived as shown below.
[
q cr ,sat = K 1 (u )h lg g g ( l g ) g2 ] 14
[
q cr ,sub = q cr ,sat 1 + K 2 (u , D ) ( l g ) 0.69 (c pl Tsub h lg ) 1.5
q cr ,sub = K 3 (u ) Tsub
0.73
The qcr,sub data measured at a pressure of 0.34 MPa are divided
into four groups for low, middle, transition and high Tsub,out.
The qcr,sub first decreases down to the minimum one for low
Tsub,out, secondly the qcr,sub increases up to the maximum one for
middle Tsub,out, thirdly the qcr,sub considerably decreases down to
the minimum one for transition Tsub,out, and finally the qcr,sub
again increases monotonously for high Tsub,out with an increase
in the Tsub,out caused by the decrease of the Ti from 343 to 291
K. The trend of qcr,sub for transition Tsub,out becomes significant
with a decrease in inside diameter without the region of qcr,sub for
transition Tsub,out as shown in Figure 5.
The qcr,sub for middle and high Tsub,out are well explained by the
corresponding the HI and the HSN curves derived from equations
(12), (13) and (14) as seen in the figure. The maximum qcr,sub
resulting from the HI at terminal point of the HI curve and the
minimum qcr,sub resulting from the HSN at starting point of the
HSN curve were clearly observed. It is impossible to explain the
anomalous trend of qcr,sub for a wide range of Tsub,out by a single
model.
The qcr,sub at the high pressures ranging from 3.1 to 17.2 MPa for
the L/D ratios of around 6 as seen in the figure with the
corresponding L/D ratios is well explained with the
corresponding HI curves for the pressures derived from equations
(12) and (13). The data number and corresponding the L/D ratio
are shown on the graph.
The processes of qcr,sub for the Tsub,out lower than about 100 K
are considerably different though the processes are well
expressed by equations (1) and (2). While, the trends of qcr,sub for
(11) the Tsub,out higher than about 100 K close those of corresponding
HSN curves derived from equation (13) for the velocities of 15.0
m/s with an increase in Tsub,out respectively. The K1, K2 and K3
values are 0.528, 1.00 and 0.749106 respectively.
Conclusions
It was confirmed that the subcooled water flow boiling CHF,
qcr,sub, versus the outlet subcooling, Tsub,out, for the test sections
such as a vertical metal strip suspended in the channel with
rectangular cross section, and the tubes with various length-to-
diameter, L/D, ratios are well described by the extended pool and
flow boiling CHF correlations representing qcr,sub resulting from
the hydrodynamic instability (HI) and the explosive-like
heterogeneous spontaneous nucleation (HSN) previously
presented.
Acknowledgments
We wish to thank the authors of the papers including the
outstanding database of subcooled flow boiling CHF used here.
This work was partially supported by JSPS KAKENHI
(23560230).
References
[1] Sakurai A., Shiotsu M. and Fukuda K., "Pool boiling Critical
Heat Flux on a Horizontal Cylinder in Subcooled Water for
(12) Wide Ranges of Subcooling and Pressure and Its
Mechanism," ASME Publication HTD-Vol.326, vol. 4,
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] (13) [2] Kutateladze, S.S., "Heat Transfer in Condensation and
Boiling," AEC-tr-3770, USAEC, 1959.
Zuber, N., "Hydrodynamic Aspects of Boiling Heat
[3]
(14) Transfer," AECU-4439, USAEC, 1959.
[4] Ivey, H. J. and Morris, D. J., "On the Relevance of the
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[5] Elkassabgi, Y. and Lienhard, J.H., "Influence of Subcooling
on Burnout of Horizontal Cylindrical Heaters," ASME
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[8] Sakurai, A., "Mechanisms of Transitions to Film Boiling in
Subcooled and Pressurized Liquids due to Steady and
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1997, 989-1018.
[9] Sakurai, A., Shiotsu, M., Hata, K. and Fukuda, K.,
"Photographic Study om Transitions from Non-boiling and
Nucleate Boiling Regimes to Film Boiling due to
Increasing Heat Inputs in Liquid Nitrogen and Water," Proc.
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Hydraulics, Kyoto, Vol. 2, 1997, 1038-1049.
[10] Sakurai, A., Shiotsu, M., Hata, K. and Fukuda, K.,
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Fluxes on Vertical Cylinder Surface and on Short Tube
Surface inner Surface in Water Flowing Upward at Various
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Motojima, O. and Iiyoshi, A., "Critical Heat Fluxes in
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Engineering, Paper No. ICONE-6362, 1998, 1-16.
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Effect of Diameter on Critical Heat Flux in Vertical Heated
Short Tubes of Various Inside Diameters Cooled with an
Upward Flow of Subcooled Water," Proc. of 9th
International Topical Meeting on Nuclear Reactor Thermal
Hydraulics (NURETH-9), 1999, Paper No. 194.
[13] Sakurai, A., Shiotsu, M., Hata, K. and Fukuda, K., "The
Mechanisms of Flow Boiling Critical Heat Fluxes on a
Vertical Cylinder and a Short Tube With Upward Flowing
Highly Subcooled Water," Proc. of 9th International
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Water Flow Boiling CHF with Very High Heat Fluxes, "
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[16] Mudawar, I. and Bowers, M. B., "Ultra-high Critical Heat
Flux (CHF) for Subcooled Water Flow Boiling -I: CHF
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Study on Effects of Geldarts Powder Classification

on Lateral Force Using IB Method
A. Bin Alias1 , K. Kuwagi1 , Y. Shimoyama1 , H. Hirano2 and T. Takami1

1 Okayama
University of Science
Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering
1-1 Ridai-cho, Okayama, 700-0005
2 Okayama University of Science

Department of Biotechnology and Applied Chemistry

1-1 Ridai-cho, Okayama, 700-0005

Abstract Nomenclature
In recent years, numerical simulation has been widely used by
many researchers in a multiphase flow analyses. A multiphase Ar Archimedes number
flow analysis takes important roles in many industrial applica- CD drag coefficient
tions such as in chemical engineering, combustion systems and CL lateral force coefficient
also in food processing. dp particle diameter
FD drag force
The numerical simulations methods for two-phase flow are ba- FB bouyancy force
sically divided into three kinds of methods, which are the Two- FL lateral force
Fluid Model (TFM), the Discrete Element Method (DEM) and fvis viscous force
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) coupling model that is fib body force term for the IB method
simply called as the DEM, and the Direct Numerical Simula- ~g gravitational acceleration
tion (DNS). In the TFM, both gas phase and solid phase are H height of column
treated as a fluid and solved by Eulerian method. On the other ~Ip inertia moment of particle
hand, in the DEM-CFD coupling model, the motion equation mp mass of particle
of all the particles needs to be solved and this causes a lot of Rep particle Reynolds number
computational time and load. In these two methods, some con- Remf minimum fluidization of Reynolds number
stitution equations for particle-gas interaction forces are also rp radius of particle
required. In addition, these two methods also cannot directly T thickness of column
determine the small scale phenomena occurred around the parti- t time
cles such as drag, lift forces, viscous torque and also lubrication u velocity of fluid
force. In such small scale phenomena, it would be a neces- uf velocity of fluid
sary to use other method such as the DNS. The DNS method Vp volume of particle
does not basically require any constitution equations for the vp velocity of particle
particle-gas interaction forces. Various methods for the DNS W width of column
have been derived, e.g. the finite element method (FEM), the x, y, z coordinate
boundary-fitted coordinates systems (BFC), the volume of frac- computational grid size
tion method (VOF), and the Immersed Boundary (IB) method. t time step
We applied one of the DNS approaches, which is using the x, y, z computational grid size
body-force-type immersed boundary method, developed by Ka- viscosity
jishima et. al. [1]. f density of fluid
In order to analyze the fundamental mechanism of the bubble p volume fraction of particle
behaviour, which is one of the most important phenomena in p angular velocity of particle
a fluidized bed, small scale phenomena such as drag force and
other particle-fluid interaction forces around a particles should
be examined. From this study, it was found that the ratio of the
drag force against the lateral force is increasing as the Reynolds Introduction
number increased. In addition, the ratio of the buoyancy force In our life, there are various powders such as flour, milk pow-
against the lateral force also shows an increasing in different der, seasonings, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, iron, coal, cement,
tendency. In order to study the relationship between the flow toner, and also explosives. In the powder technology, fluidized
characteristic, a study of fluid flow and the lateral forces oc- bed technology has been widely used, e.g. during the man-
curred between the two contacting particles has been done. ufacturing process of the powder, processing, handling, coat-
ing granulation, catalytic reaction, and waste incineration in the
heat recovery.
The characteristics of fluidization of the powder that was pre-
sented by Geldart [2], are classified into four types by the parti-
cle size and particle density or the difference between the fluid
density. This is also generally known as Geldarts powder clas-
sification chart as shown in figure 1 [2]. Geldarts powders clas-
sification chart are classified into C, A, B, and D particles in
ascending order of particle size.
Numerical Analyses
In this study, we used an Immersed Boundary method (IB)
which is one of direct numerical simulations in a multi-phase
flow. As for the numerical procedure, the body-force-type
immersed boundary method proposed by Kajishima et. al., [1],
was utilized because it provides a simple numerical procedure.
The governing equations are shown as follows:

Fluid phase
The equations for mass and momentum conservations are as fol-
lows:

uf = 0 (1)

D~uf 1
= p + ~fvis + ~fib +~g (2)
Dt g

Figure 1: Geldarts powder classification chart where ~fib is the body force term. This body force term makes
the velocity in a fluid cell occupied by a particle equal to the
The characteristic of the particles can be simply classified as velocity of particle. In the present simulation, the following
follows: equation proposed by Kajishima et. al., [1] was used.

Group C: cohesive, high interparticle force that leads to difficult

~fib = p (p ~uf )
~
fluidization, may form channels and also slugs (3)
t
Group A: can be homogeneously fluidized in a specified con-
dition; a bed may expands before bubbling; frequency of frag-
mentation of bubbles is large
The particle volume fraction p at a computational cell includ-
Group B: fragmentation of bubbles is predominant compared ing an interface between fluid and particle was calculated with
with coalescence the method using sub-mesh system proposed by Tsuji et al.[5].
Group D: can be classified by the slow bubbles that appeared in
a fluidized bed
Particle phase
Homogenous fluidization of Geldart A particles has been stud- The motion equations of a particle in the translational and
ied by Mao et. al. [3]. In the study it was found that the ho- rotational directions are as follows:
mogeneous fluidization regime represents a quasi-equilibrium
state where the force level exists at the macroscopic not indi-
vidual level.
d(mp~p )
Z
= g ~fib dV + ~Fnij + mp~g (4)
Di Renzo et. al. [4] also have been studied the transition from dt Vp j6=1
homogeneous to bubbling regime in gas and liquid fluidized
beds with the DEM-CFD simulations. The simulations were !
carried out for the water fluidization of micron glass and cohe- d(~Ip ~p )
Z
sionless alumina for B and A particles. In the study, it was found dt
= g rp ~fib dV +
Vp
~Ftij rp (5)
j6=1
that air fluidized alumina powder showed a transition from ho-
mogeneous to bubbling regime in a quantitative agreement with
where the second term on the right hand side in equation 4 de-
the theory of stability of homogeneous bed state.
notes the particleparticle interaction force, i.e., the collision
A lot of studies have been conducted in order to clarify the force in the normal direction to a particles surface at the con-
mechanism of differences between the homogeneous and bub- tact point. The second term on the right hand side in equation
bling fluidizations. In an example, to study the fast or slow bub- 5 denotes the particleparticle interaction moment. ~Ftij is the
bles that appear in a fluidized bed, the mechanisms have been contact force in the tangential direction, and rp is the radius of
examined by the analysis of gas flow around a bubble. Although particle.
there has been msny analyses on the underlying mechanism of
In the standard DNS, the particlefluid interaction force is usu-
fluidization, the basic mechanisms have not been sufficient yet.
ally calculated using the surface integral of the stress acting on
The purpose of this study is to clarify the relationships between a particle surface. On the other hand, in the bodyforcetype IB
the flow characteristics and the lateral force. In the present method, the particlefluid interaction force is calculated using
study, a numerical simulation was used to analyze the fluid flow the volume integral of the body force term ~fib , represented by
around the two contacting particles and to measure the force the first term on the right hand side in equation 4. The angular
acting on the particle.
momentum equation, p can be calculated using this body force with the HS-MAC (SOLA) method. The boundary conditions
term too, given by equation 5. for the simulations are as follows:

Analysis conditions uy uz
ux = 0, = =0 at x = 0,W (6)
The problems of the schematic and analysis domain are shown x x
in Figure 2 and Figure 3. From the figure, the fluid flow was
injected constantly from the bottom of the analysis region. At ux uz
the center of the analysis region, two particles are fixed and uy = 0, = =0 at x = 0, T (7)
y y
brought into contact for the numerical analyses.

ux = uy = 0, uz = u0 at z = 0 (8)

ux uy uz
= = at z = H (9)
z z z

Equation 7 was used because the effect of particle arrangement

Figure 2: Problem schematic
on the calculation of the drag force was examined by assuming
that the flow is twodimensional. The slip condition was used
for the side planes, as indicated by equation 6.
The simulated results were examined in the terms of lateral
force FL compared with drag force FD and the buoyancy force
FB which is defined as follows:

FB = (p f )~gA (10)

Figure 4 shows a flow regime map [6] that is shown with

Reynolds number and Archimedes number (Rep Ar) defined
as follows:

uf dp
Rep = (11)

dp3 f (p f )~g
Ar = (12)
2

The figure indicates the area of fixed bed, homogenous fluidiza-

tion, and bubbling fluidization. The numerical simulations con-
ducted were also plotted in the figure.

Figure 3: Analysis domain

In this study, we focused on the effect of the lateral force on

Geldarts powder classification [2].The lateral force was non-
dimensionlized by the drag force on the buoyancy force in the
analyses.
It should be noted that because of the analysis condition ranges
over only low Reynolds numbers, the flow was assumed to be
symmetrical. Accordingly, the analysis domain is the left half
region as shown in Figure 3.
Since the fundamental effect of a flow on the fluidization be-
haviours distinguished by Geldarts powder classification, co-
hesive forces such as Van der Walls force that are actually act-
ing on the group C particle, are not taken into account in this
study.

Numerical procedure Figure 4: Flow regime map

In the present numerical analyses, time discretization was ap-
proximated by an explicit method and the inertial terms by the
3rd order up-wind scheme. The pressure distribution was solved
The simulation conditions are listed in Table 1. The main flu-
ids used in the simulation analysis are air and water. Air is at
0.1MPa (ordinary pressure), 1MPa and 10MPa was simulated.
Heated air at 500 C was also used. The width and height of
the analysis region are ten times larger than the particle diame-
ter whereas the thickness of the analysis region is the same size
of the particle diameter. The grid size used in the analyses is
x = y = z = 1/20dp .

Simulation conditions
Fluid Viscosity [Pa s] Density [kgm3 ]
Air (0.1MPa) 1.82 105 1.20
Air (1MPa) 1.82 105 12.0447
Air (10MPa) 1.82 105 120.447
Air (500 C) 3.55 105 0.456085
Water 1.00 103 998 Figure 5: Ratio of drag to lateral force

Table 1: Simulation conditions for drag and lateral force Figure 6 shows the relationship between the ratio of lateral force
to the buoyancy force of the particle and the Reynolds number.
The simulation conditions for various particles are listed in Ta- From the graph, FL /FB increased against the Rep /Remf in any
ble 2. The list shows size and density of various particles. For of the simulation conditions. As the size of the particle increase
the numerical simulation using water as a fluid, glass bead at from A particle to B particle, and to D particle, the gradient of
the size of D particle (1mm) and lead (1mm) were used. the graphs were also increased.
As the size of the A particle is small, from minimum fluidization
velocity to the superficial velocity, the increase of the FL /FB
Simulation conditions against Rep /Remf is not too large. Therefore, this can be con-
Geldarts classification Diameter [mm] Density [kgm3 ] sidered that the fluidized bed has been maintained to extent the
homogeneous fluidization. On the other hand, for the simula-
A 0.05 2.65 103
tion on B particle, the increase of the FL /FB against Rep /Remf
A 0.06 2.65 103
is higher than A particle. As the simulation for B particle, this
B 0.1 2.65 103
can be considered that the fluidized bed was extent to bubbling
B 0.2 2.65 103
fluidization from homogeneous fluidization or fixed bed. How-
B 0.5 2.65 103 ever, in the liquid system, the gradient of the simulated result
D 1 2.65 103 was almost same as the simulated results for D particle.
D (glass bead) 1 2.65 103
D (lead) 1 1.134 104

Table 2: Simulation conditions for various powders

Results and Discussion

Figure 5 shows the relationship between the ratio of the lat-
eral force to drag force and the Reynolds number. Triangle
plot with full colour are results from A, B, D particles at atmo-
spheric pressure of air used as a fluid, whereas the other plotted
shape indicates 1 and 10 atmospheric pressure of air, and also
heated air as a fluid. On the other hands, the triangle plot with-
out colour shows the results of lead and glass bead using water
as a fluid.
From the graph, a horizontal line can see when the Rep is less
than 0.1. However, near the region of fluidization of A particle
to B particle, i.e. Rep is between 0.1 and 1, it was found that Figure 6: Ratio of lateral to buoyancy force
FD /FL increased rapidly.
Figure 7 shows the simulated streamlines of fluids. The fig-
In the regime map Figure 4, where Rep is from 0.1 to 1, the
ures represent the conditions of the numerical simulation for
region is close to the boundary of homogeneous or bubbling
the cases and problems. Figures 7 (a) to (e) show the results in
fluidization regime. From these results, in the region that FD /FL
the atmospheric pressure of air, meanwhile (f) to (h) show the
is increased rapidly, the lateral would have a relation with the
simulated results for water as a fluid. Figures 7 of (i) and (j)
flow characteristics. However, the tendency of liquid systems is
show the other atmospheric pressure of air and, (k) and (l) show
different.
the streamlines for the heated air.
From the figures, the fluid flow around the particle can be ob-
served. From (a), the streamlines can be seen more at around
the particle, but in (d), the streamlines are less around the par-
ticle. The phenomena also can be seen for the different fluid of
air and water.

Conclusions
In order to analyse the bubble behaviour, which is one of the
most important phenomena in a fluidized bed, small scale phe-
nomena such as drag force and other particle-fluid interaction (a) A particle (Rep = 0.03168) (b) B particle (Rep = 0.8569)
forces around the particles should be examined.
In this study, IB method was used to analyze the fluid flow
around the two contacting particles and to examine the effect
of the ratio on lateral force and drag force as well as the buoy-
ancy force in the Geldarts powder classification.
From the results of the analysis, it was found that the lateral
force is increased rapidly against the drag force around the re-
gion Rep in between 0.1 and 1. The lateral force that occurred
between the particles can be considered to have a relation with (c) B particle (Rep = 0.6815) (d) B particle (Rep = 9.775)
the flow and bubbling characteristics.

References

[1] Kajishima, T., Takiguchi, S., Hamasaki, H. and Miyake, Y.,

Turbulence Structure of ParticleLaden Flow in a Vertical
Plane Channel Due to Vortex Shedding, JSME Int. J. B.,
44-4, 2001, 526535.

[2] Geldart, D., Types of Gas Fluidization, Powder Technol., 7, (e) D particle (Rep = 55.40) (f) Water-glass bead (Rep =
1973, 285292. 21.60)

[3] Mao, Y., Van Der Hoef, M. A., and Kuipers, J. A. M.,
Discrete Particle Simulation of the Homogeneous Fluidiza-
tion of Geldart A Particles, Proceedings of Fluidization XI,
Naples, Italy, 2004

[4] Di Renzo, A., P. Di Maio. F., Homogeneous to Bub-

bling Regime Transition in Gas and Liquid Fluidized Beds
Through DEM-CFD Simulations, Proceedings of Fluidiza-
tion XII, Vancouver, Canada, 2007

[5] Tsuji, T., Narutomi, R., Yokomine, T., Ebara, S. and (g) Water-lead (Rep = 17.3) (h) Water-lead (Rep = 9.775)
Shimizu, A., Unsteady Three-Dimensional Simulation of
Interactions Between Flow and Two Particles, Int. J. Multi-
phase Flow, 29, 2003, 1431-1450

[6] Horio, M., Circulating Fluidized Bed, J. R. Grace, A. A.

Avidan and T. M. Knowlton (eds), Chapter 2, Blackie A
and P, London, 1997

(i) A particle-1MPa (Rep = (j) A particle-10MPa (Rep =

0.1227) 5.7974)

(k) A particle-500 C (Rep = (l) B particle-500 C (Rep =

0.0049) 0.455)

Figure 7: Streamlines of the numerical simulations Streamlines

of the numerical simulations
23 rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

An improvement of indoor air quality with a minimum energy loss or gain using an
innovative heat exchanger
Dae Hee Lee1 and Minh Man Pham2
1
Department of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering,
High Safety Vehicle Core Technology Research Center,
Inje University, 197 Inje-ro, Gimhae, Gyeongnam 621-749, Korea
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Graduate School,
Inje University, 197 Inje-ro, Gimhae, Gyeongnam 621-749, Korea

Abstract Nu Nusselt number

P Perimeter [m]
The present research introduces a new innovative eco-
friendly energy-efficient counter-flow plate-type heat Q Heat transfer rate [W]
exchanger. This heat exchanger is capable of supplying fresh
Re Reynolds number
outdoor air and exhausting contaminated indoor air,improving
an indoor air quality with a low carbon dioxideconcentration. TOo Temperature of outdoor air outlet [C]
Besides, its highly efficient heat exchange process enables to TIi Temperature of indoor air inlet [C]
minimize a temperature difference between indoor air and
outdoor air, thereby keeping the indoor temperature nearly TIo Temperature of indoor air outlet [C]
constant. Another innovative feature of the present heat
TOi Temperature of outdoor air inlet [C]
exchanger is to effectively remove dust from inco ming outdoor
air using a filter unit which consists of a plurality of poles each NTU Number of Heat Transfer Unit
having a semi-circular cross-section such that turbulent eddies
U Overall heat transfer coefficient [W/m2C]
are generated when the outdoor air collides on the concave
surface of pole and the dust falls down. The experimental results V Air velocity [m/s]
show that when the heat exchanger is operated, the carbon ws Section width of the exchanger [m]
dioxide concentration inside the room is reduced by 46% from
1200 ppm to 650ppm, while maintaining the room temperature Greek symbols
difference to within 1.0 oC before and after its operation.The
calculation results using NTU method show that as the air
Thickness of aluminum foil [m]

flow rate increases, the heat exchanger effectiveness is Effectiveness of heat exchanger [%]
decreased. This device can be installed in indoor placeswhich
need the good air quality control with a minimum energyloss or kinematic viscosity of air [m2/s]
gain.
Introduction
Nomenclature
Energy conservation and clean indoor air are two important
A cross Cross-sectional area [m2] issues when cooling and heating building interiors. The
A Total area of heat exchanger [m2] importance of constructing low-energy houses with passive
cooling or heating devices has increased over the last decade.
c Specific heat [J/kgC] Homes and modern commercial buildings use heat recovery
ventilators to recover heat from exhaust air economically.
C Capacity ratio C min / C max However, when building windows are open to permit ventilation,
Cmin Capacity rate of the minimum fluid [W/C] energy either escapes from the room to cool the air or is drawn in
to raise the air temperature. An influx o f cold air causes a
Cmax Capacity flow of the maximum fluid [W/C] significant loss of indoor energy during winter while an influx of
D Section depth of exchanger [m] hot air leads to an increase in the indoor temperature during
summer.
Dh Hydraulic diameter [m] The main objective of this study was to develop an eco-
friendly, high-efficiency heat exchanger. A second objective was
hi heat transfer coefficient [W/m2C]
to improve the thermal efficiency of an existing heat exchanger
kair Thermal conductivity of air [W/mC] capable o f discharging contaminated indoor air, introducing
kal Thermal conductivity of aluminum [W/ mC] fresh indoor air, and exchanging heat during the process. Such a
heat exchanger minimizes the temperature difference between
mass flow rate [kg/s] indoor and outdoor air while maintaining constant temperature
and humidity, and thus achieves a pleasant and healthy indoor
environment [1].
 Lack of ventilation results in poor air quality and health Figure 1. Schematic view of the heat exchanger with its
hazards to residents due to harmful substances in building cover removed
materials and household cleaning products. Even a healthy
person can experience symptoms such as headaches,fatigue, Each plate was made of a thin aluminium foil sheet having a
high blood pressure, and nausea when breathing air with a thickness of 17-m, a width of 330-mm wide, and a length of
carbon dioxide concentration of 10002000 ppm. The level of 1510-mm. The first plate inserted into the housing with a
protrusion on its edge. The protrusion had openings at
carbon dioxide inside a closed house without ventilation
exceeds the standard level of 1000 ppm and can reach as high as predetermined positions to provide an entrance and an exit for
2500 ppm. Carbon dioxide concentration is used as an index to the air flow. The second plate, placed on the upper or lower
evaluate the indoor environment because it tends to be portion of the first plate, had many parallel protrusions that
extended along the length of the plate. These twoplates were
proportional to the concentration of other contaminants [2]. A
spaced 7 mm apart, creating two air flow streams: outdoor air
high carbon dioxide concentration can also negatively affect the
learning ability and school attendance of students [3]. This is a stream on the bottom and indoor air stream on the top flowing
good reason to reduce indoor carbon dioxide concentration. through alternating parallel plate channels and exchanging energy
Much research has taken place to improve existing heating, between the two air streams. Total of 47 aluminium foil plates
were mounted in layers in the housing to achieve a high
ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems to reduce the
energy costs and environmental impact of buildings [4-5]. Some effectiveness of the heat exchanger.
studies have investigated HVAC control principles [6], as well as Figure 2 shows details of theair flow through the filter unit.
strategies and protocols [7]. Others have focused on analysing The filter unit consisted of a plurality of poles each having a
heat pumps [8]. Units that use sensible heat energy are called semi-circular cross-section and was installed such that the
concave portion of each semi-circular pole faces the air inflow
sensible heat exchange devices or heat recovery ventilators
(HRVs). Other devices that transfer both heat and moisture are direction. Poles were arranged in multiple stages, and front
known as energy or enthalpy recovery ventilators (ERVs). HRVs poles and rear poles alternated with each other
and ERVs are available for commercial, industrial, and
residential applications [9-10].
The present research introduces an innovative counter-flow
air-to-air plate-type heat exchanger that not only keeps the indoor
temperature nearly unchanged during the heating or air
conditioning, but also maintains a comfortable indoor
environment with a low carbon dioxide concentration. Air-to-air
plate-type heat exchangers are devices in which heat energy is
transferred from one air stream to another through contact with a
plate or film separating the air streams. The heat exchangers
themselves have no moving parts and can be located in any
relatively clean air stream. This research describes the Figure 2. Details of the air flowthrough the filter unit.
performance characteristics of such a heat exchanger
The filter unit removed dust in the outdoor air such that
when the outdoor air collided on the concave surface of pole,
Experimental Apparatus and Procedure turbulent eddies generated caused dust to fall down. Two filter
units were installed inboth the outdoor air inlet and outlet of the
Figure 1 shows a s chematic view of the present heat heat exchanger. Thus, only purified air can be introduced into
exchanger which consists of a housing, a first plate, a second the room.
plate, a filter unit, and other parts.The housing of a rectangular
shape had an inlet on one side to let outdoor air into the heat
exchanger and an outlet on the other side to discharge the indoor
air to the outside. Further, a blower (not shown) was mounted
either inside or outside of each of the indoor air inlet and the
indoor air outlet to allow a room to be smoothly ventilated.

Figure 3. Heat exchanger installed in the office on the Inje

University campus.
A prototype of the present heat exchanger was installed in an
office on the Inje University campus in South Korea. The
window curtains in the office were closed to block the sunshine
and the ventilation was done through windows and an entrance
door as shown in Fig. 3. In general, the office was occupied by
3~5 people between 08:30 and 18:00, who produced carbon
dioxide. The overall indoor air quality was measured by a carbon
dioxide monitor (ZG106, ZyAura) that had a measurement range
of 03000 ppm at an accuracy of 5%. This device was located
in the center of the office, 1 m away from the heat exchanger.
Thermistor sensors measured the temperatures at the indoor air
inlet, indoor air outlet, outdoor air inlet, and outdoor air outlet
with an accuracy of 0.2C. In addition, the air velocity in the
duct was measured using an anemometer (KANOMAX 6112)
with an accuracy of 5%. During the experiment, the
temperature difference between the indoor air outlet and outdoor
air inlet (TIoTOi ) was maintained at less than 2C.
Data Reduction
The office where the heat exchanger was installed had an area
of 45.6 m2, and its height was 2.65 m. The volume flow rate of
outdoor air supply into the office was 0.159 m3/s, which was
sufficient to ventilate the air inside the office 4.8 times per hour.
During the experiment in August, the outdoor supply air was
cooled while the indoor exhaust air was heated by exchanging
energy in the heat exchanger.
If the heat loss to the surroundings in the heat exchanger is
assumed to be negligibly small, the heat transfer rate between the
exhaust air and supply air can be expressed as
Q QO QI
c (T
Q m
O O Oo TOi ) m I c I (TIi T Io ) (2)
where m is the mass flow rate (kg/s) through the heat
exchanger and c is the specific heat of the air (kJ/kgC), where
the indices O and I refer to the outdoor and indoor flows. T Oo,
TOi , TIi , and TIo are the temperatures of the outdoor air outlet,
outdoor air inlet, indoor air inlet, and indoor air outlet (C),
respectively. The overall heat transfer coefficient U between the
two airflows was calculated as [11]:
1 layers of aluminum foil sheets, was 0.315 m. The length of the
1 1
U
h (3)
1 k al h2
The heat-exchange effectiveness was determined
following the definition in [11, 12].
Actual heat transfer Qact
Maximum possible heat transfer Qmax
An uncertainty analysis for the heat exchange effectiveness
on the basis of 20:1 odds (i.e., 95% confidence level of errors)
was conducted using the method of Kline and McKlintock [13].
The uncertainty for the effectiveness was estimated to be 5.86%
for TIoTOi = 0.4C. And the largest contributor to the
effectiveness uncertainty was due to the outlet air inlet
temperature.
Discussion of Results
Table 1 shows indoor standards for acceptable carbon
dioxide concentrations in Korea, Japan, and according to the
World Health Organization [14]. Table 1 clearly indicates that
the carbon dioxide concentration is used as an overall indicator of
indoor air quality, and that the acceptable amount of carbon
dioxide for healthy indoor living is less than 1000 ppm.
(1)
Table 1. Indoor standards for acceptable concentration of
carbon dioxide [14]
Figure 4 shows the effectiveness as a function of the heat
exchanger length. The overall heat transfer coefficient U between
the two airflows was computed on the basis of the air flow
velocity of 4.56 m/s and the cross-sectional areas for either the
inlet or outlet of 0.035 m2. During the calculations, the two
airflows were considered (i.e., 27C outside air temperature and
20C inside room temperature). The heat exchanger width was
330 mm. The total depth of the heat exchanger, consisting of 45
exchanger was determined through computation of its
effectiveness as a function of length. It is shown from Fig. 4 that
the effectiveness increased with the exchanger length, up to 90%
by for a length of 3 m. Due to practical limits, we decided to use a
heat exchanger length of 1.51 m, for which the effectiveness was
calculated to be 79 % with an overall heat transfer coefficient of
21.5 W/m2C

(4)

The NTU method assumes uniform heat transfer, which is

unlikely when condensation starts to occur. The capacity ratio
( C C min / C max ) of the two airflows was calculated for an
inside temperature of 20C and an outside air temperature of
27C. The effectiveness as a function of length L of the
exchanger was calculated as :
UA
NTU (5)
C
min

1 exp [ ( 1 C)NTU]
f(NTU,C) (6)
1 C exp [ ( 1 C)NTU]

c (T T )
m CO (TOo TOi )
O O Oo Oi Figure 4. Heat exchanger effectiveness as a function of the length
(7)
c)min (TIi TOi )
(m C min (TIi TOi ) of the heat exchanger
Figure 5 shows the effect of the temperature difference TIo
where Cmin is the capacity rate of the minimum fluid. TOi between the indoor air outlet and outdoor air inlet on the rate
of heat transfer Q . As TIoTOi increased, the heat transfer rate
between the two air streams decreased. Q and TIoT Oi were
correlated by the following curve-fitting equation with a scatter
of 13%:
Q = 0.2378 exp[( TIoT Oi )] (8)
Figure 5. Heat transfer rate a s a function of the difference
between the indoor air outlet and the outdoor air inlet
temperatures.
Figure 6 shows that the smaller value of TIoT Oi , the higher
value of the effectiveness, which in a thermodynamic sense
corresponds to reduced value of thermodynamic irreversibility
and smaller entropy generation. It is also shown that when TIo
TOi changed from 0.1 to 1.0C, the effectiveness sharply declined
from 90 to 15 %. Beyond TIoT Oi = 1.1C, the effectiveness
remained around 10%. This indicates that the present heat
exchanger was very sensitive to the difference between the
indoor air outlet and the outdoor air inlet temperatures.
Figure 6. Heat exchanger effectiveness as a function of the
difference between the indoor air outlet and the outdoor air inlet
temperatures.
Figure 7 shows the effectiveness of the heat exchanger as
functions of the air volume flow rate. It is observed that as the air
flow rate increased, the effectiveness decreased, suggesting that
the heat exchanger can be more effective at the lower flow rate.
Under the present experimental condition o f air flow rate of
0.159 m3/s, the effectiveness became 79 %.
Figure 8 shows the outdoor and indoor (inside the office
which was occupied by 3~5 people between 08:30 and 18:00)
concentration of carbon dioxide with and without the heat
exchanger in operation for a period of a week. The carbon
dioxide concentration in the outdoor air was in the range 430
460 ppm. When the heat exchanger was not in operation, the
indoor concentration of carbon dioxide was in the range 1200
1300 ppm, which was 200300 ppm higher than the indoor
acceptable standard in both Korea and Japan.
Figure 7. Heat exchanger effectiveness as a function of the
volume flow rate of air.
On the other hand, turning on the heat exchanger reduced the
carbon dioxide concentration by up to 46% (6501000 ppm). It is
worthy to note that there is a large variation of the carbon dioxide
concentration between 650 ppm and 1000 ppm with the heat
exchanger on, mainly due to a change of the number of people
who occupied the office during the test period.
Figure 8. Indoor and outdoor carbon dioxide concentrations
with heat exchanger on & off.
Conclusions
The present research introduces an innovative counter-flow
air-to-air plate-type heat exchanger that not only keeps the indoor
temperature nearly unchanged during the heating or air
conditioning, but also maintains a comfortable indoor
environment with a low carbon dioxide concentration. A few
conclusions can be summarized as follows.
(1) The performance characteristics of the present heat
exchanger have been obtained. The results show that
the effectiveness of the heat exchanger with its length
of 1.51 m at a volume flow rate of air of 0.159 m3/s
became 79 %.
(2) When the difference between the indoor air outlet and
outdoor air inlet temperatures (T IoTOi ) increased, the
heat transfer rate (Q) between the two air streams
decreased. A correlation between Q and TIoTOi was
obtained.
(3) When TIoTOi increased 0.1 to 1.0 C, the heat
exchanger effectiveness sharply declined from 90 to
1 5 %, indicating that this heat exchanger was very
sensitive to the exhaust-supply air temperature
difference.
(4) The present heat exchanger reduced the indoor
carbon dioxide concentration to as low as 650 ppm
(maximum 46 % reduction) while maintaining a
room temperature difference to within 1.0C.
(5) The design of the present heat exchanger was quite
simple and used inexpensive aluminum foil sheets. It
can be very useful for saving energy as well as
improving indoor air quality.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Inje University research
grant. We are grateful for the financial support for this research.
References
[1] ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2004, Thermal Environmental
Conditions for Human Occupancy, ASHRAE, Atlanta, 2004.
[2] J.C. Park, A study in the improvement of indoor air quality in
residential buildings, J. Air Conditioning and Refrigerating
Engineers of Korea , 12, 2002, 3237.
[3] M. Griffiths, M. E ftekhari, Control of CO 2 in a naturally
ventilated classroom, Energ Buildings, 40, 2008, 556560.
[4] P.T. Talukdar, S.O. Olutmayin, O.F. Osanyintola, C.J.
Simonson, An experimental data set for benchmarking 1-D,
transient heat and moisture transfer models of hygroscopic
building materials. Part I: Experimental facility and material
property data, Int. J. Heat Mass Tran. 50, 2007, 45274539.
[5] R.M. Besant, C.J. Simonson, Air-to-air energy recovery,
ASHRAE J. 45(4), 2003, 4252.
[6] C.S. Canbay, A. Hepbasli, G. Gokcen, Evaluating
performance indices of a shopping centre and implementing
HVAC control principles to minimize energy usage, Energ
Buildings, 36, 2004, 587598.
[7] P .M. Bluyssen, C. Cox, O. Seppnen, E.O. Fernandes, G.
Clausen, B. Mller, C.A. Roulet, Why, when and how do HAVC-
systems pollute the indoor environment and what to do about it?
The European AIRLESS project, Build Environ. 38, 2003, 209
225.
[8] Y. Yao, Y. Jiang, S. Deng, Z. Ma , A study on the
performance of the airside heat exchanger under frosting in an air
source heat pump water heater/chiller unit, Int. J. Heat Mass Tran.
47, 2004, 37453756.
[9] ASHRAE Handbook HAVC Systems and Equipment, Air-
to-Air Energy Recovery, ASHRAE, Atlanta, 2004.
[10] P .T. Ninomura, R. Bhargava, Heat recovery ventilators in
multi-family residences in arctic, ASHRAE J. 101, 1995, 961
966.
[11] J.P. Holman, Heat Transfer, Tenth Edition, McGrawHill
International Edition, 2009.
[12] J.L. Niu, L.Z. Zhang, Membrane-based enthalpy exchanger:
Material considerations and clarification of moisture resistance. J.
Membr. Sci. 189, 2001, 17991.
[13] S.J. Kline, F.A. McKlintock, Describing uncertainties in
single sample experiments, Mech. Engineering 5, 1953, 38.
[14] Y.J. Jeon, A study on the performance o f indoor air
environment in suburban house, Masters thesis, Kangwon
National University , 2002, 1620.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Magneto-Thermal Convection in a Partially-Heated Horizontal Pipe Flow

M. Kaneda and K. Suga

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Osaka Prefecture University, Sakai 5998531, Japan

Abstract
Introduction
Flow through single horizontal pipe, wall of which is partially
heated, is numerically studied under the presence of a magnetic Various types of magnet have been used in our daily life such as
field. The paramagnetic fluid is presumed as a working fluid and a compass, magnetic clips, motors, etc. Magnets are also applied
the external magnetic field is induced by a coaxial electric coil. to the manufacturing processes, such as magnetic separation [1],
Since the magnetic susceptibility of paramagnetic fluid depends continuous steel casting [2], Czochralski process for the crystal
on the temperature, the flow field is affected both by the growth [3], etc. Most of these targets are the ferromagnetisms
temperature and magnetic fields. Under the non-gravity field, the such as iron and/or electrically-conductive fluid such as molten
vortex is induced by the magnetic field at the coil location. This steel or silicon. Ferromagnetisms are attracted to magnets with
vortex breaks or blocks the velocity and thermal boundary layers the remarkable force. In case of electrically-conductive materials,
depending on the coil location. The pressure difference of pipe induced electric current is generated when the target is in motion
flow is also affected by the coil location. When the magnetic under the magnetic field. The Lorentz force is then induced in the
field is imposed near the inlet of heated region, the pressure target due to the interaction of the electric current and the applied
difference between the inlet and outlet is reduced. In contrast, magnetic field, which supresses or enhances the flow. These
applied around the outlet of the heated region, it is increased. effects have been intensively studied for the convection control
This implies that the friction can be controlled by the magnetic of liquid metal [4-6].
field. Under the conditions of gravity field, slow pipe flow, and Since the emergence of the superconducting magnet, a strong
sufficiently high heat flux, the natural convection overlaps to the magnetic field in the order of several tesla or more has been
pipe flow (mixed convection). The flow and temperature fields available. Under the strong magnetic field, magnetizing or
are not remarkably affected if the magnetic field is applied, magnetic force becomes remarkable not only in the
which is due to the overlapped strong natural convection. ferromagnetism but also the paramagnetism and diamagnetism. A
However, the pressure difference is affected with the same typical application of the strong magnetic field is MRI (magnetic
tendency as the non-gravity case depending on the coil location. resonance imaging system). Additionally, various new
phenomena have been reported such as levitation of water droplet
[7], nitrogen jet (Wakayama jet) [8], magneto-thermal wind [9],
Nomenclature effect on the natural convection [10], etc. Latter two applications
b0 magnetic induction, T belong to magneto-thermal convection. Since the magnetic
B dimensionless magnetic field susceptibility of paramagnetism depends of on the temperature, a
g gravitational acceleration, m/s2 magnitude of the magnetic force at the certain point depends not
k thermal conductivity, W/mK only on the distance from a magnet but also on the temperature at
P dimensionless pressure the corresponding location. Therefore, for paramagnetic fluid
Pr Prandtl number with the temperature distribution, the flow and temperature fields
q heat flux from pipe wall, W/m2 are affected by the magnetic force. For example, on the natural
rp pipe radius, m convection in cubic enclosure, Kaneda et al. [11] found that the
Re Reynolds number convection is suppressed when the magnet is placed above the
R radial direction enclosure. In contrast, it is enhanced by placing the magnet
Ra* modified Rayleigh number below the enclosure.
S dimensionless circumferential length of electric coil The magneto-thermal wind phenomenon is based on the similar
T dimensionless temperature mechanism. An additional flow in a pipe is generated by
u0 reference velocity, m/s supplying both heat source and magnetic field without pumps or
U dimensionless velocity blowers. Of course, effect under the presence of main flow is
Z axial direction studied [12]. However, the numerically-studied cases are limited
Zc coil location at the non-gravity or vertical flows to clarify the flow
thermal diffusivity, m2/s mechanism. These cases are in two-dimensional profiles.
volume expansion ratio, 1/K However, under the gravity with the various pipe settings, the
dimensionless parameters for magnetic force natural convection may overlap to the main flow due to the
circumferential direction, rad presence of the temperature difference, resulting in a three-
dimensional flow. In addition, the magnetic force on the
viscosity, Pas
paramagnetism becomes remarkable in case of a slow main flow,
m magnetic permeability
which corresponds to the mixed convection with strong natural
kinematic viscosity, m2/s convection. Such situation has not been considered yet.
density, kg/m3 In this study, the slow pipe flow in which partially heated under
dimensionless time the magnetic field is numerically studied. In the current study,
magnetic susceptibility of fluid fundamental mechanism of the affected flow, and effects of the
magnetic induction and its location are investigated.
Schematic model
Figure 1 shows the computed schematics. A pipe is set
horizontally under the gravity field, in which the paramagnetic
fluid of temperature T = 0 flows through at the constant flow
flux. Since the pipe length is presumed sufficiently long (20
times as large as the radius), the flow before entering the heated
region (8 Z 12) is fully developed. The pipe wall at the
halfway area is heated at the constant heat flux. The other pipe
wall is kept at the same temperature as that at the inlet. Therefore,
the flowing cold fluid is heated at the mid region and then cooled
at the inlet temperature. A coaxial single electric coil is placed at
the arbitrary axial location, Zc. The electric coil induces a
magnetic field all around, and thus the magnetic force is applied
to the fluid in the pipe.
Figure 1. Schematic model for the computation.
Governing Equations
The governing equations consist of the continuity, momentum,
and energy equations for the heat and fluid flow in the pipe, and
Biot-Savart law for the magnetic field in the computational
region. The buoyant force due to temperature difference, and
magnetic force due to temperature and magnetic fields are
simultaneously considered in the momentum equation as force
terms by using Boussinesq approximation. The working fluid is
presumed as incompressible Newtonian and paramagnetic ( =
1/T). The non-dimensional governing equations in three-
dimensional cylindrical coordinate system can be obtained by the
method of Hellums and Churchill [13] and are as follows;
U = 0
DU D = P + (1 Re ) 2 U
)[
(2)
(
Ra * Pr Re 2 T B 2 2 (cos , sin , 0 )
T configurations are selected as follows; uniform grid system in
DT D = 2T
1 R dS
=
4 R3
where,
gqrp b02 .
4
u0 rp
Pr = , Re = , Ra* = , =
k m gr0
Ra* corresponds to the magnitude of heat flux from the pipe wall
and represents the strength of the magnetic field induced from
the coil.
The boundary conditions are as follows. For the velocity
boundary, a non-slip condition is applied to the cylindrical wall.
At the inlet of the pipe, constant and uniform flow flux is
presumed (U = (0,0,1)). The free outflow condition is considered
(no velocity gradient in axial direction). As for the temperature
boundary condition, inlet and pipe wall except the heated region
is kept at the constant temperature (T = 0), and the constant heat
flux is presumed at the heated region (8 Z 12). The outlet of
the pipe is thermally insulated. The initial conditions are that the
velocity profile of (0,0,1) for all region, temperature is set at 0,
and no magnetic field nor heat flux are applied.
The governing equations (Eqs. (1)-(4)) are discretized into finite
difference equations in the staggered uniform mesh and
numerically solved. The number of grid is (R, , Z) = (20, 24,
100). The third-order upwind scheme is employed for the inertial
terms and the coupling of pressure and velocity in the momentum
equation is analytically-computed by the HSMAC method by
Hirt et al. [14]. The second-order central finite difference
approximation is applied to the diffusion terms and first-order
explicit in time marching. The velocity treatment at the cell
including center axis is followed by Ozoe and Toh [15].
Computed Cases
In the presumed situation, the effect of the magnetic force
depends on the flow flux, magnetic induction, the location of the
electric coil, coil radius, the heat flux from the wall and its region
length. For the simplicity, the inlet flow flux, the heat flux and its
area are fixed at Re = 2.0, Ra* = 104 and length of 4, and the
effect of the coil location with magnetic induction is intensively
studied. The fluid presumed in this study is paramagnetic such as
aqueous solution of gadolinium nitrate at low concentration, thus
the Prandtl number is assumed to 7.0. The result is firstly
discussed in cases without the gravity field (forced convection +
magnetic force). Then, the computation under the gravity field
(forced and natural convection + magnetic force) is carried out.
Results and Discussion
Grid Dependency
Before the main discussion, the grid dependency on the
computed result is investigated. Under the gravity, the natural
convection overlaps on the weak forced convection (= main flow)
at the heated region, where the flow pattern becomes complicated.
For the qualitative evaluation, the pressure difference from the
inlet to the outlet is compared in the several grid configurations.
The common tested parameters are aforementioned without
(1) magnetic field. When the natural convection is induced in the
heated region, the upward flow is induced along the pipe wall.
The results may be affected by the grids in the radial direction
due to the thermal boundary layer. Therefore, the tested grid
]
three-dimensional cylindrical coordinate (uniform), non-uniform
grid in R-direction which is finer near the pipe wall (non-
(3) uniform1), and same as non-uniform1 in R direction with further
non-uniform grid in axial direction which is finer near the inlet of
heated region (non-uniform2). All cases have same grid numbers.
(4) Table 1 shows the summarized data. Although the pressure
difference slightly depends on the grid configuration, it is almost
same as the original grid configurations, which implies that the
2024100 uniform grid system is reasonable. Therefore, the
subsequent computations are carried out in the uniform mesh
system.
P (20 24 100)
uniform non-uniform1 non-uniform2
82.5 82.8 79.7
Table 1. Pressure difference between the inlet and outlet for the
various grid configurations at Re = 2.0 and Ra* = 104.
Effect of Magnetic Field under the Non-Gravity Field
In case of non-gravity field, the pipe flow is affected only by the
magnetic force. In other words, the effect of the magnetic force
becomes remarkable by the absence of gravity. Computations are
carried out without buoyancy force and the effect of the coil
location is investigated. In this situation, the buoyancy term in
the right hand side of Equation (2) ((cos, sin, 0)T) is neglected.
The magnetic force can be evaluated by Ra* due to the
cancelation of the gravity acceleration.
The magnetic field, gradient of B2, temperature field, magnetic
force, and resulted velocity field are shown in Figure 2. Without
gravity, the phenomenon becomes axisymmetric, thus the results
are shown as a slice across the axis. This is the case at Zc = 8
where the coil locates at the inlet of heated region. The magnetic
field induced from a coil is in a same distribution as that studied
in Tagawa et al. [16] and other related studies. The gradient of B2
becomes large at the closest points to the coil as shown in Figure
2(b). As indicated in Equation (2), the magnetic force is
multiplication of B2 and T (Figure 2(c)). Then the flow field is
affected by the magnetic force, and the temperature field is also
affected. For the present coil location, the magnetic force is
induced mainly toward the cylinder axis, slightly upstream and
downstream. The resulted flow field and thermal boundary layer
are thus bended in the radial direction. The bended flow then
reattaches on the pipe wall and velocity profile recovers.
Therefore, the magnetic force works such like the repelling force
towards the axis.
(a) Magnetic field
(b) B2
(c) Temperature
(d) Magnetic force, TB2
(e) Velocity field
Figure 2. Components of magnetic force and resulted velocity
vectors under no-gravity field at Pr = 7.0, Re = 2.0, Ra* = 104,
= 1, and Zc = 8.
When the coil is placed at the different location, the magnetic
force profile becomes different due to the combination of the coil
and heated region locations. Representative two results are shown
in Figure 3. In case that Zc is in halfway of the heated region (mid
location, Figure 3(a)), the velocity and temperature fields are
remarkably bended towards the centre axis. The bended flow
becomes a vortex which breaks boundary layers. In contrast, if
the coil is located at the downstream such as at the outlet of the
heated region (Figure 3(b)), the thermal boundary layer is
blocked at the location due to the induced vortex by the magnetic
force. Therefore, local high-temperature area becomes larger than
the others.
(a) Zc = 10
(b) Zc = 12
Figure 3. Temperature field and velocity vectors at various coil
locations. Computed parameters are same as in Figure2 except
the coil location. Same temperature legend as in Figure 2 is
employed.
Consequently, the flow and temperature fields are affected by the
vortex induced by the magnetic force. This vortex breaks or
blocks the velocity and thermal boundary layers. The magnitude
of the vortex seems to depend on the coil location. In addition,
the axial component of magnetic force also depends on the coil
location. That is, the downstream component is slightly larger
than that of upstream in the case of Zc = 8.0. The opposite
tendency is found when Zc = 12.0. This can be evaluated by the
pressure difference between the inlet and outlet, since the
constant inflow flux is presumed in this study. The difference of
averaged pressure at the inlet and outlet is shown in Table 2 at
the various coil locations. As expected, magnetic force has little
effect when the coil is far from the heated region such as Zc = 6
and 14. As the coil location shifts across the heated region from
upstream to downstream, the pressure difference is reduced and
then increased (the summarized data are shown in Figure 7). This
represents that the vortex flow apparently depends on the coil
location and it can increase or decrease the friction of the pipe.
In addition, the effect of the magnitude of Ra* is investigated.
This parameter corresponds to the strength of the magnetic force
under the non-gravity field and/or the heat flux from the wall. As
the parameter value becomes large, the effect on the flow and
resulted pressure difference becomes remarkable as shown in
Table 2.
P
Zc Ra*=0 Ra*=104 Ra*=2104
6 81.0 81.0
8 73.9 70.8
10 81.0 83.6 95.8
12 94.8 107.3
14 86.2 94.8
Table 2. Pressure difference between the inlet and outlet versus
the coil location at Pr =7.0 and Re = 2.0.
With Buoyancy Force, No Magnetic Field
Under the gravity field, the buoyancy force is additionally
induced, which makes the flow phenomenon complicated. Thus
the case without magnetic force is firstly examined. Figure 4
shows the enlarged perspective view with streak lines and
isothermal contours, and slices at several locations. Due to the
magnitudes of present Re and Ra*, the flow phenomenon in the
pipe is dominated by the natural convection [17]. As shown in
Figure 4(a), the induced natural convection overlaps to the forced
convection and vortices toward upstream and downstream are 4(b) right), the velocity near the pipe wall becomes stronger and
induced around the interfacial area of heated region. By the high-temperature area is shrunk by the convective flow.
upward flow along the pipe wall, higher-temperature region is
formed at the upper area in heated region, which can be observed
also in Figure 4(b). In the figure, circumferential velocity
component becomes large as flow goes through the heated region.
The growth of the natural convection along the pipe wall
becomes remarkable in the mid area of the heated region (Z = 10)
compared to the inlet area (Z = 8). Not shown in the figure, the
upward flow along the pipe wall becomes weak at the outlet of
heated region (Z =12).

(a) Zc = 8

(a)
(b) Zc = 10

(c) Zc = 12
Z=8 Z=10
(b) Figure 5. Streak lines and isotherms inside horizontal pipe flow
Figure 4. Flow and temperature fields inside horizontal pipe flow under the gravity at Pr =7.0, Re = 2.0, Ra* = 104 and = 1.
under the gravity at Pr =7.0, Re = 2.0, Ra* = 104 and = 0. (a)
streak lines and isotherms from enlarged perspective view, (b)
velocity vectors and temperature fields at Z = 8 and 10.
With Magnetic Field under Gravity Field
The case with the magnetic field under the gravity is then (a) Vertical slice at centre axis
considered. The perspective view of streak lines and isotherms at
= 1 are shown in Figure 5. Each streak line in the figure is
traced from the corresponding position. As shown in the figure,
isotherm of higher temperature at the upper region is apparently
affected by the magnetic field depending on the coil locations.
However, the remarkable change in velocity profile is not found
in the figure. This is due to that the magnetic force works only
near the coil locations as discussed in Figure 2(d), but the
overlapped natural convection spreads around the heated region.
Then, the local profiles are further investigated by using the case
of Zc = 10. Figure 6 shows the magnetic force vector, and Magnetic force (b) Z = 8 Velocity
velocity with temperature profiles at some locations. The vertical
slice including the cylindrical axis (Figure 6(a)) suggests that the
magnetic force is remarkable only near the coil location. It also
represents that the force becomes strong at the upper region than
that at the lower one. This is due to the temperature profile
formed by the natural convection. The lateral slice at the Z
coordinate supports the above results. In the slice far from the
coil (Figure 6(b)) shows that the magnetic force is negligibly
small. This area is not affected by the force due to sufficiently
upstream from the coil location, thus the velocity and Magnetic force Velocity
temperature profiles are similar to the case without magnetic field (c) Z = 10
(Figure 4(b) left). In contrast, slice at the coil location (Figure
6(c)), the force apparently works in radial direction and is Figure 6. Result at Pr =7.0, Re = 2.0, Ra* = 104, = 1 and Zc =
stronger in upper region as the downward force. This downward 10. (a) magnetic force vectors with temperature at vertical slice
force to the bulk region enhances the convective flow by across axis. (b) slice at Z = 8. left: magnetic force , right: velocity
buoyancy. Comparing to the case without magnetic field (Figure profile. (c) same as (b) at Z = 10.
Effect on Pressure Difference
Finally, the pressure difference is summarized in Figure 7,
including all the computed cases. The dependency of the coil
location with the absence and presence of gravity and magnetic
field is depicted in the figure. As explained in aforementioned
section, in case without gravity, the pressure difference decreases
when the coil is at the inlet of heated region and it increases when
the coil is at the exit of the heat source. In addition, as the coil
shifts far away from the heated region, the effect becomes rapidly
small.
By the overlap of natural convection, that is, under the gravity
field, the pressure difference without magnetic field is slightly
increased due to the mixed convection.
The same tendency is found even the natural convection overlaps.
This implies that even though the flow field is not apparently
affected as shown in Figure 5, the pipe friction loss can be
controlled by the external magnetic field with similar degree and
same mechanism compared to cases without gravity.
Figure 7. Summary of the effect of magnetic force on the
pressure difference depending on the coil location at Pr = 7.0 and
Re = 2.0.
Conclusions
In this study, the effect of external magnetic field on pipe flow of
paramagnetic fluid is numerically investigated. Under non-
gravity field, the fundamental mechanism of the induced flow
and resulted temperature control is revealed. The effect of the
magnetic force is found to depend on the magnet location, that is,
the relative position of magnet and heated area is crucial. The
corresponding pressure difference of the pipe can be reduced or
increased depending on the coil location. Under the gravity field,
in case of the natural convection dominant (pipe is set
horizontally), mixed convection is observed thus the flow field is
affected. By the application of the magnetic field, the remarkable
effect is not found in the flow and temperature fields, however,
the pressure difference can be controlled with a similar tendency
as the case without gravity. This implies that the friction loss may
be controlled by the coupling of the heat source and external
magnetic field such as strong permanent magnet.
Acknowledgement
This study is partially supported by MEXT, Grant-in-aid for
Young Scientists (B) No. 24760139.
References
[1] http://www.magneticseparation.co.uk/
[2] Timmel, K., Eckert, S., Gerbeth, G., Stefani, F. and
Wondrak, T., Experimental Modeling of the Continuous
Casting Process of Steel Using Low Melting Point Metal
Alloys-the LIMMCAST Program, ISIJ Int., 50, 2010, 1134-
1141.
[3] Hoshikawa, K., Czochralski Silicon Crystal Growth in the
Vertical Magnetic Field, Jpn. J. App. Phys., 21, 1982, 545-
547.
[4] Kaneda, M., Tagawa, T. and Ozoe, H., Natural Convection
of Liquid Metal under a Uniform Magnetic Field with an
Electric Current Supplied from Outside, Exp. Therm. Fluid
Sci., 30, 2006, 243-252.
[5] Okada, K. and Ozoe, H., Experimental Heat Transfer Rates
of Natural Convection of Molten Gallium Suppressed under
an External Magnetic Field in Either the X, Y, or Z
Direction, J. Heat Transfer, 114, 1992, 107-113.
[6] Aurnou, J.M. and Olson, P.L., Experiments on Rayleigh-
Bnard Convection, Magnetoconvection and Rotating
Magnetoconvection in Liquid Gallium, J. Fluid Mech., 430,
2001, 283-307.
[7] Website of High Field Magnet Laboratory, Radboud
Univeristy Nijmegen, Netherlands, http://www.ru.nl/
hfml/research/levitation/diamagnetic/
[8] Wakayama, N.I., Behavior of Flow under Gradient Magnetic
Fields, J. Appl. Phys., 69, 1991, 2734-2736.
[9] Uetake, H., Hirota, N., Nakagawa, J., Ikezoe, Y. and
Kitazawa, K., Thermal Convection Control by Gradient
Magnetic Field, J. Appl. Phys., 87, 2000, 6310-6312.
[10] Braithwaite, D., Beaugnon, E. and Tournier, R.,
Magnetically Controlled Convection in a Paramagnetic Fluid,
Nature, 354, 1991, 134-136.
[11] Kaneda, M., Noda, R., Tagawa, T., Ozoe, H., Lu, S.-S. and
Hua, B., Effect of Inclination of the Convection of Air in a
Cubic Enclosure under Both Magnetic and Gravitational
Fields with Flow Visualization, J. Chem. Eng. Jpn., 37, 2004,
338-346.
[12] Lee, C.H., Lu, S.-S., Tagawa, T., Ozoe, H. and Hyun, J.M.,
Numerical Analysis of Magnetic Effect on Human Breathing,
JSME International J., C, 46, 2003, 572-582.
[13] Hellums, J.D. and Churchill, S.W., Simplification of the
Mathematical Description of Boundary and Initial Value
Problem, AIChE J., 10, 1964, 110-114.
[14] Hirt, C. W., Nichols, B. D. and Romero, N. C., A Numerical
Solution Algorithm for Transient Fluid Flows, Technical
Report, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, 1975, LA-5852.
[15] Ozoe, H. and Toh, K., A Technique to Circumvent a
Singularity at a Radial Center with Application for a Three-
Dimensional Cylindrical System, Num. Heat Trans., B, 33,
1998, 355-365.
[16] Tagawa, T., Ozoe, H., Sassa, K. and Asai, S., Convective
and Diffusive Phenomena of Air in a Vertical Cylinder
under a Strong Magnetic Field, Num. Heat Trans., B, 41,
2002, 383-395.
[17] Holman, J.P., Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, 1992.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Numerical simulation of two-phase flow with phase change at high density ratio by the
lattice Boltzmann method

M. SATO1, M. WATANABE2 and F. AKAMATSU1

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Osaka University, 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
2
Department of Engineering and Applied Sciences,
Sophia University, 7-1 Kioi-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-8554, Japan

Abstract lattice Boltzmann equation for non-ideal gases for simulation

of incompressible two-phase flows having high-density ratio.
In order to simulate thermal two-phase flow, we have
However, most of lattice Boltzmann models that can deal
developed a lattice Boltzmann model by improving the
with two-phase flow at high-density ratio are usable only in
existing lattice Boltzmann model that can deal with
isothermal condition and energy conservation is not satisfied,
two-phase flow at high-density ratio, which is achieved by
though temperature is a very important parameter to simulate
introducing a new particle distribution function that leads to
phase change. It is a fact that Morozumi and Li [7] modelized
system temperature. By using this proposed lattice Boltzmann
evaporation of a droplet without considering temperature, but
model, heat transfers between solid and liquid phases, and
it is insufficient to utilize this model for simulating phase
between liquid and gas phases are calculated to estimate the
change because heat transfer is not considered in their
validity of the model, where the density ratio between the
simulation.
liquid phase and the gas phase is about 100. The analytical
Therefore, we aimed to develop the lattice Boltzmann model
result demonstrates that the model is applicable to two-phase
for simulating thermal two-phase flow with phase change at
system with heat transfer.
high-density ratio. In this paper, a lattice Boltzmann model
was developed by improving the existing lattice Boltzmann
Introduction
model that can deal with two-phase flow at high-density ratio
A gas-liquid two-phase flow is a very important topic in and by introducing a new particle distribution function that
various fields of engineering: chemical engineering; led to temperature. By using this proposed lattice Boltzmann
mechanical engineering; and nuclear power engineering. In model, heat transfer between solid, liquid and gas phases was
addition, various two-phase flow phenomena are observed in calculated and the validity of the model was estimated on the
nature. Most of these phenomena are accompanied by phase condition that the density ratio between the liquid and the gas
change such as evaporation and condensation. However, it is phases was about 100.
difficult to deal with the process of phase change by
conventional methods based on the Navier-Stokes equation. Description of the model
On the other hand, a lattice Boltzmann method has recently
In lattice Boltzmann method (LBM), it is assumed that fluid
gathered considerable attention as an alternative and
consists of many virtual particles repeatedly colliding and
promising numerical scheme for simulating multiphase flow.
streaming, and fluid motion is simulated by calculating time
Moreover, the lattice Boltzmann method is suitable for
evolution of the particle distribution function. So far, some
parallel computation by reason of the simple algorithm to
lattice Boltzmann models that could deal with two-phase flow
shorten the time of the simulation. Actually, the lattice
were reported by several researchers. This study demonstrates
Boltzmann method has achieved great success in the
an analysis based on the lattice Boltzmann model, proposed
simulation of multiphase flow with large deformation of the
by Lee and Lin, that can simulate two-phase flow having
interface such as breakup and coalescence of bubbles or
high-density ratio. Considering two-dimensional LBM with
droplets. For instance, Inamuro et al. [1,2] proposed a lattice
nine discrete velocities (D2Q9 model) on a square grid,
Boltzmann method, based on Swift et al. [3,4] s
particles move from one node of the grid to one of its
free-energy-based model, for incompressible two-phase flows
neighbors, in the streaming step of the LBM, as illustrated in
with large density ratio, which was applied to a single rising
Figure 1.
bubble in liquid and many bubbles rising in a square duct.
Lee and Lin [5,6] suggested a stable discretization of the
 e u (ei e j cs ij ) ui u j '
" 2 %
feq = t $1+ i2 i + 4
(3)
$# cs 2cs '&

e u (ei e j cs ij ) uiu j '-

( " 2 %+
p
geq = t * 2 + $ i2 i + (4)
* cs $ cs 2cs4 '-
) # &,

e u (ei e j cs ij ) ui u j '
" 2 %
( u) = t $1+ i2 i + 4
(5)
$# cs 2cs '&

Figure 1. Particle velocity model (D2Q9 model) where ! is the weighting factor given in Table 1 for
d-dimensional b velocity DdQb models. Then, the chemical
potential is expressed as
Time evolution of the particle distribution function is subject
to two lattice Boltzmann equations as = 4 ( l ) ( v ) ( m ) (6)

f f 1
+ ei = ( f feq ) where ! and ! are the densities of liquid and vapor
t xi
(1) phases at saturation respectively, and ! = ! + ! /2. In
(ei ui )!"i cs2 i ( 2j )#$ this analysis, equations (1) and (2) are solved in three steps:
+ (u) Pre-streaming collision step; Streaming step; and
cs2
Post-streaming collision step. The density, the flow velocity
and the hydrodynamic pressure are calculated by equation (7)
g g 1
+ ei = ( g geq ) - (9) with the particle distribution functions, ! and ! ,
t xi
after the streaming step.
(ei ui ) i ( cs2 p)
+
cs2
( ( u ) ( 0 )) (2)
= f (7)

(ei ui )#$i (k k ) j (i j )%&
+ (u)
cs2
t * # & # &-
ui = ei g + , % ( % (/ (8)
2 ,+ xi $ xk xk ' x j %$ xi x j ('/.
where ! , ! are the particle distribution functions in the

-direction of the lattice model, !" is the i-component of

the -direction microscopic velocity, is the relaxation time, t cs2
p = cs2 g + ui (9)
is the density, ! is the flow velocity, is the 2 xi
hydrodynamic pressure, ! is the speed of sound, is the
parameter given by the surface tension force and the In addition, a new distribution function ! is employed into
interface thickness . ! !" and ! !" are the equilibrium this lattice Boltzmann model. Time evolution of ! is
distribution functions expressed as equation (3) and (4) expressed as
respectively, and ! is expressed as equation (5):

Model
2 1 1
D1Q3 3 6 0 0 0 3
1 1 1
D1Q5 2 6 0 0 12 1
1 1 1
D2Q7 2 12 0 0 0 4
4 1 1 1
D2Q9 9 9 36 0 0 3
2 8 1 1 2
D2Q13 5 75 25 0 300 5
2 1 1 1
D3Q15 9 9 0 72 0 3
1 1 1 1
D3Q19 3 18 36 0 0 3
43 4 2 1 1 2
D3Q33 150 75 75 150 300 5
1 1 1
D4Q25 3 0 36 0 0 3

Table 1. Summary of DdQb lattice models

 h h 1 Density ratio ! ! 100
+ ei = ( h heq) (10)
t xi T Viscosity ratio ! ! 10
Heat conductivity ratio ! ! 9
where ! is the relaxation time given by the heat-transfer Surface tension 2.010!!
coefficient . ! !" is the distribution function expressed as Droplet wetting diameter 50
equation (11).
Table 2. Computational conditions (Dimensionless
! 3e (u + u ) $
h = t T #1+ i i 2 Ti &
eq
(11) parameters)

" 2c s %

Equation (10) is solved in the same three steps as ! and ! .

Then, the temperature , and !" are calculated by
!
equations (12) and (13) with ! after the streaming step.

T = h (12)

1
uTi = eih (13)
T

Numerical test

Analytical condition droplet

Calculation domain (! = 100, ! = 100) is shown in 0 !
Figure 2. A droplet on a high-temperature plate, surrounded high-temperature wall
by the gas is placed on two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system. Analysis conditions are decided based on the Figure 2. Schematic representation of the simulation
dynamics of a droplet with wetting diameter 1 . The
physical properties, used in analysis conditions, are chosen
under the case where Ohnesorge number ( = ! ! ),
that is the ratio between viscosity of liquid phase and surface
tension force, becomes equivalent to the observed values. The
parameters are shown in Table 2. These physical properties
are non-dimensional parameters given by lattice width, time !
step and density of the liquid phase. For the boundary,
periodic boundary condition at = 0 and = ! , outflow
condition at = ! , and bounce back condition at = 0
are set. Besides, the density profile across the interface at
[]

equilibrium is shown in Figure 3, the density distributed

continuously is obtained from equation (14).

l v " 2z %
( z) = m + tanh $ ' (14)
2 #D&

where is a distance from the center of interface. The ! interface region

interface is defined as the area with 2 width centered in
! . And relaxation times , ! are obtained by equation
(15) and (16) depend on the density distribution.
0
= C l + (1 C ) v (15) []
T = C Tl + (1 C ) Tv (16)
Figure 3. Density profile in the interface region
where ! , !" and ! , !" are the relaxation times for
liquid and vapor, respectively. = ! ! ! is
the composition.

Analytical result

At first, as a preliminary step, the heat transfer from the

high-temperature wall to the liquid film is analyzed under the
same conditions as those in the analysis of the droplet, and
the result is showed in Figure 4. In the figure, the distribution
of temperature is displayed with color contour lines and plots.
The darker color indicates the higher temperature. In Figure 4, = 100 = 500
we can find that the heat transfer from the high-temperature
wall to the liquid film, and from the liquid film to the
surrounding gas with time evolution is qualitatively
reproduced.
Figure 5 shows the numerical result of heat transfer from the
high-temperature wall to the droplet. In Figure 5, the
difference in the heat transfer between the liquid phase and
the gas phase is observed. We consider that the difference
comes from higher heat conductivity of the droplet than that
of the surrounding gas. In this analysis, the relaxation time
! that controls the heat transfer is simply given by density
distribution across the interface, which leads to qualitatively
correct results. However, for instance, the existence of = 1000 = 1500
thermal resistance at the interface is known generally. In the Figure 4. Time evolution of heat transfer from
case, we have to modify the model so as to analyze the heat high-temperature wall to liquid film
transfer across the interface in keeping with the actual
phenomenon.

Conclusions
A lattice Boltzmann model has been developed so as to
analyze two-phase flow and heat transfer simultaneously.
Heat transfer of a droplet on a high-temperature plate has
been simulated to investigate the validity of the model. The
conclusion is the following.
Adding the particle distribution function representing
temperature into the existing model, we can analyze heat
transfer for gas-liquid two-phase system at high-density ratio.
We will develop the model to analyze not only the system
where low-Rayleigh number is assumed but also the system = 100 = 500
strongly depending on natural convection. In addition, we
will analyze the evaporation process of a droplet on
high-temperature plate, by considering thermal field obtained
from the analysis with the proposed model in the future.

References
[1] T. Inamuro, T. Ogata, F. Ogino, Lattice Boltzmann
Simulation of Bubble Flows, Computational
Science-ICCS2003 LNCS 2657, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
2003, 1015.
[2] T. Inamuro, T. Ogata, S. Tajima and N. Konishi, A
lattice Boltzmann method for incompressible two-phase = 1000 = 1500
flows with large density differences, J. Comput. Phys.
198 (2004) 628. Figure 5. Time evolution of heat transfer from
high-temperature wall to droplet
[3] M.R. Swift, W.R. Odborn, J.M. Yeomans, Lattice
Boltzmann simulation of nonideal fluids, Phys. Rev. Lett.
75 (1995) 830.
[4] M.R. Swift, E. Orlandini, W.R. Osborn, J.M. Yeomas,
Lattice Boltzmann simulation of liquid-gas and binary
fluid systems, Phys. Rev. E 54 (1996) 5041.
[5] T. Lee and C.-L. Lin, A pressure evolution lattice
Boltzmann equation method for two-phase flow with
phase change, Phys. Rev. E67 (2003) 056703
[6] T. Lee and C.-L. Lin, A stable discretization of the
lattice Boltzmann equation for simulation of
imcompressible two phase flows at high density ratio, J.
Comput. Phys. 206 (2005) 16
[7] Y. Morozumi, R. Li, Lattice Boltzmann Simulation of
Droplet Drying behavior on Substrates with Different
Wettability, Research bulletin 7(1) 71, Kochi University
of Technology, 2010
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Behavior of a Water Drop Impinging on Heated Porous Surfaces
W.S. Kim1 and S.Y. Lee1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
KAIST, Science Town, Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea
Abstract
In the present study, thermal and hydrodynamic behaviors of a
water drop impinging on heated porous surfaces were
investigated experimentally. Four porous substrates having
different permeability and surface roughness were prepared by
sintering glass beads with different sizes (67.2 m 284 m).
The substrate surface temperature was varied from 60C to 300C
and the diameter of the water drop was fixed at 2.6 mm. The
impinging Weber number was varied from 25 to 200 by changing
the impact velocity from 0.8 m/s to 2.3 m/s. A post-impingement
regime map was constructed based on the observation. Basically
two impingement regimes were identified: contact regime in the
low temperature range and non-contact regime in the high
temperature range. The contact regime, in which the drop
evaporated or boiled while maintaining contact with the surface,
was further divided into three sub-regimes: internal evaporation,
internal boiling, and surface nucleate boiling. In the non-contact
(surface film boiling) regime, levitation of the drop was observed,
but occurred at relatively lower wall temperature with the larger-
bead substrates due to active nucleation on the rougher surfaces.
The increase in the Weber number resulted in the higher
transition temperature from the contact to the non-contact
regimes. This is considered to be due to the increase of pressure
at the liquid-solid interface at the moment of impact. The surface
temperature varied with time experiencing three phases. The
surface temperature sharply decreased and then increased with
time to reach a thermal equilibrium state between the penetrated
liquid drop and the porous solid structure (phase I). Then the
surface temperature decreased again during the evaporation of
the liquid (phase II), and finally increased upto the initial wall
temperature (phase III) after the completion of evaporation. The
maximum temperature drop in the phase II occurred in the
internal boiling sub-regime. The total evaporation time of the
drop decreased with the higher impact velocity and with the
substrate made of smaller glass-beads, since the larger spreading
ratio and wet-area diameter ratio could be achieved. The
spreading ratio, the wet-area diameter ratio, and the complete
penetration time turned out to be the major indicators of the
cooling performance, which were strongly influenced by both the
impact condition and the characteristics of the porous substrates.
Nomenclature
dimp diameter of droplet before impact
dp volume mean diameter of glass beads
Dfilm spreading diameter of liquid film
Dwet wet-area diameter
K permeability
Tw surface temperature
vimp impact velocity
We impinging Weber number
z distance between nozzle and substrate
film spreading ratio of liquid film
wet wet-area diameter ratio
mean surface roughness amplitude
porosity
Introduction
To enhance the surface cooling performance, a spray cooling
technique in combination with construction of porous surfaces
[1-4] was recently proposed. By adopting porous substrates,
spray cooling performance was enhanced because the sprayed
water droplets permeated into the structures and spread out to the
larger target area. At the same time, larger amount of liquid could
be retained in the heated substrates without flowing over the
surface. However, estimation of the cooling performance of the
sprays on the porous substrate is still a challenging issue, because
understanding of the heat transfer mechanism between the drops
and the substrates is yet the primitive stage. Therefore, as an
initial step, the behavior of the single-drop impact on porous
surfaces should be studied in detail. The knowledge inferred from
the single-drop impact may provide the necessary basic
information such as the mass of liquid deposited onto the surface,
the time of contact, and the vapor release rates [5].
Generally, the heat transfer mechanism of a single drop
impinging onto a heated surface depends on the heat transfer
mode (e.g. single phase evaporation, nucleate boiling, and film
boiling), which is determined by the hydrodynamic behavior [6].
In other words, prior to modeling the heat transfer behavior, the
hydrodynamic post-impingement regime should be classified and
the transition criteria between the regimes should be determined.
According to the previous studies, drop size, impact velocity and
surface tension which are represented by the impinging Weber
number, and the wall temperature are considered as the most
influential factors on the post-impingement behavior of a single
drop. For porous substrates, different characteristics such as
suppression of the Leidenfrost phenomenon and the decrease in
evaporation time of the drop [7-9], elimination of the receding
process [10], and suppression of the splash phenomena [11-13]
were observed in accordance with the penetration of the drop into
the porous structures. In these studies, the impinging behavior
was simply compared between the porous and the non-porous
substrates, or only one porous material was used. However, to
determine the transition criteria of the post-impingement regimes
appropriately and to analyze the impinging behavior for the
porous substrates, the factors representing the liquid permeation
should be examined in addition to the wall temperature and the
impinging Weber number.
Therefore, in the present study, effects of the wall temperature
and the impinging Weber number on the post-impingement
behavior were investigated experimentally using the porous
substrates having different levels of permeability.
Experimental Method and Conditions
Figure 1 shows a schematic of the experimental setup employed
to observe the post-impingement behavior of a water drop on the
porous substrates. A series of uniform drops were formed by
dripping through a needle using a syringe pump. A needle with
an inner diameter of 140 m (gauge 22) was used to generate a
water drop of 2.6 mm in diameter.
The porous substrate was heated from below using a hot plate.
Two K-type thermocouples were installed on the top surface of
the substrate to measure the wall temperature. Each thermocouple
was located on the radially opposite point with the distance from
the center of the drop impact region by 15 mm. The wall
temperature was varied from 60 C to 300C by controlling the
electric power of the hot plate. Each impinging test was repeated
after the wall temperature reached the designated temperature
and maintained unchanged at least for five minutes.
The impact velocity of the drop was controlled by varying the
vertical distance between the tip of the needle and the surface of
the substrate (z) so that it ranged from 0.8 m/s to 2.3 m/s. The
impact velocity was estimated by measuring the distance between
two successive drop images just prior to impact and the time Figure 2 Sintered glass-beads (P3 substrate)
interval between them.
The post-impingement behavior of the drop was visualized with
the aid of a high-speed camera (Phantom V7, Vision Research, Volume Mean
Inc.) at 5000 frames/s. A halogen lamp was used as the light mean surface Permea-
Porosity
source and positioned at the opposite side of the camera for back diameter roughness bility
Substrates
lighting. A light-diffusive glass plate was also placed between the of beads amplitude
substrate and the lamp. Thereby, the change of the shape of the K [m2]
d p [m] [m] [-]
droplet and the behavior of the vapor bubbles generated inside 1013
the droplet could be observed clearly. A high-speed IR camera P1 67.2 6.4 4.72
(SC5500-M, FLIR Systems, Inc.) was used to measure the P2 125 12.9 10.5
temperature distribution over the surface of the substrate at 200 0.35
P3 160 16.7 20.2
frames/s. In order to examine the time variation of wetted
(penetrated) region, the surface of the substrate was also P4 284 23.6 56.1
visualized using digital CCD camera (D3200, Nikon) at 59.94 Table 1 Properties of sintered glass-beads substrates
frames/s.
Result and Discussion
Figure 2 shows the porous substrate used in this study. Four
different sizes of glass beads, ranging from 67.2 m to 284 m in Post-Impingement Regime
volume mean diameter, were sintered in manufacturing the
Time-sequential images of a water drop impacting on the P2
substrates. The permeability of each substrate was measured by
substrate at We= 100 are shown in Fig. 3. As the wall
using a falling-head experimental apparatus and the surface
temperature was increased, two basic post-impingement regimes
roughness amplitude was measured with a surface roughness
appeared; contact regime (Figs. 3(a)-(c)) and non-contact regime
tester (SJ-400, Mitutoyo). The detailed information about the
(Fig. 3(d)). In the first regime, contact between the drop and the
manufacturing process of the substrate and the apparatus for
surface of the substrate was maintained while the drop was
measurement of permeability are introduced in Kims work [13].
detached from the surface in the second regime. (Similar trends
The properties of each substrate are summarized in Table 1.
were observed with other substrates, except for the transition
temperature between the regimes.)
The contact regime was further divided into sub-regimes such as
internal evaporation, internal-boiling, and surface nucleate
boiling. In the internal evaporation sub-regime, as exemplified in
Fig. 3(a), the impacting drop spread out radially along the surface,
forming a thin liquid film (lamella). At the same time, a certain
portion penetrated into the substrate. Once the maximum
spreading state was reached, the lamella simply permeated into
the substrate. Then the permeated liquid was slowly evaporated
inside the substrate. This mode occurred when the surface was
maintained below the boiling temperature (100C).
In the internal boiling sub-regime (Fig. 3(b)), the spreading and
penetration behaviors of the drop were basically similar to those
in the internal evaporation sub-regime, but the bubbling motion
near the edge of the lamella was additionally observed. Such an
effervescent phenomenon was likely to occur because vapor was
generated from the penetrated liquid and erupted through the
pores near the edge of the lamella. This implies that the internal
vapor generation rate in this regime was relatively higher than
that in the internal evaporation sub-regime. The bubbling motion
was first observed when the wall temperature exceeded 120C,
Figure 1 Experimental apparatus
and continued to occur until the wall temperature was raised to
140C.
When the wall temperature was increased above 160C, the
surface nucleate boiling mode was observed, as shown in Fig.
3(c). In this sub-regime, vapor nucleation was observed within
the lamella during spreading. Thus the liquid film was strongly
perturbed due to the active vapor generation, and ejection of
small secondary droplets from the free surface of the lamella was
also observed.
The boiling phenomena became more vigorous as the wall
temperature was further increased, finally reaching the non-
contact regime (Fig. 3(d)). In this regime, immediately after the
impingement, a large amount of vapor was generated at the
interface between the liquid and the substrate so that a vapor
dome was formed inside the drop. At the same time the lamella
continued spreading with the vapor dome growing underneath
and consequently the lamella was levitated. Depending on the
impinging Weber number, the droplet may be rebounded
completely (in low We) or broken up into several small droplets
(in high We).
An impingement regime map was constructed based on the
experimental observation as shown in Fig. 4. The transition
criteria between the sub-regimes in the contact regime were
influenced neither by the impinging Weber number nor the
permeability of the substrates. However, the transition wall
temperature between the contact and non-contact regimes
decreased with the larger surface roughness/permeability (i.e.,
0 ms 1 ms 4 ms 6 ms 8 ms
(a) Tw= 80C, contact regime (internal evaporation)
Bubbling
0 ms 1 ms 7 ms 22 ms 41 ms
(b) Tw= 140C, contact regime (internal boiling)
Secondary
Drops
0 ms 20 ms 80 ms
1 ms 10 ms
(c) Tw= 200C, contact regime (surface nucleate boiling)
0 ms 1 ms 10 ms 20 ms 110 ms
(d) Tw= 300C, non-contact regime (surface film boiling)
Figure 3 Post impingement behavior of water droplet impacting
against porous substrate
(P2 substrate (K= 10.5 10-13 m2), We= 100 (vimp= 1.6 m/s,
dimp= 2.6 mm))
Figure 4 Post-impingement regime map for a water droplet
impacting on surface of porous substrate
with the substrate made of larger glass beads), and increased with
the higher Weber number. When boiling occurs on the porous
surfaces, the pores act as the cavities for nucleation. The pore
size is approximately proportional to the glass-bead size, and thus
more active nucleation is expected with the substrate made of
larger beads. According to Bernardin and Mudawar [14], when a
drop impacts on a solid surface, the pressure at the liquid-solid
interface is significantly increased at the moment of impact. In
other words, the Leidenfrost temperature for impinging drop is
influenced by the impact pressure which is proportional to the
impact velocity, eventually. Their explanation may be applicable
to the present case with the porous substrates.
Relationship between Thermal and Hydrodynamic Behaviors
The thermal and hydrodynamic behaviors of an impinging water
droplet on P2 substrate at Tw= 140C and We= 100 (for the
internal boiling sub-regime) was exemplified in Fig. 5. Figure
5(a) shows the time variation of the surface temperature at the
center of the impact region. The trend of the temperature
variation can be classified into three phases. In phase I, the
surface temperature dropped sharply right after the drop impact,
and increased upto a certain value. (Note that the temperatures at
the early stage of phase I are expressed as the dashed line
because the measured values by the IR camera may not represent
the substrate temperature due to the liquid film remaining on the
surface.) The temperature decreased with time in phase II, and
then increased again upto the initial surface temperature in phase
III.
Figure 5(b) shows the time variations of spreading ratio (red line,
film) and wet-area diameter ratio (blue line, wet). Here,
indicates the diameter of spreading liquid film (Dfilm) or wetted
(penetrated) area (Dwet) divided by that of the water drop before
impact (dimp) as described in Fig. 6. The spreading and
penetration processes were completed at the early stage of phase
I. After that, the surface temperature increased with time until the
temperatures of the penetrated water and the porous solid
structure became the same at the boiling point (i.e. 100C). As
shown in Figs. 7(a) and 8(a), the surface temperature at the drop
impact region increased and also became spatially uniform as
reaching the end of phase I.
In phase II, a uniform temperature area was observed at the
center of the impact region, which decreased with time as shown
in Figs. 7(b) and 8(b). Finally, the uniform temperature region
disappeared, followed by the start of the re-increase of the
surface temperature which stands for the beginning of phase III.
It can be realized that, from the time variation of the surface
temperature (Fig. 5(a)) and that of wet-area diameter ratio (Fig.
5(b), measured through visualization as shown in Fig. 9), the start
of phase II approximately coincides with the maximum of the
wet-area diameter ratio, and the end of phase II coincides with
 140 140
Phase I Phase II
Temperature [ C]

Temperature [ C]
120
o

120

o
Time [msec]
t increases
100 0
Surface

100 10

Surface
80 20
80 50
60 100
Phase III 200
60
40 300
400
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 40
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time [msec]
Radial Distance from Center [mm]
(a) Time variation of surface temperature at the center of impact
region (a) Phase I
5
Spreading ratio
Wet-area diameter ratio 140
4
wet(=Dwet/dimp) [-]

Temperature [ C]
wet 120
film(=Dfilm/dimp) or

Maximum spreading

o
of liquid film
3
100 Time [msec]

Surface
2 Complete 400
penetration 2000
film of liquid film
80
4000
1 Total evaporation t increases 6000
60 8000
0 10000
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 40
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time [msec]
Radial Distance from Center [mm]
(b) Time variations of spreading ratio (liquid film, red line) and
wet-area diameter ratio (penetrated portion, blue line) (b) Phase II

Figure 5 Thermal and hydrodynamic behavior of impinging 140

water droplet on heated porous substrate (P2 substrate, Tw=140C
Temperature [ C]

(internal boiling sub-regime), vimp= 1.6 m/s, dimp= 2.6 mm, 120
o

Time [msec]
We= 100) 10000
100
Surface

20000
40000
80 60000
t increases
80000
60 100000
0 ms 2 ms 7 ms 10 ms 20 ms 41 ms 120000
dimp 40
vimp Dwet(t) Dwet(t) -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Radial Distance from Center [mm]
Dfilm(t) Dfilm,max Dfilm(t)
(c) Phase III
Maximum Conplete
spreading penetration Figure 8 Time variation of surface temperature distribution (P2
Figure 6 Spreading and penetration behavior of impinging water substrate, Tw= 140C (internal boiling sub-regime), vimp= 1.6 m/s,
droplet (P2 substrate, Tw= 140C (internal boiling sub-regime), dimp= 2.6 mm, We= 100)
vimp=1.6 m/s, dimp= 2.6 mm, We= 100)
Dwet

5 mm

400 ms 2,000 ms 4,000 ms 6,000 ms 8,000 ms 10,000 ms

20ms 50ms 100ms 200ms 300ms 400ms
(a) Phase I Figure 9 Time variation of wetted area in phase II (P2 substrate,
Tw= 140C (internal boiling sub-regime), vimp= 1.6 m/s, dimp= 2.6
mm, We= 100)
the disappearance of the wetted area. This implies that, in phase
II, heat is removed from the porous substrate due to the internal
400ms 2,000ms 4,000ms 6,000ms 8,000ms 10,000ms boiling of the penetrated liquid, and the cooling process is
(b) Phase II eventually terminated when all the amount of the liquid has been
evaporated. Also the surface temperature distribution in the
wetted region was almost uniform. After the evaporation process
was completed, in phase III, the surface temperature increased to
the initial wall temperature, showing a parabolic temperature
10,000ms 20,000ms 40,000ms 60,000ms 80,000ms 100,000ms distribution as shown in Figs. 7(c) and 8(c).
(c) Phase III Effect of Initial Wall Temperature
Figures 10(a) and 10(b) shows the effect of the initial wall
temperature on the change of the time variation of the surface
Figure 7 Time variation of thermal image of porous surface after temperature and the spreading and wet-area diameter ratios of the
impact (P2 substrate, Tw=140C (internal boiling sub-regime), water drop, respectively. In the contact regime (Tw 200C), as
vimp= 1.6 m/s, dimp= 2.6 mm, We= 100) the wall temperature was increased, the maximum spreading ratio
 320 Effect of Impact Velocity
Initial Tw
280
Temperature [ C]

80 C
o
The effect of the impact velocity on the time variations of the
240
o

o
140 C surface temperature and the spreading and wet-area diameter
200 o
200 C ratios for the internal boiling sub-regime of the droplet was
Surface

160 o
300 C exemplified in Fig. 12. As the impact velocity was increased, the
120
drop spread more widely and rapidly, and the larger maximum
80
spreading ratio was achieved. On the other hand, the complete
40
penetration time became shorter with the higher impact velocity,
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 because the drop spread more widely toward the non-wetted
Time [msec] region of the surface and penetrated into the substrate more
(a) Time variation of surface temperature at the center of impact rapidly. The rapid penetration behavior also resulted in the
region shorter total evaporation time, since entire portion of the liquid
6 drop could contact with the porous solid structure earlier.
wet
According to the present result, a higher cooling performance
wet(=Dwet/dimp) [-]
film(=Dfilm/dimp) or

4 could be achieved with the higher impact velocity. However, the

film
upper limit of the impact velocity for the best cooling
performance exists because the splash phenomenon causes the
2
loss of the liquid coolant when the impact velocity becomes
Liqui
d film
breaku
p
excessively high. Gipperich et al. [11], Kim and Lee [12], and
0 Kim [13] reported that the spread-splash transition criterion for
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 the porous substrates is different from that for the non-porous
Time [msec] substrates, which should be investigated more in detail.
(b) Time variations of spreading ratio and wet-area diameter ratio
140 Impact velocity (vimp)
Figure 10 Effect of initial wall temperature (P2 substrate, vimp= Temperature [ C]
0.8 m/s (We=25)
1.6 m/s, dimp= 2.6 mm, We= 100) 120
1.6 m/s (We=100)
o

We increases
100 2.3 m/s (We=200)
of the liquid drop became larger and the time for complete
Surface

penetration appeared longer. It seems that more active vapor 80

generation between the bottom of the drop and the surface of the 60
substrate hindered the liquid penetration as the wall temperature 40
was raised. When the wall temperature became higher than 300C
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
(non-contact regime), the spreading ratio was difficult to measure
due to rapid disintegration of the liquid film immediately after Time [msec]
the drop impact as shown in Fig. 3(d). Thus, the maximum (a) Time variation of surface temperature at the center of impact
spreading ratio of the remaining portion of the liquid film was region
approximated as a point in Fig. 10(b).
wet
As the wall temperature was increased, the total evaporation time 4
wet(=Dwet/dimp) [-]

became shorter. The surface cooling performance is considered to film

film(=Dfilm/dimp) or

be better when the total evaporation time is shorter [5]. However,

if a portion of the liquid drop is separated out from the impact 2
region, which occurs in the surface nucleate and film boiling
regimes as shown in Figs. 3(c) and 3(d), the actual amount of the
liquid participated in the heat transfer process decreases. In other
0
words, occurrence of the secondary droplets due to breakup of 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
the liquid film could cause deterioration of the cooling Time [msec]
performance. The temperature variations in phase II (Fig. 11)
show that the temperature drop through the liquid evaporation (b) Time variations of spreading ratio and wet-area diameter ratio
process was the maximum in the internal boiling sub-regime
Figure 12 Effect of impact velocity (P2 substrate, dimp= 2.6 mm,
(case B) and decreased with the higher wall temperature (cases C
Tw= 140C (internal boiling sub-regime))
and D).
160 Effect of Porous Substrate
o
150 A: 80 C
~2C
o o
B: 140 C Four porous substrates with different sizes of the glass-beads
140 o
C: 200 C were tested. The size of the beads (particles) is directly related to
Temperature [ C]

130 o
D: 300 C the pore size, thus permeability becomes larger with the larger
o

120
Surface

particles.
110 o
~ 10 C
100 Figure 13 shows the effect of the porous characteristics on the
o
90 ~ 18 C time variations of the surface temperature and the spreading and
80 wet-area diameter ratios for the internal boiling sub-regime. As
70 o
the particle size became larger, both the maximum spreading
~7C
60 ratio and the wet-area diameter ratio decreased. On the other
50 hands, the total evaporation time (i.e. the end of the phase II)
100 1000 10000 100000
increased with the substrates with larger particles. In other words,
Time [msec]
the higher cooling performance could be achieved as the
Figure 11 Temperature drop in phase II (A: internal evaporation, maximum spreading ratio of the liquid film becomes larger.
B: internal boiling, C: surface nucleate boiling, D: surface film When the liquid film spreads more widely, the area of the liquid-
boiling)
vapor interface becomes larger, which results in more active
evaporation rate.
Exceptionally, even though the spreading ratio for the P1
substrate was larger than that for the P2 substrate, the wet-area
diameter ratio for the P1 substrate appeared smaller than that for
the P2 substrate. As a result, the total evaporation time for the P1
substrate became longer than that for the P2 substrate. This tells
that the wet-area diameter ratio is not directly proportional to the
spreading ratio; and the wetted area could be affected by the
internal wetting behavior within porous materials. The
penetration characteristics (e.g. relationship between radial
penetration and in-depth penetration) should be investigated
numerically or analytically as the future research topics.
140 Substrate
P1
Temperature [ C]
120 P2
o
100 P3
P4
Surface
80
60
40
1 10 100
Time [msec]
(a) Time variation of surface temperature at the center of
impact region
4
wet(=Dwet/dimp) [-]
film(=Dfilm/dimp) or
film
2 funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
0
1 10 100
Time [msec]
(b) Time variations of spreading ratio and wet-area diameter ratio
Figure 13 Effect of porous substrate (Tw= 140C (internal boiling
sub-regime), vimp= 1.6 m/s, dimp= 2.6 mm, We=100)
Conclusion
In the present study, the effects of the wall temperature, impact
velocity, and the particle size of the sintered porous substrate on
the thermal and hydrodynamic behaviors of an impinging water
drop were investigated experimentally.
The post-impingement regimes of a water drop on heated porous
substrates were primarily divided into contact and non-contact
regimes. The contact regime was further divided into internal
evaporation, internal boiling and surface boiling sub-regimes.
The transition criteria between the sub-regimes in the contact
regime depend only on the initial wall temperature. On the other
hand, the transition between the contact and the non-contact
regimes depends on the particle size of the substrate and the
impinging Weber number as well as the initial wall temperature.
The transition temperature between the contact and non-contact
regimes decreased with increase of the particle size of the
substrate (due to larger cavity size for nucleation). The increase
in the Weber number resulted in the higher transition temperature
between the contact and non-contact regimes, because the
pressure at the impact region was increased.
The time variation of the surface temperature of the substrate
after drop impact was classified into three phases. In the first
phase, the surface temperature sharply decreased and then
increased with time, reaching a thermal equilibrium state between
the penetrated liquid and the porous solid structure. In the second
phase, the surface temperature decreased with time since heat
was removed from the substrate due to the liquid evaporation. In
the third phase, the surface temperature was simply increased
with time to reach the initial wall temperature.
The maximum temperature drop in phase II could be achieved in
the internal boiling sub-regime. However, in the surface nucleate
and film boiling regimes, the temperature drop appeared less due
to the loss of the liquid from the impact region by disintegration
of the liquid film. As the impact velocity was increased, both the
spreading ratio and the wet-area diameter ratio increased, while
the complete penetration time became shorter. The shorter total
evaporation time was achieved due to the fast penetration of the
drop. As the size of the beads of the sintered porous substrate
became larger, both the spreading ratio and the complete
penetration time decreased. On the other hand, the wet-area
diameter ratio decreased with the larger beads, so that the total
evaporation time was extended.
The spreading ratio and the wet-area diameter ratio as well as the
1000 10000 100000
complete penetration time turned out to be the primary
parameters to determine the surface cooling performance of the
impinging liquid drops. They were influenced by the
characteristics of the porous substrates and impact conditions.
Further investigation on the relationship between them should be
continued based on the analytical/numerical methods.
wet Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Basic Science Research Program
through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)
(KRF-2008-314-D00045), and KAIST (Korea Advanced Institute
of Science and Technology).
1000 10000 100000 References
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impingement on a ceramic porous surface, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer, 35, 1992, 23772388.
[8] Weickgenannt, C. M., Zhang, Y., Lembach, A. N., Roisman,
I. V., Gambaryan-Roisman, T., Yarin, A. L. and Tropea, C.,
Nonisothermal drop impact and evaporation on polymer
nanofiber mats, Phys. Rev. E, 83, 2011, 036305.
[9] Weickgenannt, C. M., Zhang, Y., Shinha-Ray, S., Roisman,
I. V., Gambaryan-Roisman, T. G., Tropea, C. and Yarin, A.
L., Inverse-Leidenfrost phenomenon on nanofiber mats on
hot surfaces, Phys. Rev. E, 84, 2011, 036310.
[10] Lembach, A. N., Tan, H. B., Roisman, I. V., Gambaryan-
Roisman, T., Zhang, T., Tropea, C. and Yarin, A. L., Drop
impact, spread, splashing and penetration into electrospun
nanofiber mats, Langmuir, 26, 2010, 95169523.
[11] Gipperich, A., Lembach, A. N., Roisman, I. V. and Tropea,
C., On the splashing threshold of a single droplet impacting
onto rough and porous surfaces, ILASS-Europe 2010, 23rd
Annual Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray
Systems, Brno, Czech Republic, 2010.
[12] Kim, W. S. and Lee, S. Y., Effect of permeability on spread-
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[13] Kim, W. S., An experimental study on post-impingement
behavior of drop impacting against porous substrates,
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23 rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Numerical Simulation of Natural Convection Over a Horizontal

Two-Dimensional Heated Plate
A. Mitsuishi 1 and K. Kitamura 1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Toyohashi University of Technology, Tempakucho 1-1, Toyohashi, Aichi, 441-8580, Japan

Abstract In the present study, we focus on a case where one of the

horizontal dimensions of the heated plate is finite. According to
Fluid flow and heat transfer o f natural convection over a a previous experimental study [1], the local characteristics of fluid
horizontal heated two-dimensional plate is investigated by direct flow and heat transfer experience successively four regions from
numerical simulation. The Rayleigh and the Prandtl numbers the edge to the centre of the plate. They are laminar boundary
are 10 8 and 0.71, respectively. Stimulating the thermal layer, transient, turbulent, and collision regions. Among all,
instability, a spanwise disturbance is added on a thermal me chanism of the transition is of critical importance. Pairs of
boundary condition at the plate edge. Response to a monotonic counter-rotating streamwise vortices over streaky patterns of the
disturbance shows that there is the most unstable mode to form a surface temperature are observed in the transion region [1].
pair of counter-rotating vortices to enhance heat transfer The objective of this work is to clarify the transition mechanism
downstream. The shape and the scale of the structure agree well of the natural convection over a two-dimensional horizontal
with the previous experimental observation of transition region of heated plate by direct numerical simulation.
the present configuration. In DNS with white-noise disturbance,
this mode stands out among every other mode. Three- Numerical Methods
dimensional temperature field including streaky pattern in the
Figure 1 shows a computational model used in this study. A flat
transitional region and the local heat transfer characteristics are in
isothermally-heated plate is placed at the bottom boundary of the
good agreement with previous experimental work. The transition
model. Cartesian coordinate system is constructed from the
is captured as the first jump of the gradient in Nu X Ra X
centre of the heated plate. Streamwise, wall-normal, and
correlations. spanwise coordinates are denoted as x, y, and z, respectively.
Supposing the symmetry o f the flow structure, the model is
Nomenclature halved in streamwise direction with respect to the central plane.
g gravitational acceleration This treatment greatly reduces computational cost and stabilizes
Gr L the Grashof number, g TL3/ 2 the numerical solution; it prevents unnatural wind from one side
h local heat transfer rate to the other through the whole domain. However, it can hurt
L general length scale quality of the numerical solution near the plane since in reality
Nu the Nusselt number, hL/ the fluid will naturally flows in and out through the plane.
Pr the Prandtl number, / Discussion about local and instantaneous information near this
plane should be inhibited in the present study. Marginal extent
Ra L the Rayleigh number, g TL3/
of the domain is determined to avoid both non-physical effect of
Tw surface temperature of the heated plate
far - field boundary conditions and excessive increase of
T ambient temperature
computational cost. For the present study, lateral margin and
u velocity vector
height of the domain are 0.5W and W , respectively. Several
W plate length
models are tested depending on the depth of the model, D. The
thermal diffusivity of fluid
depth, D/W , is 0.03, 0.06, 0.12 and 0.5.
volumetric expansion ratio of fluid
T representative temperature difference, Tw T plane of g
heat conductivity of fluid
symmetry
kinematic viscosity of fluid
density of fluid
vorticity vector
y
Introduction H =W x
z
Heat transfer and fluid flow of free convection over a horizontal O
plate
heated plate is one of the fundamental configurations and appears D
T = Tw
in a wide variety of industrial equipment and natural
environments. The problem is categorized into two types 0.5W 0.5W
depending on whether horizontal expansion of the plate is
unlimited or limited. Compared to the former, which is called
Rayleigh-Bnard convection and is studied by thousands of Figure 1. C o mputational domain is briefly illustrated. A half
literatures including fully turbulent regime, the latter attracts less of an isothermally heated two-dimensional plate is placed on the
attention owing to its theoretical unwieldiness, though it is bottom boundary of the domain. The coordinate system and the
practically important. direction of the gravity acceleration are also described.
Governing equations are conservation laws of mass, momentum Boundary conditions are listed in Table 1. Symmetry condition
and energy of incompressible fluid and their non-dimensional is applied to the central plane so that the computational model is
forms are as follows: accurately halved with respect to the plane. On the heated plate,
no-slip isothermal condition is imposed. As an artificial
u x u y u z disturbance, a spanwise disturbance is superposed on surface
0, (1)
x y z temperature distribution along the plate edge (0.49 < x < 0.5) to
trigger three-dimensional development, following the flow
u x ux
2
u xu y ux uz p visualization [1] and recent research progress of Grtler-
instability [2]. The value of the disturbance is uniform in x
t x y z x
, (2) direction with in this narrow region. Choice of the disturbance
1 2ux 2ux 2ux function (z) is one of the key factors to properly simulate
12
2 2
GrW x y 2 z turbulent transition. In the present study, monotonic and white-
noise functions are tested. On the top boundary, convective
u y u xu y u y
2
uy u z p outflow boundary condition is imposed to all primitive variables
to discharge the plume and the fluid entrained by the plume.
t x y z y
, (3) Convection velocity which appears in the convective outflow
1 2uy 2uy 2u y condition is calculated by a half of the maximum value of u y on
2 2 T
GrW
12 x 2 y z the boundary plane. For the spanwise direction, periodic
boundary condition is imposed to assure statistical homogeneity.
This treatment is supported by the previous temperature
u z ux uz uy u z uz 2 p
visualization of the plate heated by uniform heat flux [1], [3]
t x y z z where regular streaky patterns had been observed in the spanwise
, (4)
1 u z u z uz
2 2 2
direction. On the other planes, normal gradient of every
2 2 2
12
primitive variable is zero for the fluid to come in and go out
GrW x y z freely.
T u xT u y T uz T boundary plane boundary condition for each physical

t x y z variable
. (5)
1 2T 2T 2T x=0 u x = u y /x = u z/x = T/x = 0
12 x 2 y 2 z 2 x=1 ()/x = 0
Pr GrW y=0 0 < x < 0.49 u x = u y = u z = 0, T = 1
Primitive variables are velocity vector, pressure and temperature. 0.49 < x < 0.5 u x = u y = u z = 0, T = 0.95 + 0.05 (z)
Here, the coordinates, x, y and z, are scaled by the length of the 0.5 < x < 1 ()/y = 0
plate, W . Each component of velocity vector, denoted as u x , u y y=1 ()/t + U c ( )/y = 0
and u z for x-, y- and z-direction, is normalized by natural z = 0, 0.5 periodic
convection velocity, u n = (g TW )1/2. Relative temperature
Table 1. Boundary conditions used in the present simulations
difference between the local and the ambient temperature is
are listed in non-dimensional forms.
normalized by T and denoted as T . The pressure is normalized
by u n2 and denoted as p. The Boussinesq approximation is
Results and Discussion
implemented to the momentum equations in order to introduce
thermally caused density variation. Supposing that the working Growths of Monotonic Disturbances
fluid is air at room condition, the Prandtl number, Pr, is 0.71
throughout this study. The Rayleigh number based on the plate In order to confirm the response of the thermal and flow fields to
length, Ra W, is 10 8. According to the previous experiment [8], the present spanwise temperature disturbance imposed along the
this set of parameters fully satisfies the condition that the laminar edge of the heated plate, one of the simplest profile of the
natural convection boundary layer flow from the edge of the plate disturbance is applied; a single monotonic function with wave
experiences turbulent transition over the plate. number of unity, (z) = sin(2 z/D) 1. By changing the depth
of the domain D/W as 0.03, 0.06, 0.12 and 0.5, wave length is
Finite difference method is employed to discretize the above changed accordingly and the preference of each mode is
governing equations. Spatial derivatives in the equations are investigated.
calculated by energy-conservative 2nd order central difference
scheme [4] and temporal integration is computed by low storage Figure shows time evolution of the Nusselt number averaged
3rd order Runge-Kutta method combined with Crank-Nicolson over the plate, Nu, for each case. In the previous experiment [1],
method for viscous and diffusion terms [5]. SMAC method is a steep increase o f local heat transfer rate is observed in the
used to link the continuity equation to the momentum equations. transition region compared to the laminar value. According to
The resulting Poisson equation is decomposed by FFT in the flow visualization, this is due to the turnover of the hot fluid
statistically homogeneous z-direction and solved by ICCG in near the plate and the cold fluid away from the plate by
remaining x- and y-directions [6]. emergence of streamwise vortices near the plate. The above
observation supports that the Nusselt number is suitable for
Initial condition of the full three-dimensional simulation is judging whether the flow has experienced the transition or not.
produced by preliminary two-dimensional simulation in which It is seen that, for the case of D/W = 0.06, Nu increases soon after
the spanwise coordinate is eliminated. The preliminary the three-dimensional simulation starts. The value becomes
simulation starts with quiescent state in which all components of stable at t = 5 and gradually increases thereafter. It means that
the velocity vector and the temperature are zero. A fter running the vortical structure emerges, gradually strengthens its vorticity
for non-dimensional time of 20, instantaneous values of all and steadily enhances the heat transfer. The stable value of Nu
physical variables but w are uniformly distributed in the spanwise (~ 70) is the highest among the four cases simulated during the
direction to make the initial condition of the full simulation. For span of the simulated time which means the mode with the
w, zero is initially substituted at every grid point.
spanwise wave length of 0.06 has the highest growth rate among (a) (b) (c)
four cases. According to the previous experiment [3], pitch of
the regular spanwise pattern of the temperature field near the
plate ranges from 0.072 to 0.078 for the Ra W = 10 8. The profile
of the case of D/W = 0.12 shows similar tendency as D/W = 0.06,
but Nu is significantly lower than that. It implies that the mode
with the wave length of 0.12 have less growth rate than that of
0.06. The other two cases, D/W = 0.03 and 0.5, show further
lower Nu than the case of 0.12. As visualized later, for these
cases, vortices are not excited effectively by the imposed
spanwise disturbance. B e fore t ~ 15, Nu o f both cases, vary
somewhat periodically, show the similar profile. After t ~ 15,
they develop differently and show more random nature.
(d)
80
70
60
50
40 D/W
Nu

30 0.03
20 0.06
0.12
10 0.5
0
0 10 20 30
t Figure 3. Instantaneous thermal and flow fields at t = 20; W /D =
Figure 2. Ti me evolution of the Nusselt number for each D/W .
The difference in time evolution of the Nusselt number strongly
drives authors to visualize the instantaneous thermal and flow
fields. Figure shows isosurfaces of the temperature and the
streamwise component of the vorticity vector at t = 2 0. It is
clearly seen that a pair of counter-rotating streamwise vortices is
formed and the high temperature fluid is ejected away from the
plate between the vortices for D/W = 0.06 and 0.12. This results
in relatively high Nu in Figure for these cases. The fact that the
upstream end of the vortices are closer to the plate edge in the
case of D/W = 0.06 than 0.12 supports that the disturbance obtain
higher growth rate in D/W = 0.06 than 0.12. Taking a glance at
the picture of D/W = 0.03, no spanwise structure appears. It can
easily be guessed that the flow and thermal fields are excited by
the discharged plume upward and the temperature field oscillates
periodically mainly due to the two-dimensional Kelvin-
Helmholtz instability. For the case of D/W = 0.5, situation is
more complicated. The spanwise mode with the wave number
of unity is not prominent, while other modes appear by non-linear
effect and interact with each other. Breakdown of small scale
eddies are observed far away from the plate which indicates that
these eddies are generated in the plume flow being detached from
the plate. This implies that the energy of the spanwise mode
with long wave length can be transported by non-linear
interaction mainly in the plume region and finally stimulate the
most sensitive mode. Coincidence of the profiles of Nu in
Figure for the cases of D/W = 0.03 and 0.5 (t < 1 5 ) can be
explained that the thermal and flow fields are similar if the
spanwise disturbance does not grow. The difference after t = 15
is then conjectured that the non-linear effects become noticeable
for the case of D/W = 0.5 at that time while they do not for D/W =
0.03.
To close this subsection, it is reasonable to declare that the above
results indicate the feasibility of the present DNS including all
numerical methods like a grid system, initial and boundary
conditions and discretization method.
(a) 0.03, (b) 0.06, (c) 0.12 and (d) 0.5. The isosurfaces show T
= 0.5 (white), x = 12 (red) and x = 12 (blue).
Growth of White-Noise Disturbance
Previous subsection implies that the mode with the highest
growth rate can obtain its energy by non-linear interaction by
other irrelevant modes in the plume region when the spanwise
space is large enough for the mode to grow. Therefore, a fter the
investigation of the response to the monotonic disturbances, we
proceed to more general case by applying white-nose profile to
the disturbance. Discrete value of the boundary condition of the
temperature in z-direction, Tk , along the edge of the plate (0.49 <
x < 0.5, y = 0) is given by simple homogeneous pseudo-random
numbers generated by linear congruential method as follows:
Tk = 0.95 + 0.05 k (6)
k = X k /m
X 1 = 2, X k aX k1 (mod m) (2 k Nz)
a = 16807, m = 2147483647
The depth of the computational domain is fixed at D/W = 0.5.
Instantaneous snapshot of the developed temperature field is
depicted in Figure by an isosurface of the temperature field. The
figure suggests that, as reported earlier [1], the surrounding fluid
flows from the edge to the centre of the plate and separates from
the plate to form a plume. It shows clearly that initially laminar
boundary layer flow experiences a transition with regular streaky
patterns in spanwise direction, of which the basic from laminar
boundary layer to transition structure is observed in the case of
D/W = 0.06 in the previous subsection, and finally breaks down
into irregular patterns. It should be emphasized that, including all
governing equations and boundary conditions, the imposed
disturbance is the only thing which gives heterogeneity to the
spanwise dimension and no other cause can trigger such three-
dimensionality in this DNS.
 Figure 5. Local heat transfer correlation. The present result is
in good agreement with the previous experimental measurement
[3].

Conclusions

y Fluid flow and heat transfer o f natural convection over a

x monotonic disturbance shows that there is the most unstable
Figure 4. Three-dimensional instantaneous temperature field:
isothermal surface of T = 0.5.
Local heat transfer characteristics based on the distance from the
edge of the plate (X = 0.5 x) are plotted in Figure. The data are
averaged in time and spanwise direction. The figure show that
there are at least three regions, i.e., laminar boundary layer,
transition, and turbulent regions: sudden drop in Nu X near the
plate centre is not taken into consideration since it is due to the
boundary condition at the plate centre. General trend is fairly in
good agreement with correlations proposed in previous
experimental work using air as a working fluid [3]. First jump of
the gradient in Nu X -Ra X correlation corresponds to transition with
three-dimensional separation and is at approximately Ra X =
1.510 6, which means that the separation distance is evaluated
almost 50% longer than the experiment [3]
102
present study
[3]
Kimura et al. (exp.)
101
NuX
horizontal heated two-dimensional plate is investigated by means
of DNS in order to clarify the transition mechanism of the natural
convection of practical high Rayleigh number, Ra W = 10 8.
Three-dimensional development of the field is successfully
simulated by using a spanwise disturbance superposed on surface
temperature distribution along the plate edge. Response to a
mode to form a pair of counter-rotating vortices to enhance heat
transfer downstream. The shape and the scale of the structure
agree well with the previous experimental observation of
transition region of the present configuration. In DNS with
white-noise disturbance, this mode stands out among every other
mode. Three-dimensional temperature field including streaky
pattern in the transitional region and the local heat transfer
characteristics are in good agreement with previous experimental
work. The transition is captured as the first jump of the gradient
in Nu X Ra X correlations.
References
[1] Kitamura, K. and Kimura, F., Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow
of Natural Convection Adjacent to Upward-Facing
Horizontal Plates, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, 38(17), 1995,
31493159.
[2] Schrader, L.-U., Brandt, L. and Zaki, T.A., Receptivity,
Instability and Breakdown of Grtler Flow, J. Fluid Mech.,
682, 2011, 362396.
[3] Kimura, F., Joba, Y. and Kitamura, K., Heat Transfer and
Fluid Flow of Natural Convection over Heated, Horizontal
Plates (Effect of Prandtl Numbers), Trans. JSME, B68(669),
2002, 15151522, in Japanese.
[4] Kajishima, T., Finite-Difference Method for Convective

Terms Using Non-Uniform Grid, Trans. JSME, B65(633),

1999, 16071612, in Japanese.
1/5
RaX slope [5] Rai, M. M. and Moin, P., Direct Numerical Simulations of
Turbulent Flow Using Finite Difference Schemes, J.
100 3 Comput. Phys., 96, 1991, 1553.
10 104 105 106 107
[6] Tsubokura, M., Kobayashi, T., Taniguchi, N., and Jones, W.
RaX P., A Numerical Study on the Eddy Structures of Impinging
Jets Excited at the Inlet, Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow, 24, 2003,
500511.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Combined Effects of Pulsating Frequency and Amplitude on Flow Instabilities

Occurred in a Pulsating Duct Flow

H. Saitoh1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sojo University, Ikeda 4-22-1, West Ward, Kumamoto City, Kumamoto 860-0082, Japan

Abstract fundamental studies of pulsating flow in a simple shape passage

reported by a number of researchers [1-22] for laminar, turbulent
This study deals with flow behaviour and associated heat regions and transition from laminar to turbulent, flow structure
transfer in a pulsating duct flow. Among the several parameters with periodical flow rate change and its effect on heat transfer are
that govern the transport phenomena of pulsating flow, the still at question in spite of more than a forty-year history.
effects of pulsating frequency and amplitude on flow instabilities Researchers showed conflicting results. Bayley et al. [1], Niida et
in the rectangular duct is mainly discussed in this paper. al. [14], Fujita and Tsubouchi [2] reported heat transfer
Mechanisms of the interaction between these two kinds of enhancements due to flow pulsation. On the contrary, Jackson
governing parameters effects on flow behaviour are not cleared and Purdy [6] and Miller [10] concluded no impact of flow
yet. Hydrogen bubble method was employed for the qualitative pulsation on heat transfer. Although their experimental
understanding of the flow structure with periodical velocity conditions were different from each other, many of them focused
fluctuation. Results showed that complicated flow behaviour was on the relationship between heat transfer and periodic or bulk
categorized as three flow patterns. That was quasi steady flow, flow reversal. Kearney et al. [7] pointed out the reason for these
regular temporal fluctuated flow and temporal and spatial conflicting results in that the physics of the unsteady convection
fluctuated flow with strong instabilities. Third one was mainly process over an exceptionally broad parameter space are not fully
observed near inlet region. Prevention of the boundary-layer understood. Kearney et al. [7] emphasized on the necessity of
development was confirmed under the conditions of that heat time-resolved boundary-layer temperature data for correct
transfer enhancement was obtained in the previous study, understanding of heat transfer characteristics in pulsating flow
although flow instabilities occurred at the inlet was attenuated in and they employed the CARS (Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman
the downstream region. Scattering) technique. Fujita and Tsubouchi [2] also obtained
time-resolved heat transfer data on a flat plate by the schlieren
Nomenclature interaction method. The two studies introduced above showed the
A cross sectional area [m2] time-resolved data of temperature field, however, data of flow
de equivalent diameter [m] field was dependent on local point measurements by hot wire
f pulsating frequency [Hz] anemometry. In order to make clear the complicated unsteady
Nu Nusselt number [-] flow structure with periodical velocity fluctuation and its effect
Ref velocity amplitude based Reynolds number [-] on heat transfer, it must be necessary to have macroscopic
Rem mean velocity based Reynolds number [-] observation and image processing analysis of both the flow and
Ref /Rem dimensionless pulsating amplitude [-] temperature fields.
u velocity in X direction [m/s] Results of the previous study & the objective of the present study
uf velocity amplitude [m/s]
um mean (time-averaged) velocity [m/s] The authors [18-20] already reported the heat transfer
V volume flow rate [m3/s] characteristics around the flat plate installed in a pulsating duct
w width of the duct [m] flow. Test section used for heat transfer experiment is illustrated
X local position in the main flow direction [m] in fig.1 (a). Two films of stainless heater are attached on the both
XL length of the heat transfer surface [m] sides of the flat plate. Local heat transfer coefficients and Nusselt
Y local position in the span-wise direction [m] numbers were obtained based on the measurements of local
kinematic viscosity of water [m2/s] thermal-boundary-layer thickness visualized by colour schlieren
method. Detailed explanation of data acquisition and reduction is
Introduction described in the reference [20]. Figures 1and 2 show, respectively,
the effects of pulsating frequency and amplitude on local Nusselt
Background of this study number distribution. With the aid of PIV analysis for flow field,
the authors concluded that heat transfer enhancement as shown in
Researchers in the bioengineering field focus on heat and
fig.1 (b) and fig.2 or no impact of pulsation effect on heat
mass transport characteristics of pulsating flow from the
transfer represented in fig.1 (a) depends on the increase or
viewpoint of life science. Many mechanical researchers and
constant of time-averaged local flow rate around the flat plate
engineers are also interested in the high efficient mass transport
induced by flow pulsation. However, the mechanisms of the
characteristics of blood flow and respiration for the various kinds
interaction between these two kinds of governing parameters
of medical and engineering applications. Partly for these reasons,
effects on flow behaviour are not cleared yet due to the limited
the field of biomechanical engineering was established. Pulsating
time and space resolutions of visualized data. Although large-
flow in a living body such as blood flow and breath is very
scale temporal fluctuation of flow rate and the outline of
complicated and its heat and mass transport mechanisms with
instantaneous velocity profile were obtained, flow instabilities
high efficiency are not yet fully understood due to the many
branches of their flexible tubes and pipes. Even for the
 Ref / Rem = 0.72 Re = 3000
m
120.00 120.00
0 Hz 3 Hz X f = 3Hz
L
100.00 100.00
1 Hz 5 Hz

X


80.00 2 Hz 80.00

0

60.00
60.00






40.00



40.00





















Re / Rem
f
20.00 Rem = 920 20.00
0.56 0.72 0.85
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70
X / XL X / XL
(a) (a)

120.00 120.00
f = 5Hz
100.00
100.00




80.00 80.00







60.00 60.00
















40.00 40.00

20.00 Re = 3000 20.00
m
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70
X / XL X / XL
(b) (b)
Figure 1. Effect of pulsating frequency on local Nusselt Figure 2. Effect of pulsating amplitude on local Nusselt
number distributions for the cases of (a) Rem=920 and number distributions for the cases of (a) f =3Hz and (b)
(b) Rem=3000 under the condition of Ref /Rem=0.72 f =5Hz under the condition of Rem=3000
with small-scale vortices could not be followed by the PIV
analysis the authors employed in the previous study.
The objective of this study, therefore, is to make clear the
combined effects of pulsating frequency and amplitude on flow
instabilities occurred in a pulsating duct flow. Flow visualization
by hydrogen bubble method was carried out in terms of the
qualitative understanding of the complicated flow structure.

Experimental set-up and method

Figure 3 stands for a general view of the experimental
apparatus for flow visualization. The test section consists of a
duct, 446 mm in length with 100 mm 100 mm square cross
section and a flat plate. That was constructed from transparent
Plexiglas plates for flow visualization. The flat plate simulates a
bulkhead of the tube bundle of heat exchangers, a plate fin etc.
Water was used as operating fluid and flow was visualized by
hydrogen bubble method. The operating fluid (water) was driven
by the head difference between the head tank and the overflow
tank and was supplied through the pulsation generator into the
test section. Mean flow rate was measured by the use of two rota
flow meters connected with the pipe located downstream position Figure 3. Experimental setup for flow visualization
of the test section. The pulsation generator consists of a valve and
an eccentric cam connected with a pulley and a motor through a
V-belt. In the passage of water flow, the cross sectional area
 Flat plate Re m 920, 2000, 3000
Sidewalls Re f /Re m 0.56, 0.72, 0.85
f [Hz] 0(Steady flow), 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 5.0
Table 1. Experimental conditions
Table 1 shows the experimental conditions. Mean flow rate
(Rem) and pulsating frequency (f) are approximately coincided
with the values of blood flow of animals.

Results and Discussion

Symmetry of the velocity profile for the flat plate in case of
steady flow was confirmed before the visualization of pulsating
flow. Figure 5 is an evidence of symmetrical flow pattern
visualized by hydrogen bubble method where pulsed DC (Direct
Current) was supplied to a straight Pt wire as illustrated in fig.5
(a). After this procedure the valve installed in front of the test
section was activated to add flow pulsation. Through the
experiments over a wide range of parameters introduced in table
1, flow patterns were categorized as three types. Those were (b)
quasi steady flow, (c) regular temporal fluctuated flow and (d)
temporal and spatial fluctuated flow with strong instabilities.
Figure 6 shows typical each flow pattern visualized with
hydrogen bubble generated by continuous DC supply to the Pt
wire.
Figure 4. Platinum wire layout for hydrogen bubble Sidewalls Flat Plate
method and visualized area
formed by the valve and cone-shaped contraction part in front of
the test section is changed by the valve oscillation. Therefore, Straight Pt wire
cyclic (sinusoidal) flow rate change was realized with valve
motion. Pulsating frequency was set by the rotating speed of the
(Pulsed DC supply)
motor, and pulsating amplitude was varied with the change of the
different eccentric cam. Platinum (Pt) wire was employed as
cathode and its layout is shown in fig.4. The test section is
recognized as a two-pass duct divided by the flat plate. Straight (a) Pt wire layout (b) visualized data
Pt wire was set in one side of the passage, and in the other side
corrugated Pt wire was arranged. Continuous DC (Direct Figure 5. Confirmation of symmetrical velocity profiles
electrical Current) supply to the Pt wire yielded simultaneous formed in the two-pass duct for steady flow
visualization of both the velocity profile and the streak line in the
duct for pulsating flow. In order to investigate the complicated
flow structure, visualization was conducted for different three
regions: upstream region, central region and downstream region.
Three visualized areas are indicated as dashed line in fig.4.
Locations of Pt wire in the flow direction for three visualized
areas, respectively, were X/XL=0.06, X/XL=0.36 and X/XL=0.63.
This study employed three parameters that govern the
pulsating flow structure: mean flow rate, pulsating amplitude and
pulsating frequency. Mean velocity based Reynolds number and
velocity amplitude based Reynolds number was defined as (a) (b)
follows:

Rem u m d e / (1)

Re f u f d e / (2)

1 A Amin
u f (umax umin ) max um (3)
2 Amin Amax
(c) (d)
Subscripts max and min mean maximum and minimum Figure 6. Category of flow patterns of:
value within the fluctuation, and the variable A in equation (3) (a) Steady flow
indicates the cross sectional area of the contraction part in the
(b) Quasi steady flow
pulsation generator. Dimensionless pulsating amplitude was
defined as Ref /Rem.
(c) Regular temporal fluctuated flow
(d) Temporal and spatial fluctuated flow with strong
instabilities
 Flow rate
Mean flow rate

X/XL Streak Velocity Time

line profile u: upstream region, c: central region, d: downstream region
Pt wire
location

0.63

0.36

0.06
Figure 7 Periodical flow rate change of pulsating flow (Rem=2000, Ref/Rem=0.56, f =2Hz)

X/XL Streak Velocity

line profile u: upstream region, c: central region, d: downstream region
Pt wire
location

0.63

0.36

0.06
0 Hz (Steady) 1 Hz 2 Hz 3 Hz 5 Hz
X/XL Streak Velocity (a) Rem = 920
line profile u: upstream region, c: central region, d: downstream region
Pt wire
location

0.63

0.36

0.06
0 Hz (Steady) 1 Hz 2 Hz 3 Hz 5 Hz
(b) Rem = 3000
Figure 8 Effects of mean flow rate and pulsating frequency on flow structure at Ref/Rem=0.72
 X/XL Streak Velocity
u: upstream region, c: central region, d: downstream region
line profile
Pt wire
location

0.63

0.36

0.06
Ref/Rem=0.56 Ref/Rem=0.72 Ref/Rem=0.85
(a) f = 3Hz

X/XL Streak Velocity

line profile u: upstream region, c: central region, d: downstream region
Pt wire
location

0.63

0.36

0.06
Ref/Rem=0.56 Ref/Rem=0.72 Ref/Rem=0.85
(b) f = 5Hz

Figure 9. Combined effects of pulsating frequency and amplitude on flow structure at Rem=3000

In the flow pattern (c), small-scale vortex array is formed in
span-wise direction and they flows downstream. Steady flow case
is also presented in fig. 6 to be compared with pulsating flow.
Streak lines without any spatial fluctuation are observed for
steady flow. Simultaneously film-wise hydrogen bubble diffusion
is obtained in the case of steady flow, when continuous DC is
supplied to a straight Pt wire, resulting a picture with highly
contrast of black and white due to the absence or presence of
hydrogen bubbles is drawn in the case of pulsating flow.
Periodical flow rate fluctuation was realized in the
experiments as shown in fig. 7 representing time-dependent
visualized data for one cycle. It is confirmed from fig.7 that the
most left side figure is consistent with the most right side one.
Figure 8 indicates the effects of mean flow rate and pulsating
frequency on flow structure at a constant amplitude condition of
Ref/Rem=0.72. Under a relatively low Rem case represented as
fig.8 (a), in the case of 1Hz, regular temporal fluctuated flow,
introduced as flow pattern (c) in fig.6, was observed in the
upstream and central regions. This flow pattern changed into
quasi steady flow, flow pattern (b) in fig.6, as the fluid flowed
downstream. With increasing of pulsating frequency, 2Hz case,
relatively strong flow instabilities were observed in the upstream
region. This would be understood as transition between flow
patterns (c) and (d). However, in the central and downstream
regions, such flow instabilities were attenuated although small
wavy motion of streak line at near the flat plate was occurred,
and the development of boundary layer was also noticed. This
tendency was more remarkable in the case of 3Hz. While for the
case of 5Hz, no flow instability was confirmed from the streak
line observation and velocity profile with the same tendency
above introduced for 3Hz case was obtained. Effects of Wall
friction and viscosity of fluid seemed to be superior to that of
velocity fluctuation induced by flow pulsation, resulting no
significant difference of flow structure in the boundary layer
between steady flow and pulsating flow under the condition of
Rem=920 regardless of pulsating frequency. These flow patterns
as above mentioned may attribute no impact of flow pulsation on
heat transfer around the flat plate as previously shown in fig.1 (a).
On the contrary, drastic heat transfer enhancement as shown
in fig.1 (b) under the condition of Rem=3000 can be understood
from fig.8 (b). Although flow patterns in 1Hz case was close to
quasi steady, flow instabilities occurred in the upstream region
and restraint of boundary-layer development observed in the
central and downstream regions were remarkable with increasing
of pulsating frequency. Under the conditions of more than 2Hz in
pulsating frequency, flow patterns in the central and downstream
regions were recognized as regular temporal fluctuated flow
represented as pattern (c) in fig.6. Especially in the case of 3Hz
and 5Hz, increase of velocity near the flat plate was observed
with decrease of velocity near sidewalls, as the results velocity
profiles in pulsating flow were different from those of steady
flow. This seems to be the reason of heat transfer enhancement
around the flat plate obtained in our previous study introduced in
fig.1 (b).
Figure 9 shows the combined effects of pulsating frequency
and amplitude on flow structure at a constant flow rate condition
of Rem=3000. In the case of 3Hz (See fig.9 (a)) under the
amplitude condition of Ref/Rem=0.56, flow instabilities appeared
in the upstream region were gradually attenuated as the fluid
flowed downstream and at last in the downstream region, regular
temporal fluctuated flow with the boundary-layer development
was obtained although somewhat wavy streak lines were still
maintained, suggesting no expectation of heat transfer
enhancement due to flow pulsation. No impact or negligible
small effect of flow pulsation on heat transfer around the flat
plate also in the case of Ref/Rem=0.85 would be suggested due to
smaller velocity gradient caused by the boundary-layer
development in comparison with the case of Ref/Rem=0.72
previously introduced as the flow structure induces heat transfer
enhancement. When pulsating frequency was increased up to 5Hz
as shown in fig.9 (b), flow patterns in the Ref/Rem=0.56 case
changed similar to those of Ref/Rem=0.72 case, which expects
heat transfer enhancement. On the contrary for the case of
Ref/Rem=0.85 could be expected the heat transfer restraint or at
least the constant of heat transfer rate due to the existence of
large-scale dead zones or flow separations at the both surfaces of
the flat plate and the sidewalls in the central and downstream
regions. This corresponds to the lower heat and mass transfer
characteristics at the wall surfaces and higher heat and mass
transport characteristics around the centre line of each passage.
Conclusions
1. Flow patterns for pulsating flow are able to be categorized
as three types. Those are quasi steady flow, regular
temporal fluctuated flow and temporal and spatial
fluctuated flow with strong instabilities.
2. Temporal flow rate fluctuation added at the inlet of the
passage induces spatial velocity fluctuation in a form of the
small-scale vortex array in span-wise direction within the
upstream region. This flow instability due to the temporal
and spatial fluctuation becomes remarkable with increasing
of pulsating frequency and amplitude.
3. Flow instabilities in the upstream region introduced above
are attenuated as the fluid flows downstream due to the
wall friction and viscosity of the fluid. Flow without or
negligible small spatial velocity fluctuation in the central
and downstream regions changes their patterns into regular
temporal fluctuated flow or quasi steady flow. In case of
quasi steady flow, no impact of flow pulsation on heat
transfer around the flat plate installed in a rectangular duct
is expected.
4. Heat transfer enhancement in the central and downstream
region is attributed to the restraint of the boundary-layer
development, corresponding to the increase of local flow
rate around the flat plate, induced by the periodical
temporal velocity fluctuation not to the large-scale fluid
mixing such as turbulence developed from small-scale flow
instabilities occurred in the upstream region.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank to Mr. H.Miyazaki, Mr. K.
Takeda and Mr.Y.Tsubakiyama for their assistance in carrying
out the experiments.
References
[1] Bayley, F. J., Edwards, P. A. and Singh, P. P. (1961) The
Effect of Flow Pulsation on Heat Transfer by Forced
Convection from a Flat Plate, Proc. of the First
International Heat Transfer Conference, Boulder, pp. 499-
509.
[2] Fujita, N. and Tsubouchi, T. (1982) An Experimental
Study of Unsteady Heat Transfer from a Flat Plate to an
Oscillating Air Flow Heat Transfer Japan. Res.11, pp. 31-
43.
[3] Gerrard, J. H. (1970) An experimental investigation of
pulsating turbulent water flow in a tube, Journal of Fluid
Mech., Vol. 46, part 1, pp. 43-64.
[4] Hessami, M. A., Berryman, A. and Bandopdhayay, P.
(2003) HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT IN AN
ELECTRICALLY HEATED HORIZONTAL PIPE DUE
TO FLOW PULSATION, ASME. HTD., Vol. 374, No. Vol.
3, pp. 49-56.
[5] Iguchi, M. and Miura, H. (1989) Radial Propagation of
Turbulence in Pulsatile Pipe Flow, JSME International
Journal, Ser. II, Vol. 32, No.2, pp. 173-179.
[6] Jackson, T. W. and Purdy, K. R. (1965) Resonant
Pulsating Flow and Convective Heat Transfer, ASME.
Journal of Heat Transfer, 87, pp. 507-512.
[7] Kearney, S. P., Jacobi, A. M. and Lucht, R. P. (2001)
Time-Resolved Thermal Boundary-Layer Structure in a
Pulsatile Reversing Channel Flow, Trans. ASME. Journal
of Heat Transfer, Vol. 123, No. 4, pp. 655-664.
[8] Li, P., and Yang, K. T. (1998) Fluid mechanics and heat
transfer in zero-mean oscillatory flows in short channels,
ASME. HTD., Vol. 361, No. Vol. 1, pp. 69-76.
[9] Liao, N. S., Wang, C. C. and Hong, J. T. (1985) An
investigation of heat transfer in pulsating turbulent pipe
flow, ASME. HTD., Vol. 42, pp. 53-60.
[10] Miller, J. A. (1969) Heat Transfer in the Oscillating
Turbulent Boundary Layer, Journal of Eng. Power, 91,
pp.239-244.
[11] Mizushina, T., Maruyama, T. and Hirasawa, H. (1974)
STRUCTURE OF THE TURBULENCE IN PULSATING
PIPE FLOWS, Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan,
Vol. 8, No. 3.
[12] Mladin, E. C. and Zumbrunnen, D. A. (1994)
Dependence of convective heat transfer to a pulsating
stagnation flow on incident velocity pulse characteristics,
ASME. HTD., Vol. 271, pp. 11-21.
[13] Myrum, T. A., Acharya, S. and Inamdar, S. (1997)
Laminar Pulsed Forced and Mixed Convection in a Vertical
Isothermal Tube, Journal of Thermophys. Heat Transfer,
Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 423-428.
[14] Niida, T., Yoshida, T., Yamashita, R. and Nakayama, S.
(1974) The influence of Pulsation on Laminar Heat
Transfer in Pipes, Heat Transfer Japan. Res.3, No. 3, pp.
19-28.
[15] Ohmi, M., Usui, T., Tanaka, O. and Toyama, M. (1976)
Pressure and Velocity Distributions in Pulsating Turbulent
 Pipe Flow, Part 2 Experimental Investigations, Bulletin of
the JSME, Vol. 19, No. 134, pp. 951-957.
[16] Rocha, L. A. O. and Bejan, A. (2001) Geometric
Optimization of Periodic Flow and Heat Transfer in a
Volume Cooled by Parallel Tubes, Trans. ASME. Journal
of Heat Transfer, Vol. 123, No.2, pp. 233-239.
[17] Saitoh, H. and Uchida, K. (2006) Flow and heat transfer
around the flat plate installed in a rectangular duct with flow
pulsation, International Journal of Transport Phenomena,
Vol. 8, pp. 317-330.
[18] Saitoh, H. and Uchida, K. (2008) EFFECT OF
PULSATING FREQUENCY ON FLOW STRUCTURE
AND ASSOCIATED HEAT TRANSFER AROUND THE
FLAT PLATE INSTALLED IN PULSATING DUCT
FLOW, Proc. CD of 19th International Symposium on
Transport Phenomena, Paper No. 111, pp1-8
[19] Saitoh, H. and Yoshioka, Y. (2010) EFFECT OF
PULSATING FREQUENCY ON FLOW STRUCTURE
AND ASSOCIATED HEAT TRANSFER AROUND THE
FLAT PLATE INSTALLED IN PULSATING DUCT
FLOW, Proc. CD of 21st International Symposium on
Transport Phenomena, Paper No. 173, pp1-8
[20] Saitoh, H. (2012) HEAT AND MASS TRANSPORT
CHARACTERISTICS OF PULSATING FLOW IN A
RECTANGULAR DUCT, Part 1: Effect of Pulsating
frequency on Heat Transfer Around the Flat Plate Installed
in the Duct, International Journal of Transport Phenomena,
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[21] Siegel, R. (1987) Influence of oscillation-induced
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Trans. ASME. Journal of Heat Transfer, Vol. 109, No.1, pp.
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[22] Zhang, J. G. and Kurzweg, U. H. (1991) Numerical
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Pipe Flow, Journal of Thermophys. Heat Transfer, Vol. 5,
No. 3, pp. 401-406.
 23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Development of the suitable combustor and

combustion characteristic of biofuels
Shun Matsuda1, Shuichi Torii1
Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kumamoto University
Kurokami, Kumamoto, Japan

Abstract
Biofuels is made from biomass resource and it is a
renewable energy source. Because it is contain of the
energy from the sun. One of source of biomass is
municipal solid waste. In modern society, waste disposal
has been cited as one of the major problems. Thus it is
used for biomass as part of waste reduction methods. The
final goal of the study is to develop the combustor for the
micro gas turbine using the biofuels. Here, emphasis is
placed on maintaining the temperature in the furnace
combustion and to maintain stable combustion extended
periods. In the experiment, we investigate in the exhaust
gas components, state of the temperature in the combustion
furnace. Now, pyrolysis oil and pig manure is used to fuel.
In case of combustion that mixed biomass with oil, it is
important to maintain the stable combustion, analyse the
constituent of exhaust gas, and emit hot exhaust gas.
Introduction
In recent years, environmental and energy problems have
steadily worsened. To solve this problem that is seen as a
problem in the world, the solution has been explored from
various viewpoints.
As one of solution, in this study is trying to use the energy
from the combustion of biofuels. Biofuels are fuels derived
from biomass which are attracting attention as a renewable
fuel resource. Biomass has used the energy from the
current ecosystem. Chlorophyll in plants absorbs carbon
dioxide from the air and the water from ground. After, it
receives energy from sunlight and converts to produce
carbohydrates and oxygen.
Gases emitted by the consumption of biomass is absorbed
again in the current ecological system having been
constructed a circulation system. Therefore it is a
renewable resource.
The other hand, waste oil includes used crankcase oils from
automobiles, used industrial lubricating oils (such as metal
working oil), and other used industrial oils (such as the heat
transfer fluids). When it is disposed of as waste, these oils
become waste oils due to a breakdown of physical properties
and pollution. Even if waste oil loses the characteristics, it
can recover the energy as fuel because it has the heat energy.

Fig. 1 fuel injection system

 The different type of oil may be burned as fuel for a single
or mixed fuel.
The purpose of this study is that to run a micro gas turbines
using biomass fuels such as waste oil and waste liquid. In
this experiments aims are reduction of emissions of toxic Outlet port
Exhaust gas Thermocouple
substances, emissions of hot gas and the maintenance of
steady state continuous combustion.

Combustion gas 1

Inside port
Thermocouple
Methods Inlet port
Thermocouple
In this study, the experiments are performed as follows in
2
the combustor. The experimental apparatus consists of fuel
injection system and combustion chamber which have
cyclone separator for centrifugation. Fig.1 shows the fuel
3
injection system. Two tanks is poured pig manure and
pyrolysis oil. The fuel is pushed out by the compressed air.
Amount of sent air is measured by the flow meter. Waste
oil and waste liquid are sent to the injection nozzle with
compressed air. The fuel injector is attached a swirling
flow nozzle. Two tanks and nozzle are attached to rubber
heater. Two tanks and nozzle are heated by the heater. It
is necessary to maintain at a high temperature fuel. [2] In the
injection nozzle has a structure of the swirling flow. The
Fig. 2 combustion chamber
fuel is mixed with air by the swirling flow, and it is injected
from the nozzle.
Fig.2 shows the combustion chamber which is the shape
of the cyclone separator. The combustion gas are subjected
to the centrifugal motion in the combustion chamber which
is the shape of the cyclonic separator, and separate out large
solid particles, namely ash.[1] To measure the temperature
Fuel injection nozzle
of the combustion device is using a K-type thermocouple.
Position of thermo couple in combustion chamber is five red
arrows.
Heat radiation of the entire device is prevented by
winding insulation.
Fig.3 shows a joint of the combustion chamber and the
fuel injection system. A left side of the figure is the fuel
injection nozzle and the opposite side is combustion
chamber. The mixture of waste liquid and waste oil is
injected from the injection nozzle and it is ignited by the
ignition which is inserted in the joint part. The unit uses a
quartz glass tube connection, to confirm the combustion
state.
In this study, waste liquid as fuel is used the liquid of pig
manure. Waste oil as fuel is used pyrolysis oil.
Both liquid is selected to have not been successfully
processed. Fig. 3 A joint of experimental apparatus
Result and discussion

Table.1 is amount of fuel consumption. Fig.4, Fig.5, Fig.6

and Fig.7 show result of changing temperature in the
combustion state. Fig.8 and Fig.9 are state of combustion.

Temperature of inlet port and inside1 port are high

temperature. But temperature of during inside2 port to
outlet port is low temperature. It means that occur heat loss
in combustion chamber.

These result shows that it is not able to burn. In addition,

steady state combustion has not been achieved. It means
that is not good combustion conditions.
Fig. 4
Respectively, comparing results, condition of high rate of
air/oil is easy to reach high temperature.

Further, the temperature is measured at the tip of the

thermocouple, so the portion of thermocouple is not
contacted by the flame turbulence.

So Fig.5 shows temperature of inlet port is lower than

inside1 port.

Fig. 5
Oil Air Liquid Rate of
[l/min] [l/min] [l/min] air/oil

Fig.4 0.92 177.90 0.76 193.37

Fig.5 0.9 60.5 2.5 67.22

Fig.6 0.6 135 0.9 225

Fig.7 0.34 80.5 0.25 236.76

Table 1 Amount of fuel consumption

Fig. 6
 Fig. 7
Fig. 10 Exhaust gas component

Fig.10 is Exhaust gas component. Here, component of

Fig.4 is 1 on the horizontal axis. Component of Fig.7 is 2
on the horizontal axis. The measured gas components were
both small percentage.

Both result show that harmful component was a very small

proportion. However, because these results are not steady-
state combustion condition, it isnt said combustion gas is
not harmful.

In the case of steady-state combustion, it is necessary to seek

a small percentage of harmful components in the combustion
gas on combustion conditions.

Fig. 8 state of combustion(Fig.5)

Conclusions

Since the combustion is not in steady state, it is necessary to

seek the conditions leading to the steady state condition.

Harmful components in the combustion gas are very small

proportion. However, there is sufficient potential to
increase in the combustion gas in the combustion steady
state.

In addition, it is necessary to the combustion condition of

higher temperature.

Fig. 9 state of combustion (Fig.7)

References

[1]. Akira Ogawa, Ensihinbunriki(1980)

[2]. Hideaki Tatibana, Misao Shioya, Keiji Wakai, Masaaki

Fukushima, Technical development and future
expectation of the pyrolysis for municipal post-use
plastics (Journal of the japan institute of energy, 2007).
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Effect of PM Diameter on Collection Characteristics

in Fluidized Bed Type PM2.5 Removal device

Tsuyoshi Yamamoto1, Kenta Hori1, Takahisa Yamamoto2 and June Tatebayashi3

1
Department of Chemical Engineering
Kyushu University, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Gifu National College of Technology, Gifu 501-0495, Japan
3
Advanced Technology Institute INC, Kobe 654-0036, Japan

Abstract
Introduction
In order to remove PM2.5 effectively, we have applied fluidized
bed to PM2.5 removal device for using the adhesion force. An A rise in energy consumption due to industrial development has
experimental study has been performed to investigate the effect resulted in large consumption of fossil fuel in thermal power
of PM diameter on PM collection characteristics in fluidized bed plant. Distributed power systems, such as on-site electric
type PM2.5 removal device. A numerical simulation has been generators and co-generation plants, have been introduced,
carried out to analyze the PM adhesion behavior on the surface of because these systems allow simultaneous generation of heat and
bed particle in fluidized bed type PM2.5 removal device and to electricity without any power-line loss [1]. Meanwhile, large
compare with the experimental data. The experimental results consumption of fossil fuel cause an increase of emission of
indicate that a border, which the dominant force of powder flow particulate matter (PM). In recent year, particle diameter of PM
changes from gravity force to adhesion force, exists between PM emitted from combustor becomes smaller with improvement of
combustion technology [2]. The special properties of PM give
diameter 2.25 m and 8.95 m. When PM diameter is less than
rise to recent concerns about the potential health hazards posed to
2.25 m, PM is effectively collected by fluidized bed type PM2.5
people that are exposed to them. PM has harmful effects on
removal device. The calculation results show that PM is collected
human health as smaller particle diameter. PM2.5 (particle matter
in the area with the higher volume fraction of bed particle in
with aerodynamic diameters less than 2.5 m) emissions are of
fluidized bed type PM2.5 removal device.
greater concern, because it is small enough to penetrate into the
lungs [3].
Nomenclature
The exhaust after treatment devices such as bag filter, electric
dp particle diameter [m] dust collector and DPF (Diesel Particulate Filter) are currently
e restitution coefficient [-] used to remove PM emitted from various combustors. However,
fg fluid flow resistance [N/m3] the recent modelling and experiments pointed out to the potential
g gravitational acceleration [m/s2] penetration of PM2.5 through the these devices [46]. Further
g0 Radial distribution function at contact [-] development in technologies of PM2.5 removal is desired
H height [m] because of the problems on human health and rapidly growing
Igs drag coefficient [N/m3] demand for removal of environmental pollutant [4, 7]. In order to
Js collisional dissipation [m2/s3] remove PM2.5 effectively by means of existing device such as
P pressure [Pa] bag filter and DPF and so on, the micropore size of existing
t time [s] device should be small. However, it is difficult to reduce the
u velocity vector [m/s] micropore size, there is no suitable improvement method of
x coordinate direction existing PM removal device to remove PM2.5 effectively.
Greek symbols Therefore, it is necessary to develop a new concept device for an
gs interphase force coefficient [kg/m3s] efficient PM2.5 removal.
kronecker symbol [-]
volume fraction [-] When it is in the state where between particles approached,
function of restitution coefficient [-] adhesion force such as van der Waals force, electrostatic force
s Solid conductivity of granular energy [W/mK] and liquid bridge force works between particles. It is known that
adhesion force will become so dominant when the particle
viscosity [kg/ms]
diameter is small. In the present work, since particle phase in
s granular temperature exchange term [kg/ms3]
fluidized bed is moved under influence of adhesion forces,
granular temperature [m2/s2]
fluidized bed has been applied to PM2.5 removal device that take
microscopic density [kg/m3] advantage of adhesion forces to remove PM2.5 effectively. An
stress tensor [Pa] experimental study has been carried out to investigate the effect
Subscripts and superscripts of PM diameter for PM collection characteristics in fluidized bed
g gas phase type PM2.5 removal device. Additionally, a numerical simulation
indices to identify vector and tensor has been performed to analyze the adhesion behavior of PM in
i, j
componets fluidized bed type PM2.5 removal device and to compare with
k phase k (gas or solid) the experimental study.
s solid phase
Experiment
Opaci-meter or filter
Figure 1 and Table 1 show a schematic diagram of experimental
apparatus and an experimental conditions, respectively. A [mm]
fluidized bed type PM2.5 removal device consists of distributor,
bed particles and free board. The fluidized bed is 400 mm in Flange
height and 80.7 mm in diameter. The distributor is made up of a 1
mm thick stainless steel plate with large number of small orifices 80
to generate uniform gas flow and to suppress the pulsation of
inlet flow. Each orifice has a diameter of 0.3 mm and a pitch of Free board

400
2.1 mm with an opening area 1.60 % of the total cross sectional
area. The bed particles are made of alumina. The standard bed
particles have diameters dp ranging from 0.3 mm to 0.5 mm with
an average diameter of 0.42 mm. The standard bed height H at
Bed particles

100
quiescent state is set to 10 cm. The standard void fraction at
quiescent state is 0.453. The superficial gas velocity in the
fluidized bed, which is defined as volumetric flow rate divided by
cross sectional area of the bed, is varied in the range of u = 0.3 -
0.5 m/s. PM of same diameter is fed 100 mg/m3 into the fluidized Distributor
bed with air. The diameters of PM used in this experiment are
carbon black 0.029 m, silica particle 0.20 m, 0.50 m, 2.25
PM or Silica
m, spherical graphite 8.95 m and 19.02 m. Smoke emission Figure 1. Schematic diagram of fluidized bed type PM2.5
is measured using a reflecting smoke meter (Horiba MEXA- removal device.
600S). The PM is collected on a glass fiber filter (ADVANTEC,
47 mm diameter, 0.5 m pore). The PM collection efficiency is
expressed as:
Continuity for phase k ( k = g for gas or s for solids):
.
(1)
The time histories of PM collection efficiency is measured for
Momentum conservation for the gas and solid phase:
180 minute at 15 minutes interval on each PM diameter.

Table 1. Experimental conditions.

Superficial gas velocity, m/s 0.3 0.5
Bed height at quiescent, cm 10
Void fraction at quiescent, 0.453
Bed particle Alumina
Bed particle diameter, mm 0.3 0.5 (average 0.42)
Bed particle density, kg/m3 3700
0.029 (carbon black)
PM diameter, m 0.20, 0.50, 2.25 (silica)
8.95, 19.02 (spherical graphite)
3 calculated according to Gidaspow [10], who used the Wen and
PM concentration, mg/m 100
(2)
(3)
Here, is the phase fraction, is the phase density, u is phase
velocity, P is the pressure and g is the gravitational acceleration.
The gas and the solid phase are coupled through the interfacial
drag term Igs in momentum equation. Igs is given by product of
the drag interaction term and relative velocity:
(4)
where gs is the drag interaction term. This coefficient can be
Yu [11] correlation (5) for g 0.8 and Ergun's equation (6) for
g < 0.8:

(5)
Numerical Simulation
Numerical simulation has been performed on the same conditions
(6)
as the experiment, which is shown in Fig. 1 and Table 1.
Numerical modelling of fluidized bed system has applied to the
The form coefficient in equation (5) is given by equations (7) and
Eulerian-Eulerian two fluid model. The two fluid model, based
(8), where Rep is the particle Reynolds number defined in
on the conservation equations of mass, momentum and granular
equation (9):
temperature, is solved using the MFIX code (Multiphase Flow
with Interphase eXchanges) [8, 9]. The kinetic theory of granular (7)
flow, which characterized the stochastic fluctuations of the solids
kinetic energy, is used for the closure of the solids stress terms. (8)
The governing equations solve for the current gas-solid system
are:
(9)
The solid stress in equation (3) is expressed as: inlet concentration 20 45 mg/m3 after 180 minutes. As shown
in Fig. 2, the collection efficiency of PM decreases with an
(10) increasing time in each of PM diameters. The trend is classified
into 2 groups based on the gradient of collection efficiency. One
where group is that PM diameter is less than 2.25 m. In spite of high
PM inlet concentration with 100 mg/m3, the collection efficiency
(11) of PM is kept more than 90 % after 180 minutes. In addition,
each PM collection efficiency of this group indicates 100 %
The solid pressure is represented as: under conditions of PM inlet concentration 20 45 mg/m3 after
(12) 180 minutes as shown in Table 2. Meanwhile, the other group is
that PM diameter is more than 8.95 m. The collection efficiency
and solid viscosity is given by: of PM decreases approximately 60 % after 180 minutes.

CB(0.029 m) Silica(0.20 m)
(13)
Silica(0.50 m) Silica(2.25 m)
where Graphite(8.95 m) Graphite(19.02 m)
(14) 1.0

(15)
0.9
and
collection efficiency [-]
(16)
0.8
Here, g0 is the radial function and is the granular temperature.
Granular energy transport equation of the following form is used
to solve for : 0.7

0.6
(17)

where the solid conductivity of granular energy ks is expressed 0.5

as: 0 50 100 150 200
time [min]

Figure 2. Time changes of PM Collection efficiency for each

(18) PM diameter at superficial gas velocity 0.4 m/s.

where

(19) Table 2. PM collection efficiency for each PM diameter at

superficial gas velocity 0.4 m/s and PM inlet concentration 20
45 mg/m3 after 180 minutes.
and
Particle diameter PM inlet PM collection
. (20) concentration efficiency
0.029 m 20 mg/m3 100 %
The collisional dissipation is represented as: 0.20 m 45 mg/m3 100 %
, (21) 0.50 m 40 mg/m3 100 %
2.25 m 30 mg/m3 100 %
8.95 m 40 mg/m3 65.2 %
(22)

and the exchange term is given by:
(23)
The above model is used in the dilute regime of the particle flow.
Results and Discussion
Figure 2 shows time changes of PM collection efficiency for each
PM diameter at superficial gas velocity 0.4 m/s extracted from
the experimental results. Table 2 shows PM collection efficiency
for each PM diameter at superficial gas velocity 0.4 m/s and PM
In the area of powder technology, it is known that adhesion force
such as van der Waals force, electrostatic force and liquid bridge
force works between particles based on the dynamic property of
powder. When particle size is large, flow characteristics of
powder is controlled by the gravity force. However, when
particle size is small, flow characteristics of powder is dominated
by the adhesion force. In this experimental apparatus, a border,
which the dominant force of powder flow change from gravity
force to adhesion force, exists between 2.25 m and 8.95 m.
When PM diameter is less than 2.25 m, the fluid in fluidized
bed is dominated by the adhesion force. As a result, it is easy to
adhere for PM to bed particle in fluidized bed and PM collection
 efficiency is higher. Additionally, in the range of below 2.25 m, the adhesion of PM occurs in the bubbles, because the volume
PM collection efficiency increases with an increasing PM fraction of bed particle is low in the bubbles.
diameter. The main cause is the number density of PM increases
Figure 5 compares observed experimental data and model
with a decreasing PM diameter. On the other hand, when PM
predictions, in which superficial gas velocity is 0.4 m/s and PM
diameter is more than 8.95 m, the fluid in fluidized bed is
diameter is 8.95 m. The simulation results are in reasonably
controlled by the gravity force. PM becomes difficult to adhere to
good agreement with experimental observations. The calculation
bed particle and PM, which adheres to bed particle, becomes easy
results indicate that PM collection efficiency decreases with time
to separate from bed particle. As a consequence, PM collection
as the experimental results. The numerical simulation is validated
efficiency is lower than that of small PM diameter.
by these results. This model can represent the adhesion behavior
As mentioned above, since PM collection efficiency decreases of PM in fluidized bed type PM2.5 removal device.
with an increasing time, PM collection efficiency is considered to
be related to PM deposit amount on bed particles. Figure 3 shows
the relationship between PM deposit amount on bed particles and
collection efficiency of PM with diameter 8.95 m. PM
collection efficiency decreases with an increasing PM deposit
amount and superficial gas velocity. From these results, the
relation equation between PM collection efficiency eff and PM
deposit amount d under superficial gas velocity 0.4 m/s is
expressed as:
(24)
Equation (24) indicates that the adhesion ability of bed particle
deteriorates with an increasing PM deposit amount. It is able to
predict the degradation behavior of PM collection efficiency with
time.

1.0
1
0.3 m/s
1.000 2
0.4 m/s
3
0.5 m/s
0.900 0.9
collection efficiency [-]

0.800
0.8 [-] [g-PM/(cm3s)]
0.700
(a) void fraction (b) adherence distribution
0.600
0.7 Figure 4. Calculated instantaneous void fraction and
0.500 adherence distribution of PM with diameter 8.95 m (spherical
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 graphite) at superficial gas velocity 0.4 m/s.
0.6
deposit [g/m3]

0.5 100
collection efficiency [%]

0 2000 4000 6000 8000

deposit [g/m3] 80
Figure 3. Effect of PM deposit amount on bed particles for
collection efficiency of PM with diameter 8.95 m (spherical 60
graphite).

40
In order to analyze the adhesion behavior of PM to bed particle in
fluidized bed, equation (24) is incorporated in MFIX code and
numerical simulation has been performed. Figure 4 (a) and (b) 20 exp.
show the instantaneous void fractions and PM adherence calc.
distribution extracted from the calculation results, in which
superficial gas velocity 0.4 m/s and PM diameter is 8.95 m. The 0
color scale in Fig. 4 (a) varies from 0.4 (blue) to 1 (red). And 0 500 1000 1500
the color scale in Fig. 4 (b) varies 0 (blue) to 3.9E-07 g-PM/cm3/s time [s]
(red). The fluidized bed flows with creating the bubbles and the
bed height rise up to 3.6 cm under condition of superficial gas Figure 5. Comparison between experimental data and
velocity 0.4 m/s. Since superficial gas velocity is slow, the model prediction for collection efficiency of PM with
bubbles pass through the bed phase as keeping the form. The diameter 8.95 m (spherical graphite) at superficial gas velocity
adhesion of PM to bed particle mainly occurs in the area with the 0.4 m/s.
higher volume fraction of bed particle. There is little chance that
Conclusions
Fluidized bed has been applied to PM2.5 removal device for
effectively removing PM2.5 using the adhesion force. The effect
of PM diameter on PM collection characteristics and the PM
adhesion behavior on the surface of bed particle have been
analyzed by an experimental study and a numerical simulation.
The experimental study has been performed in lab scale
experimental apparatus by using PM with diameter 0.029 m,
0.20 m, 0.50 m, 2.25 m, 8.95 m and 19.02 m. The
numerical simulation has been carried out under same conditions
as experiments. The experimental results show that the dominant
force of powder flow changes from gravity force to adhesion
force between PM diameter 2.25 m and 8.95 m with an
decreasing PM diameter. When PM diameter is less than 2.25 m,
PM is effectively collected by fluidized bed type PM2.5 removal
device. Model predictions are excellently corresponding to the
experimental observations. Model predictions indicate that PM is
mainly collected in the area with the higher volume fraction of
bed particle and is rarely collected in the bubbles in fluidized bed
type PM2.5 removal device.
Acknowledgments
This research is partially supported by the Japan Society for the
Promotion of Science (JSPS), Grant-in-Aids for Young Scientists
(B), in 2011, No. 23710093.
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Morgantown, West Virginia, 1993.
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Academic Press, New York, 1994.
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Chemical Engineering Progress Symposium Series 62, 1966,
100111.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Effects of Nanoscale Structural Morphology and Surface Wettability

on Local Pool Boiling Performances

B.S. Kim1, D. Lee1, G. Choi1, H. Lee1, S. Shin1 and H.H. Cho1,*

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea

Abstract generating devices on a definite local area like central process

Boiling heat transfer technology based on the phase change of
liquid-type working fluid have been focused on as a powerful
cooling method for effective local heat dissipation. Surface
roughness and surface wettability characteristics, which are
mutually interacted each other are principal determinant factors
to determine the performance of boiling heat transfer. In this
study, we suggest the surface wettability control technique using
silicon nanowires, which are synthesized by electroless catalytic
metal deposition and silicon wet etching method. Nanoscale
surface treatments synthesizing vertically aligned silicon
nanowires can lead to several advantages for enhancing boiling
performances via favorable surface morphology with extreme
surface roughness and wettability properties. Based on the
physico-chemical relationship on surface morphology and
surface free energy, we present that it is possible to reinforce
surface wettability into superhydrophilic regime by increasing the
height of silicon nanowires more than a few microns. By
enhancing hemi-wicking phenomena owing to the densely
distributed nanoscale structures, they can induce strong re-
wetting characteristics, which is favorable to vigorous heat
transfer near a hot-spot surface accompanying nucleated vapor-
bubble generation and departure.
Nomenclature
q'' heat flux, heat flow per unit area
h heat transfer coefficient
Tsat saturation temperature of working fluid
Tf temperature of working fluid
Ts surface temperature
Tr temperature measured by RTD sensor
Tsup wall superheating, Twall - Tsat
kSi thermal conductivity of silicon substrate
hcritical critical height of nanowires
* equilibrium contact angle of ideal plain surface
solid fraction remaining dry
a distance between nanoscale structures
d diameter of nanoscale structures
RTD resistive temperature detector
CHF critical heat flux
ONB onset of nucleate boiling
HTC heat transfer coefficient
SiNWs silicon nanowires
CA apparent contact angle
Introduction
Boiling heat transfer technology accompanying the phase change
of liquid-type working fluid from liquid to gas-phase have been
focused on as a powerful cooling method for effective local heat
dissipation. Especially, extremely high temperature or heat-
units (CPU), which are based on densely integrated electric
circuits and widely employed in computers as well as smart
mobile devices, requires sufficient heat dissipation capacity for
maintaining their intrinsic performances. Boiling heat transfer
technique can be a significant pre-requisites for device design
regarding thermal-load treatment presenting how to dissipate
thermal-load from hot spots to environments [1-4].
In the light of heat dissipation based on the phase-changing of
working fluids in company with violent generation/detachment of
nucleated bubbles and fluidic behavior near a heat transfer
surface, surface roughness and surface wettability characteristics,
which are mutually interacted each other [5], are principal
determinant factors to evaluate and improve the performance of
boiling heat transfer. In this study, we suggest the surface
wettability control technique using silicon nanowires, which are
synthesized by electroless catalytic metal deposition and silicon
wet etching method (or metal-assisted chemical etching (MACE)
method) [6, 7]. Nanoscale surface treatments synthesizing
vertically aligned silicon nanowires can lead to several
advantages for enhancing boiling performances via favorable
surface morphology with extreme surface roughness and
wettability properties [8-10]. Based on the physico-chemical
relationship on surface morphology and surface free energy [5,
11], we present that it is possible to reinforce surface wettability
into superhydrophilic regime by increasing the height of silicon
nanowires more than a few microns. By enhancing hemi-wicking
phenomena owing to the densely distributed nanoscale structures,
they can induce strong re-wetting characteristics, which is
favorable to vigorous heat transfer near a hot-spot surface
accompanying nucleated vapor-bubble generation and departure.
Based on the surface roughness and the wettability
modification technique, it is necessary to evaluate parametric
effectiveness of nanoscale structural morphology on bubble
dynamics and local heat transfer performances for practical
applications of the nano-structure. We evaluate pool boiling
performance in terms of onset of nucleated boiling (ONB), heat
transfer coefficients (HTC), and critical heat flux (CHF) under
saturated conditions with de-ionized (DI) water. In particular,
local heat transfer characteristics are evaluated by locally arrayed
resistive temperature detectors (RTDs) as well as a thin film
heater which are simultaneously fabricated on experimental
surfaces. In addition, visualization is conducted to investigate the
local heat transfer performance related to bubble dynamics,
which is accompanied by local phase-change of the working fluid.
Through this study on the performance evaluation of pool
boiling condition, we try to demonstrate that the heat transfer
performances on surfaces with the nanoscale structures compared
to bare silicon surfaces are dominantly enhanced due to the
improved bubble dynamics and the fluidic behaviors of working
fluid affected by the height of the nanowires. Based on the
presented model for physical phenomena on boiling surfaces, the

Figure 1. Schematic of experimental setups for pool boiling
performance evaluation [12].
local boiling performance including ONB, HTC, CHF as well as
wall superheats can be improved by controlling the fluid-
dynamic behaviors of nucleated vapor bubbles, which are clearly
dependent on the nanoscale surface modifications.
Experimental Methods and Data Reduction
Experimental Apparatus and Methods
Figure 1 presents whole experimental facilities to conduct pool
boiling performance evaluation. The system consists of a pool
boiling chamber, a test section for the install of a fabricated local
measuring sensor, and several measurement units to monitor the
experimental conditions.
For each experiment to obtain quantitative and qualitative
results on boiling heat transfer performances, we make a steady
state condition of working fluid maintaining saturated
temperature (Tf = 100C) under an atmospheric pressure
condition (1 atm).
Surface Preparations
In this study, we use a P-type (Boron-doped) silicon wafer with
the thickness of 500 microns as a reference surface. Whole
experiments for boiling performance evaluation and fabrications
of silicon nanowires (SiNWs) are conducted after the cleaning
process of the silicon wafer. Piranha cleaning and additional
procedure to eliminate organic material and naturally-formed
oxide layer, respectively, are carried out as a pre-process. Based
on electroless catalytic metal deposition and silicon wet etching
method (or metal-assisted chemical etching (MACE) method) [3,
6, 9], we synthesize vertically-aligned SiNWs which are densely
distributed. For the control of surface morphology and surface
wettability, we change the etching time of a silicon substrate as a
design variable under confined conditions for other SiNWs-
synthesizing parameters. We confirmed that as we increase the
etching time, longer and rougher nanostructures (SiNWs) can be
obtained.
Data Reduction Process
Boiling heat transfer performances are evaluated based on several
fundamental relations regarding 1-dimensional heat conduction
through the silicon substrate of the fabricated local-measuring
sensor and convective heat transfer for wall temperature and
convective heat transfer coefficient, respectively, as follows:
Figure 2. Surface morphology images captured by SEM and
static contact angle characteristics: (a), (b) cross-sectional images
for a plain silicon surface and SiNWs, respectively; (c), (d) water
droplet images for static contact angle characteristics for a plain
and SiNWs, respectively [5, 12].
l
Ts TR q (1)
k Si
q h Ts T f (2)
where Ts, TR, l, kSi, q'', and h represent surface temperature,
temperature measured by RTDs which are located on the bottom
surface of the silicon substrate, thermal conductivity of the
silicon substrate, heat flux generated by the thin film heater and
convective heat transfer coefficient, respectively. Based on eq.
(1), we derive the value of actual wall temperature on the
interfacial heat transfer surface which is the contact area between
heat-dissipating heat transfer surface and liquid-phase working
fluid. Even though there are vigorous fluidic behaviours of
liquid-phase working fluid and generated bubbles, we simply
assume that local convective heat transfer coefficients can be
estimated using eq. (2) according to the fundamental Newton's
law of cooling for especially on the spots with the RTDs.
Results and Discussions
Based on previous studies on boiling heat transfer [13, 14],
superhydrophilicity or super-wetting characteristics are well
known to improve the water supply onto a heat transfer surface
and then it could be favorable to facilitate convective heat
transfer. In particularly, boiling heat transfer accompanies bubble
nucleation due to the phase-change. To refresh the vacant area by
nucleated vapors, water-favorable or re-wettable surface can help
to supply cooler working fluid towards the heat transfer surface
with much higher wall temperature compared to the saturation
temperature of the fluid.
Based on this aspect, we created superhydrophilic surfaces via
silicon nanowire arrays. As shown in Figure 2, superhydrophilic
surfaces with the static contact angle below 10 degrees can be
obtained through sufficient etching duration for the synthesis of
SiNWs with the height more than 10 microns. According to our
previous study with regard to the surface wettability
manipulation technique by controlling surface free energy and
surface roughness via nanoscale structures [3], we demonstrated
that there is a critical value of SiNWs' height satisfying pre-
requisite condition for superhydrophilic contact angles. This
critical height of SiNWs for superhydrophilicity can be expressed
by the dimensional factors for the nanoscale structures as
follows:

Figure 3. Boiling curves for the surfaces with/without SiNWs
[12].
hcritical
1
d
1 cos *
1 1 a d
2
(3)
where hcritical, * , , a and d are the critical height of structures,
equilibrium contact angle of a plain silicon substrate, solid
fraction without wetting by droplet, distance between structures
and diameter of structures. Therefore, we can realize
superhydrophilic surfaces by adjusting etching time of Si
substrate.
From the results as shown in Figure 3, we present that the
remarkable decrease of wall superheat and the enhancement of
CHF compared to those on a plain silicon surface could be
obtained by employing extremely rough and superhydrophilic
nanowire structures. We also confirm that there are retarded CHF,
reduced wall superheat, as well as enhanced heat transfer
coefficients on the surface with silicon nanowires. In addition,
based on the visualization results, we can present that fast
detachment of nucleated bubbles and evenly distributed bubble
generation with smaller diameter are shown on the surface with
long SiNWs. Morphological effects for catalytic nucleation sites
and super-wetting properties via SiNWs can be evidences for
those fluidic phenomena accompanying the improvement of
boiling heat transfer performances.
Conclusions
Based on the surface roughness and the wettability modification
technique via vertically-aligned silicon nanowire arrays, we
investigate the parametric effectiveness of nanoscale structural
morphology and consequent surface wettability on bubble
dynamics and local heat transfer performances for practical
device-cooling applications of the nanostructure. We evaluate
pool boiling performances in terms of several factors including
onset of nucleated boiling (ONB), heat transfer coefficients
(HTC), and critical heat flux (CHF) under saturated conditions of
de-ionized water at atmospheric pressure condition. Spatial heat
transfer characteristics are evaluated by RTD sensors which are
capable of measuring local wall temperatures.
Through this study on the performance evaluation of pool
boiling condition, we demonstrate that the heat transfer
performances on surfaces with the nanoscale structures compared
to bare silicon surfaces can be remarkably improved due to the
favorable bubble dynamics and the fluidic behaviors of working
fluid. Based on the presented model for physical phenomena on
boiling surfaces, the local boiling performance including ONB,
HTC, CHF as well as wall superheats can be improved by
controlling the fluid-dynamic behaviors of nucleated vapor
bubbles, which are clearly dependent on the nanoscale surface
modifications. These experimental results could contribute to
further advanced heat dissipation techniques based on boiling
heat transfer and an actual design of thermal treatment on high
temperature devices.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by a National Research Foundation of
Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MEST)
(No. 2011-0000252 and No. 2012-0005727).
References
[1] Goldstein, R.J., Ibele, W.E., Patankar, S.V., Simon, T.W.,
Kuehn, T.H., Strykowski, P.J., Tamma, K.K., Heberlein,
J.V.R., Davidson, J.H., Bischof, J., Kulacki, F.A.,
Kortshagen, U., Garrick, S. and Srinivasan, V., Heat transfer
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2006, 451-534.
[2] Wu, S.J., Shin, C.H., Kim, K.M. and Cho, H.H., Single-
phase convection and boiling heat transfer: Confined single
and array-circular impinging jets, Int. J. Multiph. Flow, 33,
2007, 1271-1283.
[3] Garimella, S.V., Fleischer, A.S., Murthy, J.Y., Keshavarzi,
A., Prasher, R., Patel, C., Bhavnani, S.H.,
Venkatasubramanian, R., Mahajan, R., Joshi, Y., Sammakia,
B., Myers, B.A., Chorosinski, L., Baelmans, M.,
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Next-Generation Electronic Systems, IEEE Trans. Compon.
Packag. Technol., 31, 2008, 801-815.
[4] Shin, C.H., Kim, K.M., Lim, S.H. and Cho, H.H., Influences
of nozzle-plate spacing on boiling heat transfer of confined
planar dielectric liquid impinging jet, Int. J. Heat Mass
Transf., 52, 2009, 5293-5301.
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Control of superhydrophilicity/superhydrophobicity using
silicon nanowires via electroless etching method and
fluorine carbon coatings, Langmuir, 27, 2011, 10148-10156.
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Majumdar, A., Nanowires for Enhanced Boiling Heat
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Majumdar, A., Critical heat flux of pool boiling on Si
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Aerodynamics of a Motor Cyclist Helmet

Rahul Ganesh1 , Vinay Raveendran1 , Ranjith Nath1 , G. Venugopal1 and M. R. Rajkumar1

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
College of Engineering, Trivandrum, Kerala, India

Abstract
Aerodynamic drag contributes the majority of the resistance en-
countered by a motor cyclist helmet. Therefore low aerody-
namic drag is the key to the quality of performance of the mo-
tor cyclist helmet. The objective of this work is to numerically
analyse the flow over a motor cyclist helmet by performing nu-
merical simulations and to suggest modification in the existing
shape of the helmet so as to reduce the overall drag. Numeri-
cal simulations are carried out by using Commercial Computa-
tional Fluid Dynamics Package ANSYS-CFX. Simulations are
performed for different Reynolds number. Inorder to validate
the numerical model, experiments are conducted by placing the
proposed helmet in a low speed subsonic wind tunnel and the
results are compared.
Nomenclature
u velocity vector
p pressure
n normal
u velocity in the X direction
v velocity in the Y direction
w velocity in the Z direction
Re Reynolds number, Re = vx c
Cp coefficient of pressure
x distance measured in the x direction
c maximum projected length in the X-Z plane
and the results were compared with experiments. The study
revealed that RANS SST k- model showed better results of
drag calculation compared to other models. They also reported
that although CFD results did not provide the same accuracy as
the wind tunnel experiments, significant advantage of the CFD
results gave detailed flow information which can give physical
insight to the causes of drag force. Most of the previous studies
have been conducted on racing cyclist and helmet used by the
racing cyclist. However the literature pertaining to the aerody-
namics of motor cyclist helmet has not been found in literetaure.
The aim of the present work is numerical analyse the flow over
a motor cyclist helmet and compare with experimental results.
Experimental set up
Experiments were carried out by placing the proposed helmet
Fig.1 in the test section (60cm60cm) of the low speed sub-
sonic wind tunnel Fig.2. Pressure tappings are provided in the
test section and the stagnation chamber of the wind tunnel and
are connected to a differential manometer to measure the stag-
nation and static pressure and thereby test section fluid veloc-
ity is calculated. A total of 35 pressure taps were included in
the helmet, placed flush with the surface of the helmet to mea-
sure surface pressures. The wind tunnel is run at a speed of
55.4km/hr, and static pressures at various locations on the sur-
face of the helmet are measured.

Introduction
The shape and size of the helmet used by the two wheel riders
are very important with regard to not only the safety but also
its comfort level. The performance of the helmet is strongly ef-
fected by aerodynamic drag, which contibutes to about 80% at
speeds of about 50Km/h. Bradford and Jenkins[1] performed
numerical investigations to analyse the causes of drag on aero-
dynamic bycycle helmet and presented a solution to improve
the performance at multiple head pitch angles. They also inves-
tigated the aerodynamic improvements of applying a truncated
airfoil shape with a trailing edge modification to the helmet de-
sign. Inorder to validate the computational results, the scaled
down model of the modified helmet was placed in a wind tun-
nel. The wind tunnel results obtained from the study correlated
well with numerical results and also reported that modified hel-
met showed better performance at pitch angles -45 to -90 de-
grees. Thijis et al.[2] numerically investigated the aerodynamic
drag of a cyclist riding at different cycling positions and the ac-
curacy of the CFD simulations were tested by using the data
from wind tunnel experiments. The results revealed that nu-
merical simulation performed with LES showed good agree-
ment with experimental results compared to other models. The
same authors[3] assesed the accuracy of Computational Fluid
Dynamics for the drag prediction of cyclist. The flow around
the cyclist was modelled using different numerical techniques
- Surface pressure tappings in the X-Y plane,  - Surface
pressure tappings in the X-Z circunferential plane.
Figure 1: Figure showing the different views of the helmet with
surface pressure tappings
Numerical Analysis
To create model in Catia the coordinates of various points
along the circumference of the helmet located at different height
is measured. Using these points, the surface of the helmet is
created by employing profile and the multiple section option
available in Catia V5 ([4]). The model of the helmet developed
in Catia is imported to CFX and the numerical analysis of the
problem is performed using ANSYS-CFX 5 ([5]). The physical
geometry is three dimensional consisting of helmet and region
surronding the helmet. The helmet is modelled as a solid and
the region surrounding the helmet is modelled as a fluid. The
fluid medium (air) is assumed to be incompressible with con-
stant thermophysical properties. The flow is assumed to steady
turbulent with no heat transfer. Taking these assumptions into

Figure 2: Experimental set up
Figure 3: Computational domain.
consideration the governing equations of mass and momentum
([6]) are solved in the computational domain.
Boundary conditions
Fluid adheres to the surface of the helmet and therefore
no slip for velocity components and zero normal pressure
gradient are employed at the surface of the helmet. Since the
domain surrounding the helmet is very large the top, bottom
and right side wall are subjected to free slip. The yaw angle
and the angle of attack is kept as zero. Therefore, inorder to
reduce the computational time only half the physical model
of the helmet is considered for the analysis by incorporating
symmetry boundary condition. At the inlet normal component
of velocity is specified, whereas, at the exit mass flow outlet
is used. In general the mathematical representation of the
boundary conditions can be described as follows
p
On helmet surface u = 0 n =0
u
On top, bottom and right side wall, n =0
Inlet of the domain, u=constant, v=0, w=0
Outlet of the domain, mass flow rate is specified
Computational domain and grid
The solution domain is defined as a hexahedral volume sur-
rounding the helmet. The domain extends 1.7c behind, 1.7c
front and 1c from the upper and lower surface of the helmet.
The region surrounding the solid walls of the helmet and re-
gion covering the near wake is discretized using unstructured
non uniform hexahedral and tetrahedral cells so as to resolve
the gradient of field variables. Numerical simulations have been
carried out for the same velocity, used in experimental investi-
gation. To arrive at the optimum grid for the numerical simula-
tions, a grid sensitivity study has been conducted and the results
of grid sensitivity study is given in Table 1.
Grid sensitivity study (Re=3.8 104 )
Sl No No. of cells Drag Force(N)
(Re) (N) (N)
1 30,120 1.10
2 344448 1.95
3 540000 2.30
3 718861 2.44
4 100263 2.45
Table 1: Summary of grid sensitivity study.
Numerical solution procedure
The governing partial differential equations of mass and mo-
mentum is solved in the computational domain using commer-
cial computational software ANSYS CFX. The flow is assumed
to be steady incompressible and in the transition regime. For
modelling the flow in the transition regime transition SST model
option avialable in ANSYS CFX is used.
Results and discussions
The appropriateness of numerical approach used for simulating
the flow characteristics of the motor cyclist helmet is tested by
comparing the experimentally measured and numerically pre-
dicted pressure coefficient. The comparison excercise shown in
Fig.4 reveals that the magnitude of absolute value of maximum
pressure and its location on the surface of the helmet obtained
from experiments is in good agreement with numerical results.
The slight deviation is attributed to the fact the surface of the
physical model of the helmet considered in experiments is not
smooth compared to the geometry of the helmet created in catia
for modelling in ANSYS CFX. Apart from this while perform-
ing experiments, the small purtubences created because of the
pressure tappings provided on the surface of the helmet also
contributes to this deviation.
Flow field
Numerical simulations are performed for three different speeds
of the motor cyclist, viz: 55.7km/hr, 37.8km/hr and 19.8km/hr,
corresponds to Reynolds number Re = 1.49 104 , 2.67 104 ,
and 3.63 104 . The variation of Cp with dimensionless dis-
tance shown in Fig.5 for different Re reveals that the minimum
pressure coefficient is found to occur at high Re. This is be-
cause at high Re, the accelerating fluid causes pressure to drop
to a minimum value and this would happen at a point earlier
to that expected to occur at low Re. Furthermore, at high Re,
due to the streamlined nature of the helmet, the fluid reaches its
maximum velocity at an earlier location on the surface of the
helmet causing maximum value of negative pressure to move
nearer to the stagnation point. The nature of these variations is
 Figure 6: Static pressure contours plotted at X-Z plane [Re =
1.49 104 ].

Figure 4: Variation of pressure coefficient with dimensionless

distance for Re = 3.63 104 .

also evident from the pressure contours shown in Figs. 6, 7. It is

worth to note from Fig. 5 that at a dimensionless distance of ap-
proximately 0.9 the local pressure abruptly increases causing an
adverse pressure gradient. Consequently, the flow detach from
the helmet surface at the dimensionles distance approximately
0.9 with strong standing vortex beneath the point correspond-
ing to this dimensionless distance. The stream lines plot drawn
in Figs.8, 9, 10 and 11 illustrates this characteristic behaviour.
It may be noted that the strength of the vortex increases with
decreasing Re (Table 2). As a result of the strong vortex devel-
oped, the magnitude of adverse pressure gradient seems to be
larger as seen in Fig. 5.

Figure 7: Static pressure contours plotted at X-Z plane [Re =

3.63 104 ].

Figure 5: Variation of pressure coefficient with dimensionless

distance for different Re.
Figure 8: Streamlines drawn in the front view of the helmet, Re
Table 3 shows the numerically predicted drag force for the flow = 1.49 104 .
past the helmet and that for the flow past a sphere ([7]). The
comparison reveals that drag force predicted from the numer-

Figure 9: Streamlines drawn in the front view of the helmet, Re
= 3.63 104 .
Figure 10: Streamlines drawn in the top view of the helmet, Re
= 1.49 104 .
Figure 11: Streamlines drawn in the top view of the helmet, Re
= 3.63 104 .
magnitude of vorticity
Reynolds number Vorticity
(Re) (S1 )
1.49 104 416.7
2.67 104 176.2
3.63 104 6.16
Table 2: Comparison of vorticity at different Re.
ical simulation of flow over the helmet is less than the drag
offered by a sphere. Comparetvly low value obtained for the
case of motor cyclist helmet is attributed to the streamlined pat-
tern of the helmet at the frontal area. However, towards the rear
of the helmet it approximates the shape of a bluff body. The
bluff body geometrical configuration is responsible for the flow
seperation at the rear of the helmet. In general, the streamlined
configuartion at the frontal area of the helmet results in reduced
form drag whereas the bluff body configuration at the rear sig-
nificantly contributes to form drag.
Numerically predicted drag force for flow
over a Sphere and Motor cyclist helmet
Reynolds number Sphere Motor cyclist helmet
(Re) (N) (N)
1.49 104 0.32 0.32
2.67 104 1.16 1.08
3.63 104 2.50 2.44
Table 3: Comparison of drag force.
It is interesting to note that for the three Re considered here
the flow seperation takes place at the dimensionless distance
0.9. This point is seem to be the critical location where ap-
propriate design modification needs to be incorporated with a
view to avoid or delay flow seperation so as to reduce the to-
tal drag. A close examinatoion of the geometry of the helmet
Fig. 1 demonstrates that the geometry considered in the present
study is having a sharp curvature at the rear. Such a geometrical
shape could be the reason for inducing drag force close to that
observed for the case of sphere. The aforementioned discussion
implies that the geometrical shape of the helmet can play a vital
role in inducing drag force on the helmet. Therefore, the geo-
metrical shape of the helmet is an important consideration from
design point of view, which aims at reducing the drag force on
the helmet( head of the motor cyclist) and also to ensure fuel
economy.
Conclusions
The salient conclusion from the study are
- A reasonably good agreement between the experimental and
numerical results substantiate the credibility of the proposed nu-
merical scheme.
- The variation of C p with dimensionless distance for different
Re reveals that the minimum pressure coefficient is found to oc-
cur at high Re.
- At high Re, due to the streamlined nature of the helmet, the
fluid reaches its maximum velocity at an earlier location on the
surface of the helmet causing maximum value of negative pres-
sure to move nearer to the stagnation point.
- For a dimensionless distance of approximately 0.9 the local
pressure abruptly increases causing an adverse pressure gradi-
ent causing the flow to detach from the helmet surface at this
dimensionles distance.
- The dimensionless distance of 0.9 is the critical location where
appropriate design modification needs to be incorporated with a
view to avoid or delay flow seperation so as to reduce the total
drag.
- The geometrical shape of the helmet is important from design
point of view and therefore which aims at reducing the drag
force on the helmet( head of the motor cyclist) and also to en-
sure fuel economy.

References

[1] Bradford W Sims, M.S. and Peter E Jenkins., Aerody-

namic Bicycle Helmet Design using a Truncated Airfoil
with Trailing Edge Modifications, ASME, 2011

[2] Thijis Defraeye, Bert Blocken, Erwin Koninckx, Peter Hes-

pel, and Jan Carmeleit., Aerodynamic study of diiferent
cyclist position: CFD analysis and full-scale wind-tunnel
tests, J. of Biomech., 43, 2010, 12621268.

[3] Thijis Defraeye, Bert Blocken, Erwin Koninckx, Peter

Hespel, and Jan Carmeleit., Computational fluid dynam-
ics analysis of cyclist aerodynamics: Performance of dif-
ferent turbulence-modelling and boundary-layer modelling
approaches, J. of Biomech., 43, 2010, 22812287.

[4] CATIA V5, Dassault systems, 1998

[5] ANSYS R14, ANSYS , 2011

[6] Wilcox, D. C., (editor) Turbulence Modelling for CFD,

DCW Industries, Inc., 2006

[7] Schlichting, H., (editor) Boundary Layer Theory, McGraw-

Hill, 1968
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Influence of nanoscale surface modification on nucleate bubble size and

frequency charateristics in subcooled pool boiling

Donghwi Lee1, Sangwoo Shin1, Beom Seok Kim1, and Hyung Hee Cho1,*
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Yonsei University, Korea
Abstract of surface morphology and the degree of subcooling, there are
few quantitative research regarding some factors such as actually
Boiling heat transfer accompanying the phase change of liquid- measured bubble size, bubble departure frequency and bubble
phase coolant is one of the powerful cooling method for local velocity on heating surface. Therefore in this study, we
heat dissipation. For practical application of the boiling heat performed quantitative research about boiling heat transfer
transfer, it is necessary to study for the fundamental nucleate pool enhancement effect according to surface morphology and the
boiling characteristic on the surface. In this study, we investigate degree of subcooling by evaluating bubble size, bubble departure
the fundamental nucleate pool boiling characteristics, which are frequency and bubble velocity on both plain and nanowire
based on bubble departure diameter, bubble departure frequency
and bubble departure velocity. We visualize the bubble dynamics
Experimental apparatus
using high speed camera on a plain and a surface with nanowire
arrays. Nanowires are made by electroless etching method using Pool boiling experiment system consists of as follows parts. Main
silicon substrate. We analyze the visualized photographs using a chamber is made of stainless steel and to bubble visualization, we
commercial software to estimate accurate bubble departure made tempered glass windows. Four windows installed on side of
diameter, bubble departure frequency and bubble departure the chamber and one window installed on upper side of the
velocity on both surfaces in saturated temperature condition of chamber to supply the LED light. Next power supply is set up to
the coolant. We also perform experiments in subcooled condition supply a current. Data acquisition systems ((34970A, Agilent
on the plain surface. The experiments are conducted with the Technology, USA), (SCXI-1503, National Instruments, USA))
degree of subcooling of the coolant by 10, 20 and 30 K. As a are installed to receive the measured electric signal, and high
results, heat transfer coefficient (HTC) and critical heat flux speed camera (pco.4000, pco.camera, Germany) is installed to
(CHF) are more enhanced on nanowire surfaces compared with visualize the bubble dynamics. Inside the main chamber, 2-
the plain surfaces without any structural modification in saturated immersion heaters are installed to control the fluid temperature.
condition. Moreover, HTC and CHF increase according to the
increase of the degree of subcooling. This phenomena can be
clearly explained from bubble dynamics in each subcooling
experiment. In conclusion, we demonstrate that boiling
performance can be improved by controlling the fluid dynamics
regarding nucleated vapor bubbles on surfaces, which are
significantly affected by the application of superficial nanoscale
structures and the subcooling of working fluid.

Introduction
Boiling heat transfer using multiphase characteristic of working
fluid is in the spotlight, because of its high performance as heat
transfer method. Especially, boiling associated with nucleation
has been a lot of researched recently, due to its high cooling
efficiency. From previous studies, some researchers reported that
the efficacy of boiling heat transfer, represented by heat transfer Figure 1. schematic diagram of pool boiling system.
coefficient (HTC) and critical heat flux (CHF), can be improved
by controlling surface morphology characteristics. Chen et al. [3]
proved that HTC and CHF are determined by bubble dynamics
[1,2] depending on surface morphology rather than heat
conduction through surface. Because even though it is obvious
that copper and silicon has very different conductivity (400
W/mk for Cu, 10 W/mk for electroless etching (EE) Si
nanowires), nanowire surfaces each manufactured by two
different material (but the same morphology), show almost same
characteristics in HTC and CHF. Lau et al. [4] evaluate that
CHF enhancement on a bare silicon substrate and a surface with
multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) in saturated and
subcooled condition. He proved percentage enhancements in the
value of heat flux at the CHF condition decreased with an
increase in liquid subcooling. Although the enhancement of Figure 2. photograph of RTD sensor and ITO heater surfaces.
boiling performance has been researched qualitatively in aspects
Condenser is also installed to maintain the fluid temperature
steady state and remove the bubble and non-condensible gas. To
measure the fluid temperature, two K-type thermocouples are set
up in different depth, and pressure sensor and drain valve are
attached upper side of main chamber to control the chamber
pressure. Test section is placed on center of the main chamber.
That made of Teflon. Bottom parts of the test section which
contact with sensor directly, is made of macerite material
(macerite, k= 1.6 W/mK, Tm = 1000). RTD sensor and heater
that placed to bottom direction is aligned to correct spot contact
with spring prove and Cu busbar. To fix and align the RTD
Figure 3. Vertically-elongated bubble with subcooling 30 at
sensor, we manufactured a stationary plate which is made of
heat flux of 89.0 W/cm2 in plain surface.
macerite and it is attached on the RTD sensor. RTD sensor and
heater are integrated system and manufactured using MEMS
Then, with increase of degree of subcooling, we observe the
process. Figure 1 shows the schematic of pool boiling system.
phenomena that bubble frequency becomes increase. Especially
And figure 2 shows the photograph of RTD sensor and ITO
loading time that bubble generation to its departure from surface
heater.
is decreasing.
Experimental procedure
Conclusion
Surface modification effect are experimentally performed in both
In summary, first, we verify the principal factors on boiling heat
the plain and the nanowire surface in saturated condition. Si-
transfer enhancement according to surface morphology
nanowire structure is higher than 15 m which is made by
modification based on the results comparing the bubble
electroless top down etching method. We set up the visualize
departure diameter and bubble departure frequency in both plain
system, which consists of high speed camera (pco.4000, pco.
and nanowire surfaces. Second, we evaluate the quantitative
camera, Germany), and LED light (40W), and recoded the bubble
enhancement of heat transfer performance according to the
motions in 1000 fps. We measured the resistance in RTD sensor
degree of subcooling. The fluidic condition consequently results
on 1000Hz, and other electrical signals such as thermocouple and
in the different characteristics on bubble diameter, bubble
shunt voltage are obtained in 1 Hz. ONB is determined when a
departure frequency and bubble velocity even for a plain surface.
micro bubble is generated in heating surface. CHF is determined
as a certain heat flux value, when wall temperature is pulsating
Acknowledgement
by more than 10 K. Data reduction is performed using average
The authors wish to acknowledge to National Research
and standard deviation of the measured value.
Foundation of Korea (NO. 2012-0005727 and NO. 2012-
Subcooling experiments are performed in 10, 20, 30 0005727).
temperature deviation (fluid temperature to saturated
temperature). In order to observe subcooling effect, we
performed the subcooling experiments only in plain surface. To References
maintain the constant fluid temperature in each degree of [1] Carey, V. P. Liquid-Vapor Phase-Change Phenomena;
subcooling, we use 2-immersion heater. Then We evaluate the Hemisphere: Washington DC, 1992.
bubble size , bubble departure frequency, and bubble velocity [2] Dhir, V. K. Boiling heat transfer, Annu. ReV. Fluid Mech.,
using a commercial program, dynamic studio software. 30, 365401., 1998.
[3] Renkun Chen, Ming-Chang Lu, Vinod Srinivasan, Zhijie
Results and discussion
Wang, Hyung Hee Cho, and Arun Majumdar, Nanowires
We observed that nucleate bubble size on nanowire surface is for Enhanced Boiling Heat Transfer,
much smaller than plain surface. Especially discrete micro size Nano Lett., 9(2), 548-53, 2009.
bubble generated on all over of nanowire surface. This is because
nanowire surface has micro cavity throughout the surface, then it [4] V.Sathyamurthi, H-S. Ahn, D. Banerjee, S. C. Lau,
plays a roll like micro bubble seed. And we also observed that Subcooled Pool Boiling Experiments on Horizontal Heaters
Coated With Carbon Nanotubes, J HEAT TRANS-T ASME,
bubble departure frequency is much faster in nanowire surface,
and this is because Si-nanowire surface has superhydrophilic Vol. 131, 2009
characteristics, then nucleate bubble able to dettached from the [5] Yasuo Ose, Tomoaki Kunugi, Numerical Investigation of
surface easily. Temperature uniformity is also enhanced in Subcooled Pool Boiling Bubble Behavior,
nanowire surface. It is also related with bubble seed distribution. Zero-carbon energy Kyoto, pp. 354359, 2009.
There are many bubble seeds are exist in nanowire surface, then
micro bubble departure generated faster than plain surface in all
over the heating surface. Therefore heat transfer enhanced in
nanowire surface, temperature uniformity also is increased.
Next, in subcooling experiments, According to increase of
degree of subcooling, bubble departure diameters are decrease.
But we observed that when bubble departure occurred in surface,
bubble aspect ratio is increasing depend on degree of subcooling.
Figure 3 shows vertically-elongated bubble shape when
subcooling 30 in plain surface.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Effect of Two-Phase Flow on Flow-Accelerated Corrosion (FAC)
Wael H. Ahmed1, Mufatiu M. Bello, Meamer El Nakla1, and Abdelsalam Al Sarkhi1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals,
KFUPM P.O. Box 874, Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia
Abstract
The main objective of this paper is to experimentally study the
effect of two phase flow on flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC)
downstream an orifice. FAC is a major safety and reliability issue
affecting carbon-steel piping in nuclear and fossil power plants.
This is because of its pipe wall wearing and thinning effects that
could lead to sudden and sometimes catastrophic failures, as well
as a huge economic loss. In the present study, FAC wear of
carbon-steel piping was simulated experimentally by circulating
air-water mixtures through hydrocal (CaSO4.1/2H2O) test
sections at liquid superficial Reynolds Number, Re = 20,000, and
different air mass flow rate. In the present study, tests were
performed for a test section with orifice to pipe diameter ratio of
d/D = 0.5. The observed flow patterns of the present experiments
were compared to the available flow pattern maps. Surface wears
patterns downstream the orifices were also analyzed. The
maximum FAC wear was found to occur at approximately 1-3
pipe diameters downstream of the orifice. The obtained results
were found to be consistent with those from the single phase flow
study conducted earlier. However, the effects of the two phase
flow were highlighted when its results were compared with the
corresponding single phase flow results. This was found to
depend on the relative values of the mixture mass quality and the
volumetric void fraction. The current study offers very useful
information to FAC engineers for better preparation of plant
inspection scope.
Nomenclature
AP pipe cross-sectional area, m2
CW concentration of ferrous ions at oxide/water interface
Cb concentration of ferrous in the bulk water
d orifice diameter, m
D pipe diameter, m
qair volumetric flow rate for air, m3/s
3 mass transfer of the ferrous ions in the water. The convective
Q water volumetric flow rate for water, m /s
absolute viscosity, kg/m-s
density, kg/m3
Introduction
Failures due to FAC degradation have been reported at several
power plants around the world since 1981 [1]. However, a close
attention to the FAC damage did not start before the severe elbow
rapture downstream of a tee occurred at Surry Unit 2 power plant
(USA) in 1989, which caused four fatalities and extensive plant
damage and resulted in a plant shutdown. In 1999, an extensive
steam leakage from the rupture of the shell side of a feed-water
heater at the Point Beach power plant (USA) was reported by
Yurmanov and Rakhmanov [2]. In 2004, a fatal pipe rupture
downstream of an orifice in the condensate system due to FAC
occurred in the Mihama nuclear power plant Unit 3 (Japan) [2].
More recently, the pipe failure downstream of a control valve at
Iatan fossil power plant in 2007 resulted in two fatalities and a
huge capital of plant loss as reported by Moore [3].
The FAC process in carbon steel piping is described by four
steps. In the first process, metal oxidation occurs at metal/oxide
interface in oxygen-free water and explained by the following
reactions:
Fe + 2H2O Fe2+ + 2OH - + H2 (1)
Fe2++2OH - Fe(OH)2 (2)
3Fe + 4H2O Fe 3O4 + 4H2 (3)
The second process involves the solubility of the ferrous species
through the porous oxide layer into the main water flow. This
transport across the oxide layer is controlled by the concentration
diffusion. The third step is described by the dissolution of
magnetite at oxide/water interface as explained by the following
reaction:
1/3Fe3O 4 +(2-b)H + +1/3H2Fe(OH)b(2-b)+ + (4/3-b)H2O) (4)
where: Fe(OH)b(2-b)+ represents the different iron ferrous species
b=(0,1,2,3)
In the fourth step, a diffusion process takes place where the
ferrous irons transfer into the bulk flowing water across the
diffusion boundary layer. In this process, the species migrated
from the metal/oxide interface and the species dissolved at the
oxide/water interface diffuse rapidly into the flowing water. In
this case, the concentration of ferrous iron in the bulk water is
very low compared to the concentration at the oxide/water
interface.
It can be noticed that FAC mechanism involves convective
mass transfer for single phase flow is known to be dependent on
the hydrodynamic parameters near the wall interface such as flow
velocity, local turbulence, geometry, and surface roughness. In
addition, the physical properties of the transported species or the
water do not affect the local transport rate in adiabatic flow
especially when temperature changes in piping system are
negligible. Over a limited length of piping component, FAC rate
is considered as direct function of the mass flux of ferrous ions
and can be calculated from the convective mass transfer
coefficient (MTC) in the flowing water. Then, FAC rate is
calculated from the MTC and the difference between the
concentration of ferrous ions at the oxide/water interface (C w)
and the concentration of ferrous in the bulk of water (Cb ) as:
FAC rate = MTC( Cw Cb ) (5)
Experimental Setup and Procedure
Experiments are conducted in a flow loop schematically
shown in Figure (1) that is designed to accommodate different
test section geometries as well as running single and two-phase
flow test conditions. The water flow rate is measured using a
turbine flow meter with an accuracy of 2% full scale, and the
temperature is measured using thermocouples at various locations
along the flow loop. Experiments were performed using a 1-inch
diameter straight tubing at a Reynolds number of 20,000. A
straight section of approximately 75 diameters is installed
upstream of the test section to ensure fully developed inlet flow
conditions. An additional straight section of 100 diameters is
installed downstream of the test section. A standard ANSI orifice
with orifice-pipe diameter ratios of 0.5 was installed.
7 6
5
10
Air
11
9 8
12
Water
13 4
3 0
1 0
2
1 Water tank 8,9 Void fraction meters
2 Centrifugal pump 10 Hydrocal test section
3 Turbine flow meter 11 Air-water Separator
4 Rotameter 12 Conductivity probe
5 Air-water mixer 13 Thermometer
6,7 Pressure gages
Figure (1) Schematic diagram of the flow loop
The test section downstream of the orifice is made of
hydrocal, as shown in Fig. 1, in order to obtain wall wear patterns
in a reasonable test time. This technique has been applied and
tested before by Poulson [4] and the dissolution of the wall
material depends on the mass transfer of hydrocal from wall into
the bulk flow and used to simulate FAC wear in carbon steel
piping components. Although the changes to the surface
occurring from the mass transfer of the hydrocal to the flow may
not be exactly the same as that would occur in carbon steel piping
systems in power plants, the wear pattern developed from
hydrocal is expected to be reasonably similar to that generated
over a longer period of time in carbon steel piping component as
explained by Wilkin et al. [5]. To determine the Saturation limit
of the hydrocal in water, tests were performed using fine particles
of hydrocal and dissolved in the water reservoir and the water
conductivity were recorded as explained by El-Gammal et al. [6]
Running fully saturated solution through the hydrocal test section
showed no-wear. This indicates that the measured wear in the
present tests was entirely due to mass transfer and that the
hydrocal test sections are not susceptible to mechanical wear.
The overall mass transfer over the entire hydrocal test
section surface is determined by measuring the electrical
conductivity, using EU Tech-PC300 meter with an accuracy of
1%, of the circulating water within the flow loop. The operating
principle of this technique depends on the increase in the
conductivity of the circulating water due to the dissolution of the
hydrocal from the surface. The amount of hydrocal dissolution in
the water was previously obtained through a calibration curve
relating the water conductivity to the amount of dissolved
hydrocal shown in Figure (2). A maximum concentration of 4%
on volume basis (3.35 grams hydrocal per one litre of water) is
identified as the limit where saturation is reached and the
conductivity remain constant for high concentration values.
Automatic temperature compensation is applied during the
experiments to account for the changes in the water conductivity
with temperature. The water conductivity measurement are
recorded every 2 min during each experimental run. The tank is
thoroughly cleaned after each test to ensure that no residual
hydrocal deposits exist for the following experiments. Also, at
the beginning of each experiment, the electrical conductivity of
the distilled water in the reservoir was measured to ensure the
zero conductivity.
7
6 Experiments
Conductivity (milliS ienmens)
region
5
4
2
2 4 6 8 10
Hydrocal Concentration by volume (%)
Figure (2) Calibration of the conductivity probe
The wear measurements were obtained using FARO-Axis
CMM with Laser Scanner D100 attached to laser power source of
Class 2M. The measured wear is calculated by measuring the
difference between the actual corroded scanned surface and a
CAD model representing the new pipe without corrosion. Wear
measurements were obtained by scanning the cut pipe as shown
in Figure (3) with a measurement accuracy of .037 mm. KUBE
software was used to laser measurement capturing and
GEOMAGIC studio software was used for data processing for
the each test section. After the cut-test section was scanned, the
point cloud data was optimized by reducing the data noise, over
lapping triangular mesh and overhanging data. Then data was
merged into polygons and converted into one stretched water-
polygon structure. It should be noted that no data modification or
smoothing operation carried out in order to keep the original data
trend. After the data imported into GEOMAGIC studio, reference
CAD geometry was created to represent the new pipe. Then, the
wear profiles are identified by the difference between the surface
measurements after wear takes place and the original pipe
surface. A sample of scanned profiles showing the wear pattern is
shown in Figure (4).
FARO-Axis
CMM
Laser
Scanner
D 100
Alignment
Block
Cut-Test
Section
Figure (3) Measurements using FARO-Axis CMM with
Laser Scanner D100
 mm Figure (6) shows the internal surface wear morphology on the
hydrocal test sections for three two phase experiments, with mass
qualities, x = 0, 0.0011, 0.0021 and 0.0032. The figure shows
qualitatively that the maximum wear occur within the range Z/D
0 to 5 downstream the orifice. Moreover, the wear rate decreases as
mass quality, x, increases.

The single phase and two phase flow experiments for FAC
wear rate distributions along the pipe surface downstream the
Downstream of the orifice orifice for ReL = 20,000, are also presented in Figure (7). The
figure shows that the mass transfer and consequently the FAC
wear rate calculated from equation 5, increases steeply
downstream of the orifice and reaches a maximum value within
the flow recirculation region (z/D = 0 - 5). The rate then
Figure (4) Surface wear profiles using GEOMAGIC studio decreases as the flow develops downstream. Moreover, the peak
FAC value decrease as the mass quality increases due to the low
Given a constant water flow rate, Qwater, at the inlet to the mass transfer in the gaseous phase. For single phase flow, the
test section, and a constant pipe cross-sectional area, AP, for all peak value slightly decreases by about 6% and 42% for x =
the experiments, the corresponding superficial liquid velocity, 0.0021 and x = 0.0032 respectively. The location of the
VS water, is obtained as: maximum FAC wear rate remains unchanged.
Q
water (6)
V =
Swater A
P
Corresponding superficial gas velocities, VS air, for each of x=0
the air flow rates, qair = 0.335, 0.663, and 1 L/s, are similarly
obtained. The corresponding flow pattern to the inlet flow
conditions were found to be an intermittent flow based on the
flow pattern map of Taitel and Duckler [7]. Absolute viscosity
for water ( water), was taken as 0.001 kg/m.s for all the
x = 0.0011
experiments, while the air absolute viscosities, air, were obtained
from the standard air table. The calculated Reynolds number of
liquid phase is 20,000 which represent turbulent flow while
Reynolds number calculated for air for the above mentioned
conditions represent laminar flow
x = 0.0021
Results and discussion
For the orifice to pipe diameter ratio of 0.5 wear rates were
measured at different mass quality values ranged from 0.0011 to
0.0032 and the corresponding inlet void fractions vary between
0.377652 and 0.438281. The corresponding average wear rates x = 0.0032
downstream the orifices are shown in Figure (5) for both single-
phase and two-phase flows. It can be seen that the gradients of the
dissolution rate decrease as the mass quality increases from single
phase by approximately 42% when the mass quality increases to
0.0032. This can be attributed to the decrease in the hydrocal Flow direction
Fig. 6: Surface wear morphology for the hydrocal test sections,
dissolution rate downstream the orifice decreases due to the obtained under two phase flow conditions
presence of air where mass transfer in the gaseous phase is
25
approximately zero. Single Phase water (x = 0)
Air-water two Phase (x = 0.0011)
20 Air-water two phase (x = 0.0021)
Air water two phase (x = 0.0032)
FAC rate (mm/day)

d/D = 0.5
15

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Z/D
Figure (7) Hydrocal pipe FAC wear rate profile downstream
the orifice
Figure (5) Hydrocal concentration variation with time for
both single and two-phase flow experiments
Conclusions
Experiments were performed using hydrocal test sections to
determine the effect of two-phase flow on wall mass transfer rate
downstream orifices. Orifice to pipe diameter ratio of 0.5 was
investigated at superficial water Reynolds number of Re =
20,000. Comparing the single phase and two-phase flow
experiments, the following can be concluded:
In general, FAC wear rate downstream the orifice found to
decrease under two-phase flow conditions compared to the
single-phase flow at the same inlet liquid Reynolds number.
The location of maximum wear was found to be within 5D
downstream the orifice [8] and remain the same for both
single and two-phase flows.
The mass transfer and consequently the FAC wear rate
downstream the orifice reduces as the inlet mass quality of
increases.
Acknowledgments
The support provided by the Deanship of Scientific Research
(DSR) at King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
(KFUPM) for funding this work through project No. IN090038,
is gratefully acknowledged
References
[1] Kanster, W., Erve, M., Henzel, N., and Stellwag, B., (1990),
Calculation code for erosion corrosion induced wall
thinning in piping system, Nuclear Engineering and Design,
Vol. 119, pp. 431-438.
[2] Yurmanov, V., Rakhmanov, A., (2009), Workshop on
erosion-corrosion, International Atomic Energy Agency,
Workshop on Erosion-Corrosion, Moscow, Russian
Federation.
[3] Moore, F.E., (2008), Welding and repair technology for
power plants, 18th Int. EPRI Conference.
[4] Poulson, B., (1990), Mass Transfer from Rough Surfaces,
Corrosion Science, vol. 30, No. 6/7, pp. 743-746.
[5] Wilkin, S.J., Oates, H.S., Coney, M.W.E., (1983), Mass
transfer in straight pipes and 90 deg bends measured by the
dissolution of plaster, Central Electricity Generating Board,
Technology Planning and Research Division, Central
electricity Research Laboratories, TPRD/L/2479/N83.
[6] El-Gammal M., Ahmed, W. H., Ching C. Y., (2012),
Investigation of wall mass transfer characteristics
downstream of an orifice, Nuclear Engineering and Design,
Vol. 242, 6, pp. 353 360.
[7] Y. Taitel, A.E., Dukler, A model for predicting flow regime
transitions in horizontal and near-horizontal gasliquid flow.
AIChE J., 1976. 22: p. 47.
[8] Ahmed, W.H., Evaluation of the proximity effect on flow
accelerated corrosion. Annals of Nuclear Energy, 2010. 37:
p. 598-605.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Condensation and Evaporation Network Model for Porous Transport
Layers of PEM Fuel Cells
Ezequiel F. Medici1 , Jeffrey S. Allen1
1 Mechanical
Engineering - Engineering Mechanics
Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan, USA
Abstract
Mass transport inside the porous transport layer (PTL) is one
of the most important factors affecting low temperature fuel cell
performance at high current densities. Mass transport occurs
at two different states, liquid and vapor. There is no agreement
on which is the predominant transport state under various fuel
cell working conditions. In order to study the mass transport
within the PTL and the water phase change, the dynamics of
condensation and evaporation need to investigated.
In this paper a numerical model of the mass transport in PTLs
including evaporation and condensation is developed. The nu-
merical model is based on a pore network formulation for porous
media where pore level models of evaporation, condensation,
vapor diffusion, and heat transfer are coupled and solved.
Numerical simulations are performed under different fuel cell op-
erating conditions represented by different boundary conditions
at the gas channel. From these simulations, the relevant effect
of the channel condition on the relative impact of liquid water
percolation over vapor diffusion as well as evaporation over con-
densation is shown.
Introduction
The numerical modeling of mass transport in fuel cell is a com-
plex, conjugate problem that becomes even more complex due
to the intrinsic randomness of the porous materials. The com-
plexity of the problem is such that there is no denitive conclu-
sion as to the conditions under which liquid percolation or vapor
transport are dominant transport mechanisms. Recent studies
have suggested that vapor transport might be the dominating
transport mechanism [1]. However, these results are dependent
upon the fuel cell operating conditions and the material proper-
ties.
Liquid percolation in porous media, especially in the porous
transport layer of a PEM fuel cell, has been well studied. Water
vapor transport has not. There are two process associated to
the vapor diffusion that are not well understood yet. These are
process of evaporation and condensation. Recent studies have
tested different evaporation models for fuel cell applications [2].
However, almost all existing numerical models lack inclusion of
condensation. The few numerical models including condensa-
tion are in their early development stage where the location of
nucleation is predetermined and the condensation rate is em-
pirically estimated [3, 4]. Condensation processes need to be
properly addressed since this can result in accumulation of liq-
uid water in unexpected locations within the porous transport
layers.
In this paper, a condensation model is incorporated into an
existing pore-network model for liquid-vapor water transport in
porous transport layers [5, 6]. Condensation can occur any
where along the liquid-gas interface where the local temperature
and pressure conditions will trigger it. Additionally, a nucleation
site will be placed on the PTL to allow for water condensation
in a different region than where liquid water is percolating. Con-
densation may or may not continue at these nucleation sites.
Vapor will condense at a rate that will be determined by the lo-
cal temperature and partial pressure. In this model the liquid
transport, vapor diffusion and heat transfer are simultaneously
solved. The liquid water percolation, evaporation or condensa-
tion is calculated based on the variation of the local uid and
material properties. From these numerical simulations the effect
of evaporation and condensation on the total amount of water
held inside the PTL for various fuel cell operating conditions are
determined.
Network Model
The two dimensional numerical model presented in here is an
extension of the network model developed in Medici and Allen
[5] with the addition of heat transfer, vapor transport, and evap-
oration models coupled to the liquid transport model [6]. The
liquid transport at pore level is modeled as a modied Poiseuille
ow in a circular duct where an extra pressure term is added to
included the effect of the capillary action. Combining conserva-
tion of mass at each node i and Poiseuille, assuming four pores
connecting at each node, results in a linear equation in terms of
the pressure drop at each pore:
4 rij 
4

8l j=1 eij
pij pcij = Qsi (1)
where l is the length of the pore, rij is the pore radius, pij is the
pressure drop across the pore, pcij is the capillary pressure, and
Qsi is the source term for the node i if there is a liquid injection.
Equation 1 is only valid when pij > pcij . Otherwise, the ow rate
became zero on the pores where pij < pcij and the summation
is reduced to the pores where there is ow rate different from
zero. The viscosity transition within a pore, eij , is a function of
the uid position inside the pore xij :
1 cos(xij /l)
eij = (nw w ) + w (2)
2
where nw is the non-wetting (water) uid viscosity, and w is
the wetting (air) uid viscosity. The capillary pressure pcij is also
modeled as a function of the uid position inside of the tube. The
capillary pressure inside each pore is approximated by using co-
sine functions to smoothly mimic the throat effect present at both
ends of the pore:
 
ri ri 1 cos(2xij /l)
pcij = cos() 1 +
2ri 2rj rij

1 + cos(xij /l) 1 cos(xij /l)
+
ri rj
 p
where ri and rj are the average tube radius around node i and j condensed or evaporated mij , at the liquid-gas interface can be
respectively, is the surface tension, and is the contact angle. expressed as:
The capillary pressure pcij is zero when the tube is lled with only Cif Cj
mpij = rij2 tDij (11)
one uid. l
The heat transport model is similar to the one described by where t is the time step, Cif is the concentration at the liquid
Surasani et al. [7] in which the heat is transfered only by con- gas interface, and Cj is the concentration at the open side of the
p
duction between nodes. Applying energy conservation around pore. Depending the sign of mij will indicate the direction of the
the node i: mass transfer, positive is evaporation, and negative is conden-
sation. Once the amount of mas of water changing phase inside
4 n
dTi the pore is calculated, the menisci position inside the pore, xij ,
(vcp )ij = Qij (mev hev )ij (3)
dt is calculated as a balance between the injected and diffusive
j=1 j=1
evaporated-condensed mass of water at the pore level.
where the term (mev hev )ij is the rate of energy required to
evaporate a liquid mass mev and hev is the enthalpy of for- mlij mpij
xij = (12)
mation. The term (vcp )ij is the total heat capacity at each node rij2 l
and depends not only on the heat capacity of the carbon ber but
also on the amount of water and air on the pores surrounding the where l is the density of liquid and mlij is the mass of liquid
node i. The total heat capacity is calculated by multiplying the p
inside the pore. While mlij is higher than mij the menisci will
solid, liquid water and air heat capacities, (cp )s , (cp )l , and move forward as in any other simulation using the pore-network
(cp )a , respectively, by the corresponding occupied volume: p
model. However, when mli j is lower than mi j , the menisci will
   move backward in a typical drying scenario.
l 4 1
(vcp )i =
2 j=1
rij2

1 (cp )s + sij rij2 (cp )l (4) Nucleation sites are assigned to the some particular nodes in-
side the PTL and not based on any specic property of the
where sij is the fraction of liquid water-air present in the pore, porous material. However, in order for the water to build up
and is the porosity. The total heat conduction Qij , between around the nucleation certain temperature and partial pressure
nodes i and j, on equation 3, is calculated by: of vapor has to occur in order to have negative concentration
gradient and trigger condensation according to equation 12.
Ti Tj
Qij = (5)
Rij
Bipolar Plate
where Ti and Tj are the temperatures at the nodes i and j, re-
spectively, and Rij is the equivalent thermal resistant calculated Gas Channel
by:
sij Rs Rl
Rij = s (6)
R + sij Rl Porous Transport Layer
s l
where R and R are the solid, liquid and air thermal resistances:

l
Rs = (7) Water Injection
ks rij2 (1 )
Nucleation Site
l
Rl = (8) Figure 1: Portion of the fuel cell modeled.
kl rij2

where ks and kl are the thermal conductivities of the solid, liquid

PTL Modeling
water, and air, respectively.
In order to study the dynamic of the water evaporating, condens-
The vapor concentration along the pores is calculated using the ing, and percolating inside of the PTL, a series of numerical sim-
Ficks law of diffusion [8] which is discretized as in Yiotis et al. ulations were carried out.
[9]:
dCi Ci Cj Due to the symmetry between cathode and anode side, only
vi = Dij rij2 (9)
dt l half of the cell is modeled. Also, due to the repetition of pattern
where vi is the volume around pore i, and the D is the binary for every gas channel portion of the cell, the model considers
diffusivity of water vapor on air which is a function of the local only the portion of a single gas channel. The boundary condi-
temperature. tions in the gas channel side of the PTL are set by specifying
l 4 2 the pressure equal to atmospheric pressure Patm as well as the
2 j
vi = rij (10) temperature and the relative humidity. Wall boundary condition
=1 are set beneath the land of the bipolar plate as well as on the
lateral and bottom sides. More details of the boundary condition
Diffusive Evaporation and Condensation Models used can be found in [6]. Constant inlet volumetric ow rate, qi ,
of water was set at the bottom of the domain, representing the
The amount of evaporated or condensed water is proportional to
water generated in the catalyst layer (See Fig. 1). The injection
the pore size and to concentration difference between the liquid-
ow rate is calculated based on a typical fuel cell operating at 2.0
gas interface at the menisci, which for the modeling propose
A/cm2 and 0.2 volts which will theoretically generate 1.0 109
is considered as saturated vapor. The amount of liquid water
 20 C, 1.0 RH
60 C, 0.7 RH
80 C, 0.7 RH
80 C, 0.9 RH
Figure 2: Comparison of the water content distribution (water in blue) inside the PTL at the end of each simulation for different boundary
conditions, specied on the left, at the gas channel. The time for a liquid nger to reach the gas channel were 55.1 and 117 seconds
for the simulations at 20 and 60 C, respectively. For the simulations at 80 C no nger of liquid water reached the gas channel and
simulations were stopped at 400 seconds .
mL/s of water ow rate and 6.0 106 W of heat ow rate on
each of the bottom nodes [10].
Clusters of liquid water can occur due to three causes: build-up
of water around a nucleation site, a nger of liquid water break-
ing into two parts, or liquid water is injected at a specic location.
In this model of the PTL, water is injected at the bottom of the
modeled domain. A cluster is generated around that region and
all the water produced in the catalyst layer is assigned to that
cluster. To identify other possible clusters of water, a simplied
version of the cluster tracking technique published by Al-Futaisi
and Patzek [11] is used.
The numerical model consists of a regular lattice of 120x11 ele-
ments or pores. The pore sizes at the diffusion media layer are
calculated based on reported porosimetry data[12]. The diffu-
sion media layer pore size distribution that best ts the porosime-
try data is the Weibull distribution with parameters = 3, k =
5.25, and rmin = 5. The length of the pores is 25.2 m. The time
step used in the numerical simulations was t = 5.0102 sec-
onds. The contact angle used in the simulations was =110 .
In the numerical model all the water that reaches the gas chan-
nel is removed. Temperature dependent values of water, air, and
vapor properties were used [6].
Results and Discussion
Different simulations scenarios were considered to study the dy-
namics of the phase change inside the PTL. Table 1 summarizes
the boundary condition on the gas channel used in each simu-
lation, the time at which every simulation was stopped, and the
volumes of liquid water remaining in the PTL, evaporated, and
condensed water. These three volumes are presented in terms
of percentage of the total void volume of the PTL. Figure 2 shows
the water distribution at end of each simulation.
For comparison purposes, a simulation at low temperature and
high relative humidity was performed, shown in Figure 2(top). In
this case no evaporation or condensation took place and a nger
of liquid water reached the gas channel after 55.1 the simulation
was stopped.
Simulations having evaporation and condensation were also
performed at temperatures of 60 and 80 C and relative humidi-
ties of 0.7 and 0.9 as shown in Table 1. In these simulations, a
nucleation site was placed beneath the land of the gas channel
as shown in Figure 2. This location was chosen independently of
any material property and was based on observations reported
in numerous journal articles. Further extension of this model will
include a probabilistic method for initiation of nucleation.
From the simulation at 60 C and 0.7 relative humidity the dy-
namics of the evaporation-condensation occurring at the gas-
liquid inter phase delayed the liquid nger percolation from 55.1
to 117 seconds as compared with the case of no evaporation or
condensation as shown in Table 1. Still under these condition
the main water removal mechanism is through liquid water per-
colation to the gas channel. Overall, the water content inside the
PTL was reduced approximately 5% (from 47.2% to 43.1% as
shown in Table 1 and graphically in Figure 2) due to the activa-
tion of the evaporation mechanism. Due to the low temperature
and relative humidity, the effect of the condensation is almost
negligible having total condensed volume of 1.5%, which is an
order of magnitude smaller than evaporated volume.
At 80 C and 0.7 relative humidity no nger of liquid water
reached the gas channel and the simulation was stopped after
400 second. In this simulated scenario, the effect of evaporation
and condensation are strong having increased the total evapo-
rated and condensed volume to 94.1% and 10.4%, respectively.
The primary water removal mechanism is no longer liquid wa-
ter percolation but instead by water vapor diffusion. Also in this
Table 1: Summary of the remaining volume of water at the PTL, evaporated and condensed volume of water, and time required for the
liquid water to reach the gas channel as a function of the relative humidity and temperature on the gas channel boundary condition.
When no nger reached the gas channel the simulation were stopped after 400 seconds. The volumes are presented as percentage of
the total void volume of the PTL.
T [ C] time [s] % of volume of water
remaining at the PTL
20 1 55.1 47.2
60 0.7 117 43.1
80 0.7 400 43.3
80 0.9 400 46.3
simulation, liquid water began to accumulate beneath the land
of the gas channel due to the presence of the nucleation site.
At 80 C and 0.9 relative humidity, the evaporation and conden-
sation are stronger yet due to a reduction on the capacity of
vapor water removal at the gas channel. A signicantly greater
amount of liquid water is present in the PTL, 46.3%, having ac-
cumulated largely under the land of the gas channel forming a
bulk cluster of water lling all the pores as well as along the bot-
tom region of the PTL.
Comparing the volume for all the simulations as presented in
Table 1, a signicant impact of the boundary conditions acting
at the gas channel on the water dynamics is apparent. The
amount of evaporated and condensed water varies from zero
to 94.1% and 10.4% respectively. The total amount of liquid wa-
ter present in the PTL varies from 47.2% for no evaporation or
condensation to 43.2% for intense evaporation and condensa-
tion with ooding-like conditions beneath the land of the bipolar
plate for highly saturated condition on the gas channel.
Conclusions
A diffusive condensation and evaporation model have been im-
plemented into a network model to successfully simulate the dy-
namics of liquid a vapor water inside the PTL. From the simu-
lations it can be observed that the conditions acting at the gas
channel will largely determine the mass transport at the PTL.
Also, the presence of nucleation sites can potentially trigger un-
desirable water ooding at certain location in the PTL. This effect
could be responsible of a large gas permeability reduction and
intensication of degradation mechanism in the PTL beneath the
land of the gas channel.
Acknowledgments
This work was partially supported under NSF grant CBET-
078049 and with funds from the John F. and Joan M. Calder
Endowed Associate Professor in Mechanical Engineering.
*
References
[1] J.P. Owejan, J.E. Owejan, W. Gu, T.A. Trabold, T.W. Tighe,
and M.F. Mathias. Water Transport Mechanisms in PEMFC
Gas Diffusion Layers. Journal of the Electrochemical Soci-
ety, 157:B1456, 2010.
[2] O. Chapuis, M. Prat, M. Quintard, E. Chane-Kane, O. Guil-
lot, and N. Mayer. Two-Phase Flow and Evaporation in
Model Fibrous media: Application to the Gas Diffusion
Layer of PEM Fuel Cells. Journal of Power Sources, 178
(1):258268, 2008.
% of evaporated % of condensed
volume of water volume of water
- -
15.7 1.5
94.1 10.4
88.8 8.6
[3] J. Hinebaugh and A. Bazylak. Condensation in PEM
Fuel Cell Gas Diffusion Layers: A Pore Network Model-
ing Approach. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 157:
B1382, 2010.
[4] M. El Hannach, J. Pauchet, and M. Prat. Pore Network
Modeling: Application to Multiphase Transport Inside the
Cathode Catalyst Layer of Proton Exchange Membrane
Fuel Cell. Electrochimica Acta, 2011.
[5] E. F. Medici and J. S. Allen. The Effects of Morphologi-
cal and Wetting Properties of Porous Transport Layers on
Water Movement in PEM Fuel Cells. Journal of the Elec-
trochemical Society, 157:B1505, 2010.
[6] E. F. Medici and J. S. Allen. Incorporation of Evapora-
tion and Vapor Transport in Pore Level Models of Fuel Cell
Porous Media. ECS Transactions, 41(1):141152, 2011.
[7] V. K. Surasani, T. Metzger, and E. Tsotsas. Consideration
of Heat Transfer in Pore Network Modelling of Convective
Drying. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer,
51(9-10):25062518, 2008.
[8] Matthew M. Mench. Fuel Cell Engines. John Wiley & Sons,
2008.
[9] A.G. Yiotis, AK Stubos, AG Boudouvis, and Y.C. Yort-
sos. A 2-D Pore-Network Model of the Drying of Single-
Component Liquids in Porous Media. Advances in water
resources, 24(3-4):439460, 2001.
[10] L. James and D. Andrew. Fuel Cell Systems Explained.
Chichester, West Sussex, New York: Wiley, 2000.
[11] A. Al-Futaisi and T.W. Patzek. Extension of Hoshen
Kopelman Algorithm to Non-Lattice Environments. Physica
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678, 2003.
[12] J. T. Gostick, M. A. Ioannidis, M. W. Fowler, and M. D.
Pritzker. Pore Network Modeling of Fibrous Gas Diffusion
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Simulation of Heterogeneous Conduction and Bioheat Transfer Utilizing
Subdomain Radial Basis Collocation Method
Muhammad Jamil1, E.Y.K. Ng1
1
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, College of Engineering,
Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue 639798, Singapore
Abstract
In this research a novel subdomain radial basis collocation
method (RBCM) has been used to obtain the temperature field
inside the heterogeneous materials and biological tissues. RBCM
is a strong form meshfree method which was used to harness the
favourable properties of radial basis functions (RBFs) for
developing the approximate solution in the domain. RBFs offer
exponential convergence and are infinitely differentiable.
Weighted collocation was used to control the errors at the
boundaries and interfaces. Furthermore, RBCM was successfully
applied to obtain the temperature field inside the biological
tissue. Temperature field inside the tissue can be obtained using
Pennes bioheat equation. It was concluded that RBCM can be
used effectively for problems involving heterogeneous
conduction as well as for obtaining the accurate temperature
information inside the biological tissues.
Nomenclature
c discretization partially or completely [12-14]. Meshless methods
Specific heat [J/(kg.K)]
k Thermal conductivity [W/(m.K)]
L Length (m)
Q Heat Source (W/m3)
Qr Spatial heat source (W/m3)
q Normal heat flux (W/m2)
Tb Prescribed Temperature at Dirichlet boundary (K)
Density (kg/m3)
Heterogeneity index
Numerical domain
b Blood perfusion rate (1/s)
Domain boundary
Introduction
Temperature information inside the biological tissues is very
important since the efficacy of many thermal therapies like
hyperthermia and hypothermia depends mainly on a specific
temperature threshold. To accomplish this, many bioheat models
like Wulff continuum model[1], Klinger continuum model[2],
continuum model of Chen and Holmes[3], Pennes bioheat
transfer model[4], and Weinbaum-Jiji bioheat model[5] have
been proposed to predict the temperature in the tissues but
Pennes bioheat model attracted most attention because of its
simplicity and accuracy for the most cases[4, 6]. Inherent
heterogeneities which stem from structures like veins, arteries
and accompanying blood perfusion, make it difficult to obtain
accurate information about the temperature. Complexity, non
uniformity and health restrictions make it difficult to use
experimental procedures to measure the temperature or the
property of interest in vivo. To prevent thermal damage,
boundary of the isotherm that represents the critical temperature
needs to be known. For clinical purposes the inherent limitation
of computerized tomography (CT), ultrasound and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) make it difficult to capture the
boundary of thermal damage. For this purpose numerical
simulations offer a relatively inexpensive and easy option which
can be used effectively for multitude of situations. Traditionally
conventional methods such as Finite Element Method[7-8]
(FEM), Finite Difference Method (FDM) [9], Monte Carlo
Method (MCM) [10] and Boundary Element Method (BEM) [11]
have been used for such simulations. These methods are well
established and have been developed over the course of many
decades. Conventional methods require mesh to discretize the
domain under consideration. Sometimes the numerical resources
needed to create an accurate mesh undermine the characteristic
advantages of the numerical method [8-9, 11] . Discretization of
complex structure can result in generation of error prone skewed
elements which can make the problem unstable.
Researchers have been able to put forth many numerical methods
which have been able to eradicate the requirement of
hold promise for many applications because of their
advantageous features over the conventional methods like FEM
or BEM. These methods depend on the point cloud data with no
interconnection between the points rendering them more suitable
for adaptive mesh refinement. Their point dependency makes
them easier to deal with the complex geometries and makes them
less sensitive to the dimensionality of the problem. Many
meshless methods have been proposed over the course of last two
decades which can be broadly classified into two main categories
namely weak formulation or strong formulation depending on the
process followed for obtaining the approximate solution of the
governing differential equations. Weak formulations like element
free Galerkin method (EFGM), method of fundamental solutions
(MFS) [15-16] either require background grid to do the
numerical integration of the weak form or need to solve
Helmholtz equations which makes them computationally
expensive. Strong methods like radial basis collocation method
(RBCM) [17-18] deal with the original governing differential
equations and point collocation is used to satisfy the governing
equations in the domain and on the boundary. Strong form
meshless methods are truly meshless because they dont require
mesh in any form. Multiquadratics are positive definite functions
and have global support. Kansa et. al [19] first used
multiquadratics RBFs for the solution of partial differential
equations and there have been many development on the
properties and application of RBFs [15-16, 20]. In this research
RBCM has been utilized to simulate the bioheat transfer problem
in the two dimensional domain. Approximation function is
developed using inverse multiquadratic (IMQ) radialbasis
functions (RBFs).
2. Theory of Radial Basis Collocation Method (RBCM) on 2D
T1 T 2 0
Heterogeneous Problem (5)
Strong form collocation methods are a form of meshless methods B1h T1 B 2h T 2 0
which dont require numerical mesh to solve a problem and no ~
The temperature solution Ti1 is calculated separately in each
preconditioning is required for the original equations describing a
particular phenomenon. They are in strong form as they deal with subdomain and can be approximated by evaluating RBFs at
collocation points i,e
the original equations describing the phenomenon. For the
T~1
solution approximation different global RBFs are used. For this ( x ) g11( x )a1i1 g12 ( x )a1i 2 .... g1 1 ( x )a1 1 , x 1
~ i Ns iNs
research, most popular radial basis functions known as inverse Ti ( x ) ~ (6)
Ti ( x ) g1 ( x )a i1 g 2 ( x )a i 2 .... g 2 ( x )a 2 , x
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
multi-quadratics will be used. For general description of RBCM,
N s iN s
lets consider a problem consisting of open domain and
boundary . In equation (6) coefficients a jI need to be evaluated at all the
collocation points in order to obtain the solution. Substituting
The problem can be defined as: equation (6) into equations (3)-(5), results in an algebraic system
of equations which can be easily solved for the coefficients.
LT f in


(1)
B T q on
For numerical implementation of RBCM, the following steps are
involved.
Here T represents the local static temperature, L denotes the
Step1: Identification of Collocation Points
differential operator in , B is the boundary condition
operator. f is the source term in the open domain whereas q
For ease of implementation, unique set of points in domains,
boundaries and interface are identified for each domain. Let
is related to boundary conditions. represents the domain
number. represent the heterogeneity, P be the set of collocation points p
Let g , h represent the Dirichlet and Neumann boundaries inside the domain, Q be the set of collocation points q on the
respectively then, Dirichlet boundary and R be the set of collocation points r on
B T g on DirichletBoundary

the Neumann boundary respectively. S represents the collocation

(2) points s on the interface.
B T h on Neumann Boundary
Lets consider a general 2D problem consisting of two



heterogeneous materials. The two domains are connected by an P ( p1 , p 2,...........p ) ,
interface as shown in Figure 1 .
Np





Q (q1 , q 2,...........q ) g

Nq
(7)


R ( r1 , r2,...........r ) h ,
Nr


S (s1 , s 2 ,. ..... s N )

Step 2: Approximation of solution

The next step is to use the approximation function to find the
~
solution. Let T be the approximate solution being sought, then:
~ T
T a (8)

Figure 1: Heterogeneous domain problem where

T
[g1 , g1 ....... g ],
For domain 1, 1 : Ns

L1T1 f 1 in 1
g I g I I, (9)


B1g T1 g1 in 1 g (3) a [a 1 , a 2 ....... a ], a I [a1I , a 2I , a 3I ]T
Ns

B1h T1 h1 in 1 h

For domain 2, 2 :
g I is the RBF with source point x I and I is the identity matrix
L T f in
2 2 2 2
and a I is the coefficient matrix required to obtain the solution
B g2 T 2 g 2 in 2 g (4) (superscript T represents transpose) . For inverse multiquadratic

B 2h T 2 h 2 in 2 h RBF g I is given by
For Interface : g I (x) (rI2 sf 2 ) 1 / 2 , rI ( x x I ) 2 ( y y I ) 2 (10)
where sf is known as the shape factor.
Step 3: RBF Collocation
Next step is to substitute the approximate solution into the
original equations. Substituting equation (8) into equations (3)-
(5) directly and finding the RBF values at all the collocation
points in domain, boundary and interface, equation (3) would
result in an over determined system of discrete equations which
can then be solved using method of least squares.
The following system of equations would result where A and b
represent the conductivity and source matrices respectively. is
for interface and a is the required coefficient matrix as given in
equation (8).
3. Implementation of RBCM for 2D Heterogeneous
Conduction
Firstly RBCM has been coded to simulate 2D heat conduction in
heterogeneous media. As a benchmark problem, geometry used
in Fang et al. [23] as shown in Figure 2 was studied. The
problem under consideration consists of a square having
dimensionless length 1. Outer material has thermal conductivity
k2 and contains an inclusion in the form of square of
dimensionless length 0.5.The inclusion has a thermal
conductivity k1.

A1 b1

Aa : A a b 2 : b
2
(11)

0

The equation system in equation (11) is a global system which

consists of the following sub matrices:
A1L A 2L b1L b2L
g
A1 A1g , A 2 Ag2 , b1 b1g , b2 bg2 , (12)
h
A1h A 2h b1h b2h

Figure 2: Two dimensional heat conduction problem with
k1/k2=0.01
where subscripts L, g and h represent matrices related to domain,
Dirichlet and Neumann boundary conditions respectively.
Conduction in a two dimensional problem can be represented in
Step 4: Assigning of Weights dimensionless form as:
T T
Although equation (11) can be solved for coefficients which can k k Q (15)
be used to find the solution from equation (8) but in strong form x x y y
collocation, it is imperative to control errors on the material
interfaces. This would guarantee exponential convergence of the k k1, Q Q1 for inner domain
subdomain RBCM. To accomplish this, the following weights (16)
are used as suggested by Hu et al. [21]. k k 2, Q Q2 for outer domain

with boundary conditions:

1g g2 g O(k.Ns),
(13) T Tb 0 on Dirichletboundary

h O(s ), h O(s ), h O(1)
1 1 2 2
T (17)
k q 0 on Neumann boundary
n
k 2 k
where k max(k 1,k 2),Ns max(N 1s,N s2),s1 ,s 2 where k, Q, Tb , q represent thermal conductivity, heat source,
k1 k
prescribed temperature at the Dirichlet boundary and normal heat
Introducing the above weights in (12), we have
flux respectively. Subscripts 1 and 2 represent the domain
A1 A 2 number.
L L
Here
1 1 1 2 2 2
A g A g , A g A g , Q1 = 0
Q2 = 0
1h A1h 2h A 2h
k1=0.01
(14) k2=1
b1 b 2
L L T(0, y) 0
1 1 1 2 2 2
g g
b g bg , b g bg , T(0, y) 1

h h T
h b h
1 1
h b h
2 2 k =0 on insulated edges (upper and lower edges of domain 2
n
as shown in Figure 2)
Step 5: Interface Boundary Conditions
For the calculation of temperature in the heterogeneous media,
Next step will involve the application of proper boundary source points and collocation points were used. For sufficient
conditions at the interface. It is shown by Chen et al. [22] that in accuracy, the number of collocation points should be more than
order to have a continuous solution , both Dirichlet and Neumann the source points as suggested by Hu. et. al [24-25] . For the
boundary conditions need to be enforced at the interface. current analysis number of collocation points used was twice the
Otherwise the errors would grow substantially rendering the number of source points. Figure 3 shows the arrangement of
solution invalid. collocation and source points in the domain. For the RBCM
collocation point-cloud consisted of equally spaced points with a
grid of 33 33.

Figure 5: Temperature line plots for RBCM using Matlab (a) and
FEM using COMSOL (b) for k1/k2=0.01, Q1=1 at section y=0.5
(as indicated in Fig. 2)
(a) Source Points
4. Study of RBCM for Bioheat Transfer Problem
For application of RBCM to solve bioheat transfer problem, the
domain shown in Figure 6 was used. Cao used the same
geometry for analysis [15] and is shown in Figure 6. The details
of the method have already been discussed earlier. It consists of a
rectangular area of skin tissue. The left boundary (skin surface) is
at a prescribed temperature and right boundary is considered to
be at the body core temperature. Remaining boundaries are
assumed to be thermally insulated.

(b) Collocation points

Figure 3: Distribution of source points (a) and collocation points
(b) in the domain
Figure 4 compares the temperature result obtained by RBCM to
the results published by Fang et al [23]. It is evident that RBCM
has been able to deal with the heterogeneity and captures the
interface between the two heterogeneous materials.

Figure 6: Numerical domain for skin tissue [19]

The heat transfer inside the biological tissue shown in figure 6

can be represented by Pennes bioheat equation.
T(X,t)
c .kT(X,t) b bcb Ta T(X,t)
t
Qmet Qr (X,t) (18)
where X contains the cartesian coordinates. ,c,k are density,
specific heat and thermal conductivity of the skin tissue whereas
Figure 4: Temperature plots using RBCM using Matlab (a) and b,b,c b represent the perfusion, density and the specific heat of
results published by Fang et al [23] (b) for k1/k2=0.01, Q1=Q2=0
at a section y=0.5 (as indicated in Fig. 2) the blood respectively. Ta is the arterial blood temperature and
Qmet ,Q r (X,t) represent metabolic heat source and spatial heat
Figure 5 shows the comparison of RBCM and FEM results source respectively.
obtained for the case of k1/k2=0.01, Q1=1 at section y=0.5.
RBCM has been able to produce comparable results to FEM. The following parameters were used in the analysis of the bioheat
problem.
L=0.03 m
H=0.08 m
c b 1000 kg/m3
c c b 4000J /(kg.0 C)
k 0.5 W /(m0C)
Ta Tc 370 C
The boundary conditions involved were:
T(x, y, t ) 450 C (x, y) I
q(x, y, t ) 0 (x, y) II, IV
T(x, y, t ) 370 C (x, y) III
Initial condition is given by
T(x, y,0) 330 C
The analytical solution of the skin tissue bioheat problem without
metabolic heat source has the form of:
(T Ta ) sinh (L x ) (Tc Ta ) sinh (x )
T( x ) Ta s (19)
sinh(L)
b b c b
with
k Biomechanical Engineering-Transactions of the
Figures 7 shows the temperature obtained for different values of
blood perfusion. Inverse multiquadratic RBF with sf=3.5 was
used for the analysis and 31*31 collocation grid with equally
spaced points in x and y directions were used. As the blood
perfusion increases temperature profile becomes more parabolic.
Higher perfusion results in higher loss of energy via convection.
Figure 7: Temperature profile in biological tissue using RBCM
for varying perfusion rate along the x-axis
It is evident from Figure 7 that RBCM performs really well and
the error in the domain doesnt grow large and remains less than
5%. This shows that RBCM can be used effectively to simulate
bioheat transfer problems.
Conclusions
Radial Basis Collocation Method (RBCM) was successfully
applied to the problems of heterogeneous conduction and bioheat
transfer. It was shown that using the collocation weights the
proposed method was able to control the errors at the interface of
heterogeneous materials and efficiently captured the interface.
The proposed method was able to control perform really well
even when strong heterogeneities were encountered which
illustrated its efficacy and applicability for such problems.
References
1. Wulff, W., The Energy Conservation Equation for
Living Tissue. Biomedical Engineering, IEEE
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2. Klinger, H., Heat transfer in perfused biological
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3. Holmes, M.M.C.a.K.R., Microvascular
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N.Y. Acad. Sci., 1980. 335: p. 137-150.
4. Pennes, H.H., Analysis of Tissue and Arterial
Blood Temperature in the Resting Human
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Boundary Elements, 2011. 35(3): p. 289-297.
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heating phenomenon using meshless RBF-DQ
method. International Journal of Thermal
Sciences, 2010. 49(11): p. 2117-2127.
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model for analysing thermal behaviour of skin
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partial differential equations. Engineering
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radial basis collocation method for fracture
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approximation scheme with applications to
computational fluid-dynamics--II solutions to
parabolic, hyperbolic and elliptic partial
differential equations. Computers & Mathematics
with Applications, 1990. 19(8-9): p. 147-161.
20. Wong, A.S.M., et al., Multizone decomposition
for simulation of time-dependent problems using
the multiquadric scheme. Computers &
Mathematics with Applications, 1999. 37(8): p.
23-43.
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
A Numerical Study on Droplet Formation from a Capillary
Tube: from Dripping to Jetting
Albert Y Tong, Alouella Kadjo and Yin (Alex) Guan
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
University of Texas at Arlington
Arlington, Texas 76019
USA
Abstract
The formation of liquid droplet from a capillary tube has
been examined in the present study using numerical simulations.
The dimensions of the capillary tube and the flow velocity have
been varied to capture the various regimes of drop formation.
Particular emphases have been placed on the velocity limits
between the different regimes and the formation of satellite
drops. The dynamics of drop formation differ among the regimes
and involve a competition between the inertial, capillary, surface
tension, gravitational forces and the growth of instabilities. The
full transient Navier-Stokes equation is solved in a 2D axi-
symmetrical coordinate system with a two-step projection
method. The free surface is tracked by the Coupled Level Set
Volume of Fluid (CLSVOF) scheme and the surface tension
force is estimated by the Continuum Surface Force (CSF) model.
The numerical results have been compared to and are in good
agreement with experimental data reported in the literature.
Nomenclature
F VOF function
g gravitational acceleration
n normal vector
P pressure
t time
u velocity
level set function
density
surface tension coefficient
viscous stress tensor
dynamic viscosity coefficient
local curvature at interface
(All other symbols are defined where they appear)
Introduction
The phenomenon of drop formation from a nozzle is very
complex and has been extensively studied for more than a
century. It has applications in multiple domains like ink-jet
technologies, spray painting, distillation and mixing processes.
As shown in Figure 1, there are three regimes of drop formation
which are mainly determined by the position of the detachment
of the drop, the periodicity of drop formation and the drop size.
The first regime is periodic dripping which has the lowest
velocity. In this regime, the drop is formed by the gradual
injection of fluid through the nozzle and is in a state of quasi-
equilibrium subjected to surface tension, gravitational, capillary
and inertial forces. The quasi-equilibrium will eventually fail to
sustain which leads to a rapid development of a neck and
ultimately the detachment of the drop. The second regime is
dripping faucet which is characterized by a slightly higher
velocity and the formation of a big drop followed by smaller
ones. With further increase in velocity the jetting regime will
eventually be reached. The periodic dripping and dripping faucet
are both periodic regimes with the only difference being that in
the periodic dripping regime the drops have the same size where
in the dripping faucet regime the drop sizes vary. In the jetting
regime, the drops detach from the ends of long liquid columns.
Most studies focus on the breakup mechanism in either the
dripping or jetting mode, few have covered the full range of drop
formation from dripping to jetting, and even fewer acknowledge
the chaotic behaviour during the transition from dripping to
jetting. The objective of this study is to examine the mechanism
of drop formation in these regimes and to determine the velocity
limits separating them.
Figure 1 Different regimes of drop formation for a tube of inner
diameter D=2.159mm and outer diameter Do=2.769mm:
(a) Periodic dripping (We=0.063), (b) Dripping faucet
(We=1.73), (c) Jetting (We=2.3), (We is the Weber number).
(from Clanet and Lasheras [2])
Clanet and Lasheras [2] studied the three regimes and
reported the critical Weber number at which the transition from
the periodic regimes to jetting occurs. The study was performed
on tubes of different diameters by gradually increasing the inlet
velocity until the limits between the different regimes were
reached. Their experimental results are used for comparison in
the present numerical study. Tate [15], one of the first researchers
in the domain of drop formation, calculated the mass of the
pendant drop by equating the surface tension and gravitational
forces. There are also the studies by Rayleigh [7] who conducted
a dimensional analysis and used a correction factor determined
experimentally for a better approximation of the mass of the
drop. The correction factor, refined many years later by Harkins
and Brown [3], is quite accurate and is one of the methods
currently used to calculate the surface tension. Other studies on
the periodic dripping mode showed the importance of the fluid
properties and the nozzle size on the dynamics of drop formation.
Zhang and Basaran [16] found that at low flow rates or in
the dripping region, the drop is formed under the action of its
weight. The effect of wall thickness was also studied. Another
key point in the investigation was the effect of physical
properties of the fluid on the process. The findings of their study
were that viscosity tends to damp the perturbations and stabilizes
the growing drop, but has little effect on its volume. Also
viscosity delays the break off time of the drop since for highly
viscous fluids the neck gets lengthened thus increases the time it
takes for the drop to detach. Surface tension also influences the
volume, shape and time of the break up. By increasing the
surface tension, spherical drops with bigger volume are obtained.
Surface tension force increases the cohesion between the fluid
elements at the surface of the drop and competes against the
gravitational force for the equilibrium of the system. Therefore
the greater the surface tension, the more fluid comes into the
drop, and a bigger drop is formed.
In the periodic dripping regime, satellite drops were
observed for a range of Weber number after the breakup of the
main drop. In some applications, satellite drops are not desirable,
so information on the range at which there is formation of
satellite drops is very important. The satellite drop is very small
comparing to the primary drop and its mode of formation differs
from that of the primary drop. Notz et al. [5] described in great
detail the shape of the satellite drop by conducting experiments
using ultrahigh speed digital imaging system. Henderson and co-
workers [4] showed that the liquid ligament could break near its
ends or at mid points. As the primary drop falls, the liquid
ligament grows longer and thinner until it is completely detached
from both the primary drop and the upper portion of the liquid
attached to the nozzle and forms an isolated entity. After the
breakup, the unbalanced surface tension force provokes
perturbations in the form of ripples on the surface of the
ligament. The oscillations grow in magnitude creating secondary
necking and bifurcation. The position of the secondary breakup
depends on the most unstable wave for if the wavelength of the
most unstable wave is shorter than the length of the ligament, it
breaks up at interior points; otherwise, it pinches off near its
ends. The type of instability that affects the ligament is the same
as that of the uniform liquid jet studied by Rayleigh [8].
One of the domains of drop formation which so far has been
insufficiently addressed is the dripping faucet regime or the
erratic transition between periodic dripping and jetting. The work
by Subramani et al. [13] was one of the few which studied
extensively on the dripping faucet regime and explained the
mechanism of drop formation in that regime. They examined the
dynamics of drop formation from a capillary tube, from low to
high flow rates, by numerical computations and experiments. In
their numerical studies, the one-dimensional slender-jet
approximation of the 2D Navier-Stokes equation was solved by
finite element method. It was found that the physical properties
of the fluid influence the span of the dripping faucet region. In
some cases the dripping faucet would completely disappear and
the system would go directly from periodic dripping to jetting.
In the jetting regime, Savart [9] showed that the breakup of a
jet was not controlled by gravity or the type of fluid but was
mostly due to the growth of undulations present on the surface of
the liquid column. Later Plateau [6] coupled the surface tension
to the evolution of the undulations and demonstrated the role of
the surface tension in the decomposition of a liquid jet. He also
discovered by empirical analysis that a jet of water, falling
vertically will disintegrate in droplets when its length is greater
than about 3.13 times its diameter. Rayleigh [8] validated the
findings of Plateau and was able to prove theoretically that there
is an optimal wavelength at which waves grow fastest and which
determines the size of the drop.
Due to the fact that these phenomena occur on scales of
space and time in which high precision experiments are difficult
to perform, numerical method serves as an excellent alternative
that can provide vital information that may otherwise be
unavailable from experiments. A numerical study that takes into
consideration the inertia and the transient effects of the flow has
been performed. The unsteady Navier-Stokes equations are
solved along with a robust free-surface tracking scheme and a
surface tension model.
The main complexity of the numerical simulation is the
dynamics of a rapidly moving free surface, the location of which
is unknown and is needed as part of the solution. As the pinch-off
mechanism involves surface tension, accurate modelling of the
surface tension force with a high degree of surface curvature is
critical. In recent years, a number of methods [10] have been
developed for modelling free surface flows, among which the
volume-of-fluid (VOF) method and the level set (LS) method are
two Eulerian-based methods that have been widely used. One of
the advantages offered by these methods is the ease in which
flow problems with large topological changes and interface
deformations can be handled. These include liquid ligament
breakup, bubble merging and bursting, and droplet elongation
and breakup. The VOF method has the desirable property of mass
conservation. However, it lacks accuracy on the normal and
curvature calculations due to the discontinuous spatial derivatives
of the VOF function near the interface. This may lead to
convergence problems especially in the surface tension force
dominant problems. As for the LS method, the normal and
curvature can be calculated accurately from the continuous and
smooth distance functions. However, one serious drawback of
this method is the frequent violation of the mass conservation.
To overcome such weaknesses of the LS and VOF methods,
coupled level set and volume-of-fluid (CLSVOF) methods have
been reported [1], [11], [12], and [14]. The coupled method
offers improved accuracy on the surface curvature and normal
calculations while maintaining mass conservation. A CLSVOF
method is used in the present study with the interface
reconstructed via a piecewise linear interface construction (PLIC)
scheme on the VOF function and the interface normal computed
from the LS function. A brief overview of the CLSVOF scheme
and the overall numerical formulation is given next, followed by
the results and discussion section.
Numerical Formulation
For incompressible flows with constant property, the
continuity and momentum equations are given by
u 0 (1)
u 1 1 F
u u P g b (2)
t
where u is the velocity, the density, P the pressure, the
viscous stress tensor, g the gravitational acceleration, and Fb the
body force. For Newtonian fluids, the viscous stress tensor
can be written as
2S , S
1
2
(u ) (u ) T (3)
where is the dynamic viscosity and S is the rate-of-strain
tensor.
The continuum surface force (CSF) method is used to model the It should be noted that since the VOF function is not
surface tension in which the surface tension force is treated as a smoothly distributed at the free surface, an interface
body force given by reconstruction procedure is required to evaluate the VOF flux
Fb ( x)n (4) across a surface cell. In this study, the interface is reconstructed
via a PLIC scheme, and the interface normal is calculated from
where is the surface tension coefficient, (x) a delta function the LS function given by
concentrated on the interface, the mean curvature and n the
normal to the free surface. Equation (2) is approximated in finite-
n (13)
difference form as
The LS function would fail to be a distance function after being
u n1 u n 1 1 1 n (5) advanced by Eq. (11) and a re-initialization process is needed for
u n u n n Pn1 n n g n n Fb
t its return to a distance function. This can be achieved by
obtaining a steady-state solution of the following re-initialization
A two-step projection algorithm is used where Eq. (5) is equation:
decomposed into the following two equations: 0
(1 ) . (14)
t 0 2 h 2
u* u n 1 1
u n u n n n g n n Fb (6)
n

t where 0 is the LS function at the previous time step, t the

and artificial time, and h the grid spacing. Finally, in order to achieve
u n 1 u * 1 mass conservation, the LS functions have to be re-distanced prior
n P n 1 (7) to being used. The curvature, computed directly from the LS
t function, is given by

where u * represents an intermediate velocity. In the first step, an ( ) (15)
intermediate velocity field, u * , is computed from Eq. (6) which

accounts for incremental changes resulting from viscosity,
advection, gravity, and body forces. In the second step, the Results and Discussions
velocity field, un1, is projected into a zero-divergence vector
field, resulting in a single Poisson equation for the pressure field Numerical simulations were performed with four different
given by tube diameters as used in the experimental study by Clanet and
Lasheras [2] for comparison purpose. In order to capture the
1 u* different regimes, the inlet velocity is gradually increased until
n P n 1 (8)
t the limits between the regimes are reached. Water with constant
physical properties evaluated at 20oC is used as the working
fluid. The computation is carried out on an axi-symmetric
As mentioned previously, free surfaces are tracked by the domain with the initial configuration of the free surface flat
coupled level set and volume-of-fluid (CLSVOF) method in the across the whole front tube surface. a no-slip boundary condition
present study. A brief overview of the scheme is given here. The is applied at the inner tube wall while a wet boundary condition
LS function, , is defined as a distance function given by is imposed at the front of the tube surface.
The different stages of drop formation in the periodic
dripping regime are shown on Figure 2. In this study, the outlet
0, outside of the interface, of tube was wet so for low flow rates, the liquid reaches the

(x, t) 0, at the interface, (9) edges of the nozzle. Consequently, the diameter of the exiting
0, inside the interface. fluid is same as the outer diameter of the tube. Due to the surface
tension, a portion of the liquid mass has a greater diameter and
after the loss of quasi-equilibrium, the region with the smaller
i.e. negative in the liquid, positive in the air, and zero at the cross section becomes more vulnerable. The bottom part of the
interface. The VOF function, F, is defined as the liquid volume fluid starts moving down and since it has a greater weight, its pull
fraction in a cell with its value in between zero and one in a on the middle section increases the pressure. The diameter of the
surface cell and zero and one in air and liquid respectively, i.e. middle region decreases as the velocity increases (Figure 3). This
phase of the drop formation is called necking. Once the necking
1, in the fluid, happens, three distinctive liquid parts can be noticed, with the
(10) first one the portion of mass still attached to the nozzle, the
F ( x, t ) 0 F 1, at free surface, second being the fluid ligament in the middle and the last one, the
0, external to fluid. nearly formed drop. The pressure in the neck rises and is greater
than that in the other parts. Figures 4 shows the fact that there is
the maximum pressure at the base of the neck where the radius
The LS function and the VOF function are advanced by the has the lowest value. Since the curvature is inversely proportional
following equations, respectively: to the radius, the smaller the radius, the greater the curvature.
This leads to a pressure peak.

D
(u ) 0 (11)
Dt t
DF F
(u ) F 0 (12)
Dt t
 Figure 3 Velocity profile during necking

Figure 2 Evolution of a pendant drop from a capillary tube of

inner diameter D=2.1mm and outer diameter Do=2.7mm for a
liquid velocity of 0.15m/s (periodic dripping mode).
The liquid continues to flow from the tube; however once
necking is initiated, the fluid will not come into the thin ligament
because the detachment of the drop occurs shortly after the
necking has started. The time for break up is very short and in the
present cases studied, it was in the order of milliseconds. Not
only there is no addition of fluid in the necking section, the high
pressure gradient favours a squeeze of liquid out of the liquid
bridge. The velocity and the pressure have the highest magnitude
near the base of the neck; the radius at this precise point becomes
very small (Figures 5 and 6) and eventually breaks up,
disconnecting the drop. The newly formed drop is called primary
drop and has a flat surface at the place where it used to be
attached to the neck (Figure 7). The flattened side of the drop is
due to the fact that after the break up, the inertial forces are
dominant and the velocity pushes down on the top part. Moment
later, under the action of the surface tension, the shape of the
drop is restored to spherical form and it falls due to gravity.

Figure 4 Pressure profile during necking

 After the detachment of the main drop, the liquid bridge
recoils because of the action of the surface tension force which as
always, aims to minimize the surface area; therefore the tip of the
ligament becomes rounded and moves up as shown on Figure 7.
In fact, after the pinch off, there is an unbalance of forces which
results in an upward acceleration. Depending on the conditions,
the liquid thread can disengage from the portion of the fluid
connected to the tube and form another droplet called satellite
drop. The cases in the periodic dripping regime with the
formation of a satellite are shown in Figures 8 and 9. The main
parameter for the formation of satellite is the Weber number
which measures the relative importance of the inertia to surface
tension forces. Unlike the detachment of the primary drop which
was due to the loss of equilibrium, the breakup of the ligament
from the main system is due to disturbances born from the first
break up. Henderson and co-workers [4] studied the evolution of
the liquid ligament and showed that break up occurs under the
action of instability.

Figure 6 Pressure profile just before the pinch off

Figure 5 Velocity profile just before the pinch off

Depending on the size of the satellite, it may move up or

down. After its transformation to satellite drop, it falls under the
influence of the gravitational and surface tension forces. The
volume of the drop will determine which force will have the
greater effect. If the satellite is small enough, the surface tension
dominates and the droplet keeps moving up merging with the part
of the liquid connected to the tube. This is shown in Figure 8
where the satellite coalesces with the upper portion of the system.
For satelites with a larger volume, gravity takes over results in a
downward movement as shown in Figure 9. When the Weber
number is increased, there is no formation of satellite drops. In
fact, when the velocity is higher, there is more liquid flow along
the whole ligament. The tip of the ligament is thicker and there is
no break up due to instabilities.

Figure 7 Velocity profile just after the pinch off


Figure 8 Formation of satellite drop after the detachment of the
main drop, for a capillary tube of inner diameter D=2.1mm and
outer diameter Do=2.7mm for a liquid velocity of 0.08m/s.
Figure 9 Formation of satellite drop after the detachment of the
main drop for a capillary tube of inner diameter D=4.1mm and
outer diameter Do=4.7mm for a liquid velocity of 0.02m/s.
Figure 10 depicts the important phases of the dripping faucet
regime and shows the formation of drops of different sizes. The
dripping faucet is the transition region between periodic dripping
and jetting. It is quite particular in the sense that it has multiple
periodic bifurcations. In fact, the dripping faucet can have two,
three or more periods of drop formation. In this regime,
successive drops have different sizes but depending on the
number of periods, there is a repetition of the drop sizes. For
example, if at a particular velocity, the dripping faucet has a
double periodic drop formation, the first and the third drops will
have the same size when the second and the fourth drops will be
similar. Also, the detachment point of the drops changes from
one drop to another but always stays close to the tube tip. It
should be noted that the dripping faucet is not periodic in time
because the drops do not pinch off at regular time interval. The
dripping faucet regime is sometimes called the chaotic dripping
regime because it has multiple periodic bifurcations which are
difficult to predict.
Even though the detachment pattern in the dripping faucet
cannot be generalized to all cases of the formation of drop from a
capillary tube, it is known that the physical properties of the fluid
such as surface tension, viscosity and density shape the dripping
faucet regime and determine its condition of existence. Since the
process of drop formation does not really depend on the
magnitude of those properties but rather on their relative
importance, dimensionless numbers are widely used. In the study
by Subramani et al. [13], when the Ohnesorge number, a measure
of the importance of viscous to surface tension force was
increased while the other variables were held constant, the
velocity span over which the dripping faucet occurred, was
drastically reduced.
Figure 10 Evolution of a pendant drop from a capillary tube of
inner diameter D=2.1mm and outer diameter Do=2.7mm for a
liquid velocity of 0.22m/s (dripping faucet mode).
The mechanism of formation of the primary drop in the
dripping faucet regime is the same as that of the periodic dripping
where the drop is formed after the loss of equilibrium between
the different forces. However, in the case of the second drop, the
different oscillations born from the first pinch off participate in
the mechanism of formation. It could be noticed that in both
dripping faucet and periodic dripping, there are oscillations on
the liquid ligament after the breakup of the first drop; however, in
the dripping faucet, the liquid ligament is longer and is more
affected by the growth of the oscillations. After the detachment
of the primary drop, there is an unbalance of forces where the
surface tension is dominant. This creates on the surface of the
remaining liquid filament some oscillations which grow in
magnitude and initiate the breakup of a second drop. The
oscillations enhance the action of the gravitational and inertial
forces and provoke an early pinch off; therefore the second drop
formed has slightly less volume than the primary drop. Had the
growth of the perturbations not occurred, the size of the second
drop would have been same as the first one. In the absence of
perturbations, the surface tension has more influence and bigger
drops are created. This is confirmed in an experimental study by
Subramani et al. [13] which showed that there was not a dripping
faucet regime for highly viscous fluid. The role of viscosity is to
damp the oscillations and halt their growth; thus the higher the
viscosity, the less effect the perturbations will have on the
dynamics of drop formation and the more time the surface
tension will have to influence the process. Also it was noticed
that when the viscosity increased, the number of periods in the
dripping faucet regime was reduced.
In the jetting regime, the detachment point of the drops is
lower than that of the two other regimes. When the jetting
velocity is close to the second limit (limit between dripping
faucet and jetting), the drops are first formed near the nozzle tip,
then the detachment point moves downward and the drops are
formed from the ends of a long liquid column. As shown in
Figure 11 the drops have different sizes. For very high velocity,
the pinch off position of the first drops is far from the nozzle tip.
Figure 11 Jetting regime with different drop detachments for a
liquid velocity of 0.27m/s:(a)-(b) first drop, (c)-(d) second drop,
(e)-(f) third drop, (g)-(h) fourth drop.
In the present study, only the jetting regime with velocity
close to the second limit is studied and only the formation of the
first drops is observed because of the length limitation of the
computational domain. The simulation is terminated when the
liquid column exceeds the length of the computational domain.
One of the objectives of the present study is to determine the
velocity limits between the regimes and compare them to
experimental data in the literature. Boundaries of these regimes
presented as velocity limits versus nozzle diameters are shown in
Figure 12. The first limit is between the periodic dripping and the
dripping faucet, while the second limit is between the dripping
faucet and the jetting mode. PD, DF and J denote periodic
dripping, dripping faucet and jetting, respectively. The numerical
results obtained in the present study are in reasonable agreement
with the experimental data.
Figure 12 Boundaries of the different regimes of drop formation
(taken from Clanet and Lasheras [2])
Parametric study has been performed to observe the effect of
viscosity of the fluid on the limits between the regimes. One of
the main characteristics of the dripping faucet is the change of the
volume of successive drops. Clanet and Lasheras [2] quantify this
change and state that if the volume change between the different
drops is more than 20%, the regime of drop formation is the
dripping faucet. The same criterion is used in the present study to
determine the dripping faucet regime. Viscosity affects the
velocity limit between the periodic dripping and the dripping
faucet but it has little impact on the jetting regime. It has been
found that the velocity limit for jetting does not change even with
the increase of viscosity. On the other hand as viscosity
increases, the velocity limit between the periodic dripping and
the dripping faucet increases and since the velocity limit between
the dripping faucet and the jetting is not affected, the velocity
range over which the dripping faucet exists is reduced. For very
high viscosity, the dripping faucet regime will not exist. In that
case, as the velocity of the fluid increases, the regime of drop
formation goes directly from periodic dripping to jetting. This is
consistent with the finding reported in [13].
Surface tension plays a major role in the formation of drops.
It affects both limits between the three regimes of drop formation
contrary to the viscosity which only affects the limit between the
periodic dripping and the dripping faucet regimes. As the surface
tension coefficient increases, the velocities to reach the dripping
faucet and jetting regimes also increase. The surface tension
forces tend to increase the cohesion between the particles on the
free surface of the system and compete against the gravitational
and inertial forces for equilibrium. It has been found that when
the surface tension coefficient is increased, the volume and the
detachment time of the drop increase sharply.
Density affects the size and pinch off time of the drops in all
three regimes. Consequently, it has an impact on the velocity
limit between the dripping faucet and the jetting as well as
between periodic dripping and dripping faucet. As the density
increases, the velocities to reach the dripping faucet and jetting
regimes decrease. It has been found that the larger the density,
the smaller the drops and the shorter the detachment time.
Conclusions
The mechanism of drop formation from a capillary tube has
been studied using numerical simulations. There are three main
regimes of drop formation from a capillary tube. Periodic
dripping is the first regime which has the lowest flow rate and
uniform drop size. The drops are generated after the loss of
equilibrium between the forces. When the flow rate is slightly
increased, the periodic dripping gives way to the dripping faucet
which is characterized by multiple periodic bifurcations. In this
regime, successive drops have different sizes but depending on
the number of periods, there is a repetition of the drop sizes. The
drops are formed due to the combined influence of the different
forces and the oscillations born from the detachments of
precedent drops. In the third regime which is the jetting mode,
the detachment point of the drop move away from the tube exit
and the drops are formed from the end of a long liquid column.
The simulations have been performed for multiple tube
dimensions, and velocity limits between the regimes were
obtained. The effect of viscosity on the two limits has been
studied. It has been found that increasing the viscosity only
affects the first limit and reduces the velocity range over which
the dripping faucet exists. The numerical results are in good
agreement with experimental data in the literature.
References
[1] Bourlioux, A., (1995): A coupled level-set volume-of-fluid
algorithm for tracking material interfaces, Proc. 6th Int.
Symp. on computational fluid dynamics, Lake Tahoe, CA,
pp. 15-22.
[2] Clanet, C. and Lasheras, J. C., Transition from dripping to
jetting, J. Fluid Mech., Vol. 383, 1999, pp.383-326.
[3] Harkins, W. D. and Brown, F. E., The determination of
surface tension (Free surface energy), and the weight of
falling drops: the surface tension of water and benzene by
the capillary height method, J. Am. Chem. Soc., Vol. 41,
1919, pp.499-524.
[4] Henderson, D., Segur, H., Smolka, L. B. and Wadati, M.,
The motion of a falling liquid filament, Phys. Fluids, Vol.
12, No. 3, 2000, pp.550-565.
[5] Notz, P. K., Chen, A. U. and Basaran, O. A., Satellite drops:
Unexpected dynamics and change of scaling during pinch-
off, Phys. Fluids, Vol. 13, No.3, 2001, pp.549-552.
[6] Plateau, J., Statique Experimentale et Theorique des
Liquides, 1873, Gauthier- Villars et Cie.
[7] Rayleigh, Lord, Investigations in capillarity: the size of
drops. The liberation of gas from supersaturated solutions.
Colliding jets. The tension of contaminated water-
surfaces. A curious observation, Phil. Mag., Vol. 48,
1899, pp.321-337.
[8] Rayleigh, Lord, On the instability of jets, Proc. Lond. Math.
Soc., Vol. 10, 1879, pp. 4-13.
[9] Savart, E., Memoire sur la constitution des veines liquides
lancees par des orifices circulaires en mince paroi, Ann.
Chim., Vol. 53, 1833, pp.337-386.
[10] Scardovelli, R. and Zaleski, S., (1999): Direct numerical
simulation of free-surface and interfacial flow, Annual
Review of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 31, pp. 567-603.
[11] Son, G., (2003): Efficient Implementation of a coupled
level-set and volume-of-fluid method for three-dimensional
incompressible two-phase flows, Numerical Heat Transfer,
part B, (2003), Vol. 43, pp. 549-565.
[12] Son, G. and Hur, N., (2002): A coupled level set and
volume-of-fluid method for the buoyancy-driven motion of
fluid particles, Numerical Heat Transfer, part B, Vol. 42,
pp. 523-542.
[13] Subramani, J. H., Yeoh, H. K., Xu, Q., Ambravaneswaran,
B. and Basaran, O. A., Simplicity and complexity in a
dripping faucet, Phys. Fluids, Vol. 18, 2006, pp.1-13.
[14] Sussman, M. and Puckett, E.G., (2000): A coupled level set
and volume-of-fluid method for computing 3D
axisymmetric incompressible two-phase flows, J. Comp.
Phys., Vol. 162, pp. 301-337.
[15] Tate, T., On the magnitude of a drop of liquid formed under
different circumstances, Phil. Mag., Vol. 27, 1864, pp.176-
180.
[16] Zhang, X. and Basaran, O. A., An experimental study of
dynamics of drop formation",
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Heat Transfer Characteristics of Metal Porous Heat Sink

for Cooling Power Electronic Devices

Kazuhisa Yuki 1 and Koichi Suzuki1

1
Tokyo University of Science, Yamaguchi, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Sanyo-Onoda 756-0884, Japan

Abstract Heat Input

Two-phase flow loop system using a functional porous heat sink

is proposed as a cooling system of the future power electronic
devices with a heat load exceeding 300W/cm2. In this paper, as Two-
phase Sub-
the first step, the heat transfer performance of the porous heat region channel
sink is evaluated under high heat flux conditions and the
applicability and some engineering issues are discussed. The Porous
porous medium has a functional structure with several sub- medium
Coolant
channels inside it to enhance phase-change as well as discharge (Liquid)
of generated vapor outside the porous medium. This porous
heat sink is attached onto the backside of a heating block and
removes the heat by evaporating cooling water passing through
the porous medium against the heat flow. Experiments using 30
Figure 1 Sub-channels-inserted porous heat sink
kW of heating system show that the heat transfer performance of
a copper-particles-sintered porous medium with the sub-channels
exceeds 800W/cm2 at a wall superheat of approximately 90
degrees and prove that this porous heat sink is applicable enough transfer, by circulating small amount of cooling liquid
for the 300 W/cm2 of power electronic devices. corresponding to the heat input. In this paper, as the first step,
the heat transfer performance of the porous heat sink is evaluated
and the applicability and some engineering issues are discussed.

Two-Phase Flow System using Functional Porous Media

Introduction
Self-cooling system utilizing a capillary pumped heat pipe (CPL)
[1] and/or a looped heat pipe (LHP) [2] is also green heat
transporting one of future electronics devices from the view point
of reduction in energy consumption. These kinds of heat
transporting devices has been developed since 1980s in order to
cool various electronic devices not only in space but also in
ground environments.
On the other hand, with the rapid development of electric
vehicles, the heat-power density generated in an inverter, i.e. heat
flux, has been increased up to a level of 100 W/cm2. For
instance, the heat flux for recent hybrid cars exceeds 100 W/cm2
and this value will conceivably reach and exceed 300 W/cm2 for
the future electric cars.
When applying above-mentioned heat transporting system as the
cooling device of the power electronic devices, the key issue is
the existence of maximum heat transport that depends on the
capillarity. This means that the bottle-neck of vapor-liquid
exchange is a trade-off relationship between capillarity and
permeability of liquid, which makes it extremely difficult to
achieve high heat flux removal exceeding 100 W/cm2.
In this study, two-phase flow system using a functional porous
heat sink is proposed as a cooling system of the future power
electronics devices with a heat load exceeding 300W/cm2.
Although this system is completely different from LHP and CPL
from the view point of using a mechanical pump, quite a low
pumping power operation is possible, unlike usual boiling heat
Against a high heat flux device over 100W/cm2, boiling heat
transfer that utilizes latent heat of vaporization could be one of
realistic solutions. In order to succeed in high heat flux removal
with low pumping power, authors have proposed the heat sink
that utilizes a phase-change of cooling liquid in a metal porous
medium attached onto the back side of high heat flux loaded
equipment firstly such as divertor in fusion reactors [3-9]. This
porous heat sink is a counter type of cooling device that removes
the heat by evaporating the cooling liquid that is pumped against
the heat flow. Of course, there are many papers with regard to
porous heat sinks under flow conditions [e.g. 9-12], the critical
issue is to ease their large pressure loss. To cope with these
difficulties, this porous heat sink enables to actively supply
moderate amount of cooling liquid corresponding to heat input
toward a two-phase region by mechanical pumping and to
evaporate most of the liquid by utilizing the vast heat transfer
surface of porous medium. Furthermore, it also enables long-
distance heat transport by vapor, so that the designer of the E.V.s
doesnt have to take care of the locations of the inverter and
radiator. This system could lead to low flow rate operation and
highly contributes to economic driving of the electric vehicle.
However, there is a greatest concern for utilizing the porous
media as a heat sink that a completely dry region is formed in the
porous medium. This dry region increases thermal resistance
accompanied with the decline in effective thermal conductivity of
the porous medium and, as a result, raise a surface temperature of
the chip. One solution to cope with this difficulty is that sub-

Radiator
Inverter
Vapor flow
Cooling
liquid
P temperature data for each thermocouple is obtained at intervals of
Liquid flow
Pump
Figure 2 Two-phase flow system using metal porous heat sink
channels are installed in the porous medium toward the outlet as
shown in Figure 1. As the sub-channels exist along the heat
transfer surface in a radial direction of cylindrical shape of the
porous medium, the vapor formed near the center is
automatically allowed to discharge outside the porous medium at
the moment when the developed vapor-phase region reaches the
inlets of these channels. It should be noted that these sub-
channels can be installed not only toward the above-mentioned
direction but also toward the axial and some other directions.
Furthermore, its desirable to install a barrier wall between the
vapor-discharging sub-channels and the porous medium in order
to prevent the liquid from directly flowing into the sub-channels.
In the first trial of introducing the sub-channel-inserted (SCI)
porous heat sink, we propose to utilize a pipe as the sub-channel.
It might be possible to completely control vaporization unlike
usual flow boiling heat transfer and to construct the two-phase
flow loop as shown in Figure 2.
High Heat Flux Removal Experiment using Sub-Channels-
Inserted Porous Heat Sink
Fig.ure 3 shows the experimental apparatus. The test section
consists of a copper heat transfer block which is heated by 10
cartridge heaters whose total heat capacity is 30kW, and a
stainless-steal circular pipe with a porous medium inserted into it.
The cross section of the copper heat transfer block is reduced as
shown in Figure 3, and then high heat flux condition is achieved
finally at a circular surface of the cylindrical part of 30 mm in
diameter. By mechanically connecting each of the parts with a
flange of the circular pipe, the porous medium is also
mechanically attached onto this circular surface. The heat transfer
block is cooled by supplying distilled water into the porous
medium with a circulation pump. On the central axis of the
cylindrical block, three sheathed K-type thermocouples of 0.5
mm in diameter are installed in order to estimate a heat flux and a
wall temperature at the center of the interface of the porous
medium and the heat transfer block. The fluid passing through
the porous medium can flow out only from the sub-channels as
shown in Figure 1 and then is discharged through six circular
pipes of 8mm in inner diameter attached to the connection flange.
Figure 3 shows one example of the porous heat sinks that we
have fabricated. In the fabricating process, first, copper pipes
are attached onto the bottom surface of the graphite furnace mold,
and then copper particles are filled around these pipes and
sintered by heating and pressurizing them. The average
diameter of the copper particles used is 500m (the pore size is
below 100m), and the porosity is approximately 30%. The
porous medium is cylindrical in shape, 50mm in diameter and
20mm in height. The copper pipe sub-channels installed have a
structure which orients in a radial direction along the heat
transfer surface. Each sub-channel is 3.0mm in diameter and
20mm long. A total of four sub-channels are installed at an
angle of 90 degrees in a circumferential direction.
As to the experimental procedures, the flow rate is adjusted first
at 21 kg/m2/s or 9.7 kg/m2/s; afterwards, the heat transfer block is
heated up by the cartridge heaters. After the temperatures of the
copper heat transfer block reach a steady state, 1-minute
1.0 seconds. By evaluating of the temperature profile on the
central axis of the heat transfer block, heat flux, q, is estimated by
Fouriers law of heat conduction. Heat transfer coefficient is
also obtained by q/Tsat (Tsat: wall superheat). The inlet
temperatures of the cooling water are 30 and 70 degrees Celsius.
Experiment Results
Heat Transfer Characteristics of SCI Porous Heat Sink
Figure 5 shows the effect of the flow rate on the removal heat
flux. The inlet temperature of the cooling water is 30 deg.
Celsius (the degree of subcooling is 70 K). The horizontal axis
indicates the wall temperature, so that this data corresponds to a
boiling curve of boiling heat transfer. It is confirmed that the
heat flux rapidly increases from around a wall superheat of 30 K
for both the flow rate cases. The maximum heat flux we
confirmed is 816 W/cm2 at a wall superheat of 90.7 K in 21.2
kg/m2/s case and 638 W/cm2 at a wall superheat of 122.7 K in
9.7 kg/m2/s case, respectively. As each experiment was
performed until the temperature of the cartridge heater exceeds
the allowable temperature, this maximum heat flux especially for
Cartridge Heater 3000W 10Tmax=1000
T.C.s
Copper
Brock
Vapor
Water
Water P
Coolant
Figure 3 Experimental setup and Porous heat sink
Sub-
channels
Figure 4 Experimental setup and Porous heat sink
 porous heat sink is quite high and is dramatically enhanced by
1000 installing the sub-channels for vapor discharging. On the other
Tin=30 deg.C hand, in lower flow rate case, there seems to be a critical heat
800 2
9.7 (kg/m /s) flux that is approximately 600 W/cm2 at a wall temperature
Heat Flux (W/cm )
2

21.2 (kg/m2/s) between 170 K and 200 K. This tendency could be conceivably
600 confirmed also in higher flow rate case. After getting the
critical heat flux, the wall temperature rapidly increases as the
400 heat flux increases, which proves that burn out is difficult to take
place when utilizing the porous heat sink. That tendency is one
200 of the advantages of the porous heat sinks. Furthermore, the
heat flux in lower flow rate case seems to be much higher than
0 that in higher flow rate case especially around at a wall
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 temperature of 160 deg. Celsius, which doesnt correspond the
Wall temperature (C) common boiling curve characteristics in a fully-developed
boiling regime. This indicates that there is an optimal flow rate
for enhancing the phase change. Figure 7 shows the effect of
Figure 5 Effect of flow rate on heat flux the degree of subcooling on the removal heat flux. The flow
rate is 21.2 kg/m2/s. The maximum heat flux observed at an
inlet temperature of 70 deg. Celsius is almost the same as that at
an inlet temperature of 30 deg. Celsius. Although, in the
[10 ] 1
5 common boiling heat transfer, the heat flux doesnt depend on the
degree of subcooling in a fully-developed boiling regime, Figure
Heat trans. coef. (W/m /K)

0.8 7 shows different tendency from the common boiling heat

2

transfer characteristics. That is to say, the heat flux obtained at

0.6 higher degree of subcooling is achieved at higher wall superheat
in lower subcooling case. There is a possibility that contact
0.4 resistance generated at an interface of the heat transfer block and
the porous medium affects the result because the temperature
0.2 differences of both the curves seem to increase with the increase
in heat flux. However, the main cause results from the two-
0 phase flow condition because the contact resistance itself could
140 160 180 200 be almost the same for both the cases. Focusing on the outlet
temperature for both the cases as shown in Figure 8, the outlet
Wall temperature (C)
temperature in higher subcooling case is 51.1 deg. Celsius at the
maximum, much lower than the saturated temperature. This
Figure 6 Heat transfer coefficient result suggest that there is quite a thin two-phase region near the
heat transfer surface or that subcooled flow boiling occurs only in
the thin region. Therefore, there conceivably exists a CHF-like
data as shown in lower flow rate case of Figure 5. On the other
1000 hand, in lower degree of subcooling case, there could be much
21.2 (kg/m2/s) bigger two-phase region or a partially or thin dry region is
800 Tin=30 deg.C conceivably formed near the heat transfer surface. In addition
Heat Flux (W/cm )
2

Tin=70 deg.C to that, the effect of thermal contact resistance increases the wall
600 temperature in lower subcooling case. In that sense, in the
present experiments, it seems that we couldnt utilize the latent
400 heat of vaporization to the full extent. Heat transfer
experiments under much lower degree of subcooling is needed to
200 further utilize the latent heat of vaporization, without the thermal

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
100
Wall temperature (C)
Outlet temperature (C)

80
Figure 7 Effect of subcooling on heat flux
60

40
21.2 (kg/m2/s)
higher flow rate case doesnt correspond to a critical heat flux. 20 Tin=30 deg.C
Judging from the past experiments, there is a possibility that the Tin=70 deg.C
heat flux increases up to a wall superheat of 110 K, which
0
indicates that the heat flux probably exceed 1000 W/cm2 in the 0 200 400 600 800
higher flow rate case. This prediction is supported by the 2
evidence that the heat transfer coefficient also increases as the Heat flux (W/cm )
wall temperature increases as shown Figure 6. These results
prove that the heat transfer performance of newly introduced Figure 8 Outlet temperature characteristics
contact resistance at the interface of the porous medium and the
heat transfer block.
300

Heat flux (W/cm )

2
Applicability of SCI Porous Heat Sink to 300W/cm2 class of
Power Electronics Devices 200

As mentioned before, the heat flux from the inverter of the future
electric car will conceivably reach 300 W/cm2. In a practical 100
design of the cooling system, lower pumping power system could
Tin=70 deg.C
be better from the view point of reducing the energy consumption.
In that sense, heat transfer characteristics for various flow rates 0
0 5 10 15 20
should be discussed at a heat flux level of 300 W/cm2. From the
2
data obtained in Figure 7, we fixed the heat input and adjusted M ass flux (kg/m /s)
the flow rate. Considering a practical heat exchanging system,
we set the inlet temperature at 70 deg. Celsius. At first, the
pressure drop produced by this porous heat sink is shown in Figure 10 Heat flux level
Figure 9. It is confirmed that this porous heat sink produces
several dozens kPa of pressure drop. Although this value isnt
small, half a pressure loss could be possible by adjusting the
thickness of the porous medium (e.g. half the thickness is also 150
available). Thinking about the cooling system in hybrid cars,

Wall temperature (C)

the pressure loss by the porous heat sink is acceptable. 145
Furthermore, we dont have to take care of the pressure loss
produced in the other pipings etc because the flow rate itself is
quite a low when utilizing the porous heat sink. Figure 10 140
shows a heat flux level in this experiment, which suggests that
the discussion from now on is valid for heat flux level of
135
250~300 W/cm2. Figure 11 shows the wall temperature for the
flow rate. A remarkable thing is that the decrease in flow rate Tin=70 deg.C
decreases the wall temperature in the flow rate of 10 ~ 20 kg/m2/s 130
unlike the common boiling heat transfer, which naturally 0 5 10 15 20
enhances heat transfer rate. On the other hand, in the range of 5 2
M ass flux (kg/m /s)
~10 kg/m2/s, the wall temperature increases as the flow rate
decreases. This heat transfer enhancement also indicates the
enhancement of the phase-change. In that sense, there could be Figure 11 Wall temperature characteristics
an optimal flow rate that depends on the heat flux. Although the
data obtained is the one before a critical heat flux condition, all
the temperature data is lower than 150 degree Celsius. It should
be noted that the wall temperature shown in Figure 11 includes 100
the thermal contact resistance. These data proves that the
Outlet temperature (C)

present porous heat sink is applicable enough against a SiC-based 80

inverter with a heat flux level of 300W/cm2 heat flux. In
addition, as shown Figure 12, the outlet temperature reaches a 60
saturated temperature with decreasing flow rate. This fact
suggests that a two-phase flow cooling system is possible to 40
establish from the view point of a practical heat exchange to air.
20 Tin=70 deg.C

0
0 5 10 15 20
2
M ass flux (kg/m /s)

60 Tin=70 deg.C
Pressure drop (kPa)

Figure 12 Outlet temperature

40

20 Conclusion
In this study, heat transfer performance and characteristics of a
0 sub-channels-inserted porous heat sink were evaluated by
0 5 10 15 20 25 obtaining a boiling curve-like data. Furthermore, the
2
M ass flux (kg/m /s) applicability of the porous heat sink to the inverter with a heat
flux level of 300 W/cm2 was also discussed. The findings are
summarized as follows.
Figure 9 Pressure loss characteristics
(1) Heat transfer performance of copper-particles-sintered
porous medium with sub-channels enables to remove much
higher heat flux under lower flow rate and lower wall
superheat conditions.
(2) At an inlet temperature of 30 deg. Celsius, a heat flux of 816
W/cm2 is achieved at a wall superheat of 90.7 K in 21.2
kg/m2/s case and 638 W/cm2 at a wall superheat of 122.7 K in
9.7 kg/m2/s case.
(3) Different tendency from the common boiling heat transfer
characteristics was confirmed especially for different
subcooling conditions. That conceivably results from the
structure of a two-phase region and thermal contact resistance.
(4) The present porous heat sink is applicable enough against a
SiC-based inverter with a heat flux level of 300W/cm2 heat
flux.
As the next step, heat transfer experiments under much lower
degree of subcooling is needed to further utilize the latent heat of
vaporization, without the thermal contact resistance between the
porous medium and the heat transfer block. An optimized
design of the sub-channels conceivably depends mainly on heat
input, which suggests that the diameter, length, number, and
shape of the sub-channels is needed to be adjusted along with the
increase of heat flux. We will plan to evaluate these impacts on
the heat transfer performance and characteristics.
References
[1] D. Reay, R. McGlen, P. Kew, Heat Pipes, Sixth Edition:
Theory, Design and Applications, Butterworth-Heinemann,
2011.
[2] K. M. Kota, Design and Experimental Study of an
Integrated Vapor Chamber-Thermal Energy Storage
System, Proquest Umi Dissertation, 2011.
[3] K. Yuki, J. Abei, H. Hashizume and S. Toda, Super-High
Heat Flux Removal Using Sintered Metal Porous Media,
Journal of Thermal Science, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 272-280
(2005).
[4] H. Togashi, K. Yuki, H. Hashizume, Heat transfer
enhancement technique with copper fiber porous media,
Fusion science and technology, vol. 47, no.3, pp. 740-745
(2005).
[5] K. Yuki, J. Abei, H. Hashizume, S. Toda, Numerical
Investigation of Thermofluid Flow Characteristics with
Phase Change against High Heat Flux in Porous Media,
ASME Journal of Heat Transfer, vol. 130, Issue 1, 012602
(2008).
[6] A. Matsui, K. Yuki, H. Hashizume, Dependence of heat
transfer coefficient on porous structure in porous media,
Proceedings of 2008 ASME Summer Heat Transfer
Conference, Paper-no. 56275 (2008).
[7] K. Yuki, H. Hashizume, S. Toda, K. Suzuki, Key issues to
enable heat flux removal exceeding 10MW/m2 by use of
metal porous media as latent-heat transfer device, Special
Topics & Reviews in Porous Media An International
Journal, vol. 1, no.1, pp. 1-13 (2010).
[8] K. Yuki, K. Suzuki, J. Abei, H. Hashizume, S. Toda,
Numerical investigation on heat transfer characteristics in
metal-particle-based porous heat sink by a two-energy
model, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on
Porous Media and its Applications in Science and
Engineering, (2010).
.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

High Heat Flux Cooling Technology for Power Electronics

(Subcooled boiling of water mixture of antifreeze coolants)

K. Suzuki1, K. Yuki1, G. Chen1 and C. Hong2

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Tokyo University of Science-Yamaguchi, Sanyo-onoda, Yamaguchi, 756-0884 Japan
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Tokyo University of Science, Noda, Chiba, 278-8510 Japan

Abstract
Microbubble emission boiling occurs in highly subcooled boiling
in the beginning of transition boiling and the heat flux increases
higher than the critical heat flux. The boiling regime has been
usable for high heat flux cooling technology in power electronics.
The maximum heat flux obtained is higher than 5MW/m2
(500W/cm2) for water under atmospheric condition. Subcooled
pool boiling of water mixture of ethylene-glycol with 50vol%
(52mass%) and 30vol% (32mass %) is investigated under
atmospheric condition for practical use of IC inverter of an
electric vehicle. The maximum heat flux is around 3.4MW/m2
(340W/cm2).for 50vol% at liquid subcooling of 40K and super
heat of heating surface of 95K for an example. The maximum
heat fluxes of the mixture are considerably lower than those of
water and the boiling curves shift to higher temperature of
heating surface. However, those data are useful for the cooling
technology in future power electronics.
[1]. The boiling regime was reported by Inada [2]-[5] in 1981.
The boiling has been called microbubble emission boiling, MEB,
and the maximum heat flux was higher than 10MW/m2
(1kW/cm2) in subcooled flow boiling of water conducted in the
horizontal rectangular channel with small heating surface of
10mm 10mm or less placed on the bottom of channel [1][6].
Figure 2 shows an example of subcooled flow boiling of water
with MEB which is generated in a horizontal rectangular channel.
Microbubble emission boiling is strongly affected by liquid
subcooling , Tsub, as shown in figure 2 [1].
The author proposed a model of high heat flux cooling device
using subcooled boiling with MEB for power electronics [7].

Introduction
Since the beginning of this century, we have serious problems on
the energy resources, natural environment and global warming.
Especially, the reduction of carbon-dioxide is one of the ungent
problems. For this purpose, development of a hybrid vehicle
(HV) and an electric vehicle (EV) has been accelerated in
industrially advanced countries. An IC packaged inverter is
assembled in the power control system. The maximum thermal
emission issued from the electronic inverter has been predicted at
higher than 3MW/m2 (300W/cm2). It is impossible to remove
the high heat flux from the inverter by the conventional cooling
technology that is air cooling or liquid cooling. Figure 1 Boiling curve including MEB
Boiling heat transfer has been well known as a highly efficient
heat transfer technology to transport large amount of heat from a
hot body by latent heat. However, there are difficult problems
to use the boiling heat transfer for the cooling technology in
power electronics. Generally, boiling heat transfer has three
regimes. They are nucleate boiling, transition boiling and film
boiling as shown in figure 1. Nucleate boiling is suitable for the
cooling technology and the critical heat flux, CHF, is the
maximum of nucleate boiling heat transfer. In higher heat flux
region of nucleate boiling, the heating surface is covered with
large coalescing bubbles and liquid-solid contact is disturbed at
CHF. The heating surface begins to dry and the boiling turns to
film boiling through transition boiling with rapid rising of the
surface temperature if the heating surface is continuously heated,
then the surface meets burn-out that is the final stage of boiling
heat transfer. Electronic components have a fatal damage due to Mass flow rate=500kg/m2s (u=0.5m/s)
the high temperature. Channel size;17mmH12mmW150mmL,
In highly subcooled boiling, at higher than 20K under Heating surface; 10mm10mm, Copper
atmospheric condition, the heat flux increases higher than CHF
with microbubble emission in the beginning of transition boiling Figure 2 Effect of liquid subcooling on boiling efficiency [1]
In practice of electric vehicle operation, boiling liquid must be
not frozen under severe cold condition. The present paper
introduces subcooled boiling of the mixture of water and
ethylene-glycol that is widely used in base fluid of anti-freeze
coolants.
Model of high heat flux cooling device [7][8]
For long heating surface with single cooling channel used in EV
inverter, it is difficult to remove heat from the down stream
section of the heating surface because the cooling fluid is heated
as it flows. The CHF and the maximum heat flux decrease with
the length of heating surface as shown in figure 3 [9]. The
authors proposed a model of cooling device with dual channel
and multi-needle nozzle for an inverter used in electric vehicle as
sown in figure 4. The cooling efficiency is shown in figure 5.
The cooling fluid in the subchannel flows counter to the main
channel flow. In high heat flux region, the upstream section of
the hot surface is cooled by the main channel fluid and the down-
stream section is cooled by subcooled jets through the multi-
needle nozzle. The maximum heat fluxes are about 5MW/m2
(500W/cm2) for water in figure 5.
Figure 3 CHF and max. heat flux with length of heating
surface in subcooled flow boiling of water in horizontal
rectangular channel [9]
Figure 4 Model of high heat flux cooling device for power
electronics of EV [7][8]
Figure 5 Efficiency of model high heat flux cooling
device [7]
Experimental setup
Subcooled quasi-pool boiling was carried out for the mixture of
water and ethylene-glycol under atmospheric condition. The
mixtures are 50vol% (52mass%) and 30vol% (32mass%) of
ethylene-glycol, respectively. The saturation temperatures are
108C and 104 C. The experimental setup is shown figure 6.
The boiling vessel is made of stainless steel and transparent glass
windows are fitted for observation. The test liquid is
maintained predetermined temperature within 3K by a heater, a
cooling tube and a stirrer. The stirrer gives weak circulation of
liquid, so the experiment is performed as quasi-pool boiling.
Schematic view of heating block is shown in figure 7. It is
made of copper and consists of straight part of 12mm in diameter
and trapezoidal base. Top of the block is a heating surface of
10mm in diameter and fixed tightly on the bottom of the boiling
vessel by a stainless steel plate of 1mm in thickness with central
hole of 10mm in diameter. The thermal conductivity of
stainless steel is 16kJ/mK and very small, less than 4-5%,
compared with copper. The heat loss from the contact surface
of stainless plate and copper block is estimated less than 2% of
axial heat flow of cooper block.
Five cartridge heaters are inserted in the trapezoidal base of
heating block. The maximum power of the heater is 750W.
Three K-type thermocouples of 0.5mm in diameter are fitted on
the axis of straight part with 3mm, 6mm and 9mm apart from the
heating surface. The surface temperature is estimated by
extrapolating steady state temperature distribution and the heat
flux is calculated by the temperature gradient.
The heating block is covered with thermal insulations. The heat
loss issued from the side surface of straight part is estimated less
than 5% of the axial heat flow.
The heating surface is polished with sand-paper of #500 prior to
experiment.
The boiling is observed by high speed video camera with 150
frames per second. The tests were conducted at liquid
subcooling of 20K, 40K, and 60K for the mixture of 50vol% of
ethylene-glycol and 40K and 60K for the mixture of 30vol%.
Figure 6 Experimental setup for pool boiling of mixture of
water and ethylen-glycol
Figure 7 Schematics of heating block (Cu)
Results and Discussion
Experimental results of subcooled quasi-pool boiling of water
and mixture of ethylene-glycol are shown in figure 8. The
mixtures are 50vol% (52mass%) and 30vol% (32mass%) . The
saturation temperatures are 108C for 50vol% and 104 C for
30vol% of ethylene-glycol concentration. Microbubble
emission boiling is observed in transition boiling in figure 8.
An example of microbubble emissions is shown in figure 9 in
MEB of mixtures of 50vol% ethylene-glycol at liquid subcooling
of 40K. This is typical bubble behaviour in MEB.
The boiling curve shifts to higher superheat of heating surface
with increasing ethylene-glycol concentration at same liquid
subcooling. In subcooled quasi-pool boiling of ethanol and
water mixture at liquid subcooling of 20K, CHF and maximum
heat flux obtained in MEB decrease with ethanol concentration in
figure 10 [10]. CHFs and heat fluxes of MEB at liquid
subcooling of 40K are added into the CHF-Ethanol diagram
shown in figure 10. CHF and heat flux of MEB decrease with
increasing concentration of ethylene-glycol as the case of mixture
of ethanol and water.
Heat transfer coefficient of subcooled boiling of the mixture is
shown in figure 11. Heat transfer becomes poor in the high heat
flux region. Especially it decreases in MEB region.
MEB
CHF
MEB
Figure 8 Boiling curves of subcooled quasi-pool boiling of
water mixture of ethylene-glycol under atmospheric condition
Heating surface
Figure 9 Typical example of MEB
Ethylene-glycol ; 50vol%, Tsub = 40K, Frame rate : 150F/s
According to the experimental investigation on subcooled boiling
of water mixture of ethylene-glycol, microbubble emission
boiling occurs in transition boiling, however it occurs at higher
surface temperature region and the heat fluxes are considerably
lower than that water. So the heat transfer coefficient decreases
in larger heat flux region. The maximum heat flux is about 5.7
MW/m2 (570W/cm2) at surface temperature of 196C for 30vol%
of ethylene-glycol at liquid subcooling of 40K and 3.4MW/m2
(340W/cm2) at surface temperature of 203C for 50vol% at liquid
subcooling of 40K. The heat transfer coefficient is
61,000W/m2K for 30vol% and 36,000W/m2K for 50vol%.
Power IC of SiC packages will be assembled in an inverter of
future electric vehicle in practice. Temperature operation
limitation of SiC is said to be 400 - 450C. The actual
maximum operation temperature of inverter is considered about
200 C. In many cases, water mixture of 50vol% of anti-freezer
is used for a cooling fluid of motor vehicle and it is effective
above -45 ~ -49C. The experimental data are available the
condition but it is expected to extend margin for practical use.
Ethylene-glycol; MEB
10 106
Ethylene-glycol; CHF
Water Tsub=40K, CHF, MEB
Ethylene-glycol 30vol% Tsub=40K, CHF, MEB
Ethylene-glycol 50vol% Tsub=40K, CHF, MEB
Figure 10 CHF and heat flux in MEB of mixtures with
ethylene-glycol concentration
MEB
MEB
Figure 11 Heat transfer coefficient of subcooled quasi-
pool boiling of water mixture of ethylene-glycol
The pool boiling data is the minimum performance for the [7] Suzuki, K., Kawamura, H., Tamura, S., and Maki, H.,
inverter cooling. For the cooling system of EV inverter, flow Subcooled Flow Boiling with Microbubble Emission;
boiling system with radiator or condenser is assembled in
Development for High Heat Flux Cooling Technology in
practice and the maximum cooling heat flux is expectedly
increased higher. For hybrid vehicle, it is convenient to use the Power Electronics, Proc. 13th International Heat Transfer
engine cooling system for the inverter cooling system in electric Conference,2006, CD-ROM BOI-28..
power operation. [8] Japanese Patent, No.4766427, No.4766428, 2011.
[9] Suzuki K., Microbubble Emission Boiling for Compact Heat
Conclusions Exchangers, Proc. 7th International Conference on Enhanced,
Compact and Ultra-compact Heat Exchangers ;Science and
Subcooled quasi-pool boiling of water mixture of ethylene-glycol Technology, 2009,CD-ROM CHE2009-31.
has been investigated under atmospheric condition for the [10] Suzuki K., Yuki K., Hong C. and Ueno I, Acceleration of
cooling technology used in electric vehicle. The mixtures are Microbubble Emission Boiling by Ultrasonic Vibration in
50vol% and 30vol% of ethylene-glycol. Test liquid subcoolings Subcooled Boiling of Water and Ethanol Mixtures
are 20K, 40K and 60K. (Fundamentals on cooling technology for power electronics),
Microbubble emission boiling occurs remarkably in transition Proc. ISTP-21, 2010, CD-ROM ISTP21-IS01-07.
boiling at liquid subcooling of 40K and 60K. However, the
boiling efficiency is considerably low compared with pure water.
Boiling curve of the mixture shifts toward higher superheat with
concentration of ethylene-glycol. Heat fluxes obtained in MEB
are considerably smaller than water and heat transfer coefficient
decreases in MEB region. For the mixture of 50vol% of
ethylene-glycol, CHF is 2.8MW/m2 (280W/cm2) at superheat of
heating surface of 51K (surface temperature of 159 C) and liquid
subcooling of 40K and the maximum heat flux is 3.4MW/m2
(340W/cm2) at superheat of 95K (surface temperature of 203C).
The heat transfer coefficient is 36,000W/m2K. Actually, the
cooling of inverter is performed mainly by nucleate boiling
region. The strong point of MEB is to remove CHF class heat
flux from hot surface without dry out. Accordingly, those data
are considered effective for high heat flux cooling technology in
power electronics of EV use.

References

[1] Suzuki, K. and Inagaki, R., A Fundamental Study on High

Heat Flux Cooling using Subcooled Flow Boiling with
Microbubble Emission, Proc. 5 International Conference on
Enhanced, Compact and Ultra-compact Heat
Exchangers :Science, Engineering and Technology, CD-
ROM, 2005, CHE2005-37.
[2] Inada, S., Miyasaka, Y., Izumi, R. and Owase, Y., A study
on Boiling Curves in Subcooled Pool Boiling (1st Report,
An effect of liquid subcooling on local heat transfer),
Transaction of JSME (in Japanese), Vol.47, No. 417, 1981,
852-861.
[3] Inada, S., Miyasaka, Y., Sakumoto, S. and Izumi, R., A
study on Boiling Curves in Subcooled Pool Boling (2nd
Report, An effect of liquid subcooling on local heat transfer),
Transaction of JSME (in Japanese), Vol.47, No.422, 1981,
2021-2029.
[4] Inada, S., Miyasaka, Y., Izumi, R., A study on Boiling
Curves in Subcooled Pool Boiling (3rd Report, Behaviors of
bubble cluster and temperature fluctuations of heating
surface, Transaction of JSME (in Jamanese), Vol.47, No.422,
1981, 2030-2041.
[5] Inada, S., Miyasaka, Y., Izumi, R., and Kobayashi, M., A
study on Boling Curves in Subcooled Pool Boling (4th
Report; Heat transfer mechanism in transition boiling),
Transaction of JSME (in Japanese), Vol.47, No.423, 1981,
2199-2208.
[6] Kumagai, S., Murata, M., Izumi, M. and Shimada, R., Heat
Transfer Mechanism Based on Temperature Profiles and
bubble Motion in Microbubble Emission Boiling, Proc. 6th
ASME-JSME Thermal Engineering Joint Conference, 2003,
CD-ROM C6-219.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Fluid Transport in Long Heated Sloping Anisotropic Slabs

R. McKibbin
Centre for Mathematics in Industry
Institute of Information and Mathematical Sciences
Massey University, Auckland 0632, New Zealand

Subscripts
Abstract
perpendicular to bedding plane
In a recent article [1] some questions were posed about fluid and = parallel to bedding plane
heat flows in a geologically-stratified groundwater aquifer with a 0 datum value at axes origin
small slope that is subjected to a perpendicular temperature a datum value at upper boundary
gradient. The strength of shear flows in the direction of the c cross-over value
maximum slope and the associated convected heat flux were crit critical value
quantified. This paper continues the discussion, in particular f fluid
about the stability of such flows and the shape and amplitude of
L longitudinal
convective rolls that may form when the critical Rayleigh number
m matrix-fluid mixture value
is exceeded. The models formulated here are for buoyancy- min minimum value
driven fluid flow in long, sloping homogeneous warm-water P at constant pressure
aquifers with anisotropic permeability and thermal conductivity. s solid matrix
SS steady state
Nomenclature T transverse
(SI Units given where appropriate) Superscripts

A matrix (hat) non-dimensionalised quantity

c specific heat [J kg1 K1] * special value (as defined in the text)
D differential operator ( d dz ) ' perturbation
g gravitational acceleration [m s2] a along-slope
H total system thickness [m] c cross-slope
km thermal conductivity [W m1 K1] temp temporary value
K permeability [m2]
Introduction
, m, n wavenumbers [m1]
L roll-width [] Thermal convection in porous media has been extensively
M matrix studied in a variety of settings and applications, and is reviewed
N mesh parameter in comprehensive fashion in [2]. The motionless equilibrium
p fluid pressure [Pa] state of a saturated permeable layer may be stable to thermal
q specific flux [m2 s1] gradients in special cases (horizontal layer, uniform temperature
Ra Rayleigh number [] horizontal boundaries, small enough Rayleigh number, etc.);
s growth rate [s1] however, any thermal non-uniformity on the boundaries or heat
t time [s] sources, or any variation in thermal conductivity that is not
T temperature [K] purely horizontal or vertical, usually provides conditions for
u, v, w fluid specific volume flux components [m s1] convective motion. In particular, non-horizontal heated
W dimensionless flow speed function [] boundaries immediately provide thermal buoyancy forces that
x, y, z spatial coordinates [m] drive the fluid.
Greek symbols Thermally-driven convection in sloping layers
slope angle [radian] Convection in sloping permeable layers has been studied by
thermal expansivity [K1] several authors. In work reported in [3] and [4], both considered
T temperature difference [K] multi-layered systems subjected to uniform vertical salinity
dynamic viscosity [kg m1 s1] and/or temperature gradients. Provided the system Rayleigh
kinematic viscosity [m2 s1] number Ra is not too large in a homogeneous system
permeability anisotropy ( Ra cos < 4 2 , where is the layer slope angle), a steady
thermal conductivity anisotropy stable unicellular convection cell may be established [5, 6, 3, 7],
and the flow far from the ends of a system with a small thickness-
density [kg m3]
to-length ratio will be parallel to the upper and lower boundaries.
streamfunction []
Numerical and experimental investigations of thermally-induced
dimensionless temperature function [] convection in tilted fractures filled with a homogeneous porous
material within an otherwise impermeable slab were reported by
[8]; the temperature and fluid flow profiles were found to be properties is considered. The principal axes of both tensors will
approximately linear across the fracture. be parallel to the Cartesian coordinate axes, with K x = K y = K = ,
Quantification of steady convective motion induced by K z = K , kmx = kmy = km= , kmz = km ; the measure of anisotropy
temperature differences across a sloping porous slab of finite in permeability is given by = K = K , while that for thermal
thickness was provided in [1]. The heat flow is dominated by
conduction, but a small-scale convective motion is induced; this conductivity is = km= km . (Here, the subscript "=" indicates
is additional to any nett through-flow that may present due to a "parallel to the bedding plane", while " " means "perpendicular
small dynamic pressure gradient along the system. Under the to the bedding plane".) The equations describing conservation of
conditions described above, the motion is a flow parallel to the mass, momentum and energy of the fluid within the layer are,
sloping boundaries. A model was formulated for the case where invoking the Boussinesq assumption and neglecting inertia in the
the aquifer system has a layered structure, smooth or discrete, momentum balance (see [2], for example):
due to geological bedding.
u v w
+ + =0
Model formulation x y z
K= p
First, the equations that describe the movement of the fluid and u= a 1 a (T Ta ) g sin
thermal energy are summarized. The steady-state fluid flow and a x
temperature profiles due to natural convection for a sloping K= p
system were found by [1] and are repeated briefly here. v=
a y
The aim is to use the natural bedded structure of such geological (1)
K p
systems to advantage. The results of this model should be w= a 1 a (T Ta ) g cos
applicable to analyzing fluid fluxes and temperature profiles a z
occurring in sloping aquifers. It is worth noting that most T T T T
aquifers have some degree of tilt caused by crustal movement ( c) m = a ca u +v +w
t x y z
after a sequence of alluvial layers is deposited. Use of this
model may enable quantification of resulting natural flows. 2 T 2 T 2 T
+km= 2 + 2 + km 2
x y z
The equations for fluid and heat flow
Consider convection of a fluid (considered here to be a liquid) In the above, u = (u(x, y, z,t),v(x, y, z,t), w(x, y, z,t)) is the fluid

within a sloping porous layer of uniform total thickness H, specific volume flux [(m3 s1) m2 = m s1] (the Darcy velocity),
bounded above and below by plane impervious surfaces (a T (x, y, z,t) [K] is the temperature, f (T ) = a 1 a (T Ta )
schematic is shown in Figure 1). The upper boundary is
maintained at temperature Ta while the bottom boundary is kept [kg m3] is the fluid density, f (T ) [kg m1 s1] is the dynamic
at the higher temperature Ta + T . Cartesian coordinates viscosity of the fluid and p(x, y, z,t) [Pa = kg m1 s2] is the fluid
(x, y, z) are aligned so that the x-axis is parallel to the base of the pressure.
sloping layer and positive in the up-slope direction (angle 0 The specific heat content ( c) m and the thermal conductivity
to the horizontal), while the z-axis is perpendicular to the base of
k m of the fluid-saturated medium (a matrix-fluid "mixture"),
the layer. The gravitational acceleration vector is then given by
g = (g sin ,0,g cos ) . The layer lies between the hotter both subscripted m, may be found by suitably-weighted
combinations of the solid matrix (subscript s) and fluid
bottom boundary at z = 0 and the cooler top surface at z = H.
parameters (subscript f). From [2] for example:

( c) m = (1 )( c)s + ( cP ) f
k m = (1 )k s + k f
z T = Ta, w = 0
where cp(T) [J kg1 K1] is the specific heat of the fluid ),
H [dimensionless] is the matrix porosity, while k s and k m [W m1
u(z, t)
x K1] are the thermal conductivity tensors of the unsaturated and
fluid-saturated porous medium, respectively, and is the unit
T = Ta + T, w = 0 tensor.

0 The density variation (due to thermal expansion) of the fluid is
neglected except in the momentum equation (Darcy's Law),
Figure 1. Schematic cross-section of a sloping aquifer with where it is approximated by f = a [1 a (T Ta )] with
impervious and isothermal boundaries. The x-axis is aligned in a = f (Ta ) [kg m3], where Ta is the (reference) upper
the direction of maximum slope and the z-axis is perpendicular to
it. The temperature of the lower boundary is higher than that of boundary temperature, and a [K1] is the fluid thermal
the upper one. expansivity at T = Ta ; elsewhere, f = a . Likewise, the fluid's
dynamic viscosity, a = f (Ta ) and its specific heat ca = cP (Ta )
Natural bedding of geological aquifer structures induces
anisotropy in permeability and thermal conductivity; the are both assumed constant throughout the system.
parameters will be isotropic in the plane of the bedding (here the
x-y plane). Here, a homogeneous aquifer with averaged
Natural steady-state flow in a sloping system small, are neglected in the last (energy) equation. The two linear
equations for the remaining variables w, T are then:
The relevant equations when there is a steady flow
u = (uSS (z),0,0) parallel to the boundaries, under the influence of 1 2 w 2 w 1 2 w
+ +

temperature distribution TSS (z) and the corresponding K = x 2 y 2 K z 2

pressure pSS (x, z) , were shown in [1] to be as follows: a a g 2 T 2 T 2 T

= cos 2 + 2
sin
a x y x z
(6)
z T T T
TSS (z) = Ta + T 1 ( c) m + a ca uSS (z) w
H t x H
qSS a a TgK = 1 z 2 T 2 T 2 T
uSS (z) = + sin = km= 2 + 2
+ km
H a 2 H x y z 2
(2)
1
pSS (x, z) = p0 a g sin 1 a T + a qSS x where uSS (z) is given by Equation (2).
2 K= H
The variables are non-dimensionalised as follows:
z2
a g cos z a T z
2H x = H x
y = H y
The net volume flux per unit aquifer width due to a background
z = H z
pressure gradient along the aquifer is denoted qSS . Note that
( c) m H 2
these formulae are all independent of the (uniform) thermal t= t (7)
conductivity of the fluid-saturated matrix. The temperature and km
fluid speed are both linear functions of distance across the layer, k
and the pressure gradient is constant along the layer, all as found u = m u( x, y, z, t)
a ca H
in a slightly different configuration as reported in [8].
T = T T ( x, y, z, t)
Instability
The non-dimensionalised Darcy speed parallel to the aquifer is,
The stability criterion for such flows parallel to the sloping from (2):
aquifer boundaries is now explored by considering small-scale
motion superposed on the steady-state flows found above. The
variables are written:
uSS ( z) = Ra * qSS + sin
( 1
2 )
z

(8)

u = (uSS (z) + u(x, y, z,t), v (x, y, z,t), w(x, y, z,t)) a

where qSS = q is the non-dimensionalized nett
p = pSS (x, z) + p(x, y, z,t) (3)
a g a K = H T SS

T = TSS (z) + T (x, y, z,t) a g a ca K = H T

volume flux, while the Rayleigh number Ra * =
a km
with conditions at the lower and upper boundaries given by: is based on the parallel permeability and the perpendicular
w(x, y,0,t) = T (x, y,0,t) = 0 thermal conductivity. After using (7), the non-dimensionalised
(4) form of Equations (6) is:
w(x, y, H ,t) = T (x, y, H ,t) = 0
2 w 2 w 2 w
Substitution into Equations (1) gives, in expanded (scalar) form: 2 + 2 + 2
x y z
u v w
+ + =0 2 T 2 T 2 T
x y z = Ra cos 2 + 2 sin
x y x z
p (9)
= a u + a a g sin T T T
x K=
t (
+ Ra qSS + sin 12 z )
x
w
p
= a v 2 T 2 T 2 T
y K= = 2 + 2 + 2
x y z
p
= a w + a a g cos T (5)
z K The boundary conditions in terms of the dimensionless variables
are:
T
( uSS (z) + u ) x
T w( x, y,0, t) = T ( x, y,0, t) = 0
( c) m = a ca (10)
t T T T w( x, y,1, t) = T ( x, y,1, t) = 0
+ v + w +
y H z
Periodic solutions are sought in the form:
2 T 2 T 2 T
+k= 2 + + km
x
2
y z 2 { w(x, y, z,t),T (x, y, z,t)} (11)
The quantities u, v , p may be eliminated using the first four = {W ( z), ( z)} exp(st + i x + im y)
equations. Products of primed variables, which are assumed
where and m are wave-numbers in the x- and y-direction
respectively, and s is the growth-rate of any such periodic
(
D 2 m2 2 D 2 m2 2

)(
{W ( z), ( z)} = 0
) (14)
perturbation to the steady flow parallel to the aquifer. In general, Ra crit
a
cos m2 2
W and will be complex-valued functions, reflecting phase
angles and/or asymmetry in cell shapes. Substitution from (11) As mentioned above, symmetry indicates that the rolls, with
into (10) gives: dimensionless width Ly = 1 m in the y-direction, will have
vertical planar interfaces. Resolution of the variables in the form
D 2 ( 2 + m2 ) 2 W ( z)
of Fourier series that satisfy the boundary conditions shows that
( )
= Ra 2 + m2 2 cos i sin D ( z) (12) the equations for the components are separable. Hence we seek
non-trivial solutions of the form An sin n z ( An 0 , n = 1, 2, 3,
SS 2 (
s + Ra q + sin 1 z i
) ) which satisfy the boundary conditions (n is the wavenumber
( z) = W ( z) perpendicular to the slab plane); substitution gives an expression
D ( + m )
2 2 2 2
for the critical Rayleigh number for the (m,n) mode:

d (n2 + m2 )(n2 + m2 ) 2
where D is a differential operator: D . The boundary values a
Ra crit cos = (15)
dz m2
are W (0) = W (1) = (0) = (1) = 0 .
The minimum value is taken at n = 1 , m = ( )1 4 , with
The planform of the perturbation to the steady recirculation
( )
2
motion up and/or down slope is assumed to be one of two types: a
Ra crit cos = + 2 , as expected [5]. Then,
min
counter-rotating rolls with their axes along-slope (i.e. in the x-
direction), or counter-rotating rolls with their axes aligned cross-
( )
2
a
Ra crit = + 2 cos , showing that, for rolls with
slope (in the y-direction). Symmetry considerations indicate that min

the along-slope rolls will have vertical interfaces parallel to the x- their axes parallel to the slope for a homogeneous slab, the
z plane, but the cross-roll interfaces are unlikely to be planar, critical Rayleigh number increases with increasing slope angle ,
even for a uniform layer. Storesletten & Tveitereid [9]
but the wavenumber (cell-width Ly = 1 m = ( )1 4 ) remains
investigated a similar problem, but with permeability isotropy in
the transverse (perpendicular) plane (with Kx = KL , constant.
K y = K z = K T , the measure of anisotropy in permeability given For a given dimensionless cell-width Ly = 1 m , the small-
by = K L K T ), while the thermal conductivity was considered amplitude steady perturbations to the steady-state parallel flow
completely isotropic ( kmx = kmy = kmz = km , and = 1 ). They may be written in the form:
found that, for 0 < < 1 , the smallest critical Rayleigh number { w( y, z),T ( y, z)} = {W ( z), ( z)} cos m y (16)
was for along-slope rolls. For > 1 , cross-slope rolls were
preferred for small enough slope angles < c , and along-slope with projections of streamlines onto the y-z plane given by level
surfaces of a dimensionless stream-function defined by
rolls for > c , where the angle c , at which the critical sin m y
Rayleigh numbers for both modes are equal, depends on the ( y, z) = W ( z) . Note that from the non-
m
value of .
v w
dimensionalised first equation of (1), + = 0 ; the stream-
An investigation of three-dimensional stability in a horizontal y z
layered system was reported in some detail in [10], but it is function so defined gives the perturbation velocity components in
unclear how the conclusions would apply to a sloping system. A the form:
sloping homogeneous and isotropic layer with isoflux lower and
upper boundary conditions was considered in [11], while the dW ( z) sin m y
v = = ,
effects of thick conducting boundaries on the planform of slightly z dz m (17)
supercritical flows were investigated in [12]. Until some idea
about what flows may be possible in the sloping system w = = W ( z)cos m y
z
considered here, such detailed analyses will have to wait; hence
the simpler approach taken here. Examples appear later in this paper.

Rolls with axes along-slope Rolls with axes cross-slope

In the first case, solutions are sought for steady small-amplitude The other case is that of steady small-amplitude rolls that have
rolls that have their axes aligned along-slope (in the x-direction). their axes aligned cross-slope (in the y-direction). This
This corresponds to s = 0 and wave-number = 0 , and to a corresponds to s = 0 and wave-number m = 0 . Then the
critical Rayleigh number Ra = Ra crit
a
, where the superscript "a" equations (12) become:
indicates along-slope rolls. Then the equations (12) become:
(D 2
)
2 2 W ( z)
(D 2 2
)
m W ( z) = Ra
2 a
crit
cos m ( z)
2 2

(13)
( )
= Ra ccrit 2 2 cos + i sin D ( z) (18)
(D 2 2 2
)
m ( z) = W ( z) Ra c
crit
q + sin ( z ) i
SS
1
2
( z) = W ( z)
Note that these equations and hence their solution do not depend + ( D ) 2
2 2

on the sub-critical, conduction flow pattern. Elimination allows

them to be written in the form:
where the boundary values are W (0) = W (1) = (0) = (1) = 0 . L = L*min and the corresponding Rayleigh number is labelled
The solutions now depend on the "conduction" flow pattern on
Ra *crit min = Ra crit ( L*min ) .
which the rolls are superposed. The rolls generally do not have a
rectangular cross-section, but have a repetition length Lx = 1
that may be loosely called a cell width. Illustrative examples

General case Lack of space prevents an exhaustive catalogue of results. A few

The equations for cross-slope rolls must be solved numerically.
Here, matrix techniques are used. A uniform mesh is defined:
z j = ( j 1)z , j = 1, , N + 1 , where z = 1 N . Equations
(18) are discretised using finite difference approximations for the
functions and their derivatives [here, standard central difference
formulae with errors O((z)2 ) are used]. The Equations (18) are
then written in the form:
MW W = Ra ccrit M
(
)
Ra ccrit M u + M = W
where MW , M , M u , M are ( N + 1) ( N + 1)
matrices and W , are ( N + 1) 1 vectors of the variable values
in 0 z 1 . With elimination, a system of simultaneous
equations for the components of the vector is given by:
MW M = Ra ccrit ( M + MW M u )
The solution that corresponds to the smallest eigenvalue as well
as the correct boundary conditions is sought. In general, for a
given matrix A, the eigenvalue with smallest magnitude
corresponds to the largest eigenvalue of the inverse matrix A1 ,
both with the same eigenvector. Here, an iterative approach is
used, the so-called Power Method, which produces the solution
are shown in Table 1, where a comparison is made between
results for an isotropic layer and those for a layer with anisotropy
in either permeability or thermal conductivity, but not both. All
the systems are assumed to have longitudinal length and lateral
width that are large compared to their thickness, so that there is
no constraint on roll-width.
Example A is for an isotropic medium, while each of B and C are
for anisotropy in only one of the parameters. For the isotropic
layer, the along-slope rolls have reflective symmetry in counter-
rotating pairs, with a square roll outline. The critical Rayleigh
(19) number increases with slope angle but the cell-width does not
change. However, for the particular case = 0.2 , the cross-
slope rolls have a slightly larger critical Ra than along-slope rolls
coefficient and a slightly larger cell-width. This trend was confirmed by
using a variety of slope angles; a more comprehensive set of
calculations is still underway.
Figure 2 shows the (non-dimensional) steady-state parallel flow
and temperature for the case when there is zero net fluid flux
( qSS = 0 ); these are the same for all cases, with up-flow in the
lower region balanced by down-flow near the upper boundary.
For both anisotropic cases, = 1, = 2 (Example B in Table 1)
and = 2, = 1 (Example C), onset cell-widths are the same for
along-slope rolls ( Ly = 1 m = ( )1 4 = 21 4 ), but corresponding
critical Ra and cell-widths are both greater for cross-slope rolls.

( )
This appears to indicate, at least for the examples shown here,
(M
+ MW M u ) = Ra
1
1 1
of M M W
corresponding to the
c
crit that along-slope rolls are (at least, marginally) preferred as a

largest eigenvalue. For a given x-wavenumber (which convective instability mechanism.
corresponds to rolls with dimensionless width Lx = 1 ), an Isotherm perturbations and associated streamfunction
initial approximation for = (1) is made, suitably normalized perturbations, together with streamsurfaces for slightly
supercritical flow, are shown for Examples A and C. Figures 3, 4
[here, (z * ) = 1 , where, typically, z * = 0.5 ]. At the nth iteration and 5 show the patterns for small-amplitude cross-slope rolls for
a homogeneous system (Example A); Figures 6, 7 and 8 show the
a temporary intermediate value temp is calculated and then used
patterns for the anisotropic case = 2, = 1 (Example C).
to refine the value of Ra crita
by using the ratio of values of at

z = z * between successive stages:
Table 1. Some values of critical Rayleigh number and associated
temp = M1 MW1 ( M + MW M u ) ( n) "roll-width" for specified anisotropies. The slope angle is

( )
Ra c(critn+1) = ( n)
( z=z*)
(
temp
( z=z*)
) (20)
= 0.2 radians (11.5). Superscripts "a" and "c" refer to along-
slope and cross-slope rolls respectively.


( n+1) c( n+1) temp
= Ra crit

(
temp )

( z=z*) Example A B C

until there is convergence. At that point, the critical Rayleigh 1 1 2

number and the temperature profile are known, although with an
unknown amplitude, because the system of differential equations 1 2 1
system is linear and homogeneous. The associated vector of
perpendicular speeds is related to the temperature profile by: a
Lmin 1.0 1.189 1.189
1
W = Ra c
crit
M M
W
(21)
a
Ra crit min
cos 4 2 1.0 1.457 1.457
Minimum critical Rayleigh number
c
For each layer configuration, the critical Rayleigh number Lmin 1.0092 1.196 1.220
depends on cell-width L (or wavenumber L ). The minimum
critical Rayleigh number is found by varying L and finding the Ra ccrit min cos 4 2 1.0327 1.515 1.547
smallest value of Ra crit ( L) . The associated cell-width is
Figure 2. The non-dimensional steady-state (conductive)
temperature distribution (dashed line) and the associated non-
dimensional steady-state parallel fluid flow speed (continuous
line) for the case of zero net fluid flux ( qSS = 0 ). Slope angle
= 0.2 radians.
Figure 3. Isotherms of the temperature perturbation for the
isotropic system = 1, = 1 (Example A in Table 1) when
cross-slope rolls only are initiated. Note: red = high, blue = low.
This is a projection perpendicular to the y-axis.
Figure 4. Isosurfaces of the streamfunction perturbation
corresponding to Figure 3. Note: red = anticlockwise.
Figure 5. Streamlines (projections of streamsurfaces) for slightly
supercritical flow for the isotropic case when cross-slope rolls
only are initiated (see Figures 3 and 4 for the perturbations to the
steady parallel flow). Note: red = anticlockwise.
Figure 6. Isotherms of the temperature perturbation for the
anisotropic system = 2, = 1 (Example C in Table 1) when
cross-slope rolls only are initiated. Note: red = high, blue = low.
This is a projection perpendicular to the y-axis.
Figure 7. Isosurfaces of the streamfunction perturbation for the
anisotropic case corresponding to Figure 6. Note: red =
anticlockwise.
Figure 8. Streamlines (projections of streamsurfaces) for slightly
supercritical flow for the anisotropic case = 2, = 1 when
cross-slope rolls only are initiated (see Figures 6 and 7 for the
perturbations to the steady parallel flow). Note: red =
anticlockwise.
The "pattern repetition length" in the x-direction is 2 Lc min . In
Example A this is 2.018, and in Example C it is 2.440. The rolls
interact with the background flow, with the stronger (red-centred)
rolls moving anticlockwise "boosted" by the up-slope
background flow near the lower boundary while the (blue-
centred) clockwise rolls are weakened.
Summary & Conclusions
This paper describes some simple mathematical models that can
be used to compute the instability criterion for a fluid flowing
within a sloping permeable matrix heated from below. While the
initial motivation was in the context of warm groundwater
aquifers, the analysis may be applied in general to sloping
permeable slabs.
The systems are assumed homogeneous, but may be anisotropic
in permeability and thermal conductivity, with principal
directions parallel to the Cartesian coordinate axis defined above.
A positive temperature difference between the lower and upper
boundaries of a sloping system induces a counterflow closely
aligned to the slope [1]; this flow is stable provided the system
Rayleigh number is not too large. This study outlines a method
for finding the criterion for instability of such a counterflow, in
particular when conditions are such that along-slope or cross-
slope rolls may be initiated.
It appears, for the cases described and for others studied so far,
that along-slope rolls have a lower critical Rayleigh number than
cross-slope rolls. For slightly supercritical conditions, along-
slope rolls have the same cross-sectional shape as for a horizontal
layer with the same anisotropy parameters, but the critical
Rayleigh number increases with slope. Cross-slope rolls, if
initiated, are distorted by the background flow parallel to the
slope direction, with increased strength of those that are moving
upslope in their lower regions.
With regard to transport of pollutants and/or tracers by the flow,
the present work indicates that the direction of such transport
would depend strongly on the depth at which any species is
injected. Quantification of such transport depends on using the
fluid flow profiles (as established in [1]) with any convective
motion superposed. It is likely that any species released into a
supercritical system would be moved along a pathway that may
be possibly closed under some conditions, but which more
generally would "corkscrew" along the layer.
Work in progress includes quantification of instability criteria for
more general (discretely or continuously) layered systems, and
estimation of flow paths for injected species.
References
[1] McKibbin, R., Hale, N., Style, R.W. and Walters, N.,
Convection and heat transfer in layered sloping warm-water
aquifers. J. Porous Media, 14, 2011, 329343.
[2] Nield, D.A. and Bejan, A., Convection in Porous Media, 3rd
Edition, Springer, 2006.
[3] Ludvigsen, A., Palm, E. and McKibbin, R., Convective
momentum and mass transport in porous sloping layers, J.
Geophys. Res., 97, 1992, 1231512325.
[4] Trew, M. and McKibbin, R., Convection in anisotropic
inclined porous layers, Transp. Porous Media, 17, 1994,
271283.
[5] Bories, S.A. and Combarnous, M.A., Natural convection in
a sloping porous layer, J. Fluid Mech., 57, 1973, 6379.
[6] Caltagirone, J.P. and Bories, S., Solutions and stability
criteria of natural convective flow in an inclined porous
layer, J. Fluid Mech., 155, 1985, 267-287.
[7] Mullis, A.M., Natural convection in porous, permeable
media: sheets, wedges and lenses, Marine and Petroleum
Geology, 12, 1995, 17-25.
[8] Medina, A., Luna, E., Prez-Rosales, C. and Higuerra, F.J.,
Thermal convection in tilted porous structures, J. Phys.:
Condensed Matter, 14, 2002, 2467-2474.
[9] Storesletten, L. and Tveitereid, M., Rayleigh-Bnard
convection in an inclined plane with anisotropic
permeability. ADH-serien 63, Agder Distriktshgskole, N-
4604 Kristiansand, Norway, 1993. ISBN: 82-7117-277-8
[10] Rees, D.A.S. and Riley, D.S., The three-dimensional
stability of finite-amplitude convection in a layered porous
medium heated from below, J. Fluid Mech., 211, 1990,
437-461.
[11] Rees, D.A.S. and Barletta, A., Linear instability of the
isoflux Darcy-Bnard problem in an inclined porous layer,
Trans. Porous Media, 87, 2011, 665-678.
[12] Rees, D.A.S. and Mojtabi, A., The effect of conducting
boundaries on weakly nonlinear Darcy-Bnard convection,
Transp. Porous Media, 2011.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Study of characteristics for water curtain jet cooling on hot rolled plate

Seongkyu See1, Matthias Militzer2 and Vladan Prodanovic2

1
Process Engineering Research Group,
POSCO, Pohang, P.O.Box 36, Korea
2
Department of Metals and Materials Engineering,
University of British Columbia, 6350 Stores Road, Vancouver, BC, Canada

Abstract
The objective of the study is a systematic experimental analysis
of water curtain jet cooling of hot rolled plates with different
flow rates, nozzle gaps and nozzle to plate distance. Experiments
were performed on a pilot scale run-out table with a moving bed.
The stainless steel test plates were conveyed through the cooling
section of the facility at a speed of 1 m/s. A single nozzle with a
gap of 3, 5 or 10 mm, and located at a distance of either 400 mm
or 1000 mm above the top surface of the plate provided a planar
jet for cooling. Experimental data collected during experiments
included thermocouple signals for temperature measurements of
the plate, water flow rate, water temperature and speed of plate.
In addition video images during cooling of the steel plates were
collected using a high-speed camera. Temperature data were
processed using an Inverse Heat Conduction Model (2D finite
element) to calculate the corresponding surface heat fluxes. Heat
flux data were integrated over a specified area to calculate the
amount of heat extracted from the test plate under different
experimental conditions.
The result show that the effect of flow rate on the peak heat
fluxes and extracted heat is, in general, such that a larger flow
rate will produce larger peak heat fluxes in the higher
temperature range (i.e. over 450 ). In the lower temperature
range the differences are negligible. For the same flow rate and
nozzle to plate distance the experiments performed with a smaller
nozzle gap will generally result in higher heat extraction rate. A
number of observations outlined above can be addressed in
relation to the jet impingement velocity obtained on the surface
of the plate.
Introduction
Experimental Apparatus and Procedures
The pilot scale run-out table, located in the Centre for
Metallurgical Process Engineering at the University of British
Columbia (UBC) in Vancouver, Canada has been constructed to
accommodate experiments very close to industrial cooling
conditions. A hydraulic moving bed carries the test plates
through the cooling section where various, industrial size nozzles
can be employed. The main components of the facility, as shown
in Figure 1, are the electric furnace (1), the hydraulic motor (2)
which controls the motion of the test bed (3), and the cooling
section (4), an overhead water tank equipped with an electric
heater for control of the water temperature, a network of water
lines feeding the water into the header, and the bottom water tank
for collecting the water used for cooling. During the test, a
controlled amount of water is circulated in the cooling section via
water pump in a closed loop. A detailed description of the
facility, instrumentation of plates, test procedures and analysis of
the accuracy of experimental data can be found elsewhere [2].
The cooling section for the present experiments consists of a
header and a single planar nozzle attached to the bottom of the
header. This design allows the use of the same header with
various nozzles and 3 different planar nozzles with slot widths of
3, 5 or 10 mm were used in these experiments. The length of the
slot was 300 mm for all 3 nozzles. The header is connected to a
water line with a flow meter which monitors the flow rate into
the header. Figure 2 depicts the header box with the planar nozzle
and Figure 3 shows the water curtain in operation. During water
curtain experiments the nozzle-to-plate distance was varied
between 400 mm or 1000 mm.

Run-out table cooling of steel products after hot rolling is

recognised as one of the critical steps for the control of
microstructure and mechanical properties of steel strips and 4
plates. The strip or plate is cooled by an array of water jets
impinging on the surface of steel. Different types of nozzles and
different cooling arrangements can be employed during the 1
production of hot rolled products which will result in various, 3
2
generally very high cooling rates. These high cooling rates are
achieved by boiling of water in contact with steel. Depending on
the surface temperature of the strip or plate as well as a number
of other parameters, such as water temperature or water flow Figure 1. Schematic of the pilot scale run-out table
rates, for example, different cooling patterns on the surface of
steel can be observed [1] and detailed knowledge of boiling heat
transfer during jet impingement is necessary to further improve
this processing stage.
A limited number of experimental studies are available in the
open literature that deals with jet impingement boiling with
industrial scale jets. The objective of this study is the
experimental investigation of jet impingement using planar jets
(water curtain). The experiments were carried out on a pilot scale
facility using industrial size nozzles.

Figure 2. The header box with installed nozzle
Figure 3. Water curtain in operation
The process parameters controlled during experiments include
the speed of the moving bed, water temperature and water flow
rate. In the present experiments the speed of the moving bed and
the water temperature were kept constant at 1 m/s and 25
respectively whereas the flow rate was varied along with the
nozzle width and nozzle-to-plate distance. Three different flow
rates (180 l/min, 360 l/min and 470 l/min) were employed.
Test plates were made of stainless steel (304 L) and instrumented
with internal thermocouples for temperature measurements. The
size of test plates was 305x584mm and a thickness 19.05 mm.
In preparation for the experiment the test plate was placed into
the furnace and heated up to temperature above 900. Before
the start of an experiment, the speed of the moving bed, water
temperature and water flow rate were adjusted to obtain the
required values. The test plate was, subsequently, removed from
the furnace, placed on the guides of the moving bed and driven
through the test section where cooling takes place. Multiple
passes through the test section simulated the cooling process on
the runout table. The internal temperatures at the various
locations, all at the depth of about 1mm inside the plate, were
collected during experiments. Surface temperatures and surface
heat fluxes were subsequently calculated for each temperature
data point using the UBC Inverse Heat Conduction code [3].
Typical graphs of the surface temperatures and heat fluxes
obtained during experiments are shown in Figures 4 and 5
respectively. During each pass through the cooling section the
plate cools down which is indicated by a dip in the surface
temperature. It should be noted that this large temperature drop
can be observed only close to the surface. Inside the plate the
temperature, although also decreasing, remains much higher than
the surface temperature which is due to the limited thermal
conductivity of steel. After the test plate has left the cooling
section, the surface temperature rebound as heat, due to
temperature difference, is supplied from the inside of the plate. In
the same way, the surface heat flux increases dramatically during
a pass through the cooling section reaching peak values in the
order of 2-5 MW/m2 but drops quickly after the test plate has left
the cooling section.
Figure 4. Variation of surface temperature with time for multiple
passes during the experiment performed at a flow rate of 360
l/min, nozzle gap of 5 mm and nozzle-to-plate distance of 400
mm.
Figure 5. Variation of heat flux with time for multiple passes
during the experiment performed at a flow rate of 360 l/min,
nozzle gap of 5 mm and nozzle-to-plate distance of 400 mm.
Two types of data were chosen to compare different cooling
conditions: a) Peak heat fluxes (PHF), in MW/m2; b) Heat
extracted per unit area, in MJ/m2. Peak heat fluxes are maximum
surface heat fluxes obtained during a pass through the cooling
section. Peak heat fluxes can be linked to corresponding surface
temperatures to obtain a form of a boiling curve. The extracted
heat represents the amount of energy removed from the test plate
during each pass.
To obtain the heat extracted per unit area the following procedure
was employed: Upon obtaining the local heat fluxes, the average
heat flux was found by integration over distance for the sequence
of thermocouples in the lateral direction. This represents the heat
flux across the width of the test plate at any instant during the
experiment. Next, the average heat flux was integrated over time
for the duration of a pass of the plate under a header. One data
point is generated for each pass and it represents the amount of
heat extracted per unit area (J/m2) during the pass of the plate
under the header. Heat extraction is plotted as a function of the
entry temperature which is the temperature of the plate at
entrance to the cooling section. These two parameters allow for
comparison of different cooling conditions.
Results and Discussion
a) Effect of water flow rate
The effect of flow rate on peak heat fluxes (PHF) and extracted
energy is evident in the higher temperature range (i.e. over 450
). A larger flow rate will produce larger peak heat fluxes, as
seen in Figure 6. In the lower temperature range, belonging to
nucleate boiling, the differences are negligible. The variation of
extracted heat with flow rate for the same 3 experiments is shown
in Figure 7 and similar trends can be observed.
Figure 6. Effect of the flow rate on PHF for experiments with
small nozzle gap and low nozzle position
Figure 7. Effect of the flow rate on the extracted energy for
experiments with small nozzle gap and low nozzle position
The graphs in figures 6 and 7 show 3 experiments carried out
with the nozzle-to-plate distance of 400 mm and nozzle gap of
3mm. It is of interest to see if same observations can be made for
the effect of flow rate if the gap of the nozzles of the nozzle-to-
plate distance has changed. Based on experimental data following
can be concluded:
1. If the nozzle-to-plate distance is increased from 400 mm to
1000 mm for the same experiments as in figures 6 and 7, same
trends can be observed except that the difference between the
values of PHF or extracted energy for different experiments
becomes smaller.
2. Experiments similar to those in figures 6 and 7 but with the
nozzle gap of 5 mm show similar behavior as experiments with
nozzle gap of 3 mm.
3. Different behavior is observed if the gap is increased to 10
mm. Tests carried out at higher flow rate show that less cooling
occurred (Figures 8 and 9).
Figure 8. Effect of the flow rate on PHF for experiments with
large nozzle gap and high nozzle position
Figure 9. Effect of the flow rate on extracted energy for
experiments with large nozzle gap and high nozzle position
In an attempt to explain the different trends observed with large
nozzle gap experiments compared to those with smaller gap, we
looked into the variation of nozzle velocities and jet impingement
velocities. For a given flow rate, the jet through a 10 mm gap has
the lowest nozzle velocity and impingement velocity, and the
largest width of the stagnation zone of all three nozzles. The jet is
generally weaker and will easier get distorted at a larger
nozzle-to-plate distance. It is, hence, very likely that the observed
variation of peak heat fluxes can be attributed to the variation of
the jet impingement velocities, as shown in Figure 8.
The water jet accelerates over the distance between the nozzle
and the plate due to effects of gravity, as shown in equation 1.
2
= + 2 (1)
For larger nozzle-to-plate distances the acceleration of gravity
will play a more significant role making the contribution of this
term more important than the nozzle velocity and the variation of
heat fluxes based on the variation of flow rates will be less
pronounced. Hence, the variation of peak heat fluxes with flow
rate in the case of nozzle height of 1000 mm is smaller than in
the experiments performed at the height of 400 mm. The jet
impingement velocities and width of stagnation zone have been
calculated for the water curtain experimental matrix and
presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Impingement velocities for water curtain experiments

Flow Gap Nozzle Nozzle Impinge Width of
rate size velocit to plate ment the
(l/min) (mm) y (m/s) distance velocity stagnation
(m) (m/s) zone (mm)

180 3 3.3 0.4 4.4 2.3

360 3 6.7 0.4 7.2 2.8

470 3 8.7 0.4 9.1 2.9 Figure 10. Effect of impingement velocity on PHF for
experiments with a nozzle gap of 3 mm
180 5 2 0.4 3.4 2.9

360 5 4 0.4 4.9 4.1

As an illustration, depicted on Figure 13 are the extracted
470 5 5.2 0.4 5.9 4.4 energies for all experiments performed with the gap of 10 mm. A
rather important observation in this figure is also that all 3
180 10 1 0.4 3.0 3.4 experiments (3 different flow rates) at the lower nozzle-to-plate
distance of 400 mm show very large energy extraction rate in the
360 10 2 0.4 3.4 5.8 lower temperature range. No explanation for this phenomenon is
provided at this point.
470 10 2.6 0.4 3.8 6.8

180 3 3.3 1 5.5 1.8

b) Effect of nozzle gap on cooling
360 3 6.7 1 8.0 2.5 For two experiments performed at the same flow rate and same
height (nozzle to plate distance) the variation of the nozzle gap is
470 3 8.7 1 9.8 2.7 predominantly linked to the variation of jet impingement velocity
and the size of the stagnation zone. Here, the observed trends are
180 5 2 1 4.9 2.1
similar for both the low flow rate and low distance, as well as for
360 5 4 1 6.0 3.4 high flow rate and distance experiments. The experiments with
smallest gap almost always produce the highest peak heat fluxes.
470 5 5.2 1 6.8 3.8 Similar conclusion can be drawn for the extracted energy. The
results are illustrated for the experiments performed with the flow
180 10 1 1 4.5 2.2 rate of 470 l/min and nozzle-to-plate distance of 1000 mm in
Figures 11 and 12.
360 10 2 1 4.9 4.1

470 10 2.6 1 5.1 5.1

The variation of heat fluxes for all 6 experiments performed with

the same nozzle gap (i.e. 3 mm) is illustrated in Figure 10. The
trend is obvious, i.e. an increase of jet impingement velocity
leads to larger PHF. However, In the case of the gap of 10 mm,
the high flow rates may mitigate the cooling efficiency two-fold:
a) large amount of water deposited on a plate may create a pool
which, given lower impingement velocities of the jet, may inhibit
heat transfer rates and, b) thick profile of the jet results in
splashing of water without significant cooling effect.
Figure 11. The effect of nozzle gap on peak heat fluxes at a high
flow rate of 470 l/min, and high nozzle-to-plate distance

Figure 12. The effect of nozzle gap on extracted energy at a high
flow rate of 470 l/min, and high nozzle-to-plate distance
c) Effect of nozzle-to-plate distance on cooling
The variation of peak heat fluxes with nozzle-to-plate distance
for 3 different nozzle gaps is illustrated in Figure 13, for the flow
rates of 180 l/min, 360 l/min and 470 l/min. At the flow rate of
180 l/min, the increase of the impingement velocity plays a major
role in increasing the peak heat fluxes. The extracted heat in the
high temperature range at a nozzle-to-plate distance of 1000 mm
is also larger than for corresponding experimental conditions at a
nozzle-to-plate distance of 400 mm. The opposite effect can be
observed in the lower temperature region where the extracted
heat at a nozzle-toplate distance of 400 mm is larger than at
1000mm. These trends may change with an increase of the flow
rate. When comparing the experiments carried out at 360 l/min
one can observe the inverse effect for the nozzle gap of 10 mm
where the experiment at 400 mm results in higher heat fluxes
than the corresponding experiment at 1000 mm. The change of
trend, which is only indicated in the 360 l/min experiments,
becomes obvious for the 470 l/min experiments where
experiments with the nozzle gap of 5 mm and 10 mm all clearly
show higher peak heat fluxes at 400 mm than 1000 mm. Same
conclusion can be drawn for heat extraction. It can be shown that,
with an increase of flow rate, the experiments carried out at 400
mm result in larger extracted energy than corresponding
experiments at 100 mm.
a) Flow rate 180 l/min
b) Flow rate 360 l/min
c) Flow rate 470 l/min
Figure 13. Variation of peak heat flux with nozzle-to-plate
distance for 3 different nozzle gaps (variation with impingement
velocity) for the flow rate of 180 l/min, 360 l/min and 470 l/min
Conclusion
A total of 18 experiments were carried out at 3 different flow
rates (180, 360 and 470 l/min), 3 different nozzle gaps (3 mm, 5
mm and 10 mm) and 2 different nozzle-to-plate distances (400
mm and 1000 mm) using the speed of plate of 1.0 m/s and water
temperature of 25 . We can conclude that:
- The effect of flow rate on the peak heat fluxes and extracted
energy is, in general, such that a larger flow rate will produce
larger peak heat fluxes in the higher temperature range (i.e. over
450 ). In the lower temperature range the differences are
negligible. In some cases a reversed effect has been observed, i.e.
large amount of water (high flow rates) did not always produce
higher values for heat fluxes or extracted heat. This can be
attributed to splashing as well as the water layer that build-up on
the surface of the plate, which may inhibit heat transfer.
- For the same flow rate and nozzle to plate distance the
experiments performed with a smaller nozzle gap will result in
higher heat extraction rate.
- The effect of the nozzle to plate distance can be two-fold and it
depends on the flow rate. If lower flow rates are employed,
increasing the distance from to plate will increase the heat
extraction but the effect may be opposite with higher flow rates.
A number of observations outlined above can be addressed by
analyzing the jet impingement velocity obtained on the surface of
the plate. This approach couples the effect of the flow rate,
nozzle to plate distance and nozzle gap. Higher flow rates,
smaller gap and larger nozzle to plate distance will produce
higher jet impingement velocity and for most cases a higher jet
impingement velocity will increase the heat transfer. If, however,
the flow rate is very high and large amounts of water are
deposited on the plate such that the jet impingement velocity is
not sufficiently large to penetrate through the water layer built on
the surface, the heat transfer rate may be reduced (for example
these observations are made in experiments with the gap of 10
mm, nozzle to plate distance of 1000 mm and flow rate of 470
l/min). A contributing factor in these cases may be that a large
nozzle to plate distance results in significant jet distortion and
splashing.
References
[1] D.H. Wolf, F.P. Incropera, and R. Viskanta, Jet International Conference on Thermomechanical Processing
impingement boiling, Advances in Heat Transfer, Vol. 23, of Steel, Liege, Belgium, July 2004, pp. 25-32.
1993, pp. 1-132.
[3] P. Zhang, Study of Boiling Heat Transfer on a Stationary
[2] V. Prodanovic, D. Fraser, M. Militzer, Simulation of Downward Facing Hot Steel Plate Cooled by a Circular
Runout Table Cooling by Water Jet Impingement on Water Jet, M.A.Sc. Thesis, University of British Columbia,
Moving Plates A Novel Experimental Method, 2nd Vancouver, BC, 2004.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Experimental Study on the Critical Friction Velocity for Wind-brown Sand
with High-speed Visualization and PIV Measurement
K. Sugiyama, K. Otakeguchi, F.S. Yang, T. Tsukahara, and Y. Kawaguchi
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Tokyo University of Science, Yamazaki 2641, Noda, Chiba 278-8510, Japan
Abstract
Transport phenomena of dispersible solid particles in the air
by turbulence are encountered in various situations. In order to
obtain an empirical equation for the critical friction velocity as a
function of important parameters relating to the wind-blown sand,
we performed observation experiments on movements of each
particle using a high-speed camera and an argon laser, and
obtained turbulence statistics by PIV (particle image velocimetry).
The critical friction velocity was conventionally predicted based
on the density and the diameter of sand grains. In addition to
those particle parameters, we have quantitatively considered the
dependency on the turbulence intensity of turbulent boundary
layers.
Nomenclature
dp nominal mean particle diameter
g gravitational acceleration
Hb height of roughness block
Re Reynolds number
Tu turbulence intensity averaged in boundary layer
U main-stream velocity
URMS turbulent intensity (root-mean-square of streamwise
velocity fluctuation)
Uct critical friction velocity
boundary layer thickness
displacement thickness
g gas (air) density
p particle density
Introduction
Transport phenomena of dispersible solid particles in the air
by turbulence are encountered in various situations, such as sand
erosion, yellow sand, dust storm, and pulverized coal storage. For
the aim to avoid/control scattering of particles from sand bed, the
critical friction velocity is one of the important parameters
relating to the physics of the wind-blown sand movement.
The wind moves the sand particles in one, or a combination,
of three ways: suspension, saltation, or creep. The saltation is a
movement such that sand particle jump to another place in a short
time. This is the most important process in the formation
dynamics of a ripple and other sand features. The suspension is a
flight dynamics of a very fine grain. The surface creep is the
rolling process on the sand bed. These types of sand movement
are conventionally determined by the diameter of sand particles
and flow field conditions [1].
The criteria in terms of a minimum friction velocity to induce
the particle saltation would be defined in two different ways [2-
3]: one is as the pickup velocity, at which a particle at rest begins
to move as the mainstream velocity increases gradually; the other
is the saltation velocity, at which flying particles in the motion of
saltation come to rest as the mainstream velocity decreases. In
this study, we focus attention on the threshold value of the pickup
(friction) velocity for the saltation. As reported by Bagnold [1],
the threshold value of the pickup velocity is known to depend on
the size of particles. For large particles of dp > 50 m, the
threshold increases with the increase of particles size. On the
other hand, higher speed velocity is needed for smaller particles
than 0.08 mm to be in the saltation. This is because some
cohesive forces (such as inter-particle electrostatic force, van der
Waals attraction, and capillary force) between particles [2,4].
One of general procedures to determine the critical friction
velocity is, for instance, the manner described following.
Cabrejos & Klinzing [2,3] conducted experiments in a circular
pipe, in which a layer of sand bed was eroded by the air stream
while the average velocity was higher than the critical velocity.
As the thickness of the sand-bed layer reduced gradually during
the running, the air velocity decelerated and hardly transported
much sand particles. Then they estimated the critical velocity
from the air speed at which the particles would be static. Kalman
[5] measured the flux of wind-blown sand using the wind tunnel
of a rectangular cross section and estimated the critical velocity
in the same way with Cabrejos & Klinzing. These measurements
of the threshold value can be regarded as an indirect method.
In this study, we carefully (and directly) observed movements
of each saltation particle using a high-speed camera and an argon
laser. The critical friction velocity has been predicted as the
function of several parameters, such as, the density and the
diameter of particles. Furthermore, we here have considered the
turbulence on the sand bed. To discuss the influence of character
of turbulence on the critical friction velocity, we changed
arbitrarily the magnitude of the turbulent intensity in the
boundary layer by roughness blocks composed of short square
pillars.
Outline of experiments
Wind Tunnel
Our experiments were conducted by using a rectangular wind
tunnel with a test section of dimensions 0.25 m 0.25 m. The
experimental setup is depicted in Figure 1. The developing
section with 1000 mm length in the streamwise length was set
after the blower and rectification part, while the test section was
of 3000 mm long. The upper wind-tunnel surface of each section
was movable, so that the mean pressure gradient was kept at zero
throughout the wind tunnel. The measurement (or visualization)
area was positioned at 1250 mm downstream (from the entrance
of the test section), where the particle source, i.e., sand bed, was
set up. To avoid disturbance into the flow field, the surface of the
particle source was initially parallel to the bottom floor.
The maximum nominal air velocity, i.e., the air speed outside
the boundary layer, in the wind tunnel is 20 m/s and its minimum
relative turbulent intensity is 0.05%. As our preliminary work
[6,7], we investigated the wind-speed threshold for sand
movement on a sand dune using the same wind tunnel, changing
the mainstream velocity from U = 5.1 m/s to 8.5 m/s during the
experiment. They reported that erosion of sand bed would occur
at U = 7.1 m/s; when the wind was as low as 5.1 m/s, no sand
movement would take place; for 8.5 m/s, strong erosion was
induced on every place around the dune. These situations are
consistent with a field measurement by Mikami et al. [8]. They
presented a threshold wind velocity of 7.5 m/s in the Taklimakan
Desert, where serious environmental damage are induced by the
wind-blown sand movements. In the present work, the tested air-
phase velocity of the mainstream ranged between U = 5 and 9
m/s and this magnitude was comparable to the actual situation.
Figure 1. Schematic representation of experimental set up used
for visualization to investigate the critical friction velocity.
Roughness to Modulate Turbulence Intensity
In the developing section, regularly-spaced roughness blocks
were installed on the bottom surface to induce a rapid growth of
turbulent boundary layer. We tested two types of roughness with
different heights and block patterns, as shown in Figure 2. Cubic
blocks of 10 mm side were regularly distributed with a pitch of
45 mm (Case 1), while higher cuboidal blocks were used with a
rather sparse array in the other case (Case 2). As described later,
more developed turbulent boundary layer with high turbulence
intensity was found in the case of the higher-block array, Case 2.
It might be suggested that the height Hb of the roughness block is
a dominant parameter to determine the turbulence intensity at the
measurement area (far downstream of the developing section).
Case1 Case2
45 mm
Air 45 mm Air
z z
x x
Developing section Developing section
Figure 2. Alignment of roughness blocks. Each block has a
constant height of 10 mm (in Case 1) or of 40 mm (in Case 2).
Since a major focus in this study is placed on the proposal of
a relational expression between the turbulent-flow characteristics
and the critical friction velocity. By performing experiments on
the two different air-phase conditions in terms of the turbulence
intensity, we would consider the dependence of U ct on the
turbulent flow as well as the sand-particle characteristics.
Test Particles and Measurement Methodology
Experiments to determine the critical friction velocity were
carried out with several materials as sand particles (see Table1).
Three different nominal diameter of silica sand were tested: they
have the practically-same density p and are basically of non-
spherical grains. Their non-uniform sizes and shapes of each
particle resulted in a wide distribution of particle size: the root-
mean-square of diameter is also shown in Table 1. For instance,
Sand#7 has averagely large sand grains.
To investigate the dependency on the particle density, we
employed two kinds of glass beads that have more uniformed
particle size and spherical shape, but with different densities. In
the case labelled as Glass-H, the particles possessed a density
larger by more than 60% compared to the other test particles. The
density of Glass-L was comparable to the silica sand.
RMS of
Particle dp (m) p (kg/m3)
diameter (m)
Sand#7 292 2.59103 96.8
Silica
Sand#8 159 2.59103 98.2
sand
Sand#9 50.4 2.56103 45.3
Glass Glass-L 111 2.50103 20.5
beads Glass-H 108 4.20103 14.3
Table 1. Material characteristic of particles.
The sand bed as a particle-source area was irradiated by the
argon laser sheet (2.53.0 W) from the upper side, and sand
particle would be visualized. The spread angle of laser sheet was
set at 20 and its thickness was about 1 mm. Reflection of flying
particles was taken by high-speed camera that was set on side of
the wind tunnel. The frame rate was chosen at 500 fps with a
shutter speed of 1/1500 sec. In the experiments, each saltating
particle from the sand bed was detected with increasing the wind
velocity gradually. By adopting such a visualization to detect the
start of sand movement and measure the critical friction velocity
directly rather than an indirect measurement in terms of blown-
sand flux, we were enabled to extract only the saltation so that
the critical friction velocity for particle to fly from the sand bed
would be determined without confusing rolling particles.
After the visualization experiments, we separately measured
wall-normal distributions of the mean streamwise velocity and of
the turbulent intensity for the single-phase air flow under the
condition of the critical state (that means the friction velocity was
equal to the critical value), using PIV. We used an Nd:YAG laser
and a CCD camera with a resolution of 2048 2 pixels. For more
180 mm details regarding the PIV system, one can refer to our previous
paper [6]. The position to measure the statistics is the same with
that for the above visualization, namely, at 1250 mm, and an
45 mm observation area was 110 mm 110 mm in which 127 127
velocity vectors were obtained. The statistical result presented
here are the data averaged in the streamwise direction with
respect to the observation area. Note that we assumed that the
streamwise variation of statistics due to the boundary layer
development would be sufficiently small to be neglected. The
present Reynolds number based the momentum thickness were
ranged in Re
Result and Discussion
Turbulence Intensity
Although it is intuitively reasonable to presuppose that the
critical friction velocity should be influenced by flow condition
only near the sand-bed surface, we adopted an integral quantity
defined by equation (1) as an indicator of magnitude of the
turbulence contribution. This is because the turbulence intensity
becomes zero asymptotically, since the non-slip condition is
basically assumed on the wall surface. In this study, we chose the
streamwise turbulence intensity for a turbulence statistic that
dominantly would affect on the particle saltation.
 Case 1 and Case 2. For Case 2, where Tu/U is large, the critical
(1) friction velocities of each particle can be clearly seen to be lower
than those for Case1. The difference in the results between Case
It is worthwhile at the outset to observe the dependences of Tu on 1 and Case 2 as well as deviations from the empirical correlations
the mainstream velocity and the roughness-block patterns. should imply the necessity of consideration of different turbulent
background flows.
Obtained values of Tu at given experimental conditions (Hb and
U) are presented in Figure 3. The discrete data plotted in the 0.4
graph were those obtained at the air-phase flow attaining the Case1 (Tu/U=0.08)
critical friction velocity for each kind of test particles. We found Case2 (Tu/U=0.1)
0.35
that Tu varied linearly with U, at least in the present range of the Bagnold (1941)
experiment. Therefore, in this work, Tu/U may be expressed as Chepil (1956)
following for each case of the roughness patterns: 0.3

U,ct [m/s]
Sand#7
Glass-L
(2) 0.25
Sand#8

1 0.2
Sand#9
Hb=10 mm (Case 1)
0.8 Hb=40 mm (Case 2) 0.15
20 40 100 200 400 1000
dp [m]
Tu [m/s]

0.6
Figure 5. Critical friction velocity as a function of particle
U
0.4 0.1 diameter. Also shown are empirical correlationUfunctions by
ct=A{(s-a / a)gd}
1/2

existing experimental studies [1,9]. Bagnold(1941) Hb=1

8U Chepil(1945) Hb=4
0.2 0.0 Here, we may suppose theChepil(1945)
following
functions for the friction
velocity and the turbulence intensity of the air-phase flow at the
0 critical state for the saltation, based on the parameters given
0 2 4 6 8 10 explicitly in the experiments:
U [m/s]

Figure 3. Mainstream velocity versus integrated turblence (3)

intensity for different roughness block heights. (4)
The subscript of ct represents the critical value. It must be not
adequate to include a non-local parameter in the equation which
Observation of Particle Saltation will determine the physics locally, the parameter of Hb should be
Figure 4 presents a typical picture of one flying particle at the eliminated from equations (3) and (4). Therefore, in the following
critical friction velocity. The picture was made by composion of discussion, let us consider an equation for U,ct including Tu, as
several succesive pictures taken at every 1/500 sec. In the figure, follows
a thick horizontal line represents the sand-bed surface illuminated
strongly by the laser sheet. According to the present result of (5)
careful observations, particles saltaton occurred spontaneously
For non-dimensionalization of the physical quantities, we would
from their rest satates not triggered by impingement of suspended
employ three terms in the forms of
partilces from the upstream. The saltating particles such as one
presented in Figure 4, which were caused by the excess of wind
velocity over the critical friction velocity, were found to be flown
(6)
with revealing low orbits.
y In Figure 6, the critical friction velocity U,ct is replotted
x against the particle mean diameter dp, but both are dimensionless
y
and the value of U,ct is normalized by Tu2. The multiplication by
x 10 mm
the turbulence intensity may be reasonablealthough the index
y number of 2 has no physical interpretation, since the critical
x
Particle source (sand-bed region) friction velocities obtained for Case 1 exceeded those for Case 2
in all cases. As a result, both Case 1 and Case 2 reveal a single
fitting line that describes an equation
Figure 4. Picture of a visualized particle (Glass-L) that jumpes
from the sand bed. Taken at every 1/500 sec.
(7)
Study on Critical Friction Velocity
irrespective of the magnitude of Tu/U. Moreover, an relational
Figure 5 presents the critical friction velocity U,ct for each
expression that U increases with dp0.5 is also derived from
kind of particle against the average particle size dp in the
horizontal axis. It can be seen that the silica sand particle roughly equation (7) and agrees well with the equation by Bagnold [1].
follows the empirical function proposed by Chepil [9]. Every
particle has exhibited different critical friction velocities between
 105
Case1 (Tu /U = 0.08)
Case2 (Tu /U = 0.1)
U,ct (Tu ) /gdp
104
2
103 1 5
1
102 -3
10 10-2 10-1
dp/
Figure 6. Critical friction velocity multiplied by squared mean
turblent intensity versus dimensionless particle diameter.
Next, the density ratio between solid and air phases would be
considered. In the present work, the same-size particles with
different densities were limited to the glass particles of Glass-L
and Glass-H. Hence, a high-order function could not be proposed
with respect to p/g from the present experiment. Cabrejos &
Clinzing [3] carried out experiments to determine pickup velocity
of a wide variety of materials and proposed the equation of
(8)
From equations (7) and (8), we obtain
(9)
Then, U,ct can be predicted if the coefficient is known. In order
to determine a priori, U,ct calculated using equation (9) were
compared with those obtained directly by the experiments. Figure
7 shows the result of comparison with = 0.065. A symbol
each symbol represents different kind of particlesclose to the
solid line in the figure implies a good prediction in terms of the
critical friction velocity. Actually, the predictions are found to be
in good agreement with the experimental results in most of cases.
It is worth to note that the critical friction velocity for Glass-H,
whose density is about twice as high as the others, can be also
predicted well. This demonstrates the validity of equation (8).
Conclusions
We measured the critical friction velocity for the wind-blown
sand saltation in turbulent boundary layers over flat sand bed, by
means of visualization using an argon laser sheet, and a high-
speed camera. Several experiments were performed to determine
the dependencies of the critical friction velocity on the turbulence
contribution, the particle diameter, and the particle density. We
chose the streamwise turbulence intensity (measured by PIV
separately) integrated in the wall-normal direction as the
indicator of contribution of turbulence. The equation we would
propose in this paper is given in equation (9). Although further
experiments for the validation of the empirical equation in a wide
range of parameters pertaining to the air flow and the particle, we
successfully took into account interaction with the turbulence
(intensity) affecting the critical friction velocity.
15
Case1 (Tu /U=0.08)
Case2 (Tu /U=0.1)
Predicted U,ct /(gdp)0.5
10
Glass-H
0
0 5 10 15
0.5
Measured U,ct /(gdp)
Figure 7. Comparison between measured and predicted values for
critical friction velocity.
References
[1] Bagnold, R.A., The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes,
Dover publications, Inc., (1956).
[2] Cabrejos, F.J. and Klinzing, G.E., Incipient Motion of Solid
Particles in Horizontal Pneumatic Conveying, Powder Tech.,
72, 1992, 5161.
[3] Cabrejos, F.J. and Klinzing, G.E., Pickup and Saltation
Mechanisms of Solid Particles in Horizontal Pneumatic
Transport, Powder Tech., 79, 1994, 173186.
[4] Hayden, K.S., Park, K., and Curtis, J.S., Effect of Particle
Characteristics on Particle Pickup Velocity, Powder Tech.,
131, 2003, 714.
[5] Kalman, H., Satran, A., Meir, D., and Rabinovich, E., Pickup
(Critical) Velocity of Particles, Powder Tech, 160, 2005,
103113.
[6] Tsukahara, T., Sakamonot, Y., Aoshima, D., Yamamoto, M.,
and Kawaguchi, Y., Visualization and Laser Measurements
on the Flow Field and Sand Movement on Sand Dunes with
Porous Fences, Exp. Fluids, 52, 2012, 877890.
[7] Sakamoto, Y., Shimazu, S., Tsukahara, T., Yamamoto, M.,
and Kawaguchi, Y., Control of Sand Movement on Model
Dune by Fence Installation: Experimental Study by
Visualization and LDV. Proc. of the Sixth Int. Symp. on
Multiphase Flow, Heat Mass Transfer and Energy
Conversion, Xian, China, Jul. 1115, 2009, ET-01 (CD-
ROM).
[8] Mikami, M. et al. Aeolian Dust Experiment on Climate
Impact: an Overview of JapanChina Joint Project ADEC.
Global Planet Change, 52, 2006, 142172.
[9] Chepil, W.S., Influence of Moisture on Erodibility of Soil by
Wind, Soil Science Soc. of America J., 20, 1956, 288292.
23 rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Transport Modeling of Skin Electroporation and the Thermal Behavior of the
Stratum Corneum
S. Becker 1, N. Pavselj 2, B. Zorec2 , D. Miklavcic2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
2
Faculty of Electrical Engineering
University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Abstract
The subject of this study concerns modelling and treatment of
mass transport associated with electroporation of the skin. When
the skin is exposed to sufficient intense electric pulses, its outer
barrier me mbrane may experience a breakdown in its barrier
properties as evidenced in the local alteration of the
microstructure of the stratum corneum lipids. The extent of the
size of these alterations can vary several orders of magnitude
from the single electropore (~ 10 nm) up to the evolved Local
Transport Region (LTR) (~ 100 m). By using a combination of
experimental observation and theoretical modelling, this study
investigates the influence of pulsing protocol on transport
associated with electroporation. The study s experimental
component shows that long duration pulses maximize the
transport of negatively charged calcein through dermatomed pig
skin. When the long pulses are preceded by short duration pulses,
the total transport is reduced by nearly half. The theoretical
component of this study shows that when the high voltage pulses
result in an increased electropore density, the subsequent long
pulse associated localized resistive heating is not sufficient to
initiate sustained LTR growth.
Introduction
Traditional systemic drug delivery methods often result in low
efficacy and unintentional treatment of healthy tissue. Oral intake
may result in drug denaturation in the bodys gastro-intestinal
tract: drugs consisting of water soluble molecules may degrade in
the digestive tract prior to reaching intended locations of
treatment. Injection of drugs into the circulatory system results in
a lower selectivity level of the region of drug influence. For
drugs with a high toxicity, for example those used in
chemotherapy, systemic delivery is associated with a high risk of
unintentional damage to healthy tissues. Targeted drug delivery
refers to any method of drug administration designed to ensure
and enhance a drugs transfer rate to specific location.
Transdermal drug delivery is one such method which allows for
localized delivery of molecules directly through the skin is
greatly inhibited by the skins remarkable barrier properties.
While the skin may be thought of as a composite consisting of
several layers: the epidermis, the dermis, and the subcutaneous
tissue, it is the thin (10-50m) outermost layer of the epidermis,
called the stratum corneum (SC), which provides the greatest
resistance transport. Although the SCs barrier function is vitally
important to healthy skin, it presents a major obstacle for
successful transdermal delivery. Skin electroporation is an
approach used to enhance localized transdermal transport in
which the skin is exposed to a series of electric pulses [9, 25].
The desired result is a sudden and dramatic alteration of the SC
microstructure resulting in order of magnitude increases in its
permeability [9, 19, 20, 22, 29].
While skin electroporation is currently extensively applied in
clinical research to treat melanoma, and as an effective transport
me chanism for transdermal delivery in gene therapies [10-12, 26,
28], the fundamental physics underlying the skins response to an
applied electric field have not yet been established.
The expert opinions in the field are in general agreement that
there are different responses according to two primary pulsing
regimes: (1) that short duration-high intensity pulses result in an
altered SC that is perforated with nm sized aqueous pores, and
(2) that long duration- medium intensity pulses result in regions
of increased permeability within the SC that are relatively large
(up to hundreds of m) [1, 9, 14-16, 18-20, 22, 23, 29].
The structural alterations associated with the short pulse regime
are probably related to the initiation of nanoscale aqueous defects
into the SCs lipid microstructure. Experimental observations
show that when the voltage drop across the SC exceeds some
critical value (above ~30 V) the skin experiences a sudden
increase in permeability of up to four orders of magnitude within
less than ~10 s [9]. The research field typically attributes the
cause of this electropore creation to an electric field which has
exceeded a minimum critical threshold value [9, 19, 20]. While
this does explain the requirements of the initiation of skin
electroporation, it does not explain how or why these
electropores are created.
The response of the skin in the long pulse regime occurs at much
longer timescales (up to 100s of ms) and is associated with the
development of large regions of altered SC. These large
regions can originate as groupings of several of these nanoscale
electropores which expand to length scales of hundreds of m.
The large region of affected SC that results from this expansion is
termed the Local Transport Region (LTR) because within this
region the permeability is several orders of magnitude higher
than in the surrounding unaltered SC. The development of the
LTR is believed to be associated with resistive Joule heating
which has been documented under certain experimental pulse
conditions to cause localized temperature rises of over 60 C [17-
21, 24, 29, 30]. The authors have developed thermodynamic
based models that directly relate the internal energy of the SC
lipids to the degree of disorganization of the SC microstructure
[2-6]. These predict LTR evolution that can grow up to 100s of
m. The recent work of Pavselj and Miklavcic [16] and of
Pliquett [20] have also developed theoretical models of thermally
induced LTR evolution, although compared to the works of
Becker, these predict much more constrained LTR evolution.
In previous studies, a number o f i n v i t r o experiments were
conducted on skin in order to study the formation of aqueous
pores through the SC as a result of electroporation [29] [19].
Experimental in vitro electroporation studies have implemented a
number o f e xponentially decaying pulses of time constants
ranging from as little as 1 ms up to 300 ms. These high-voltage
pulses resulted in mass transport that was highly localized and
that was generally focused in the local transport regions (LTRs).
For moderate length pulses, typical minimum LTR size was
found to be about 100 micrometers in diameter; for longer pulses,
the sizes increase up to 300 micrometers. An increase in pulse
voltage results in an increase in the density of the LTR
distribution (number of LTRs per cm2) but does not significantly
influence their size. Alternately, longer duration pulses produce
larger LTRs with almost no changes in their density of
distribution [29] [19]. Also after applying very short, high-
voltage pulses, the skins electrical resistance drops by up to
three orders of magnitude, while for longer, medium-voltage
pulses, the drop is only up to two orders of magnitude. However
when more conservative pulse protocols are used [16], large
LTRs due to thermal expansion are not observed (neither under a
microscope, nor in theoretical analysis): for instance when one
short high voltage pulse (causing the electroporation of lipid
bilayers in the stratum corneum) is followed by a longer low
voltage pulse (providing the driving force), instead of trains of 50
pulses or more. Still, the electrophoretic contribution associated
with the low voltage pulses plays an important role in the intra-
or transdermal delivery of molecules by providing the driving
force that carries the delivered substance through the created
aqueous pathways.
By using a combination of experimental observation and
theoretical modelling, this study investigates the influence of
pulsing protocol on transport associated with electroporation. We
begin with a theoretical description of the LTR development.
Then we use this theoretical analysis to demonstrate the physics
underlying the experimental component of the study in which the
total solute transported across the SC is me asured for
combinations of long duration low voltage pulses (LV) and short
duration high voltage pulses (HV).
Theoretical Modelling
The successful model of skin electroporation must capture not
only the transport associated with the electric field, but also the
transient changes to the SC that are associated with the
development of the LTR. The theoretical model presented in this
paper will link the structural alterations of the SC to increased
mass permeability and electrical conductivity, and these in turn to
the transport of solute.
Thermal-Electrical Model
To capture the sudden temperature rises associated with
resistive heating of the skin in an electroporation pulse, the
heat equation is used to describe the transient distribution
o f thermal energy within each layer of the system:
T
i ci k i T QJ z , r , t (1) detailed parametric account is given in [13]. Previous studies
t have used the porous media concept to describe the SC during
where is the density, c is the specific heat, k is the thermal
conductivity, and T is the temperature. The subscript i refers to
any one of the composite layers: donor solution, electrode, or one
of the composite skin layers: SC, epidermis, dermis, and
subcutaneous tissue. Because the study only models the
experimental in vivo skin fold, Eq. (1) neglects the influences of
blood perfusion and of metabolic heat generation. The Joule heat
,Q J , occurs only during the applied electric pulse in the donor
solution and skins composite tissue layers, and it is defined as:
QJ i V
2
(2)
where i is the composite electrical conductivity and V is the
electric potential of the applied electric field which is solved
from the Laplace equation:
i V 0 (3)
In order for a localized high current density to evolve, the SC
electrical conductivity should be modeled to have some initial
lateral variation represented by a small region with a much higher
relative local electrical conductivity of a sweat gland or pre-
existing pore. The pre-existing pore used in the computations of
this study has a diameter on the order of 10 m and is assigned
the same electrical properties as the donor solution layer (roughly
the same as those of water).
Transport Modelling
Transport modelled in this study is derived from the modified
Nernst-Planck equation which describes the transient transport of
a charged solute in the presence of an electric field:
C
Di C mi C V (4)
t
where m is the effective electrophoretic mobility, D is the
diffusion coefficient, and C is the dimensionless solute
concentration which has been normalized by the relation:
C = C*/CO where C* is the local solute concentration and CO is
the initial homogenous solute concentration within the donor
solution. Even long electroporation pulse times are usually only
tens to hundreds of ms in duration so that the influences of
electro-osmosis are negligible compared to the electrophoretic
contributions [9, 25, 27] and have been neglected from Eq. (4).
During the application of the pulse, the contribution of diffusion
is also much smaller than that electrophoresis and has been
theoretically shown to play no role in the transport of large
charged solute at small time scales [2]. However at times
between pulses, or after the application of a series of pulses, the
diffusion is the only transport mechanism. The subscript i
refers to one of the composite layers: donor solution (gel), SC,
Epidermis, or Dermis.
Because the structural alteration associated with electroporation
occurs within the SC (and not in all layers of the skin), special
attention is given to the transport within the SC:
C SC
mLC V D L C (5)
t SC
The porosity, , and tortuosity, , in Eq. (5) are given the
subscripts SC to emphasize that these terms account for the SCs
structure as a whole. The porosity and tortuosity values can be
approximated from estimations of the local SC structure and a
electroporation and have used the ratio of SC porosity to
4 4
tortuosity in the range: 1.5 10 SC SC 5.8 10 .
Degree of LTR Formation complete the computation of Eq. (1) it is assumed that the radial
boundaries are thermally insulated and a convective boundary
To link the thermal model to the alteration of the SC lipids that condition is imposed on the electrode surface in which the
exist within the SCs LTR, a thermodynamic approach is used ambient temperature is 20 C and the convection coefficient has a
that reflects the experimental observation of SC lipid thermal value of 15 W/m2K. The theoretical results consider the
studies. A parameter is introduced that is called the lipid melt transdermal mass transport and LTR evolution resulting from a
fraction and represents the ratio of heat added to the SC lipids single 300 ms duration 150 V DC pulse.
(above phase transition temperatures) to the total heat of SC Epidermis Dermis
transition associated with the lipids. Thickness, L 017.5 035 1100
(m)
H T cSC T H (6) Thermal
where H is the latent heat associated with the phase conductivity , k 0.2 0.209 0.293
(W/mK)
transition, and H(T) is total enthalpy and is defined:
Density , 1500 1110 1116
T2
(Kg/m 3 )
H cSC , APPdT . (7) Heat capacity, c
3600 3600 3800
T1 (J/kgK)
Electrical -5
SC,U = 10
The transition takes place over the temperature range [T1,T 2]. The conductivity , -3 0.01 0.015
SC,M = 10
parametric values used to describe Eqs. (6)and (7) are referenced (S/m)
Electrophoretic -1 4
from experimental data provided in [7] and are: T1 = 65 C, mL,U = 2.6710
Mobility , m 10-1 0 210-1 0
T2 = 75 C, H E = 5300 J/kgK. To simplify the description 2 mL,M = 5.9610-8
(m /Vs)
considerably, a rectangular shaped specific heat vs. temperature
TABLE 1. Parametric values used in the numerical solution
curve is used [2] so that Eq. (8) may be represented as:

0 : T T1
T T1
: T1 T T2 . (8)
T2 T1
1 : T2 T
The melt fraction is description of the state of the lipids within
the developing LTR. Uninfluenced lipid structures will have a
melt fraction of =0 while fully altered lipids will have a melt
fraction of =1. By using a linear dependence on melt fraction
the increase in SC electrophoretic mobility of Eq.4 may be
represented:
mL mL, U mL, M mL ,U
(9)
The estimation of the electrophoretic mobility coefficients within
the unaltered lipid filled spaces, m L,U and within the melted
lipid filled spaces, m L,M, must be to some extent empirical. Values
used in this study are provided in Table 1 and correspond to very
large charged solute approximating the mobility of DNA
molecules.
Similarly the increase in SC electrical conductivity of Eq.(4) is:
SC SC , U SC , M SC ,U (10) spacing. The following pulse combinations were implemented:
where SC,U is the SC electrical conductivity associated with the
unaltered lipid structure ( = 0), and SC,M is the electrical
conductivity associated with the SC after full lipid melting
( = 1). The conductivity values listed in Table 1 have been
chosen to represent the two order of magnitude increase in
electrical conductivity with lipid restructuring as suggested by
the results of reference [8].
The electrical potential of Eq. (3) is evaluated assuming no
electrical conduction at the outer radial sides (approximating the
case of regularly distribution of LTRs). No solute is transported
into the electrode and by symmetry no flux in solute occurs at the
radial boundaries of the domain. Initially the dimensionless
solute concentration is unity in the donor solution layer and has a
zero value everywhere else. The initial temperature distribution is
uniform and equal to the arterial blood temperature 37 C. To
Experimental Modelling
Experimental components of this investigation were conducted at
the Slovenian Faculty of Electrical Engineering at the University
of Ljubljana using a Cliniporator electric pulse generator which
can deliver precisely controlled electroporation pulses and record
the variations in electric current. Franz diffusion cells were used
in an experimental setup using an in vivo simulator which can
precisely regulate the thermal conditions of test specimens in
order to simulate in vivo conditions. The test apparatus places the
skin sample between thermally regulated donor and receiver
solutions. Electrodes are placed directly into the conductive
solutions. Transient current measurements are provided by the
Cliniporator and the measurements of total solute transported are
taken from the receiver solution cell. Experimental tests were
conducted measuring the transient delivery of negatively charged
calcein through dermatomed pig skin after variations in pulse
protocol including both high and low voltage electroporation
pulses.
The experimental component of this study compares the total
solute transport associated with various pulse protocols using
Low Voltage (LV) pulses of 80 V and o f 300 ms duration with
100 ms pulse spacing, and High Voltage (HV) pulses of
magnitude 1000 V and of 0.5 ms duration with 1 ms pulse
3 (HV+LV)
Three applications of one HV followed by one LV pulse
3 HV+1 LV
Three HV pulses followed by a one LV pulse
3 HV+3 LV
Three HV followed by three LV pulses
1 HV + 3 LV
One HV pulse followed by a three LV pulses
1 HV+1 LV
One HV followed by one LV pulse
Fluorescence measurements were carried out in order to quantify
the relative differences in total solute transported compared to the
case in the absence of any applied electric field. The skin samples
were held at a constant temperature and comparisons were made
by measuring the total solute transported at one hour intervals
post pulse application. The results of the total solute transported
are presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Results of mass transport across the skin resulting from
different pulse protocols.
Application of the short HV pulses alone do increase the
magnitude of solute transported across the skin compared to pure
diffusion. However, the greatest transport is associated with the
long duration LV pulses. At first glance it is very surprising to
note that when the HV pulses are applied in conjunction with the
LV pulses, the total transport of calcein drops dramatically. This
happens even when a single HV pulse precedes that LV pulse
train. In fact it appears that the more HV pulses that precede the
LV pulse, the less benefit to total solute transported. While this
may appear surprising, the trend can be explained from a
me chanistic perspective using the theoretical model outlined in
the previous section.
Theoretical Explanation of Experimental Results
In order to understand the physics underlying the reduction in
total transport associated with the HV pulse that precedes the LV
pulse, we turn the discussion to two important points of empirical
observation involving the response of the SC to HV and LV
pulses which may be found in the review article [9].
1) It has been shown that when the applied pulse intensity is
decreased (as HV approach LV pulse characteristics), the
resulting transport regions are more likely to cluster together in
groups.
2) When the skin is electroporated at very high voltage
electroporation pulses, the density distribution of electropores is
higher. This is to say that HV electroporation pulses result in
more electropores per cm2 occurring across the lateral surface of
the SC.
It is with this in mind that we can describe the experimental
results of Figure 1 that seem to imply that when the LV pulses
are preceded by even a single HV pulse, the total solute
transported is dramatically reduced.
What we will show in the following discussion is that both points
1) and 2) imply that HV pulses pre-treat the SC such that once
LV pulses are administered, smaller LTRs are created, and thus
smaller regions of SC with higher permeability to mass transport.
We suggest here that the HV pulse distributes electropore
formations throughout the SC that act as pre-existing pore
structures. The density and magnitude of these pre-existing
distributions dictates the large LTR evolution that results from
the LV pulse. From the perspective of the LV pulse, the skin has
a pre-existing electrical conductivity distribution. So that when
the LV pulse is applied, the electric field evolves according to the
state of the SC lipids that have been altered by the HV pulse.
Consider Point 1) first: that the application of the HV pulse
results in electropore formations that are not clustered together.
The theoretical model that captures the LTR growth requires that
the SC have some pre-existing lateral variation in electrical
conductivity. We consider that the electropore formations created
by the HV pulse result in a small region of higher electrical
conductivity that is indicative of a cluster of electropores. In the
following discussion, this region is represented by a pre-existing
pore of radius R p. The goal is to see what effect the pre-existing
pore size has on the evolution of the LTR and the total solute
delivered through the SC during the LV electroporation pulse.
The initial pre-existing pore size is varied in the results shown in
Figure 2. In this case the influence of the size of the pre-existing
region of higher electrical conductivity is varied. The preexisting
region whose thermo-electrical properties are modeled to be the
same as the donor solution, is used to approximate a cluster of
electropores that are produced by the HV pulse.
In order to make direct comparisons between pre-existing pore
size on the quantities of solute transported into the skin, a
normalized concentration ratio is introduced. This parameter is
used to represent the ratio of total solute transported below the
SC surface to the total available solute initially contained in the
donor solution layer. It is represented mathematically by the
expression:
RMAX Z MAX
C (r , z, t) dzdr
C t r 0 z 0
RMAX 0
(11)
C (r , z ,0)dzdr
r 0 z th GEL
It is noteworthy to point out that expression (11) represents the
solute delivered below the donor surface of the SC and not the
total solute delivered across the skin sample. When the HV pulse
transports solute, it has been shown that there is a local
deposition of solute just below the SC-epidermis interface. Thus
transport of solute through the epidermis and dermis into the
receiver cell occurs as a result of diffusion and at a much longer
time scale. This is representative of the time scales shown in
Figure1.
The effect of pre-existing pore size, R p, has a strong influence on
total solute transported. This is not because more solute is
transported through a larger pre-existing pore. Rather, the pre-
existing pore size strongly influences the electrical distribution
that is evaluated from Eq. (3) which in turn is seen in the Joule
heat of Eq. (2) and the temperature rises of Eq. (1). As the local
temperature rises above lipid phase transition temperatures, and
heat is added to the SC lipids, the LTR begins to grow. In order
to quantify parameter effects on LTR development during the
pulse, the effective LTR radius, R +(t), is introduced. The effective
LTR radius is defined as the minimum radial location within the
SC at which the SC lipids have experienced any thermal
restructuring ( 0). Thus R +(t) is used to characterize the LTRs
region of influence at any time during the applied pulse. This is
seen in Fig. 2b where the LTR growth is strongly dependent on
the initial state of the SC. In fact is appears that there exists a
lower limit of pre-existing pore size for which substantial LTR
growth can be initiated. This is in strong contrast to the
R P = 1.5 m case for which the LTR reaches a maximum size and
then does not develop further over the duration of the applied
pulse. This seems to imply that there is a critical value of pre-
existing pore radius that will result in sufficient Joule heating for
lipid melting. Within the pore, the magnitude of the current
density determines the magnitude of the Joule heat. The total
electric current that leaves the electrode is dictated by the total
electrical resistance of all layers of the skin fold.
The theoretical implications of Figure 2 are that if the
electropores are not clustered together in localized regions of
sufficient effective diameter (as is expected for an HV pulse), the
LV pulse cannot deliver sufficient power to induce lipid phase
transition which is a requisite for large LTR formation and
subsequent mass transport.
a) 3
R P = 10 m
C + ( 10- 4 )
R P = 5 m
2 R P = 1.5 m
1
0 50
0 100 t (ms) 200 300
b) 200
150
R + (m)
100
50
0 associated with electroporation of the skin. It has been shown
0 100 t (ms) 200 300
Figure 2. Influence of pre-existing pore size on the LTR
evolution and total solute transported.
To add further support of the argument that HV pulses that
preceded LV pulses are counterproductive to the delivery of
solute through the skin, consider the second point of the
empirical observations: that that HV electroporation pulses result
in more electropores per cm2 occurring across the lateral surface
of the SC. To investigate the effect that a higher global
distribution density of electropores across the SC has on the
evolution of the LTR during the LV pulse, we consider varying
the radial size of the computational domain, R O. Electropore
density is inversely proportional to the square of the outer
domain radius, R O2, so that a larger value of R O is representative
of a lower distribution density of electropores. So we anticipate
that an HV pulse increases the density distribution and lowers the
value of R O in the representative computational domain.
Figure 3 shows that the LTR evolution during the LV pulse is
strongly affected by the outer computational domain radius. In
fact it suggests that for a given skin sample, there is some
minimum value of R O below which LTR evolution does not take
place. This is in agreement with the experimental results of
Figure 1 that imply that in some instances when the HV pulses
precede the LV pulses, the LV pulses result in negligible
transport.
The physical explanation of this phenomenon lies in the
consideration of the electric filed. Recall that the resistive heating
results from the high current density in the small pre-existing
region of higher electrical conductivity encompassed by R P
(Figure 3 represents the results of R P = 5 m)/. When the pore
density is increased, for a given global domain, the global
distribution of electric current is distributed among more pre-
existing pores. This translates into a lower electric current within
each region of higher electrical conductivity. The calculations
used to arrive at Figure 3 represent higher pore densities with
smaller computational domain sizes: so that there is less total
current available for a smaller R O (representing a higher density
distribution of electropores which is associated with HV pulses).
200
R O = 1 mm
R O = 0.5 mm
150 R O = 0.1 mm
R + (m)
100
0
0 100 t (ms) 200 300
Figure 3. Influence of Electropore density on the LTR
evolution. Electropore density is inversely proportional to the
square of the outer domain radius, R O2.
Conclusions
Pulsing protocol strongly affects the transport of solute
experimentally that high voltage pulses result in more
homogenous distributions of local alterations of the SC that,
while smaller in lateral SC area of influence, are created with a
high lateral distribution density. The evolution of the LTR has
been shown to be a thermal phenomenon resulting from the
interaction between the electric filed distribution and the SC lipid
thermal behavior. This study has tied these two concepts together
in order to discuss and analyze associated experimental
observation. We have shown that, experimentally, the total
transport of solute decreases with the application of high voltage
pulses when compared to the application of low voltage pulses
alone. This study uses a thermodynamically based theoretical
description of the physics underlying the development of large
LTR. We conclude that any influence that acts to increase the
density distribution of SC regions of higher electrical
conductivity or that acts to decrease the continuous local area of
higher electrical conductivity will result in the evolution of
smaller LTR. Because the application of the high voltage pulses
has been shown to encourage both of these and because the LTR
is associated with a higher permeability to mass transport, we
conclude if a long duration low voltage pulse is preceded by a
short duration high voltage pulse, transport is inhibited since the
LTR evolution is constrained or otherwise impeded.
Acknowledgments
Research was performed in the scope of LEA EBAM and was in
part financed by the European Regional Development Fund
(Biomedical Engineering Competence Center, Slovenia), COST
TD1104, the Slovenian Research Agency (L2-2044), and the
Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.
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electroporation, International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 184
(1999) 147-156.
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and skin metastasis related to other malignancies, Anti-Cancer
Drugs, 22 (2011) 711-718.
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D, Mir LM, Electrophoretic component of electric pulses
determines the efficacy of in vivo DNA electrotransfer, Human
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of the effects of short, high-voltage and long, medium-voltage
pulses on skin electrical and transport properties, Journal of
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88.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
High-resolution three-colour PIV technique and its application to
heat transfer in a wall panel having grooved pattern
S.Funatani1 and T.Takeda1
1
Graduate School of Medicine and Engineering, University of Yamanashi
Takeda 4-3-11, Kofu, Yamanashi, 400-8511, Japan
Abstract
Particle image velocimetry (PIV) has been used to measure
velocity distributions in planar cross-sections of flow. In contrast
to techniques for the measurement of flow velocities employing
probes such as pressure tubes or hot wires, the PIV technique,
being an optical technique, works non-intrusively and is not
influenced by the variation of fluid temperature. The velocity
range is determined by the time delay between illumination
pulses, and the accuracy of the velocity is influenced by the
spatial resolution of the CCD camera. However, the velocity
range is fixed when popular types of CCD camera and frame-
straddling technique are used because only a pair of pulses can be
illuminated for a short time but the next pair is too late for the
time delay of the PIV. This problem can be solved by using a
high speed CCD camera, but the spatial resolution is limited.
To solve these problems, a colour CCD camera and three colours
of illumination were used to obtain two pairs of time delays at
once. Three colours of illumination were generated by using
Diode lasers whose wavelengths are Red(671nm), Green(532nm)
and Blue(445nm). Visualized images are taken by a colour CCD
camera which has colour (Red, Green and Blue) pixel image
grids. The uncertainty of the three-colour PIV technique was
evaluated by using PIV standard images. Acceleration
distributions of velocity were also able to evaluate by using two
pairs of velocity distributions.
In this study, the three-colour PIV technique was applied to the
investigation of the heat transfer and fluid flow characteristics of
natural convection of the one-side heated vertical channel having
a grooved pattern. When a one-side heated channel is cooled by
forced convection of air, there are several methods for
enhancement of heat transfer such as attaching fins on a channel
surface and the method inserting a porous material with high
porosity. One side of the house wall having a grooved pattern is
heated by radiation of solar energy. This system may be used as a
house wall to reduce the electricity consumption of an air
conditioner. This system has a potential to warm the air of the
room. The other side of the wall is cooled by natural convection
of air simultaneously.
Nomenclature
PD Particle displacement / pixel
IW Interrogation window / pixel
Ve Velocity error / % of full scale
1. Introduction
Over 28 years, Particle image velocimetry (PIV) has been used to
measure velocity distributions in planar cross-sections of flow. In
contrast to techniques for the measurement of flow velocities
employing probes such as pressure tubes or hot wires, the PIV
technique, being an optical technique, works non-intrusively and
is not influenced by the variation of fluid temperature. The
velocity range of PIV is determined by the time delay between
illumination pulses, and the special resolution of the velocity
field is influenced by the number of pixel of CCD camera.
However, the velocity range is fixed when popular types of CCD
camera and frame-straddling technique are used for PIV because
only a pair of pulses can be illuminated between a pair of frames.
This problem can be solved by increasing the frame rate.
Therefore, high speed camera is often used for PIV, but the
spatial resolution is limited because it is difficult to increase the
number of pixels when the frame rate is high.
Fig.1 Wall panel having grooved pattern
Two-colour PIV system was developed when the frame rate of
video camera was not enough and PIV measurement was
sometimes carried out by using film camera. Two colours of light
sheets were illuminated with time interval and single image was
obtained with two colours of visualized tracer particles. But the
two-colour PIV system had not become popular because the
power of multi-colour laser and film sensitivity was not enough
for PIV.
Recently, there were various kinds of improvements to solve the
problem. The performance of digital SLR camera was improved.
Especially, the number of pixels became over 16,000,000 and the
sensitivity became over ISO 25000. There are various kinds of
diode lasers whose wavelength covers visible light range and
whose power goes over hundreds of mw. Therefore, it is possible
to realize the three-colour PIV system by using digital SLR
camera and three kinds of diode lasers (Red, Green and Blue).
When a one-side heated channel is cooled by forced convection
of air, there are several methods for enhancement of heat transfer
such as attaching fins on a channel surface. The experiment using
the one-side heated vertical rectangular channel inserting the
porous materials with high porosity was carried out [1-4]. In
these study, it was found that an amount of removed heat by
forced convection using the copper wire (porosity>0.996) was
about 15% higher than that without the wire.
It was also found that the amount of transferred heat from the
heated wall will be increased even if the heat removed by natural
convection. Furthermore, the ratio between the amounts of heat
removed of the rectangular channel with the porous material and
without the porous material increases with increasing temperature
of the channel wall. Figure 1 shows the photo of a wall panel
having the grooved pattern. One side of the house wall having the
grooved pattern is heated by radiation of solar energy and the
other side is cooled by natural convection of air simultaneously.
This system may be used as a house wall to reduce the electricity
consumption of an air conditioner. This system have a potential
to warm the air of the room, however, it will be difficult to
establish the flow of warmed air from the house wall to the room.
Though a transporting system of solar thermal energy by airflow
is discussed here, it may be difficult to reduce the cost of this
system to reduce energy consumption of air conditioner. From
the view point of the economical and safety characteristic, the
passive heat transporting system should be designed for the house
wall as the best way of the system.
Therefore, the three-colour PIV technique was applied to the
investigation of the heat transfer and fluid flow characteristics of
natural convection of the one-side heated vertical channel having
a grooved pattern in this study.
2. Three-colour PIV system
The velocity range of PIV is determined by the time delay
between illumination pulses, and the special resolution of the
velocity field is influenced by the number of pixel of CCD
camera. To solve the regulation, a colour CCD camera and three
colours of illumination were used to obtain two pairs of time
delays at once. The image was taken by using digital SLR camera.
Each pixel is arrayed Red, Green and Blue (Fig.2) and the colour
image was generated by interpolating each pixels.
0 4927
0
R G R G R G RG RG
G B G B G B GB GB
R G R G R G RG RG
G B G B G B GB GB
R G RG R G RG RG
3261 G B G B G B G B GB 3261
4927
Fig.2 Pixel grid of digital SLR camera
Fig.3 shows the flowchart of three-colour PIV technique. Three
colours of illumination were generated by using DPSS lasers
whose wavelengths are Red(671nm), Green(532nm) and
Blue(445nm). Visualized images are taken by a colour CCD
camera which has colour (Red, Green and Blue) pixel image
grids. Power of Red laser was set to 400mW and that of the
others were adjusted to equalize the intensity of each colours of
visualized images. Three lasers are combined to single RGB laser
by two dichroic mirrors and the converted to light-sheet. Time-
chart of illumination of each colour laser shows in Fig.1. Timing
of each illumination has time intervals t1 and t2 and the velocity
range can be changed by adjusting t1 and t2. Visualized images
which have three colours of tracer particles are taken and it
decomposed to three channels (Red, Green and Blue). PIV
analysis was applied between each channel.
3. Experimental setup of the wall having grooved pattern
The wall panel having grooved pattern shows in Fig.4. The heat
flux is given to the corrugated surface that was made by putting
the block vertically in the passage. The heat flux of wall which is
generated by using rubber heater and the value is 109W/m2. The
upper (outlet) and under (inlet) edge of the passage is opened.
Therefore, natural convection is generated in the passage.
Velocity distribution was measured in the outlet by using colour-
PIV system (Fig.5).
4. Uncertainty analysis
The uncertainty of the three-colour PIV technique was evaluated
by using PIV standard images generated by computer graphics
[5-6]. They found that the velocity errors are strongly inuenced
by PIV parameters, such as the size of interrogation window, size
of search window and pixel displacement of the images, which
should be optimized in order to minimize the errors in the
velocity measurement. Therefore, articial colour images which
reflect the influence of the difference of optical characteristics of
each illumination (Red, Green and Blue lasers) are generated.
The reason why such a method of uncertainty analysis is used
here is that the accuracy of velocity measurement.
5. Experimental Results
An example of visualized colour image which was taken by
colour PIV method shows in Fig.6(a-c). In this study, two kinds
of lasers (Red:671nm, Green:532nm) were used for illumination.
Time interval was set to 5ms. Visualized image shows that
displacement of each colours of tracer particles are successfully
observed. Fig.5(d) shows an example of velocity distribution
evaluated by colour PIV method. It shows that upward flow
generated by natural convection is observed but several velocity
vectors are shown whose value is zero. It is considered that there
is an influence of Green (532nm) particles to Red image because
transmission ratio at 532nm of Red image has about 1%. It is
necessary improve the PIV system to neglect such an influence.
The average velocity of the natural convection of wall having a
grooved pattern was 0.043m/s. It was almost the same value as
that of heat wire anemometer. It should be noticed that the colour
PIV technique was successfully applied to the investigation of the
heat transfer and fluid flow characteristics of natural convection.
6. Result of Uncertainty analysis
Velocity errors are strongly inuenced by PIV parameters, such
as the size of interrogation window, size of search window and
pixel displacement of the images, which should be optimized in
order to minimize the errors in the velocity measurement.
Fig.7(a) shows the evaluation of velocity error for various for
various windows sizes and pixel intervals. These results indicate
that the velocity errors can be minimized by optimizing the sizes
of the interrogation and search windows and the displacement of
particles. The minimum velocity error was about 5% of full scale.
Fig.7(b) shows the comparison between regular PIV and colour
PIV. For evaluating the error caused by the difference of
illumination of colour PIV, average and deviation of intensity
were shifted for generating PIV standard images for colour PIV.
The value of average and deviation was evaluated from an
visualized colour image (Fig.6(b,c)). The result of comparison
shows that velocity error of each method was almost the same.
The velocity range is extended by using three-colour PIV. For
example, Fig.7(c) shows the velocity error when each time
intervals were set to t1:t2.=1:3. It shows that the velocity range
where Ve<10% was extended from 1<PD<6 to 1<PD<18.
Acceleration distributions of velocity will also be evaluated by
using two pairs of velocity distributions.
7. Conclusions
In this study, the three-colour PIV method was proposed and the
prototype of the colour PIV system using two kinds of diode
lasers was applied to the natural convection phenomenon of the
wall panel having grooved pattern. The uncertainty analysis of
colour PIV method was studied. It was found that the velocity
error was almost the same as regular PIV method.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number
24760131.
References
[1] Takeda, T. et al., Heat transfer characteristics of one side
heated vertical rectangular channel, Proc. of the 8th Topical
Meeting on Nuclear Thermal-Hydraulics, Operation and
Safety (NUTHOS-8), Shanghai, China, 2010, Paper No.
N8P0264.
[2] Suzuki, T. and Takeda, T., Heat transfer and fluid flow
characteristics in vertical channel with concavo-convex
parts in one plate, Proc. of Yamanashi District Conference,
Yamanashi, Japan, Oct. 23, 2010, 94-95 (in Japanese).
[3] Takeda, T. et al., Heat transfer characteristics of one side
heated vertical rectangular channel, Proc. of the 8th Topical
Meeting on Nuclear Thermal-Hydraulics, Operation and
Safety (NUTHOS-8), Shanghai, China, Oct. 10-14, 2010
Paper No. N8P0264.
[4] Takeda, T. et al., Heat transfer characteristics of vertical
rectangular channel inserting porous materials with high
porosity, Proc. of the Asian Symposium on Computational
Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow-2011 (ASCHT2011),
Kyoto, Japan, Sept. 22-26, 2011, Paper No. 071.
[5] Okamoto, K., Nishio, S., Saga, T. and Kobayashi, T.,
Standard images for particle-image velocimetry, Meas. Sci.
Technol.,11, 2000, 685691.
[6] Fujisawa N, Hashizume Y, An uncertainty analysis of tem-
perature and velocity measured by a liquid crystal
visualization technique. Meas. Sci. Technol. 12, 2001, 1235
1242.

Red laser Blue laser

Wavelength
combiner
PIV

Green RG RGB
laser

Visualized
image Velocity
Laser t1 t2 distribution
power

Time

Fig.3 Flow-chart of three-colour PIV system

Fig.4 Experimental setup of the wall having grooved pattern

 Fig.5 Experimental setup of colour PIV system
25

20

Velocity Error Ve /%
15

10
IW=21
5 IW=31
IW=41

0
(d) Red image 0 2 4 6 8 10

pixel interval /pixel

Pixel displacement PD /pixel

(c) Evaluation of velocity error at various

interrogation window and pixel interval
25

20
Velocity Error Ve /%

15
(c) Original image (b) Green image
10
Regular PIV
5
Colour PIV

0
y /mm 0 2 4 6 8 10

pixel interval
Pixel /pixel PD /pixel
displacement
10 (b) Evaluation of velocity error of each PIV
method at various pixel interval
25

20
Velocity Error Ve /%

15

10
0 Regular PIV
10 5 3 colour PIV
-10 0 x /mm
=0.02m/s
0
(a) Velocity distribution 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

pixel interval
Pixel /pixel PD /pixel
displacement

(a) Comparison of velocity range of each PIV

Fig.6 Visualized colour image and velocity distribution method

Fig.7 Uncertainty of velocity measurement

23 rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Long Term Operation Condition of Steam Reforming Catalyst in Solid Oxide

Fuel Cell Using Biogas
J.D. Chung1 ,J.W. Kim2 , Y.J. Han3 , P.G. Choi4 and K.H. Oh5
1
Department of Environmental Engineering
Hoseo University, Asan, Chungnam,336-795, S.Korea
2
Department of Display Engineering
Hoseo University, Asan, Chungnam, 336-795, S.Korea
3
Department of Semiconductor & Display Engineering
Hoseo University, Asan, Chungnam, 336-795, S.Korea
4
Department of Fusion Technology for Climate Change
Hoseo University, Asan, Chungnam, 336-795, S.Korea

Abstract hydrogen gas. Thus, it is significantly important to develop

This study describes how to produce hydrogen gas from
recyclable biomass steadily and stably and how to use this
resulting hydrogen effectively as an energy source of solid oxide
fuel cell. We chose the steam reforming reaction as a model
reaction and compared several catalytic activities with several
different common and uncommon catalysts.
we used the reformed gas produced by different catalysts as
energy source for Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) and
characterized the electrical properties of SOFC for the different
catalysts. The comparison of three catalysts (Ru, Ni, and Ni/Ru)
shows that the reaction activity is higher in the order of
Ru(0.5wt%)/Ni(20wt%)/Al 2O3 Ni(20wt%)/Al 2O 3
Ru(2wt%)/Al 2O 3. The resistance of catalyst against coking under
the S/C ratio of 2.5 was turned out to be better in the order of
Ru(2wt%)/Al 2O 3 Ru(0.5wt%)/Ni(20wt%)/Al 2O 3
Ni(20wt%)/Al 2O 3. The electrical analysis of SOFC for the
different catalysts at 750 and under the S/C ratio of 2.5 shows
that the initial voltage was identical for all catalysts, however, it
starts to show the difference after a long operation (160 h) that
the electrical property is superior in the order of
Ru(0.5wt%)/Ni(20wt%)/Al 2O3 Ni(20wt%)/Al 2O 3
Ru(2wt%)/Al 2O 3.
Introduction
Since the Kyoto protocol entered into force in 2005 and the Bali
road map was adopted in 2007, several countries committed
themselves to reduce greenhouse gases. In contemporary society,
as the energy market gets worse with depletion of fossil fuel an d
oil price spike, the world put forth of multilateral effort into
enhancing their energy independence ratio. Particularly, as Korea
has a high level of energy dependence on overseas, the national
long-term policies annually set up in Korea have been guiding to
establish a new policy for stable level of supply, development,
and utilization of renewable energy, which can replace the
conventional fossil fuel.
The fuel cell has been proposed as a reliable solution that
resolves the global warming and oil depletion problem because it
is efficient to produce renewable energy without undergoing any
combustion process and, therefore, it minimizes the cause of
contaminant and the amount of contaminants emitted to air. The
fuel cell, however, is not a device that stores energy but simply it
is a device that transforms energy according to the supply of
efficient method and to commercialize the energy generated by
fuel cell.
Most hydrogen gas is currently produced by steam reforming,
thermolysis, and gasification from the fossil fuel such as natural
gas, oil/residue, and coal. However, it is not positively
considered to regard the fossil fuel as a clean energy source
because the fossil fuel also accompanies generation of byproduct,
greenhouse gas, during the generation of hydrogen gas which is
used as secondary energy source. Massive amount of studies
have been passionately done by researchers that the hydrogen gas
production can be accomplished by thermochemical or
thermoelectrical hydrolysis by using solar photovoltaic energy,
wind energy, light, bioorganic waste, and nuclear energy. It is
anticipated that the new technic to generate hydrogen gas using
alternative energy would replace the process of conventional
techniques.1)
Herein, we report a method that produces hydrogen gas stably
using biomass, a renewable energy, to compare the performance
of different catalysts. We apply the reformed gas directly as an
energy source for solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). We use the steam
reforming reaction to produce hydrogen gas by introducing
Alumina-supported Ni and Ru catalyst. Also, the same catalysts
but with relatively less amount of Ni and Ru are applied to the
same reaction with extra amount of noble metal.
Experiment
Lab-scale Experiment
Figure 1 s h o w s a s y s t e m o f L a b-scale experiment. The
experimental equipment has been designed in the basis of one
stack (5 cm 5 cm) of solid oxide fuel cell. The experimental
system is composed of reactant gas, MFC (Mass Flow
Controller), desulfurization device, water pump, reforming
device, and furnace containing the fuel cell. The single cell is a
type of anode-supported (one stack, 5 cm 5 cm), which consists
of an anode made up of NiO-YSZ composition with 5:5 ratio, a
cathode of LSCF series, and electrolyte of TZ-8YS(8mol% Y 2O 3
stabilized ZrO 2).

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell system
Production of hydrogen gas from biogas with steam reforming
reaction
The reforming process is the core process where synthetic gas
containing abundant amount of hydrogen gas is produced after
the reaction of hydrocarbon and water gas. We selected the steam
reforming reaction because it results in massive a mount of
hydrogen gas and is a relatively easy experiment to operate.
The majority of commonly used active species for hydrogen gas
production can be divided into two groups, transition metal and
noble metal. Ni is representatively used as the most active
catalysts among transition metal species and Ru, Rh, Pt, and Pd
are those a mong noble metal species. Ni/Al 2O 3, however,
requires a pre-treatment under reduction atmosphere at high
temperature (> 700 C) and, thus, Ni is easily sintered in this
process. Also, the formation of coke that has been reported as
one of the main drawbacks decreases reaction activity because
carbon is adsorbed onto the surface of catalyst. It has been
significantly studied that the use of noble metal is one of the
solutions to prevent coke formation that inactivates catalyst.
We examined a series of Ni catalysts to understand the problem
in the steam reforming reaction and also compared the reaction
activity of the Ni catalysts and noble metals. The commercially
available FCR-4 model catalyst (NiO 12.8wt% and Al 2O 3
87.2wt%) and RUA model catalyst (Ru 2.02wt% and Al 2O 3
87.2wt%) were obtained from Sud-chemie. The noble metal
catalyst, Ru-added(0.5wt%)/Ni(20wt%) Al 2O 3, and noble metal-
added catalyst were prepared without pre-treatment process. The
experimental variables in normal state of steam reforming
reaction and the GC condition for reactant analysis are shown in
Table 1 and Table 2, respectively.
Reaction temperature ( ) 600-750
Inlet gas N2 (sccm) 50
concentrations CH4 (sccm) 100
Space velocity (hr -1 ) 1,100
Table 1. Experimental SR conditions in a fixed bed reactor
Manufacture Agilent Technologies
Detector TCD
ShinCarbon ST 100/120 mesh 2
Column
meter x 1mm ID micropacked
Oven Temperature 40
Operation
Conditions Gas sampling 150
[ ] temperature
Detector 250
Carrier gas He
Table 2. Analysis conditions of gas chromatography
The electrical characterization of SOFC for different catalysts
The electrical characterization was carried out in order to
evaluate the activity of NiO and noble metals for solid oxide fuel
cell. The temperature of furnace was slowly elevated to 750C
and the gas was accurately and quantitatively provided by flow
controllers. The perfor mance and property change of the cell was
monitored by changing the temperature of furnace. The
me asurements of I- V and impedance were analyzed by BioLogic
HVP -803. The I- V tendency was measured in OCV state to 0.3 V
with an interval of 10mA/s and the impedance was analyzed in
open circuit with a constant voltage (500 mV) in the range of
0.01 Hz to 20kHz. The data of each catalyst was collected in the
identical condition for comparison.
Result
Activity of the steam reforming reaction
We prepared a specific simulated gas and directly applied it to
the catalytic reaction. We analyzed the conversion rate of
methane after the injection of the simulated gas at 650~750 C
with S/C ratio of 2. For Ru(2wt%)/Al 2O 3 and
Ru(0.5wt%)/Ni(20wt%)/Al 2O 3, we directly introduced the
catalysts without hydrogen gas reduction (H 2-treatment) process.
After the reaction gas was also employed to the reactor at the
temperature, the initial temperature was instantly set up to 650 C
(where the condensation of water would not occur) and the
reaction was performed.
For Ni(20wt%)/Al 2O 3, the H2-treatment process is an essential
step because the catalyst does not exhibit any activity at 650 C
without the reduction process. However, it turned out that the
catalytic activity of Ru(0.5wt%)/Ni(20wt%)/Al 2O 3 was better
than that of Ni(20wt%)/Al 2O 3 even though it was treated with
hydrogen gas before the catalytic reaction. This result implies
that Ru catalyst became self- activated at 650 C. On the other
hand, Ru(2wt%)/Al 2O 3 shows very low level of the conversion
rate of methane compared to the other catalysts.
100
90
80
Con version of CH 4 ( %)
70
Ru(2)/Al2O3
60
Ni(20)/Al2O 3
Ru(0.5)Ni(20)/Al2O 3
50
40
30
640 660 680 700 720 740 760
Temperature, [ ]
Figure 2. CH 4 conversion over the pre-reduced Ni(20)/Al 2O 3 and
the Ru(2)/Al 2O 3, Ru(0.5)/Ni(20)/Al 2O 3 without pre-reduction (
SR condition: 650 ~ 750 , S/C ratio 2 )
The electric characterization of SOFC for different catalyst
The graph shown in Figure 4 shows the comparison after the
electric characterization at 750 C and S/C ratio of 2.5. The
voltage applied to SOFC cell in the state of OC (open circuit)
was quite similar to each other catalysts as it turned out to be 1.2
1.12, 1.10, 1.11 V for Ru(2 wt%)Al 2O 3, Ni(20wt%)/Al 2O 3, and
Ru(0.5wt%)/Ni(20wt%)/Al 2O 3, respectively. After the addition 1.0
of the simulated gas to the cell, however, the voltage of SOFC
catalyzed by Ni started to decrease gradually in 24 hr and the 0.8

voltage completely stopped flowing in further 60 hr. This result

explains as following; the low S/C ratio facilitated coking on the

Cell v oltage ( V)
0.6

surface of catalyst; the high temperature provoked sintering of Ru

Ru/Ni
catalyst, which inactivated catalytic activity dramatically and 0.4 Ni

obstructed efficient supply of gas to the fuel cell. Ni (20wt %)-

0.2
supported Ru (0.5 wt%) catalyst prepared by co-impregnation
method exhibited a superior ability to maintain its initial open
0.0
circuit voltage (1.1 V) by showing the same voltage (1.0 V)even
in more than 160 h.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
The Ru (2 wt%) catalyst exhibited voltage drop to 1.04 V in 60 h time (hr)
and to 0.59 V in 160 h. Because the MFC was in stable operation
on flow rate of biogas to the fuel cell system, we interpreted that Figure 3. Cell voltage at a variation of time ( at 750 , S/C=2.5 )
the catalytic efficiency decreased because of contaminants
occurred with coking on the surface of Ni, which is the same
material with anode. We analyzed the impedance to understand
carbon deposition on the working fuel cell.
The impedance spectrum is divided into two regions, i.e., Rs-
region (Ohmic resistance) and Rp region (Polarization). The Rs
represents the conductivity of electrolyte and the resistivity of
separator and it can be found from the x-intercept in the
impedance spectrum in Figure 4. The Rp is the rest of resistivity
except for the Rs.
The impedance spectrum shown in Figure 4 is the result obtained
in 24 h after the addition of reforming gas to SOFC with different
catalysts.
The Rs(.cm2) for Ru(0.5 wt%)/Ni(20 wt%)/Al 2O 3, Ni(20
wt%)/Al 2O 3, and Ru(2 wt%)/Al 2O 3were 0.613, 0.659, and 0.667,
respectively. This results shows that the catalytic activity of
Ru(0.5 wt%)/Ni(20 wt%)/Al 2O 3 is the most efficient and the high
conversion rate of methane reduces the interrupted effect by
electron flow.
Figure 4. Impedance spectra change at a variation of catalyst ( at
The arc size of half circle in Cole-cole plot is related to the
750 , S/C=2.5 )
polarization resistance between cathode and anode. As
polarization resistance of electrode increases and decreases, the
arc size of half circle also increases and decreases. This explains Conclusion
the resistance of carbon deposition against electrodes. Ni(20 wt%)/Al 2O 3 showed the highest catalytic performance at
The Rp(.cm2) for Ru(0.5 wt%)/Ni(20 wt%)/Al 2O 3, Ni(20 750 C and S/C ratio of 4. For Ru(0.5 wt%)/Ni(20 wt%)/Al 2O 3
wt%)/Al 2O 3, and Ru(2 wt%)/Al 2O 3 were 0.79, 0.92, and 1.28, and Ni(20 wt%)/Al 2O 3, the H 2-treated Ni(20 wt%)/Al 2O 3
respectively. The Ni/Ru-supported catalyst has high conversion exhibited higher catalytic activity for methane conversion than
efficiency of hydrogen and the rate of electrochemical reaction Ru(0.5 wt%)/Ni(20 wt%)/Al 2O 3 did.
does not decrease on the surface of electrodes. Ru(2 wt%)/Al 2O 3 For the analysis of resistance against carbon adsorption and
has a low conversion efficiency and the performance of fuel cell coking, we compared H 2-treated Ni(20 wt%)/Al 2O 3 and H 2-
decreases in case of long operation. untreated Ru(2wt%)/Al 2O 3 and Ru(0.5 wt%)/Ni(20 wt%)/Al 2O 3
at 750 C and S/C ratio of 2.5.
The electric characterization result for SOFC showed that the
catalysts used for 160 h at 750 C and S/C ratio of 2.5 show
better electric property in the order of Ru(0.5 wt%)/Ni(20
wt%)/Al 2O 3> Ni(20 wt%)/Al 2O 3>Ru(2 wt%)/Al 2O 3. The
impedance, Rp(.cm2), for each catalyst was 0.79, 0.92, 1.28
(.cm2), respectively.
Therefore, according to the multivariate comparison of Ni(20
wt%)/Al 2O 3 with Ru(0.5 wt%)/Ni(20 wt%)/Al 2O 3, we conclude
that Ru(0.5 wt%)/Ni(20 wt%)/Al 2O 3 is a more appropriate
catalyst for the steam reforming reaction because it maintains
stable supply of hydrogen gas to SOFC. Ru(0.5 wt%)/Ni(20
wt%)/Al 2O 3 has higher level of resistance against coke formation
and shows higher activity at the high temperature as well as it
does not require pre-treatment process.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Human Resources Development

of the Korea Insitute of Energy Technology Evaluation and
Planning(KETEP) grant funded by the Korea government
Ministry of Knowledge Economy (No. 20114010203130).

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[3] Z. Hou, O. Yokota, T. Tanaka, and T. Yashima, Appl. Catal
(2003), vol. 87, no. 253, 381.
[4] T. Miyata, M. Shiraga, D. Li, I. Atake, T. Shishido, Y. Oumi,
T, Sano, and K. Takehire, Catal. Comm, vol. 8, 2007, pp.
447.
[5] Jin Woo, Lee, A Study of hydrogen generation for Methane
Steam Reforming, Doctoral thesis, Kyonggi University, 2009.
[6] Young Joon, Kim et al., Study on Biogas Purifying
Technologies, The Society of Air-conditioning and
Refrigerating Engineers of Korea, 2009.
[7] Xianguo Li, Principles of Fuel Cells, Taylor & Francis 2006,
477-502.
[8] Sung Chul Hong, Won Joon, Kim, Effects of Carbon
Deposition on SOFC with Hydrocarbon Fuels, 12th edition,
Journal of Institute for Industrial Technology, University of
Seoul, 2004, 15-24.
[9] Korea Environment Corporation, Development and system
construction of Fuel Cell Power Plant Based on Biogas
Fuel , 2009.
[10] T. Miyata, M. Shiraga, D. Li, I. Atake, T. Shishido, Y. Oumi,
T, Sano, and K. Takehire, Catal. Comm, Vol. 8, 2007, 447.
[11] Jin Do Jung, Kyung Wan Koo, Tae Yong Shin, Jin Ho Seol,
Young Suk Kwon, Jong YounLee, Feasibility Study on the
Fuel Cell using Landfill Biogases, The Korean Institution of
Electrical Engineers, 2009, 63- 65
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Suitable Operation for Energy Generation System with Methane

Fermentation Using Syrup Waste from Canning Factory

S. Sakai1, H. Matsumura2 and M. Mochizuki2

1
Industrial Research Institute of Shizuoka Prefecture
2078 Makigaya, Aoi-ku, Shizuoka, 421-1298, JAPAN
2
Yamanashi Kanzume Co., Ltd.
974 Okitsu-nakacho, Shimizu-ku, Shizuoka, 424-0204, JAPAN

Abstract
The disposal of mass amount of syrup waste generated during
the manufacturing process of canned fruit is a serious matter at
canning factories. The treatment of syrup waste to make it into
clean water, which takes place at wastewater plant, consumes
large amount of energy and is expensive, due to the syrup waste
containing a high organic concentration. In order to make the
treatment of syrup waste more energy efficient and cheaper, an
energy recycling system employing methane fermentation and
gas-engine cogeneration techniques has been developed at a
factory site.
Syrup waste was fed into a fermentation tank on operation day
of factory. The Upflow Anearobic Sludge Blanket (UASB)
method was adopted as a methane fermentation technique to
generate biogas. Biogas is composed of approximately 80% of
methane and 20% of carbon dioxide. It also includes other
components such as hydrogen sulphide. After removal
operation of these compounds from the biogas, refined gas was
fed to the gas-engine system. Electric power of 25kW is
supplies to the facility of wastewater plant, and heat energy (hot
water) is fed back to the fermentation tank to warm it up to 37-38
degrees centigrade. Remaining heat is used for pre-heating of
boiler at the factory. The operation conditions of our system are
always reflected by the basic results obtained from the laboratory
investigations. In our paper, some results are presented in the
form of a comparison between experimental data and the real
phenomena in our system. Furthermore, it will be discussed
whether our system has economical and ecological benefits from
a future perspective.
Introduction
There are over 1,200 kinds of canned foods all over the world,
which were invented in France approximately 200 years ago. A
foods in can have already been sterilized and therefore a canned
foods are known as preserved foods with long-term free of
poisoning. It also plays useful part especially in a disaster
situation.
To date in Japan, a mass amount of canned food, specially
canned fruits, have been decreased gradually in production,
which are approximately 40 thousand tons/year less than half of
it 10 years ago. It is because the diversification of processing
food except for canned foods and the rise of the productivity in
Southeast Asia. The latter leads approximately 180 thousand
tons/year of imported canned fruits to Japan, e.g. mandarin
oranges, pineapples, peach and so on. No factories have
produced canned fruit in Shizuoka prefecture although it is very
popular place of mandarin oranges production in Japan.
Fruits in imported can are filled with syrup liquid to avoid
from rotting. In a canning factory in Japan, fruits in can are
separated from the syrup liquid because the syrup has a little
metallic tasting after long shipping. The fruits are filled with a
new syrup liquid again made at the Japanese factory. Canned
fruits are produced newly and shipped to all parts of the country.
The syrup liquid from overseas countries has to be treated as a
additional waste in the factories as a result. The treatment of the
syrup waste to make it into clean water, which takes place at
wastewater plant in the factories, consumes large amount of
energy and is expensive, due to the syrup waste containing a high
organic concentration.
In order to lighten the energetic and financial load of the
wastewater plant, energy generation system with methane
fermentation and gas-engine system using the syrup waste has
been proposed [1]. Our proposed system shows in Figure 1 and
it works as follows. The syrup waste is discharged from a
canning factory and the waste is fed into the methane
fermentation tank. Biogas is consequently generated from the
tank and fed to the gas-engine after some impurities in the gas are
removed. The system had already been established at a factory
site at the end of the fiscal year 2009 (FY2009) and has been
operated from the FY2010. Photograph 1 shows the exterior of
the biogas plant at the canning factory. The associated details
including experimental considerations are mentioned in the
following paragraph.
Yamanashi kanzume
(canning factory)
syrup waste
electricity 2,500 L/day
hot water
stock and
gas-engine
balancing tank
25kW
biogas 20m3 20m3
188m3/day
gas tank
methane fermentation tank
desulfurization tank
Figure 1 Energy generation system (biogas plant) with
methane fermentation and gas-engine using syrup waste

Photograph 1 Exterior of biogas plant at canning factory
Syrup Waste
Yamanashi Kanzume in Shizuoka city is a company that has
produced various processed foods, e.g. retort-pouch foods, cup-
jelly, canned tuna and canned fruits. Imported canned fruits to
Yamanashi Kanzume from overseas countries have separated
fruits and syrup liquid as mentioned before. The syrup liquid
has occupied approximately 40wt% in the whole canned fruits,
and so far it has treated with activated sludge method at the
wastewater plant to make it clean water and release it into the
river.
Table 1 shows components in syrup waste. The main
component in the syrup is cane sugar, and the sugar content (in
degrees Brix), total organic carbon (TOC) and total solid (TS) in
the syrup are 15.2%, 13.0% and 71,000mg/L, respectively.
These values are too high to make clean water at the wastewater
plant, and therefore it leads to an expensive treatment. This
case is taken place not only at Yamanashi Kanzume, but also at
all companies dealing with canned fruits in Japan. In fact, two
thirds of financial burden at the wastewater plant at Yamanashi
Kanzume is caused by the syrup waste treatment. It is however
supposed that high organic concentration, high water content and
low suspended solids (SS) in the syrup may suitable for feed
materials to the methane fermentation.
Figure 2 shows histories of the quantities of syrup waste
discharged from the factory within FY2005 and FY2011. The
data shows an average value of daily discharged waste every
month, which the total amount of monthly discharged syrup was
divided by operation days of the factory. The volume of the
waste in the summer season was higher than that in the winter
season due to consumer demand. It was also found that the
volume of the waste increased obviously on FY2011 compared
with that on FY2005. The average volume of the waste was
estimated to be approximately 2,174L/day on FY2011. Before
our system (biogas plant) works, all of the syrup waste was
disposed at the wastewater plant consuming expenses (over
12million JPY). In order to improve this situation, 2,000
2,500L/day of the syrup waste can be treated at our biogas plant.
Table 1 Components in syrup waste
en ergy protein carb ohy drate lipid
[kcal/L] [%] [%] % [%]
460 0.2 11.3 0.0
T-N T-P TS
Brix. To tal To tal Total Sus pend ed
Nit ro gen Pho sp ho ru s So lids So lids
[%] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/ L]
15.2 4,200 520 13.0
6,000
2005
discharged syrup waste [L/day]
5,000 2011
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
month
Figure 2 History of discharged syrup waste from canning
factory on FY2005 and FY2011
It is also not necessary to develop new collection and
transportation system from the factory to our system because the
biogas plant has been constructed in a site of the factory.
The syrup waste is diluted with water 2-4 times and fed into
the stock and balancing tank (approximately 3m3) in which the
nutrition and pH value in the syrup are controlled. The syrup is
automatically transported to the next methane fermentation tanks
(approximately 20m3/tank 2tanks). The methane fermentation
technique including how to add the nutrition to the syrup will be
described below in detail.
Methane Fermentation
The Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) method was
adopted as the methane fermentation technique to generate
biogas. The granular methane bacteria remain at the lower
region of the tank to digest the organic compounds in the syrup
waste. The temperature of the tank is controlled at
approximately 37-38 degrees centigrade, and the syrup is kept in
it for 2 or 3 weeks under anaerobic conditions.
The nutrition control in the syrup has to be considered before
the operation of the methane fermentation at the biogas plant.
As mentioned before, the syrup waste mainly includes the cane
sugar. That is to say, the excess of carbon compared with
nitrogen in the syrup will cause worse growth of the methane
bacteria. Therefore, the suitable condition of the ratio of carbon
to nitrogen (C/N) in the syrup has to be investigated when the
external nitrogen source is added to the syrup waste.
Experimental verification
Figure 3 shows the experimental apparatus of the methane
fermentation using the syrup waste. The granular methane
bacteria were prepared in 1L of the methane fermentation tank.
The syrup waste was fed into the tank by 100mL/day, which
concentration was set to be approximately 0.5-1.8g-TS/L/day.
water co ntent as h pH Digested fluid from the fermentation tank was pumped out from
[%] [-] the tank by the same 100mL/day. The fluid in the fermentation
88.3 0.2 4.2 tank was stirring slowly with 50rpm and it was kept at 37-38
TOC BOD
degrees centigrade in water bath. The potential hydrogen (pH)
SS
Total Bioch emical was controlled at approximately 7.5-8.0 by sodium hydroxide.
Organic Oxygen The urea was added to the syrup waste as nitrogen nutrition for
Carb on Deman d
[mg /L] [mg/ L]
the methane fermentation. In this experiment, the effect of C/N
400 71,000 20,000 ratio on the biogas generation was investigated.
 Figure 4 shows the effect of the C/N ratio in the syrup liquid
on the biogas generation. Biogas generation per TS
concentration in the feeding syrup was indicated at vertical axis 1
on this figure. It was difficult to control the fermentation using 4
syrup liquid itself (without any control of C/N ratio) as a feeding, 2
and then biogas could not be obtained enough within a week.
On the other hand, biogas was generated continuously if the C/N
ratio would be controlled at 5 to 45 in the syrup waste. The
superior condition will be found between C/N=15 and 45. Total 3
amount of biogas generation was approximately 20% much more 7
than that at C/N=5. It means that external nitrogen source to the
syrup waste at C/N=15-45 was effective and significant to grow
the methane bacteria. 5 6
In this experiment, the chemical urea was used to control the
1. gas bag 5. water bath
C/N ratio. It is, however, afraid that the chemical urea will push
up a running cost of the fermentation plant. Then we found that 2. thermocouple 6. feeding liquid
a canned tuna is one of the main productions at Yamanashi 3. fermentation tank (syrup waste)
Kanzume. In the manufacturing process of a canned tuna, a 4. stirrer 7. digested liquid
large amount of waste fish broth was disposed everyday. The
fish broth has enough nitrogen as shown in Table 2, and then the Figure 3 Experimental apparatus of methane
fish broth was added to the feeding syrup waste, which the C/N fermentation using syrup waste
ratio was set to be approximately 15. The results using the fish
broth were also plotted in Figure 4, but biogas was not able to
obtain unfortunately until 40days. Therefore, we tried to treat C/N=45 C/N=15 (fish broth)
the fish broth with alkali and heat (approximately pH11 and 60 C/N=25 C/N=5
degrees for 10min.) and fed into t he fermentation tank again. It C/N=15 syrup itself
was recognized that the alkali-heat treatment works effectively 1,500
on biogas generation for 25days (40-65days in the figure).
However, the gas stopped again after 65days. A fish broth dealt C/N=45
Biogas generation [mL/g-TS]

with the alkali-heat treatment was stored and used, but it would
cause the same situation with untreated broth. Accordingly, the C/N=25
1,000
broth was treated immediately before feeding to the tank each
time. As a result, the biogas generation was recovered again up
to the same level and/or more high level of that at C/N=15 dealt C/N=15
with the use of chemical urea. It was supposed that nitrogenous
materials in the fish broth were changed to materials with low 500
molecular weight such as an amino acid after the alkali-heat
treatment. The inferior effect of the storage of the broth on the C/N=5
C/N=15
fermentation is not clear and still investigated. (fish broth)
In this experimental verification, it was found that the control 0
0 20 40 60 80
the C/N ratio in the syrup waste was very important to operate time [day]
the methane fermentation stably. The fish broth can be used as
nitrogen source for the fermentation in spite o f the chemical. It
is, however, necessary to give alkali-heat treatment to the broth Figure 4 Effect of C/N ratio in syrup waste on biogas
before feeding to the fermentation tank. generation

Field operation
Table 2 Components in fish broth
Two methane fermentation tanks with approximately 20m3
were prepared to ferment the syrup waste as shown in Figure 1.
The syrup waste was diluted with water 2-4times, and pH value TOC T-N T-P
and nitrogen concentration in the syrup were controlled at the
Total Organic Carbon Total Nitrogen Total Phos phorus
stock and balancing tank (3m3) before methane fermentation.
The C/N ratio was controlled within 15-25 based on the [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L]
experimental results. The treated syrup waste has been fed into 7,300 2,900 210
the fermentation tank under 37-38 degrees centigrade, and kept in
it for 2 or 3 weeks.
Figure 5 shows that the profiles of (a) feeding syrup waste and organic concentration in the feeding syrup was over 10L-
diluted syrup to the fermentation tank, (b) organic concentration org./m3/day (Fig.5(b) and (c)). It took approximately 200days
in the syrup waste and pH value in the tank, (c) biogas generation to get well again while a low feeding rate of the syrup had been
and methane concentration in the biogas, (d) biogas generation kept. After that, if the organic concentration was over 6L-
per TS concentration in syrup waste and (e) power generation of org./m3/day, the pH value started to decrease (e.g. 300days of
the gas-engine from FY2009 to FY2011. FY2010 and 55days of FY2011). The change of pH value and
Biogas plant has been started from the latter term of the biogas generation indicated corresponded relationship between
FY2009, and amount of treaded syrup was increased smoothly up these 2 parameters. It is suggested that 10L-org./m3/day is a
to 2ton/day until 50days of FY2010 (Fig.5(a)). However, the limit condition and 6L-org./m3/day is a criterion condition for a
pH value and biogas generation decreased abruptly after the suitable operation of the methane fermentation. In FY2011
after Tohoku earthquake (March 11th, 2011), the market of
canned fruits were disturbed in Japan and feeding amount of the 8
(FY2009) (FY2010) (FY2011)

syrup waste to the fermentation tank had been unstable. (a)

feeding syrup [kL/day]

6
Consequently, we could treat only less than 1ton/day on average total
(including dilution water)
of the syrup waste in FY2011, and could not get an enough 4
biogas.
2
Methane concentration in biogas was estimated to be syrup
approximately 80% (Fig.5(c)) stably. Based on the theoretical 0
100 200 300 100 200 300 100 200 300
days days days
approach [2], same mole of methane and carbon dioxide would
be obtained by the decomposition of cane sugar in the syrup 15
(FY2009) (FY2010) (FY2011)
8.5
waste with the methane fermentation as shown in equation (1). (b) pH pH

orga nic concentration

12 8.0

[L-org./m /day]
pH
C12H22O11 + 24H2O = 6CH4 + 6CO2 (1) 9 7.5

pH
6 7.0
In order to explain the difference between the results obtained organic conc.
3 6.5
from the biogas plant and theoretical consideration, it is supposed organic conc.
0 6.0
that some carbon dioxide in biogas will be dissolved into water 100 200 300 100 200
days
300 100 200
days
300
days
under slightly alkaline condition, and it will be also reacted by
sodium hydroxide, which was used for pH control in the 150
(FY2009) (FY2010) ( FY2011)
100
fermentation tank.

biogas generation [m3 /day]

(c) CH4
As compared biogas generation per TS concentration in 100
CH4
80

CH4 [%]
feeding syrup obtained from field results (Fig.5(d)) with CH
4

experimental results (Fig.4), there was not much difference 50 biogas biogas 60

between them. However, in detail, filed results were slightly biogas

lower than experimental results because of unstable feeding of 0 100 200 300 100 200 300 100 200 300
40
days days days
the syrup liquid, which would cause a disturbance of the retention
time for the methane fermentation. If biogas of approximately 1,500
(FY2009) (FY2010) (FY2011)
biogas generation [L/kg-TS]

500L/kg-TS/day can be obtained from 2,000-2,500L/day of the (d)

syrup waste based on these considerations, generated biogas will 1,000
be estimated to be approximately 188m3/day as shown in Fig.1.
Due to this estimation, we prepared the gas-engine of 25kW in 500

the biogas plant site. The histories of electric power from the
gas-engine system were shown in Figure 5(e). Gas-engine was 0
100 200 300 100 200 300 100 200 300
days days days
working for 5-6 hours per day, which was depended on amount
of biogas generation. The change of electric power was just (FY2009) (FY2010) (FY2011)
300
consisted with the change of biogas generation (Fig.5(c)). We (e)
electric power [kWh/day]

dont have any troubles on the operation of gas-engine and the 200
electric power has been used at the wastewater plant efficiently.
Hot water obtained from waste heat of the gas-engine has been 100
used to warm up the fermentation tank and to heat water
beforehand for boilers in the factory. 0 100 200 300 100 200 300 100 200 300
days days days

Total System
Figure 5 Profiles from FY2009 to FY2011of (a)
feeding syrup and diluted syrup to the fermentation
Table 3 shows the record of the performance of the biogas
plant from FY2009 to FY2011 in comparison with ideal tank, (b) organic concentration in the syrup and pH
operation (our goal). We did not come up to the ideal condition value in the tank, (c) biogas generation and methane
because of 2 reasons. The first trouble was that high organic concentration in the gas, (d) biogas generation per TS
concentration in the syrup waste was fed to the fermentation tank concentration in syrup and (e) power generation of
at the first term of FY2010. The concentration was reached up the gas-engine
over 10L-TS/m3/day and it needed over 200days to recover the
condition of fermentation. The second reason was unstable
feeding of the syrup after the Tohoku earthquake (March 11th,
2011). Factories manufacturing a can (container) for canned
fruits were hit by the earthquake and Yamanashi Kanzume could
not get an enough can for a while (until the end of summer Table 3 Record of performance of biogas plant from
season at FY2011). Latte term of FY2011, which was the FY2009 to FY2011
winter season, discharge of syrup waste decreased as shown in
Fig.2 and enough waste could not be fed into the fermentation unit goal FY2009 FY2010 FY2011
tank. However, a capacity of the fermentation to generate operationg
[day] 365 78 365 366
biogas from syrup waste has been kept as shown in Fig.5(d). It days
3
is expected that ideal operation will be achieved until the end of feeding [m ] 913 51 288 295
FY2012. syrup liquid [m3/day] 2.50 0.65 0.79 0.81
Figure 6 shows the energy and mass balance of our system if 3
[m ] 68,620 1,363 9,600 8,571
ideal operation is achieved. Indicated value in this figure was biogas
daily value and/or volume. The system works on the [m3/day] 188 17 26 23
assumption that 2,500L/day of syrup waste is fermented and electric [kWh] 127,750 1,769 18,085 15,447
188m3/day of biogas is always obtained. The removal rate of energy [kWh/day] 350 23 50 42
TOC in fermentation tank was estimated to be approximately
80%, and methane concentration in the biogas was estimated to hot water 173MJ hot water 173MJ
k
be approximately 80% as previously mentioned. The an
t biogas
heat
3,110MJ
to factory
fermentation tank needs electric power of approximately 2.5kW n
o 188m3/day e
it n
for pumps, stirrer, and control system to monitor the pH and Syrup ta 5,981MJ i
g energy
2,500L/day n
e n
e- electricity recovery
temperature. Hot water is also used for warming up the tank. m
re sa 350kWh 4,196MJ
7,476MJ 1,259MJ
However, this energy is compensated with that generated by the f
e
G
gas-engine. Gas-engine system also requires an electric power an loss
loss
h
te digestive 1,704MJ
of approximately 1.84kW for the operation of gas feeding, power 2.5kW M residue
1,884MJ power 1.84kW
ignition, combustion and its surrounding instruments. In order (216MJ)
(92MJ)
to work the gas-engine stably with 25kW, 17.85m3/h of biogas
needs to supply, which was listed on performance catalogue. In Figure 6 Energy and mass balance in our combined
other hands, only 7.81m3/h (188m3/day) can be obtained from system with methane fermentation and gas-engine system
the fermentation at the site. It means that gas-engine should be based on the disposal of 2,500L/day syrup waste
operated intermittently except for the nighttimes. Daily
operation time is estimated to be approximately 14h. The
electric efficiency of the gas-engine was observed to be 20% and Table 4 Annual reduction of CO2 emission when
approximately 350kWh/day of electric power could be generated 2,500L/day of syrup waste is treated by our system
with it. Heat efficiency of the gas-engine was observed to be
approximately 52% and it generated hot water. Approximately before after reduction CO2 reduction
173MJ/day of energy is used for warming up the fermentation electricity for
tank and the remainder is recycled for the factory as pre-heating wastwater 232.3 [MWh/year] 20.9 [MWh/year] 211.4 [MWh/year] 99.4 [ton/year]
treatment
of the boiler. waste sludge 342.3 [ton/year] 159.7 [ton/year] 182.6 [ton/year] 58.0 [ton/year]
The total energy efficiency in the entire system is estimated to heat 0.0 [MJ/year] -734,250 [MJ/year]* 734,250 [MJ/year] 37.2 [ton/year]
total 194.5 [ton/year]
be approximately 53.9%. This percentage has been calculated
* Negative value means newly generated energy.
by taking into consideration the efficiency of the methane
fermentation and gas-engine system.
If syrup waste at a volume of 2,500L/day is disposed by
incineration, approximately 12,172MJ/day will be consumed. the methane fermentation stably. It was also found that the fish
However our system requires only approximately 308MJ/day of broth can be candidate for the nitrogen source for the
external energy (power for fermentation tank and gas-engine). fermentation in spite of the chemical urea. In the biogas plant,
Furthermore, 4,196MJ/day can be recovered from the gas-engine. the methane fermentation system has been operated for 2 years,
Therefore, our system will contribute to environmental protection. and same tendency with the experimental results concerned to
Table 4 shows the consideration about reduction of emission of biogas generation was able to be obtained. It is expected that
carbon dioxide. Sludge caused by syrup waste accounts for two our system will work effectively although our goal could not be
thirds of all sludge from the wastewater plant at Yamanashi achieved yet as consequence of high load trouble and the Tohoku
Kanzume. The removal rate of TOC by methane fermentation earthquake. In the gas-engine system, operation has to be
came up to approximately 80%. Considering these matters, intermittently for 14h, except for the nighttimes, because of the
burden reduction at the wastewater plant can be estimated to be balance between its performance and biogas generation at the
approximately 46.6% if our system works effectively. plant.
Electricity at wastewater plant will also saved by 46.6% with The total energy efficiency of the entire system was estimated
methane fermentation, and gas-engine will supply 25kW of the to be approximately 53.9%. The emission of carbon dioxide
electricity for 14h per day and 250days per year. As a result, can be reduced to 194.5ton/year by our system. As a result, the
211.4MWh/year of electric power will be cut down and financial load of the wastewater plant at Yamanashi Kanzume
approximately 99.4ton/year of carbon dioxide will be able to be can also lighten by 46.6%, and the company will be able to make
reduced. Waste sludge will be also decreased by 46.6% and a huge profit. It was also found that our system has great
approximately 58ton/year of carbon dioxide will be reduced. potential for contribution to environmental protection.
Gas-engine generates heat newly by using biogas, and then it will
help heating of water by e.g. natural gas. This effect can be Acknowledgments
estimated to be approximately 37.2ton/year of reduction of
carbon dioxide emission. Total reduction of carbon dioxide Ministry of the Environment in Japan supported financially our
emission can be estimated to be approximately 194.5ton/year by study. Further, the authors gratefully thank Prof. K. Nakasaki
our system. It is suggested that financial load of the wastewater (Tokyo Institute of Technology), who gave us a lot of theoretical
plant will also lighten by 46.6%. To put it concretely, it is advices and suggestions. We also appreciate Watanabe
necessary only to pay approximately 5.60million JPY/year for the Building Co., Ltd., Shizuoka Gas Company Co., Ltd., Toho
wastewater plant at Yamanashi Kanzume although 12million Chemical Engineering & Construction Co., Ltd., .and Shizuoka
JPY/year had been needed up to the present. Environment Resources Association with support for building
and operating our Biogas plant.
Conclusion

An energy recycling system using syrup waste is constructed at References

the site of the canning factory. The energy can be generated by
the methane fermentation technique and the gas-engine system. [1] S,Sakai et al., Food processing and ingredients (Shokuhin to
In the experiment of the fermentation, the control of the C/N ratio Kaihatsu) [Japanese], Vol.46, No.1, pp. 7-10 (2011).
in the syrup waste was found to be very important key to operate [2] T.Noike, Metan Hakkou [Japanese], Gihodo, p4 (2009).
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Analysis on Maximum Pressing Force during Diffusion Bonding

Process of a Microchannel Heat Exchanger

Dong-Wook Oh, Seok Ho Yoon, Young Kim and Jun Seok Choi
Department of Extreme Thermal Systems, Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials,
156 Gajeongbok-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-343, Republic of Korea

Abstract consuming and expensive to test numerous cases to find the

optimal diffusion bonding condition.
Industrial microchannel heat exchangers are fabricated through
In this paper, finite element method (FEM) is used to calculate
printed circuit (PC) technique, where thin stainless steel plates
the stress distribution inside microchannel structure during the
are chemically etched to desired geometry and stacked to form
diffusion bonding process. Microchannels with widths of 0.6 and
the core block. Superb mechanical strength and structural 1.2 mm are studied. Etched cross-section of a unit microchannel
integrity can be achieved with diffusion bonded microchannels plate is photographed and modelled using 3D CAD tool.
where metal plates are joined to a single solid state. In this paper,
maximum allowable pressing force during the diffusion bonding
process is determined by a finite element tool. The dependence of
the channel size, diffusion bonding temperature is analysed.

Introduction
Many benefits can be acquired by scaling down the channel size
of commercial thermo-fluidic systems. Diffusion process such as
heat transfer and chemical reaction can be greatly accelerated
inside a microchannel when compared to systems having macro-
sized channels. A microchannel heat exchanger had been studied
intensively within heat transfer community for over 25 year in
effort to commercialize the technique. [1, 2] Microchannel heat
exchangers can be applied to fields such as high performance
electronic cooling system, high pressure and temperature
applications for nuclear power and oil plants.
Microchannel heat exchangers are often fabricated through
printed circuit (PC) technique as shown in Figure 1. Thin metal
plates having thickness in the order of ~ 1 mm are chemically
etched to desired geometry and stacked to form the core block.
The number of stacked plates depends on the thermal capacity of
the heat exchanger. The stacked plates are placed inside a
vacuum oven where temperature is maintained close to the
melting temperature of the metal plates. The assembled block is
pressed to a certain pressure in order for the diffusion of metal
atoms occurs at the plate interfaces. As the temperature and the
pressure conditions are fulfilled, the plates are joined to a single
solid state.
Superb mechanical strength and structural integrity can be
achieved with diffusion bonded heat exchangers where the
operation pressure and temperature can be as high as 500 bars
and 900 oC. [3] However, the diffusion bonding is a sophisticated
process where control parameters such as chamber temperature,
Figure 1. Picture of a printed circuit microchannel heat exchanger
pressing pressure, chamber environment, plate surface roughness
fabricated by diffusion bonding process. The cross-section of the
and etc. needs to be optimized. Moreover, it is extremely time
bonded plates and microchannel is shown at the bottom
photograph.
 Pa

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

(c)

(b) (d)

Figure 4. Calculation results of stress distribution inside the

microchannel at (a) 900 oC and locations where the proof
100 mm strength is exceeded at surrounding temperature of (b) 800, (c)
900 and (d) 1000 oC.

Figure 2. Pictures of patterned unit plate, where thickness and
channel width are (a) 0.8, 0.6 mm and (b) 1.5, 1.2 mm,
respectively. The modelled 3D CAD picture is shown in (c).
COMSOL is used to calculate various pressure loadings at
temperatures from 900 to 1000 oC, to simulate actual diffusion
bonding process inside the bonding chamber. Maximum
allowable pressing force is decided by comparing the calculation
results to the yield strength table of stainless steel (SS) obtained
from literature.
Modelling
In order to model the actual microchannel dimensions, cross-
section of fabricated microchannel plates are image processed
and imported to 3D CAD software. The 0.6 and 1.2 mm width
microchannels are patterned on 0.8 and 1.5 mm thick SS plates,
respectively. The cross-section of the chemically etched
microchannels and the modelled CAD images are shown in
Figure 2.
Note that size of photographs in Figure 2 (a) and (b) are scaled.
The profile of the etched channel is close to a half circle where
the centre is positioned slightly below the top surface of the plate.
Based on the cross-section image, a single microchannel with
length of 100 mm is drawn. The 3D information is imported to
COMSOL for simulation. The boundary conditions of the
structure shown in Figure 2 (c) are set as the following. The side
walls are set as a symmetry face. The boundary load of 10 to 27
MPa is given at the bottom surface. The temperature of the
geometry is varied from 900 to 1000 oC.
The maximum allowed pressure inside the channel structure is
judged from Figure 3 where ultimate strength and proof strength
is plotted vs. temperature. Note that proof stress is another word
for offset yield point defined by the tensile stress at 0.2% of
strain. Declination of strength values can be observed as the
temperature increases. Since the diffusion bonding process is
performed at elevated temperature, close to the melting
temperature of the unit plate (stainless steel, SS 316L), accurate
yield strength must be known at the bonding temperature.
30
Maximum pressing pressure (MPa)

800
ultimate strength
20
proof strength 1.2 mm width
600
0.6 mm width
Stress (MPa)

400
10

200

0
0
900 920 940 960 980 1000
200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (oC) Temperature (oC)

Figure 3. Ultimate and proof strength of SS 316L is shown.[4] Figure 5. Relationship with maximum allowable pressing stress
The extrapolation of original data to a linear fit is done for proof during the diffusion bonding and bonding temperature for 1.2 and
strength of 900 oC and above. 0.6 mm width microchannels.
Etched microchannel structure is mainly exposed under
compressive stress during the bonding process. However it is
very difficult to obtain a reliable temperature dependent
compressive strength data for SS316L in the literature, unlike the
tensile strength or the ultimate strength. Only room temperature
value of compressive strength for SS316L has been found. [5]
The room temperature compressive strength was found to be
identical to proof strength for SS316L.
Although the compressive yield stress may be very different
compared to the tensile strength at elevated temperature, we
leave the work of searching for the temperature dependent
compressive strength of SS to future work. In this work, we use
the proof stress to decide the maximum allowable stress within
the microchannel wall.
Temperature dependent values of proof strength and ultimate
strength are shown Figure 3. The original data show proof
strength up to 871 oC. Proof strengths of 98 and 78 MPa are used
for 900 and 1000 oC as a result of extrapolation of original data
to a linear fit.
Calculation results
The calculation results are shown in Figure 4 for the case of 0.6
mm width microchannel with the boundary loading of 20 MPa.
The stress from 0 to 160 MPa is shown in Figure 4 (a) at 900 oC.
Figure 4 (b), (c) and (d) shows locations where the stresses
exceed the corresponding proof strength at 800, 900 and 1000 oC,
respectively.
As expected, the thinnest side wall region is subjected to highest
stress. As the surrounding temperature increases from 900 to
1000 oC, the region where subjected stress is larger than the proof
strength increases. The maximum allowable pressure for
diffusion bonding is determined by setting the temperature
dependent proof strength as the limit stress within the channel
structure. Each calculation performed at 10 oC and 0.5 MPa
intervals are analysed and the maximum allowable pressing
pressure is decided as shown in Figure 5. For 0.6 mm width
microchannel, the pressing pressure should be limited below 13
MPa at 900 oC and gradually decreases to 10.5 MPa at 1000 oC.
The 1.2 mm microchannel shows similar trend decreasing from
26.5 MPa (900 oC ) to 21.5 MPa (1000 oC).
Conclusions
The diffusion bonding process of printed circuit microchannel
heat exchanger is analysed by a finite element tool. The
maximum pressing force is determined for different bonding
conditions of bonding temperature and microchannel width.
Actual cross-section of the etched microchannel structure is
image-processed and imported the simulation model for accurate
estimation for the stress distribution at channel wall. As expected,
thinnest side wall region is subjected to highest stress. The
maximum allowable bonding pressure decreased as the bonding
temperature increased.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the LNG Plant R&D Center funded
by Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs, Korea.
References
[1] G. L. Morini, Single-phase convective heat transfer in
microchannels: a review of experimental results, Int. J.
Therm. Sci., Vol 43, 2004, pp 631-651.
[2] N. Tsuzuki, Y. Kato, and T. Ishiduka, High performance
printed circuit heat exchanger, Appl. Therm. Eng., vol 27,
2007, pp. 1702-1707.
[3] L. M. Pua, and S. O. Rumbold, Industrial microchannel
devices Where are we today?, Proc. 1st Int. Conf.
Microchannels Minichannels, Rochester, NY. 2003.
[4] AK Steel Corp., Production data bulletin, 316/316L stainless
steel, AK Steel Corp., Ohio, 2007.
[5] Webpage, http://www.tecni-cable.co.uk/s.nl/ctype.KB/it.I/id.
138/KB.36576/.f., Tecmo-Cable, Ltd.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
23 rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena:
Implications of Momentum Modelling in Ejector Fluid Mixing
M. Dennis1, A. Marina1 and T. Cochrane1
1
Research School of Engineering
The Australian National University, Canberra 0200, Australia
Abstract
Ejector based heat pumps have recently been the subject of
increasing research interest due to their potential
application to solar driven cooling heat pump cycles. In
this role, the ejector acts as a heat driven vapour
compressor. The low isentropic efficiency of an ejector as
a vapour compressor has limited its use in heat pump
applications.
The efficiency of the ejector is dominated by losses in the
ejectors mixing process. Literature covering analytical
models of ejector mixing phenomena is inconsistent in its
treatment of momentum conservation and this sometimes
leads to inaccurate prediction of the performance of an
ejector. In particular, the assumption that mixing occurs at
constant pressure is questioned in this study.
The operation of an ejector is described by reference to a
one dimensional model. This mathematical model uses
conservation laws for mass, momentum and energy. Model
solutions are only considered valid if entropy of the
mixing process increases. The model is used to predict the
effect of mixing momentum loss on the isentropic
efficiency of the ejector.
A comparison is drawn between performance predicted by
a simplified momentum conservation equation and the
performance predicted by a detailed momentum
conservation equation. A range of ejector mixing chamber
designs are considered in the analysis.
Results indicate that mixing pressure should not be
assumed to be constant and a rigorous approach to solving
the momentum balance is necessary. A case study
indicates there is an optimum mixing chamber
convergence angle for a given set of ejector design
conditions.
Nomenclature
Momentum conversion efficiency
Mixing chamber convergent half angle
Pressure recovery ratio. Ratio of total pressure of
PPR the primary and secondary flows to the total
pressure of the mixed flow
Subscripts
ex Ejector exit
exs Ejector exit after isentropic compression
is Isentropic
m Mixed flow
p Primary flow
p0 Primary flow stagnation
s Secondary flow
s0 Secondary flow stagnation
w Mixing chamber wall
Introduction
An ejector is a pumping device which uses jet action of a
high pressure primary fluid to entrain and accelerate a
slower secondary fluid. The resulting kinetic energy of the
mixed flow is subsequently used for self-compression to a
higher outlet pressure such that the secondary flow
undergoes compression while the primary flow undergoes
expansion.
Most commonly, ejectors are driven by low pressure steam
and used to provide vacuum for industrial processes. In
such cases, the ejectors role was characterised by steady
state conditions and empirical design. Efficiency was not
as important as reliability. In the context of this paper, only
gas or vapour compression ejectors are considered
whereby the motive fluid is also a gas or vapour.
The chief attractions of the ejector are low cost, excellent
reliability, low maintenance, absence of lubricant and
reduced loading on electrical supplies.
However, an ejector has low thermal efficiency which
implies that an ejector requires a large solar collector and
large condenser to operate in a solar heat pump
application. The isentropic efficiency of a typical single
stage ejector using a modern refrigerant lies in the range
35-50%, depending on the required pressure lift. The
dominant efficiency loss mechanism in the ejector is in the
mixing of the primary and secondary flows. Thus, if this
could be improved, an ejector heat pump performance
could rival that of an absorption heat pump. The ejector
would have clear advantages of reliability and low cost.
Operation of an Ejector Heat Pump
A typical ejector consists of four parts: primary nozzle,
mixing chamber, throat and diffuser (Figure 1). The
primary motive fluid is expanded through a converging-
diverging nozzle and a low-pressure, supersonic jet is
produced. This high velocity jet entrains the low-pressure
secondary vapour leaving an evaporator and entering the
ejector. Low velocity secondary vapour is drawn into the
ejector mixing chamber and the two streams mix such that
the velocity after mixing is lower than that at the primary
nozzle exit but still supersonic (Figure 2). A normal or
oblique compression shock may form near the exit of the
ejector throat whereupon subsonic compression occurs in
the diffuser.
The aim of the ejector is to maximise the ratio of
secondary to primary flow, while recovering static
pressure at the ejector exit to ensure that the vapour is
condensable (in a heat pump application). Ejector
inefficiencies in the mixing and shock processes manifest
as undesirable superheat in the ejector exit. The dominant
loss mechanism in a well designed ejector operating near
its design point results from the mixing process.
Understanding and improving the ejector mixing
efficiency is most important in solar driven heat pump
applications. An efficient ejector might be able to use a
small solar collector, thus reducing the capital cost of a
solar cooling system.
Primary
Nozzle
Mixing
chamber
Throat Diffuser
Primary
flow
inlet
Secondary
flow inlet
Figure 1. A typical ejector in cross-section, showing the
main components.
mixing
diffuser
chamber throat
Pressure
P E
S Varga et al [18] reviewed mixing efficiencies for steam
Velocity
P S E range of area ratios, Am/Ap, with coefficients in the range
Figure 2. Pressure and velocity profiles for a typical
ejector.
Mixing of the primary and secondary flows in the ejector
mixing chamber is usually assumed to occur either at
constant pressure or at constant area. The notion of
constant pressure in either case is not well supported by
experimental measurements of the pressure profile during
mixing [1-3].
Nevertheless, ejector folklore [4-6] suggests that constant
pressure mixing results in superior ejector performance
when compared to constant area mixing.
Amongst the literature on ejector modelling, there is a
good deal of inconsistency in the treatment of the mixing
process and this results in a wide range of performance
prediction for ejectors. We aim to provide an approach
based on fundamental conservation equations that might
have general application.
Analytical Ejector Mixing Models
The majority of analytic ejector models are based on one
dimensional ideal gas equations and a simple equation of
state.
Mixing of the primary and secondary fluids is usually
modelled as a conservation of momentum with a global
correction for momentum loss. This correction includes the
effects of oblique shocks in the primary jet, eddy
formation in the shear mixing of the two flows and viscous
losses.
In many cases, mixing is assumed to occur at constant
pressure [7-13]. In references [7-11], the momentum
Exit balance equation for the mixing process considers only
velocity terms and ignores both pressure-area integrals and
viscous losses.
Some authors have considered the mixing pressure to be
variable [14-17] and all but [17] include pressure-area
integrals in the mixing process momentum balance.
However, these studies only consider constant area mixing
chambers.
There are limitations imposed by analytical models. One
dimensional models simplify the ejector flows to steady,
uniform, developed, single phase, adiabatic and inviscid
conditions. Secondly, they assume that the mixing
efficiency is independent of the ejector primary, secondary
and exit fluid conditions.
Consequently, several researchers have attempted to define
the mixing momentum efficiency in greater detail.
ejectors in the literature and found momentum mixing
sonic efficiencies in the range 0.8 to 1.0. Computational Fluid
velocity Dynamics was used to derive mixing efficiencies for a
0.91 to 0.98 when the ejector was operating below its
critical backpressure.
Huang and Chang [19] fitted a correlation to their
experimental data and showed that momentum efficiency
could be modelled as a linear function of the ejector area
ratio. For their ejector, the momentum mixing efficiency
ranged from 0.80 to 0.84. High mixing efficiency was
associated with the low ejector area ratios. This study was
concerned with ejector design and did not consider how
the mixing conditions changed with ejector operating
point.
Unfortunately, the majority of ejector literature does not
reference the assumed value of mixing efficiency. Perhaps
the most reliable guidance, noted by Eames [7], comes
form the Engineering Sciences Data Unit [20]
recommendations. Mixing efficiency ranges from 0.75 to
0.95 with a typical value of 0.87 for gas ejectors.
Efficiency of the mixing process is critical since the
ejector needs to provide sufficient exit pressure such that
the saturation temperature of the refrigerant at this point is
greater than the condenser cooling medium, otherwise heat
cannot be rejected and the heat pump cycle ceases to
operate.
Many authors describe a simplified ejector mixing process
with only the kinetic terms of the momentum equation (1).
Mixing momentum loss is usually described by a mixing
efficiency .
( m& p v p + m& s v s ) ( m& p + m& s ) v m (1)

According to ESDU, momentum mixing efficiencies over This implies that the mixing pressure and area are assumed
0.9 are only possible for very well designed ejectors to be constant and that boundary layer flow is inviscid.
operating at their design condition. Values below 0.85 are
associated with overly short mixing chambers, poor A more rigorous approach is to consider a control volume
secondary inlet design and excessive fluid wall friction enclosing the ejector mixing chamber (Figure 3).
losses in the ejector. ESDU also notes that special mixing
primary nozzle designs that promote mixing may achieve Mixing chamber
momentum mixing efficiencies above 0.92.
secondary throat
A Mollier diagram provides a useful representation of the flow
ejector compression process. The stagnated primary and primary mixed flow
secondary flows are assumed to be saturated vapour. These flow
flows expand entropically to the mixing chamber entry
pressure. Entropy generating mixing occurs at near
constant pressure and is followed by further entropy
Control volume
generation by a normal shock near the end of the ejector
boundary
throat. Further compression is achieved in the subsonic
diffuser. The Mollier diagram shows that efficient mixing
leads to greater pressure recovery in the ejector exit. Figure 3. Mixing chamber control volume

500 Mass flow is conserved through the mixing process and is

described equivalently by equations 2 and 3.
Enthalpy (kj/kg)

Pressure
475 m& + m& = m& (2)
P p s m

E k k k
Pp A p M + Ps A s M = Pm A m M
p RT p s RT s m RT m
450

(3)
425
Temperature
The full equation for momentum conservation in the
S
mixing chamber is described by equations 4 and 5.
400
1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
P A + P A + ( m& v + m& v ) = P A + ( m& + m& ) v
p p s s p p s s m m p s m
Entropy (kJ/kg-K) + A
w
(4)
Figure 3. The compression effect and mixing efficiency
represented by a Mollier diagram for refrigerant R245fa.
P A (1 + kM ) + P A (1 + kM ) = P A (1 + kM )
2 2 2
p p p s s s m m m

+ Aw
Treatment of Mixing Efficiency
(5)
The performance of an ejector employed as a compressor Finally, energy is conserved through the mixing process
in a heat pump may be described by an overall isentropic such that equations 6 and 7 apply.
efficiency. This efficiency is dominated by two effects:
total pressure loss in the mixing process and, to a lesser
degree, entropy generation across the compression shock
in the ejector throat.
 1 2 1
m p (c p T p +v p ) + m s ( c p T s + v s2 ) + Q& = hexs h s
2 2
is = (10)
( m + m )( c T + v )
1 2 h h
ex s
p s p m 2 m
(6) Ejector modelling is conducted using a modified one
( k 1) ( k 1) dimensional methodology presented by Huang [8]. Using
m T (1 + M 2 ) + m T (1 + M 2 ) + Q& =
p p 2 p s s 2 s this model as a platform, the mixing process is exchanged
( k 1) for equations 3, 5 and 7. Furthermore, the constant
( m + m )T (1 + M 2) capacity choking condition is relieved by allowing the
p s m 2 m
primary flow temperature and pressure to reduce at low
(7)
condensing temperatures, thereby increasing entrainment
Usually, the mixing process is assumed to be adiabatic.
in such circumstances.
This is a reasonable assumption since the process occurs
very rapidly and the temperature difference of the flows to
For subsequent analysis, the ejector working fluid is
ambient is low.
refrigerant R245fa. The ejector has an area ratio of 9.75.
The primary and secondary temperatures are 100C and
The conditions of the primary and secondary flows at the
8C respectively, typical of a solar heat pump application.
entry to the control volume may be more conveniently
Fluid properties are drawn from the REFPROP database.
described in terms of their stagnation conditions which are
known. Equations 8 and 9 describe these expressions for
Modelling Results Pressure Recovery Ratio
the secondary flow. Similar expressions may be written for
the primary flow.
The pressure recovery ratio, PRR, can be plotted for a
range of assumed conditions for the mixing process.
Ts 0
Ts = (8)
( k 1) 2 Plots in Figure 4 show the general cases where neither
(1 + Ms) pressure nor area is constant in the mixing process. Curves
2 s
of PRR are plotted for various mixing chamber
k
convergence angles. The special case of the solution to the
k 1
conservation equations whereby Pm is held constant
P = P 1
1 1 (9) determines a singular value of mixing efficiency for each
+
s0
s s ( k 1) convergence angle and this is also plotted in Figure 4.
s 1 + M 2

2 s

100%
The three conservation equations may be simultaneously 95%
solved for the three unknowns Mm, Tm and Pm. If the 90%
mixing chamber pressure is constrained by a constant
PRR

85%
pressure requirement, then the solution is singular in
80%
mixing efficiency.
75%
The objective of an ejector in a heat pump application is to 70%
maximise recovery of static pressure at its exit while 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1
minimising losses to internal energy which manifests as Mixing efficiency
unwanted ejector exit superheat.
Constant A 0.5deg 1.0deg
1.5deg 2.0 deg reference
Since the ejectors diffuser acts to recover dynamic
Constant P
pressure, an appropriate measure of ejector mixing
performance might be indicated by examining the ratio of
total pressure at the exit of the mixing chamber to that of Figure 4. PRR plotted as a function of mixing efficiency.
the mixing chamber entry. This is denoted the pressure
recovery ratio (PRR) and described by equation 10. The constant area mixing has the highest potential for
pressure recovery through mixing, independent of the
k k assumed mixing efficiency. This agrees with anecdotal
A p P p (1 + M 2
) + A s Ps (1 + M 2
)
2 p 2 s findings in the literature. However, it may not provide the
PRR =
k greatest entrainment of the secondary flow.
A m Pm (1 + M 2
)
2 m

(10) As the mixing efficiency increases, the constant mixing

area ejector model predicts decreasing mixing chamber
In the context of a heat pump application, the ejectors outlet pressure and temperature but increasing outlet
isentropic efficiency, is, is used to describe the ejectors velocity. Thus energy losses to internal energy in the fluid
overall performance as a compressor.
reduce with increasing mixing efficiency and this leads to
an increase in PRR.
For convergent mixing chambers, the mixing chamber
outlet pressure is higher due to the increased contribution
of secondary pressure-area to inlet momentum. The
increase in secondary flow entrainment increases the
extent of velocity mismatch in the mixing of the two
streams and may be responsible for the reduced mixing
efficiency for convergent chambers.
Figure 4 also shows that the model solution for high
mixing efficiencies and convergent mixing chamber
designs were not always valid. This was due to violation of
the Second Law of Thermodynamics for these cases.
Results for the simplified model are shown in Figure 5 and
for the full model in Figure 6. In each case, results are
shown for constant area mixing and for a mixing chamber
converging at an angle of 1.5.
As a general observation, the simplified model predicts
increasing ejector isentropic efficiency with increasing
mixing efficiency. However, the full model allows the true
mixing chamber pressure to be determined and this
decreases with increasing mixing efficiency since a greater
proportion of the total pressure is dynamic.
The simplified mixing model predicts isentropic
efficiencies in the range 35-48% for various mixing
efficiencies with a constant area mixing chamber.

Modelling Results - Ejector Isentropic Efficiency
The mixing of the primary and secondary flows is
followed by a supersonic compression shock in the ejector
throat. Both the mixing process and the shock process are
responsible for losses in isentropic compression efficiency
in the ejector. However, entropy gain from mixing was
found to be several-fold higher than that of the shock.
The simplified (constant mixing pressure) and full models
are used to predict the ejector isentropic efficiency as a
function of the ejector condensing temperature.
Simplified model - constant area mixing chamber
The isentropic efficiency would decrease monotonically
with decreasing condensing temperature except that the
ejector model relieves the constant capacity constraint at
low condensing temperatures. This raises the isentropic
efficiency in such conditions.
The increased mixing chamber Mach number predicted by
the full model for constant area ejectors leads to
increasingly intensive normal shocks in the ejector throat
and a decreasing trend in ejector efficiency overall.
Full model - constant area mixing chamber

65 65
Isentropic efficiency (%)

Isentropic efficiency (%)

55 55

45 45

35 35

25 25
20 25 30 35 40 45 20 25 30 35 40 45
Condensing temperature (degC) Condensing temperature (degC)
Mixeffcy=0.75 Mixeffcy=0.8 Mixeffcy=0.85 Mixeffcy=0.75 Mixeffcy=0.8 Mixeffcy=0.85
Mixeffcy=0.9 Mixeffcy=0.95 Mixeffcy=1.0 Mixeffcy=0.9 Mixeffcy=0.95 Mixeffcy=1.0

Simplified model - converging mixing chamber Full model - converging mixing chamber

65 65
Isentropic efficiency (%)

Isentropic efficiency (%)

55 55

45 45

35
35
25
25
20 25 30 35 40 45
20 25 30 35 40 45 Condensing temperature (degC)
Condensing temperature (degC)
Mixeffcy=0.75 Mixeffcy=0.8 Mixeffcy=0.85 Mixeffcy=0.75 Mixeffcy=0.8 Mixeffcy=0.85

Mixeffcy=0.9 Mixeffcy=0.95 Mixeffcy=1.0 Mixeffcy=0.9 Mixeffcy=0.95 Mixeffcy=1.0

Figure 5. The effect of mixing momentum efficiency on Figure 6. The effect of mixing momentum efficiency on
the ejector isentropic efficiency (constant pressure the ejector isentropic efficiency (variable pressure mixing).
mixing).

Reductions in mixing efficiency limit the pressure
recovery and so reduce the maximum condensing
temperature of the ejector and its isentropic efficiency.
For constant area mixing, the full model predicts nearly the
same entrainment ratio and isentropic efficiency at typical
mixing efficiency of = 0.85. The mixing pressure and
Mach number are similar in both cases. However, for
lower mixing efficiencies, there is a higher mixing
pressure which results in a lower mixing Mach number.
These effects lead to a higher isentropic efficiency for the
ejector. The opposite trends are observed for mixing
efficiencies above 0.85.
For variable (convergent) area mixing, the secondary flow
enters over a larger area at higher pressure and lower
velocity than for constant area, thereby also allowing the
primary jet and mixing chamber to operate at increased
exit pressure and lower Mach number. This leads to an
increase in the ejector efficiency. The mixing chamber is
able to accommodate a higher secondary mass flow and so
the entrainment is also higher. These effects are not
correctly modelled if a constant mixing pressure is
assumed.
For a mixing chamber with 1.5 convergent and typical
mixing efficiency of 0.85, the full model predicts that the
ejector will realise an improvement in isentropic efficiency
of about 5% and an improvement in the maximum
condensing temperature of 2C
Modelling Results Optimal Mixing Chamber
Convergence
At common mixing efficiencies, the convergent mixing
chamber results in pressure rise through mixing. Small
convergence angles increase the contribution of the
pressure-area integral to inlet momentum but this is
outweighed by the velocity mismatch contribution as the
convergence angle increases further (Figure 7).
60
Isentropic efficiency (%)
50
40
30
20
10
0 Full application of the conservation of momentum
0 0.5 1 1.5
Mixing chamber convergence angle
Figure 7. The ejector isentropic efficiency as a function of
mixing chamber convergence angle for the full model at a
condensing temperature of 30C.
Two studies comparing ejector performance as a function
of mixing chamber convergence angle have been found.
The coarse mixing chamber convergence angle increments
presented in the CFD study by Yadav [21] is perhaps less
useful than the CFD study by Zhu [22]. The latter noted
that that the ejector performance was affected by the
primary nozzle position as well as the mixing chamber
convergence.
When the primary nozzle is placed 1.5 throat diameters
upstream of the mixing chamber entry plane, the optimum
mixing chamber angle was 2.0. For low condensing
temperatures, where the primary nozzle is moved further
away from the mixing chamber, the optimum mixing
chamber angle reduces to 1.5 . These results compare well
to the current study.
Approaches to Improved Mixing
Despite a wealth of literature describing ejector mixing,
there have been comparatively few attempts to improve
mixing efficiency.
Cao and Ling [23], proposed the porous plug mixing
methodology for liquid ejectors. The plug was located in
the secondary inlet and reduced the scale of eddies during
mixing. The authors report that mixing was thought to
occur in the laminar flow regime. The design was not
applied to vapour ejectors.
Buyadgie et al [24] proposed the use of two working fluids
in the ejector. A low molecular mass fluid is used in the
evaporator and a high molecular mass fluid is used for the
primary fluid. In this way, the velocity mismatch between
primary and secondary flows is reduced and the mixing
efficiency is improved.
Improved mixing efficiency for a steam ejector has also
been proposed by modifying the primary nozzle such that
streamwise vortices are generated [25]. This idea works
well for ejectors with large area ratios and low entrainment
(steam ejectors) but not so well when development of the
steamwise vortex is confined by the mixing chamber wall.
Increase in mixing efficiency was indicated by an
increased entrainment and compression ratio.
Conclusions
The application of an ejector as a thermally driven
compressor in a heat pump application has been limited by
the poor thermal efficiency of the ejector. The main cause
of this is the irreversibility associated with the mixing of
the ejector primary and secondary flows.
2 2.5 equation for the mixing process yields a series of results
for ejector performance trends which appear to be
consistent with experimental observations.
In particular, the commonly used simplification of
assuming constant pressure mixing is shown to be invalid
except for a specific momentum mixing efficiency and this
operating point is dependent on the ejector mixing
chamber geometry. Fortunately and coincidentally, these
special cases are approximated in many ejector designs
reported in ejector literature.
A constant pressure mixing assumption leads to over-
prediction of the ejector exit pressure and a misleading
representation of the effect of momentum mixing
efficiency.
We show that a mixing chamber converging at a half angle
of 1.5 gives best entrainment and isentropic efficiency an
ejector operating in a solar heat pump application using
R245fa as a working fluid.
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Analytical Study on Development of Heat Supply Control Algorithm

Responding to Heat Load Forecasting in Group Energy Apartment Building

J.K. Byun1, S.H. Yun1, S.M. Hong1, Y.D. Choi1 and J.K. Shin2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Korea University, Seoul 136-713, Korea
2
Department of Automotive Engineering
Hanzhong University, Gangwondo 240-713, Korea

Abstract district heating is needed to meet individual household heating

In this study, we developed a heat supply control algorithm
that minimizes the heat loss in heat distribution pipelines used for
supplying heat energy to shared group housing. Controlling the
temperature and flow rate of the hot water supplied to the heat
exchanger for shared group housing enables us to develop a heat
supply control technique that meets the heating load required by
each household in a shared apartment building in accordance
with changes in the outdoor temperature and that minimizes the
heat loss occurring in the heat distribution pipeline. A group
heating apartment building located in Hwaseong city, Korea,
which has 1,473 households, was selected as the object building
to test the present heat supply algorithm. Compared to the
original heat supply system, the present system adopting the
proposed control algorithm reduced the heat loss rate by 10.4%.
Keywords: Heat supply, Heat distribution pipeline, Heat supply
control, Hot water temperature
Nomenclature
AR Total heat transfer area of return water line
AS Total heat transfer area of supply water line
ARoom Total heat transfer area of apartment room floor coil
Cp Specific of hot water
m& Mass flow rate of hot water
Q& Heat rate
T Temperature
U Equivalent heat transfer coefficient
Parameter representing heat transfer characteristics of
room flow
Parameter representing heat transfer characteristics of
distribution pipeline
Introduction
needs while minimizing heat losses. For integrated optimization
control of the heat supply, the control must satisfy the needed
heating load while also realizing heat supply conditions that
minimize heat loss in the piping during transport. Prerequisites
for such optimization of the heat supply control involve securing
accurate measurements of the heat loss [3] and determining the
factors governing the heat loss rate in the heat transport piping
[4]. With regard to the trends in research on district heating
supply systems, a number of studies have conducted energy and
exergy analyses on heat source and heat consumption facilities
[5], examined the effects of the supply and return water
temperatures on energy consumption in district heating supply
system piping [6], attempted to improve system performance and
optimize operation control in heat source facilities [7], made use
of unused energy and renewable energy [8], and performed
economic analyses of district heating supply systems to look for
methods to improve the organization and policies [9-12].
With regard to research on energy analysis in district heating
supply systems, Bhm et al. [5] analyzed the energy usage, pump
efficiency, and heat exchanger efficiency for shared household
district heating in Copenhagen, Denmark, while Knutsson et al.
[13] developed a simulation technique for analyzing the heating
energy in different regions relative to the fuel used.
In the studied Korean group energy apartment building
heating system, supply water temperature and supply water rates
of the consumer side are varied by the heat exchange between the
primary pipeline and the secondary pipeline, which can be
expressed as an empirical equation, according to the season and
the outdoor temperature, but this empirical method results in
increased supply water temperature and return water temperature,
that increase heat losses in the heat supply pipeline and return
pipeline. In this study, a variable supply water rate, variable
supply water temperature optimal control algorithm is proposed
to minimize the pipeline heat loss in a group energy heating
system that supplies the required heat to each house hold
according to the change in weather.

Energy consumption by the building energy sector
represents about 47.5% of the non-industry usage in Korea. At
the early stage of energy supply planning, individually or as a
group, the estimation of accurate energy demand is vital because
it is the foundation for a simulation or economic assessment [1].
Energy planning for mixed energy distribution systems, i.e.
energy distribution systems for a specified planning area
incorporating more than one energy carrier, is important to
increase the flexibility in the regional and national energy
systems [2]. Research on group energy heating systems has been
conducted continuously in Europe over the years as well as in the
U.S.A and Japan. Group energy heating is district heating for
apartment building containing various households. Research on
Analysis of group energy apartment building heat loss
A schematic of the studied Korean group energy heating system
is shown in Figure 1. Heat is generated by the district heating
corporation using fuel. Heat is transferred to the heat consuming
facility via a heat transfer facility.
Apartment buildings, shopping centers and public buildings
are such heat consuming facilities. District heating water
produced by the heat generating facility is pressurized and
supplied to the consumers (secondary) machinery room through
a heat supply line in the heat supply system. The machinery room
transfers heat to each consumer by a heat exchanger. Group
energy transmission line is the water line connecting heat

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of district heating system.
Item Specifications
Object building Apartment building
Number of
1,473
households
Period 2008.01.01 ~ 2008.12.31
Location Hwaseong city, Gyeonggi-do, Korea
Heating source District heating
Table 1. Specifications of model group energy apartment for
optimal heat supply control.
generating facility and apartment building machinery room.
Group energy distribution line is the water line connecting
apartment building machinery room and individual households in
apartment building. Thus heat is generated at heat generating
facility and transferred through transmission line and then
distribution line to reach individual households.
In Korea, heat is transferred at a mandatory pressure and
temperature of 16 bar and 120 C, respectively [14]. In this study,
apartment building D located in Gyeonggi-do Hwaseong city
(Korea) was chosen as the target group energy heat supply
apartment building. The variations of the heat loss rates in the
heat supply line and the return line were investigated according
to the variation in the outdoor temperature. The data provided a
data base for development of an optimal heat supply control
algorithm. The target apartment building specifications are
provided in Table 1.
In this study, the supply water temperature and supply water
flow rate were automatically controlled to provide each heat
consuming house with sufficient heat at the lowest supply water
temperature and return water temperature. An optimal heat
supply control algorithm was developed to minimize the heat
losses in the distribution line.
Experiment data for Numerical analysis
Figure 2 shows the variations of supply water temperature
and return water temperature on the group energy apartment
building supplier side (primary side), recorded for one year. The
group energy supplier decides the supply water temperature and
flow rate based on an empirical equation according to seasonal
change.
Heat loss in the group energy transmission line is not
considered in this study, because the objective of the research is
to reduce heat losses in the distribution line. The supply water
temperature is constant around 110 C from January to April, and
in December, though it shows a slight variation according
depending on the outdoor temperature. Between May and
November, the supply water temperature varies between 90 C ~
100 C according to the outdoor temperature. The return water
temperature increases from 30 C in summer to 45 C in winter.
But the return water temperature is not decided by the group
energy heat supplier, but rather by the consumer side heat
120
100
80
Tempterature( C)
o
60
40
20
o
S upply water temperatur e( C)
o
Return water temperature( C)
0
1/30 2/29 3/30 4/29 5/29 6/28 7/28 8/27 9/26 10/26 11/25 12/25
Day
Figure 2. Annual variation of supply and return water
temperatures of transmission line at the model group energy
apartment in 2008.
70
60
Tem perature( C) 50
o
40
30
20
10 o
Supply water temperature( C)
o
Return water temperature( C)
0
1/30 2/29 3/30 4/29 5/29 6/28 7/28 8/27 9/26 10/26 11/25 12/25
Day
Figure 3. Annual variation of supply and return water
temperatures of distribution line at the model group energy
apartment in 2008.
consumption rate, which varies according to outdoor temperature.
Supplier side and consumer side heat distribution lines exchange
heat in the heat exchanger. Annual variations of supply and
return water temperatures in the consumer side distribution line
are shown in Figure 3. The figure shows that the supply water
temperature is maintained at 53 C during winter and 50 C
during spring, which is varied according to the outdoor
temperature after May. But basis for determining the supply
water temperature variation is vague. The variation of the supply
water temperature seems to controlled by the empirical equation.
Figure 4 shows the annual variations of mass flow rates in
the apartment building machinery transmission line and
distribution line at the consumer side. How the temperature
variation is determined is also difficult to define in this case. The
temperature seems to be controlled by some empirical equation
according to the outdoor temperature.
Figure 5 is a comparison between the heat supplied and the
heat consumed in an apartment. The supplied heat is greater than
the consumed heat, because of the heat loss that occurs in the
distribution line as hot water is transmitted from the heat
exchanger to individual homes. Note that the amount of heat loss
varies by season. The heat loss rate in the consumer side
distribution line extracted from Figure 5 is shown in Figure 6.
Also annual variation of outdoor temperature is shown in Figure
6. Heat loss rate in the distribution line according to the outdoor
air temperature variation is shown in Figure 7. The figure shows
 m& h1
m& h 2
m& h1 , m& h 2 (kg / s )
Figure 4. Annual variation of mass flow rate of transmission and
distribution line of group energy supply system at the model
group energy apartment.
Q& h1
Q& h 2
Q& h1 , Q& h 2 (Gcal / day )
Figure 5. Annual variation in heat supply and usage rates for the
model group energy supply of the apartment.
Q& loss
Q&loss (kcal / day)
Figure 6. Annual variation in outdoor temperature and heat loss
rate of distribution line for the model group energy supply of the
apartment.
a linear increase of the heat loss rate Q&loss with the decrease of
the outdoor temperature Tair. Consumer side heat loss rate is the
rate of heat loss as hot water is supplied from the heat exchanger
to individual homes and is returned from the individual homes to
Q& loss (kcal / hour )
Figure 7. Heat loss rate of the distribution line for the model
group energy supply of the apartment with respect to the outdoor
air temperature.
the heat exchanger.
We assumed that the insulation in the distribution piping
experienced no change in status; we sought to develop a heat
supply control algorithm to calculate the water supply
temperature and flow rate that minimizes the heat loss rate from
the piping while also varying the supply and return hot water
temperatures and fulfilling the constraint that each household
must receive the necessary amount of heat.
Problems in the optimized heat supply control of the present
study:
Constraint: The required heating load supplied to each
household depends on changes in the outdoor air temperature. If
the apartment in question is fixed, then the heating load Q& h2
required by each household becomes a function of the outdoor air
temperature Tair.
Objective function: The hot water supply temperature and flow
rate that minimize the heat loss rate in the distribution piping
were determined.
If the water supply temperature is TS 2 , the outdoor air
temperature is Tair, the water supply flow rate is m& h 2 , and the
return water temperature is TR2, then the heat loss rate Q& loss in
the distribution housing can be expressed as follows:
Q& loss = f (TS 2 , Tair , m& h 2 , TR 2 , U Room ARoom ) (1)
Herein, U Room ARoom is a coefficient representing the equivalence
heat transfer property between the heat supply piping and outdoor
air. The return water temperature can be expressed as follows:
TR 2 = g (TS 2 , Tair , m& h 2 , U S AS ) (2)
Herein, U S AS is a coefficient representing the equivalence heat
transfer property between the hot water supply piping and the
outdoor air. (South Koreas traditional heating system is the
ondol floor heating system.)
If Equation (2) is plugged into Equation (1), then
Q& loss = f (TS 2 , Tair , m& h 2 , U S AS , U Room ARoom ) (3)
results. In the present study, we used data on heat characteristics
surveyed from the model group energy heat supply system to
calculate the heat loss rate Q& loss in the secondary-side heat
distribution piping and to develop an optimized heat supply
control algorithm for determining Q& loss to minimize TS 2 , m& h 2
from Equation (3).

Analysis of heat loss in target group energy apartment

building heat distribution line
Optimal heat supply control algorithm varies supply water
temperature and supply water flow rate simultaneously according
to variation in outdoor temperature, to minimize heat loss rate in
heat supply distribution line while meeting heat supply demands
of consumers. Figure 8 is schematic diagram of optimal heat
supply control system with variable supply water temperature
and variable mass flow rate.
Group energy apartment building total heat load can be
expressed as a function of outdoor temperature and indoor
average temperature.
Figure 8. Schematic diagram of the optimal heat supply control
(
Q& = f T Room , Tair ) (4) algorithm with variable water supply temperature and mass flow
rate in response to outdoor air temperature.
Here, T Room is average indoor temperature of individual
apartment building, and Tair is outdoor temperature. In this
study indoor temperature is assumed as 22C from January to
August and 23C from September to December. Heat load is a
function of outdoor temperature, as shown in Figure 9.
To develop heat supply control algorithm with minimal
Q& h 2 (kcal / hour )

loss in apartment building distribution line, heat load in Figure Q& h1 2

9 is 9 is expressed in the following equation,

(
Q& h 2 = max Q& h1 2 , Q& h22 , Q& h32 ) (5)

Q& h32
Q& h1 2 = 100,000T + 1,750,000 (5a) Q& h22

Q& h22 = 39,130T + 900,000 (5b)

Q& h32 = 500,000 (5c)

Figure 10 shows schematic of secondary loop in group Figure 9. Variation in measured heating load of the model
energy heat supply system. TS2i is outlet supply water apartment with respect to the outdoor air temperature.
temperature of heat exchanger in secondary loop. TS2o is
apartment building entrance supply water temperature, TR2i is
apartment building exit return water temperature, and TR2o is heat
exchanger entrance return water temperature. Heat loss rate in Q& h

heat distribution line secondary loop is expressed as Q&loss

S
and Q& loss
S
Q& h

& R
heat loss rate in return water line is expressed as Q . m& h 2
loss

m& h1
Development of Optimal Heat Supply Control Algorithm for Q& loss
R

Group Energy Secondary Loop

Figure 10. Schematic diagram of the distribution line for the
Heat Exchange Model of Traditional Korean Floor Heating group energy supply system.
Figure 11 shows a conceptual diagram of a heat exchanger
model for a traditional Korean-style ondol floor heating system.
The hot water supply temperature immediately before entry into
the ondol heat supply system is given as TS 2o , the mass flow rate
Q& h
is given as m& h 2 , and the specific heat is given as Cp. The heat
energy of the hot water supply passes through the ondol floor Q& h
mortar and arrives indoors, where the heat transported into the
room also passes through the windows, walls, ceilings, and the
like before being emitted to the outside air. We applied a one m& h 2
room model: the entire apartment housing was assumed to be a
Figure 11. Schematic diagram of the traditional Korean floor
single room, and the entire floor space of a household was
heating system (ondol).
assumed to be a single heat exchanger. According to heat
 m& h 2 Q& loss
S m& h 2 Q& loss
R

TS 2i TS 2 o TR 2i TR 2o

Figure 12. Heat loss model of water supply line for the model Figure 13. Heat loss model of water supply line for the model
apartment. apartment.

exchanger theory, which assumes that TS 2o is the ondol heat

U R AR
exchanger inlet water temperature, TR 2i is the ondol heat is represented by R.
C p m& h 2
exchanger outlet temperature, ARoom is the total heat transfer
surface area of the ondol hot water line, and U Room is the TR 2i is the return water line heat exchanger inlet water
equivalence heat transfer coefficient for the difference between temperature, TR 2o is the return water line heat exchanger outlet
the ondol hot water line and the air in the room. Then, the ondol
outlet temperature TR 2i can be given as follows by TRoom , TS 2o , water temperature, AR is the total heat transfer surface area of

U Room ARoom the return water line, and U R is the equivalence heat transfer
and . coefficient with the ground around the return water line. By
C p m& h 2
applying Equation (10), the rate of heat loss in the return water
U A line can be given by the following equation:
Room Room
TR 2i = TRoom + (TS 2o TRoom ) e
C p m& h 2
Q& loss
R
= C p m& h 2 [TR 2i TR 2o ]

= TRoom + (TS 2o TRoom ) e (6) = C p m& h 2 TR 2i Tair (TR 2i Tair ) e R (11)

U Room ARoom
C p m& h 2 is represented by .
Rate of heat loss in the water supply line
Figure 12 shows a schematic diagram of a model for heat
loss of a hot water supply line. The heat supply line to the
apartment housing in the heat exchanger room can be assumed to
be a single heat exchanger. If the total heat transfer surface area
On the other hand, assuming that the hot water supply line and
return water line are equal in size, heat insulation status, and
length, then ( S = R = ) is true in Equations (8) and (11).
Based on this condition, if Equations (8) and (11) are combined,
the overall rate of heat loss can be calculated as follows:
Q& loss = Q& loss
S
+ Q& loss
R

of this water supply line is AS and the equivalence heat transfer

coefficient between the hot water supply and outside air is U S , ( )
= C p m& h 2 1 e (TS 2i + TR 2i 2Tair ) (12)
then the hot water supply line outlet temperature becomes the
ondol intake hot water temperature TS 2o , which can be TR 2i in Equation (12) is calculated from Equation (9).
calculated from the following theoretical heat exchange formula:
U S AS Optimal heat supply control algorithm

TS 2o = Tair + (TS 2i Tair ) e
C p m& h 2
(7)
Meanwhile, the heating load for the apartment housing can
U Room ARoom be represented as:
is represented by S. On the other hand, the
C p m& h 2
Q& h 2 = m& h 2C p (TS 2o TR 2i )
following equation can be used to calculate the rate of heat loss
in the hot water supply line.
( ) (
= m& h 2C p 1 e (Tair TRoom ) + (TS 2i Tair ) e 1 e (13)
)
Q& loss
S
= C p m& h 2 [TS 2i TS 2o ]
If Equation (13) is plugged in for TS 2i , we then obtain:
= C p m& h 2 TS 2i Tair (TS 2i Tair ) e S (8)
Q& (T ,T )
If Equation (7) is plugged into Equation (6), we then obtain: TS 2i = h 2 Room air + T T / e + Tair (14)
(
m& h 2C p 1 e
)
Room air


TR 2i = TRoom + Tair + (TS 2i Tair ) e S TRoom e (9)
If Equation (13) is plugged in for m& h 2 , we then obtain:
Rate of heat loss in the return water line
Q& h 2
m& h 2 = (15)
Figure 13 shows a schematic diagram of a model for heat
loss in a return water line. If we assume the return water line to
C p (TS 2i Tair ) e
(
(TRoom Tair ) 1 e )
be a single heat exchanger, we obtain:
If we assume that Q& h 2 , U S AS , U R AR , U Room ARoom , TS 2i and
U A
R R
m& are known, then Q& is given from Equations (12), (14), and
TR 2o = Tair + (TR 2i Tair ) e
C p m& h 2 h h2
(10)
(15), and Q& h 2 and Q&loss for minimizing TS 2i can be calculated by
an iterative method of computational analysis to realize a heat Figure 17 is the variation of m& h 2 in the optimal heat supply
supply control that minimizes the rate of heat loss in piping. The system. m& h 2 varies greatly with the outdoor temperature. Thus,
following demonstrates this process in table form.
the optimal heat supply system increases m& h 2 and lowers TS2i.
Results and discussion Also, the variations of m& h 2 of TS2i according to outdoor
temperature were obtained.
Apartments with room temperature of 22 C were obtained Figure 18 is a comparison of the heat loss for the original
by determining TRoom, as shown in Figure 6, by solving the annual and the optimal heat supply system. In this study, the optimal
energy consumption with the thermal resistance-capacitance heat supply control system was able to meet the heat demand on
method [15,16] as TRoom is varied. the consumer side at the lowest supply water temperature and
Figure 14 shows the comparison of heat load determined by return water temperature, which resulted in 10.4% less energy
the thermal resistance-capacitance method and the heat loss than the case of the original heat supply system.
consumption of the target apartment. The two results agree well
from March to November, but the heat consumption of the target
apartment is slightly higher from the 1st of January to the 28th of
February. The result suggests that the room temperature is higher
than 22 C during January and February.
The optimal supply water temperature is shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15 is a comparison of the original and the optimal supply
water temperature during a day. With the variable supply water
temperature system, TS2i is changed simultaneously with what,
resulting in lower supply water temperature. Thus, the heat loss
of in the pipeline is reduced.
Figure 16 shows the return water temperature to the heat
exchanger. The return water temperature changes according to
the outdoor temperature in the optimal heat supply system. TR2o is
lower during Spring, Summer, and Autumn compared to that in
the original system. Figure 16. Comparison of experimental and optimized
simulation data of temperatures of heat exchanger of group
energy apartment building during a day for a year.

m& h
m& h
Q& h 2 (Gcal / day )

m& h , (kg / day )

Figure 14. Annual variation of heating load of the model

Figure 17. Comparison of mass flow rate of group energy
group energy apartment building.
apartment building with original heating system and that with the
optimal heating system for a year.

Figure 15. Comparison of annual variation in supply hot Figure 18. Comparison of heat loss for a year for original and
water temperatures for the original and present group optimal heat supply system.
energy heat supplies of the apartment.
Conclusions
In this study, energy loss according to supplied heat was
analyzed by developing an optimal heat supply algorithm for
group energy apartment buildings. The optimal heat supply
control algorithm based on outdoor temperature and heat load
curve calculation was also studied.
The results can be summarized as follows.
[1] This study was based on the apartment building heat
consumption data collected in year 2008. Thus, if an accurate
database on heat supply and consumption pattern can be
obtained, the developed system can accurately predict heat
load variations according to outdoor temperature.
[2] Heat load was predicted for group energy apartment
buildings. The predictions were compared with experimental
data for validation. The results of the heat load prediction
method for group energy apartment buildings agreed well
with experimental data.
[3] Heat supply control can be achieved by variable supply mass
flow rate control and variation supply water temperature
control. To meet consumer heat capacity needs, mass flow
rate is varied according to supply water temperature. Low
mass flow rate is applied for high supply water temperature,
while mass flow rate is increased when the supply water
temperature is low.
[4] In this study, energy loss was decreased by 10.4% compared
to the supply heat by applying the lowest supply water
temperature and return water temperature in the optimal heat
supply control system.
[5] Analysis results of this study can be used to evaluate heat
consumption patterns according to outdoor temperature. The
analysis results suggest that further research in this area could
lead to substantial energy savings in apartment buildings.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by Grant No.
2008EBD11P081000 from the Korea Institute of Energy and
Resources Technology Evaluation and Planning.
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Joint Velocity - Scalar Probability Density Function Approach for the

Modeling of Turbulent Spray Flows
Y. Hu, E. Gutheil

Interdisziplinares Zentrum fur Wissenschaftliches Rechnen

Ruprecht-Karls-Universitat Heidelberg, Germany

Abstract and Gutheil [18, 19] further developed a joint mixture frac-
tion - enthalpy PDF model to simulate spray flames. Kung
The joint gas-phase velocity-mixture fraction probability den-
and Haworth [20] applied a transported PDF method to inter-
sity function (PDF) transport equation for turbulent spray
nal combustion engines. Anand and Jenny [21] used a joint gas
flows is derived and modeled. The gas-phase simplified
phase velocity - composition-frequency PDF for and evaporat-
Langevin model and interaction-by-exchange-with-the-mean
ing spray, where the dropletseen gas velocity was included in
(IEM) model are extended to account for spray evaporation, and
the droplet density function and solved with a modified simpli-
they close the joint PDF transport equation, which is solved by
fied Langevin model. These publications demonstrate that the
a Lagrangian Monte-Carlo particle method. The droplet charac-
transported PDF is an excellent method to simulate turbulent
teristics including heating, vaporization, and motion are solved
multi-phase flows, though there are still some modeling prob-
by a Lagrangian droplet parcel method using the point-source
lems such as the correct closure of the influence of droplet evap-
approximation. A steady, two-dimensional, axi-symmetric, tur-
oration on gas-phase composition PDF [15].
bulent methanol/air dilute non-reacting spray flow without swirl
is simulated. The results of the gas velocity obtained by the PDF In the present work, a new joint gas-phase velocity - scalar
method are in good agreement with experimental data, the PDF PDF is introduced for the modeling turbulent evaporating spray
method improves the results compared to the moment closure flows. By neglecting fluctuations in spray source terms and liq-
modeling. uid void fraction, the joint PDF transport equation of gas ve-
locity and mixture fraction [22] is simplified and solved. The
Introduction numerical results are compared with experimental data of Mc-
The transported probability density function (PDF) method Donell and Samuelsen [23] and with previous numerical re-
for turbulent reactive gas flows has been studied for several sults of a moment closure method using an extended k
decades. Lundgren [1] derived, modeled and solved a trans- model [24].
port equation for the PDF of the gas velocity, and Dopazo and
OBrien [2] for the joint PDF of the gas composition and the Mathematical Model
gas temperature. The transported probability density function With the assumption of a point particle [6], the void fraction
method for turbulent reactive gas flows has become very pop- of the liquid phase is neglected. This assumption is valid for
ular since Popes work [3], and it has been proved to be a suc- dilute sprays. The conservation equations for the gas phase of
cessful tool for the simulation of turbulent single phase flows, the turbulent spray flow can then be written as
in particular for reactive flows. Using the concept of one-point
one-time Eulerian PDF, a complete description of turbulent gas (U j )
flows with increased information of statistical information is ob- + = Sl,1 (1)
t x j
tained, where all moments of the dependent quantities may be
(Ui ) (UiU j ) p i j
evaluated from this joint PDF. The major advantages of PDF + = + + gi + Sl,Ui (2)
method are exact treatment of convection, body force, mean t x j xi x j
 
pressure gradient and chemical reactions. Moreover, the La- (h) (U j h) p h
+ = + Dh + Sl,h(3)
grangian PDF takes full account of long memory of the turbu- t x j t x j x j
lence. The past history of all the fluid particles properties can (C ) (U j C ) p

c

be completely described by the multi-time Lagrangian PDF [4]. + = + DM + Sl,1(4)
t x j t x j x j
PDF methods were applied to simulate multi-phase flows since
the 1990s. Raju [5] and Durand et al. [6], and Taut et al. [7]
where i j is the viscous stress tensor, Sl,1 , Sl,Ui , and Sl,h are the
describe the gas phase in turbulent two-phase flows with a PDF
spray source terms in the continuity, momentum, and energy
transport equation. Rumberg and Rogg [8], Zhu et al. [9], and
equation, respectively; they describe the interaction between the
Pai and Subramaniam [10] deduced a unified joint PDF trans-
gas and the liquid phases. The definition of the mixture fraction,
port equation of all liquid-phase and gas-phase dependent vari-
C , used in the present approach is based on the chemical ele-
ables. Subramaniam and coworkers [11, 12, 13] developed ac-
ment carbon, C,
curate numerical methods to solve these PDF equations. Liu et
al. [14], Naud [15] and Beishuizen and Roekaerts [16] deal with C = (ZC ZC,min )/(ZC,max ZC,min ) (5)
the joint PDF transport equation of the properties of droplets
and gas eddies seen by droplets. Ge and Gutheil [17] deduced where Z j is the mass fraction of element j in the mixture, which
and solved the transport equation of the PDF of mixture frac- is defined as
tion in turbulent spray flows, and they suggested an extended N M
ij j
presumed PDF for turbulent mixing in evaporating sprays. Ge Zj = Yi . (6)
i=1 Mi
Here i denotes the species in the mixture, N is the total number where C denotes the estimated mean mixture fraction, and
of species, and i j is the number of element j in species i. standard constants are used [3]. More details on the derivation
of the present joint PDF equations are given by Ge et al. [22].
We define a fine-grained, one-point one-time Eulerian
joint velocity-mixture fraction probability density function, For the closure of the PDF transport equations, the conserva-
f (V, C ; x,t), for the gas phase of turbulent spray flows tion equations of the gas flow including the extended k
model [24, 18] are solved. Spray source terms are described us-
ing the particle-source in-cell model [24, 26]. The Abramzon-
f (V, C ; x,t) = (U(x,t) V) (C (x,t) C ). (7) Sirignano model [27] is used to calculate droplet heating and
evaporation in a convective flow field.
With this definition, the joint velocity mixture fraction PDF
yields At the inlet, a top-hat profile is prescribed for the gas phase
mixture fraction, and a Gaussian profile is assumed for the gas
F (V j F) hSl,1 i velocity. For the Monte Carlo method with a finite number of
+ F computational particles N, the statistical error is of order N 1/2 ,
t x j
  and approximately 1.5 106 particles are used to simulate the
1 hpi 1 F
+ gj + hSl,Ui Ui Sl,1 i evaporating spray flow. At each time step, a number of new par-
x j V j ticles are injected at the inlet plane based on the inlet mass flux.
1 F Along the axis of symmetry, particles that cross the boundary
+ h(1 C )Sl,1 i
C are reflected back into the domain to be consistent with the zero-
0
Sl,1 flux boundary condition. An explicit time marching scheme [3]
= h |V, C iF is used in the Monte Carlo calculation with the method of frac-
tional steps to solve Eqs. (911). An iterative time-averaging
1 ji p0
 
0 scheme is implemented for this stationary flow to decrease the
+ h + Sl,Ui +Ui Sl,1 hUi Sl,1 i|V, C iF
V xi x j statistical error in the evaluation of particle mean field [28].
   
1 C
h DM + (1 C )Sl,1 h(1 C )Sl,1 |V, C iF (8).
C x j x j

The terms on the left-hand-side appear in closed form. They
include the terms of convection, body force, mean pressure gra-
dient, and mean spray source terms hSl,1 i, hSl,Ui i for the transfer
of mass and momentum transfer between the liquid and the gas.
The terms on the right hand side of Eq. (8) must be modeled.
They include the fluctuating spray source terms, which are ne-
glected in the present study, the viscous stress tensor, the fluc-
tuating pressure gradient, and the molecular diffusion fluxes.
A Lagrangian Monte-Carlo particle method is used to solve the
joint PDF transport equation. The flow is discretized into a large
number of particles [3], each of which has a set of properties
m , x , U , C (superscript star denotes the particle property).
The PDF transport equation is transformed into a set of stochas-
tic differential equations (SDE), which describe the evolution of
the particle properties. The Lagrangian tracking of each com-
putational particle in physical space is governed by
Results and Discussion
A steady, two-dimensional, axi-symmetric, non-reacting turbu-
lent liquid jet without swirl is modeled. A dilute methanol spray
is injected into turbulent air. The experiments were were per-
formed by McDonell and Samuelsen [23], and the results are
available for comparison with the simulations. The geometry of
the liquid injector, shown in Fig. 1, is described in [23]. The po-
sition of the fuel injectors exit is marked as enters at x = 0 mm.
The gas and droplet velocities, droplet size distribution, liquid
flux and concentration of methanol vapor are measured at the
axial locations positions x = 7.5 mm, 25 mm, 50 mm, 75 mm,
and 100 mm. The data at x = 7.5 mm are taken as inlet pro-

dXi = Ui dt (9)

and its evolution in the velocity-sample space is described using

the modified simplified Langevin model [3, 25], which accounts
for spray evaporation
 
1 hpi
dUi (t) = higi + hSl,Ui i hUi ihSl,1 i dt
hi xi
 
1 3
+ C0 (Ui (t) Ui ) dt + (C0 )dW(10)
p
i.
2 4 k
Figure 1: Schematic of the geometry of the liquid fuel injector.

The diffusion process is represented by a Wiener process W (t),

where dWi = Wi (t + dt) Wi (t), which is Gaussian distributed
with hdWi (t)i = 0 and hdWi (t)dW j (t)i = dti j . Fluctuating ef-
fects of molecular diffusion are modeled using the interaction-
by-exchange- with-the-mean (IEM) model [3][17], and the mix-
ture fraction evolves as
dC (t) 1 Figure 2: Contour plot of methanol vapor.
= C [C (t) C ] + [1 C (t)], (11)
dt 2 k
Figure 3: Radial profiles of the gas-phase mean axial velocity
at x = 25 mm.
Figure 4: Radial profiles of the gas-phase mean axial velocity
at x = 50 mm.
files for the simulations. The mass flow rate of the liquid fuel is
1.32 g/s. The airflow results in a pressure drop of 3.73 kPa.
Figure 2 shows a contour plot of the methanol vapor. The
marked points A-D are the monitor positions for joint PDFs
analysis with the coordinates A (25, 3), B (25,8), C (100,3),
and D (100,8), respectively, given in mm. The locations were
chosen in such a way that two positions are located at the same
axial position, A and C are located in the fuel region for the jet
whereas B and D are located in the boundary layer of the fuel
jet. Figure 2 reveals that most of the evaporation occurs near
the centerline of the jet, and the methanol spray evaporation re-
duces in both axial and radial directions away from the injection
nozzle.
Figures 3 and 4 show the comparison of experimental and com-
putational results of the radial profiles of gas-phase mean ax-
ial velocities at axial locations of x = 25 m and 50 mm, and
Figs. 5 and 6 corresponding profiles at 75 mm and 100 mm.
Symbols denote experimental data [23]. Solid lines result from
Figure 5: Radial profiles of the gas-phase mean axial velocity
at x = 75 mm.
Figure 6: Radial profiles of the gas-phase mean axial velocity
at x = 100 mm.
the present joint PDF method and dashed lines show former
results using the extended k model [24]. The results of the
joint PDF method are in very good agreement with experimental
data, in particular, the shape of the experimental profiles is well
captured, and they improve the results of the moment closure
model. Figure 4 shows that the numerical results under-predict
the experimental data near the centerline, whereas they over-
predict experimental results at higher distance from the axis of
symmetry.
In both regimes, the joint PDF method performs much bet-
ter than the moment closure model. This is also evident from
Fig. 7, where for the gas-phase velocity at the centerline is dis-
played. The current simplified Langevin model neglects the ef-
fects of mean velocity gradient and the spray source fluctuat-
ing terms, which may be the main source of the discrepancies
found in the up upstream. Excellent agreement is found further
downstream, see Figs. 4, 5, and 6, (x > 50 mm), where, com-
paratively, the mean velocity gradient is relatively small, and its
effect could be neglected.
Figure 7: Radial profiles of the gas-phase mean axial velocity
at the centerline.
Figure 8: Radial profiles of the methanol vapor mass fraction at
x = 25 mm.
Figures 8 and 9 show the radial profiles of the mean mass frac-
tion of methanol vapor at x = 25 mm and 50 mm, respectively.
The moment closure modeling over-predicts the vapor mass
fraction at these two locations, and, in contrast, the PDF method
gets a relatively good computed results that follow the same
trend as the measurements, although it tends to under-predict
the vapor mass fraction at the location of 25 mm. Major dif-
ferences between the models occur at 0.006 m from the axis
where the moment closure modeling results reveal a sharp peak
in methanol vapor mass fraction, which over-predicts the max-
imum peak value of experimental results at the corresponding
axial location.
The profiles of the Sauter mean radius shown in Fig. 10 is hardly
affected by the gas-phase model. Both PDF method and mo-
ment closure method are in qualitative agreement with the mea-
surements. The results from the PDF method and the moment
closure method are almost identical. For the non-reactive case,
both the temperature and the concentration gradients in flow
field are very small. The effects of the gas phase on the liq-
Figure 9: Radial profiles of the methanol vapor mass fraction at
x = 50 mm.
Figure 10: Radial profiles of the Sauter mean diameter at x =
100 mm.
uid phase are not strong, and the droplet evolution is dominated
by inertial motion.
Based on the statistical information of Lagrangian gas particles,
Figs. 11 through 14 give the contour plots of joint velocity
mixture fraction PDF at the different positions marked in FIg. 2.
As can be seen from the figures, the velocity and mixture frac-
tion are statistically dependent at the positions A and C near
the centerline and an almost linear relation exits. At these two
points, the axial convective transport is the dominant physical
process. Comparatively, for the positions B and D, the samples
show a statistically dependence only at the position D down-
stream, which can be attributed to the fact that the droplet evap-
oration is much more dominant at location B.
Future work will address the implementation of different mix-
ing models and extension to include enthalpy into the formula-
tion of the joint PDF equation.
Figure 11: Joint PDF of gas velocity and mixture fraction at
position A.
Figure 12: Joint PDF of gas velocity and mixture fraction at
position B.
Figure 13: Joint PDF of gas velocity and mixture fraction at
position C.
Figure 14: Joint PDF of gas velocity and mixture fraction at
position D.
Conclusions
A joint velocity-mixture fraction PDF is introduced for the
simulation of turbulent spray flows. The velocity is modeled
through a simplified Langevin model, and molecular mixing
through an IEM model. The PDF transport equation is solved by
a Lagrangian Monte-Carlo particle method. The droplet charac-
teristics including heating, vaporization, and motion are solved
by a Lagrangian droplet parcel method. Closure of the PDF
transport equation and droplet evolution equation is achieved
through the mean conservation equations of the gas flow. A
steady, two-dimensional, axi-symmetric, turbulent methanol/air
dilute non-reactive spray flow without swirl is simulated. The
results of the gas velocity are in very good agreement with ex-
perimental data, and the PDF results improve the simulation us-
ing the moment closure method. It demonstrates that the present
simplified Langevin model is suitable for the turbulent spray
flows.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge financial support of Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) through International Graduate
College 710, HGS MathComp, and Gu 255/6-1. Y. Hu acknowl-
edges financial support through CSC.
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tion of the spray equation using particle methods. Atomiz
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curate numerical estimation of interphase momentum trans-
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[24] C. Hollmann and E. Gutheil. Modeling of Turbulent
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[28] P. Jenny, S.B. Pope, M. Muradoglu and D.A. Gaughey. A
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spray flows. Atomiz. Sprays 16: 531-542, 2006.

[18] H.W. Ge and E. Gutheil. Simulation of a turbulent spray

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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Large-Eddy Simulation of Particle Deposition in the CTBased Human
Upper Airway
X. G. Cui, E. Gutheil
Interdisziplinares Zentrum fur Wissenschaftliches Rechnen
Ruprecht-Karls-Universitat Heidelberg, Germany
Abstract
Aerosol drug delivery via the oral or nasal airway has become a
very popular treatment of different pulmonary diseases such as
asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Major ad-
vantages of this treatment include limited whole-body effects,
small dosage, and rapid response. However, the delivery effi-
ciency of the aerosol drug into the lung is very low due to the
filtering function of upper human airways. Thus, it is very im-
portant to study the particle dispersion and deposition in the
mouth throat and nasal cavity towards improving the drug de-
livery efficiency.
Although significant investigations have been performed in the
mouth-throat model, little research has focused on the study of
poly-disperse particle deposition in the human respiratory sys-
tem, considering the relatively high injection drug dose used in
the clinical treatment, in particular in the image-based mouth-
throat model, which is closer to the anatomical structure of the
respiratory tract than simplified models built from cast. In com-
parison with the study in the mouth-throat model, fewer studies
have been performed in the nasal cavity because of its much
more complex structure.
In the present study, two different geometrical models of the
mouth-throat and the nasal cavity are developed based on com-
puted tomography (CT) scans. The software NeuRa2 is used to
prepare the CT scans and to generate the surface grids, whereas
Ansys ICEM-CFD 11.0 is used to generate the numerical vol-
ume grids. Large eddy simulation (LES) with the Smagorin-
sky sub-grid model is used to model the transitional laminar
turbulent gas flow, and the method is combined with a La-
grangian particle tracking algorithm. In the case of particle mo-
tion in the mouth-throat model, an experimental poly-disperse
particle distribution from a dry power inhaler is used for a re-
alistic drug dose of 200 g, which is typical for clinical treat-
ment with one actuation; the dry powder is introduced into the
upper human respiratory system through the mouth. Two-way
coupling is used to investigate the interaction of the particles
and the gas phase. In the case of particle motion in the nasal
cavity, the mono-disperse particle is implemented and the sim-
pler one-way coupling is used. The open source software of
OpenFOAM 1.5 is adopted to solve the governing equations,
where new solvers have been constructed to account for the
particle motion using a Lagrangian tracking method within the
LES/Smagorinsky formulation.
The numerical results in the mouth-throat show that particles
larger than 5 m cannot pass the pharynx and the majority of the
particles deposit in the mouth cavity and pharynx cavity of the
CT-based mouth-throat model. A comparison of mono-disperse
and poly-disperse particles reveal a similar deposition pattern
on the wall such as particle deposition on the tongue, the soft
plate and the bottom of the pharynx. However, a huge difference
between the poly-disperse particle deposition in the CT-based
and the cast-based mouth-throat models is found with respect to
the particle deposition efficiency, the particle deposition pattern
in the upper respiratory system, and the contribution of different
particle sizes to the particle deposition efficiency.
The numerical results in the nasal cavity show that present par-
ticle deposition efficiency in the nasal cavity are close to com-
putational result in the literature. The particles are easier to de-
posit on the impact sides. Particle deposition mainly occurs in
the region of nasal valves, the middle meatus and nasopharynx,
which again is consistent with the result in the literature. More-
over, the particle deposition is related to the released particle
position. In future, the numerical simulation for the nasal cavity
will be conducted on the finer grid to guarantee grid indepen-
dency. Research will also be conducted to study poly-disperse
particle deposition and different inspiration flow rates to inves-
tigate the influence of these factors on the particle deposition.
Introduction
Aerosol drug therapy, which delivers the drug through the nasal
or oral airway into the lung or other location of the respiratory
tract, has become a popular way to treat different diseases such
as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, because
of their advantage of small dose, minimal systematic adverse
effects and rapid response [1]. It is desired that the drug pen-
etrates deep into the lung, which is the location where the dis-
ease is active. Currently, the drug delivery efficiency is very
low: the maximum drug delivery efficiency is typically less than
30% [2]. It is well-known that the upper airway is the first bar-
rier for the drug [1] and therefore, it is very important to study
the particle deposition, in particular, the (realistic) poly-disperse
particle deposition, in the upper human respiratory system.
Particle deposition in the human upper airway has been in-
vestigated intensively during the past decades, in particular,
the mono-disperse particle deposition in the mouth-throat [1].
Mono-disperse particle deposition has been simulated in a cast-
based mouth-throat using Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes
(RANS) equations coupled with the low Reynolds num-
ber (LRN) k model by Zhang et al. [3]. In their study, the
total particle deposition is shown to increase with the impact
parameter. The particles mainly deposit in the mouth cavity
and at constriction locations such as the soft plate and glottis.
However, the RANS simulation only represents the mean flow
variables [4], which may not be sufficient for the prediction of
particle deposition. Recently, LES has become more and more
popular in modeling particle deposition in the human upper air-
way, and it has been proved [4] that LES improves the predic-
tion of particle deposition compared to RANS because of the
excellent performance of LES for the characteristic transitional
laminar turbulent flow field. The present paper presents a nu-
merical study using the LES/Smagorinsky model coupled with
Lagrangian equations to account for particle motion.
Even though many numerical studies concern mono-disperse no conclusion that at which inspiration flow rate, the flow in the
particle distribution, the aerosol drug, which is used in the med- nasal cavity is turbulent. However, from the results in the liter-
ical treatment, is poly-disperse. Thus, researchers also started to ature, it is reasonable to assume that the flow is laminar when
investigate poly-disperse particle deposition. Longest et al. [5, the inspiration flow rate is smaller than 3 L/min and the flow is
6] adopted a poly-disperse particle distribution in an upper air- turbulent when the inspiration flow rate is larger than 30 L/min.
way model, the particle distribution has been obtained from a In the range between 3 and 30 L/min flow rate, it is reason-
laser fraction system (Spraytec, Malvern Instruments Inc.). In able to assume the flow field is laminar-transitional-turbulent.
their research, particles are injected with the same particle num- Therefore, it is suitable to choose the LRN RANS method or
ber in each size class, and the final mass deposition efficiency is LES method which has ability to predict the transient laminar
scaled to match the measured initial poly-disperse size distribu- turbulent flow. As it has been proved that LES is more powerful
tion [6]. Moreover, they considered a considerably lower drug in predicting the laminar-transitional-turbulent flow compared
dose compared to the drug dose used in clinical treatment. to LRN RANS, in the present study, LES is used to simulate the
flow field in the nasal cavity, and particle motion is tracked by
One of the challenges for numerical studies is the geometric Lagrangian method using one-way coupling. The particle depo-
complexity of the oral airway [3]. Considerable research has sition efficiency is compared with numerical result in literature.
been done using idealized mouth-throat models [1], for instance The particle pattern on the wall of the nasal cavity, the particles
the idealized mouth-throat built by Kleinstreuer et al. [7], which at the exit plane and the relationship between the final particle
is the circular oral airway model according to the dimensions of positions and the particle release positions are studied.
a human cast model reported by Cheng et al. [8]. An extra-
thoracic airway configuration is built based on computed to- Numerical Methods and Computational Conditions
mography (CT) scans by Jayarajua et al. [9], this model is much
closer to the anatomical structure of the human upper airway. The numerical surfaces of the mouth-throat and nasal cavity are
Thus, it is expected that these result are much closer to the real generated based on CT scans, which are provided by the Med-
airflow and particle transport in the human respiratory system. ical School of Heidelberg University. Various sets of CT scans
The numerical results of the airflow in this more realistic upper were provided, and the set with little artifact, open mouth of
airway model show that the transition from laminar to turbu- the patient and open vocal folder is chosen for generation of
lent, which is especially important at low inspiration flow rates, the mouth-throat geometry, c.f. Fig. 1, and the set of CT scans
is sensitive to the complexity of the specific configuration of the which has good quality in the region of nasal cavity is chosen
human airway. Flow transition is seen shortly behind the glottis for the generation of the nasal cavity as shown in Fig. 2. Thus,
for a low inspiration flow rate of 15 L/min, whereas flow transi- the CT scans shown in Figs. 1 and 2 stem from different pa-
tion is not reported in the simplified mouth-throat model [9] for tients.
the same condition. Therefore, it is necessary to use a human
The surface grid used in the numerical simulations for both sets
upper airway model based on CT scans.
of CT scans is generated using the software NewRa2 [15]. Dur-
As discussed above, the poly-disperse particle distribution and ing the reconstruction process of the mouth-throat model, the
more realistic upper airway model is used in the investigation of inlet plane (mouth) is assured to maintain the correct angle with
particle transport in the human respiratory system [1, 5], how- the lips, and the outlet is normal to the trachea, which is consis-
ever no investigation has been developed for the poly-disperse
particle transport in the more realistic image-based oral airway
model to the best knowledge of the present authors. The poly-
disperse particle transport in a CT-based mouth-throat is studied
in the present paper. The numerical results are compared with
the mono-disperse particle deposition in the same CT-based
mouth-throat [10] and the same initial poly-disperse particle
size distribution in a cast-based mouth-throat [11], where the
influence of initial particle size distribution [10, 11, 12] on par-
ticle deposition characteristics is discussed.
Moreover, particle transport and deposition in the nasal cavity is
studied in the literature with the scope of delivering the aerosol Figure 1: The left view (left) and top view (right) of CT scans
drug via the nasal airwayinto the lung [13]. The nasal cavity, used for the reconstruction of the mouth-throat.
which includes three meatuses, is much more complex than the
mouth-throat. Because of the geometrical complexity, almost
all of the geometrical models of nasal cavity are constructed
based on image scans such as CT scans. The EulerLagrangian
method is popular to simulate micron particles in the nasal cav-
ity. It is very important to capture the properties of the flow
field in the nasal cavity to predicting the particle deposition in
the nasal cavity when the Euler-Lagrangian method is used and
thus, a proper turbulence model is very important. However,
there is no uniform standard to choose the turbulent model. For
instance, Shi et al. [13] assumed that the flow in the nasal cavity
is laminar at the inspiration flow rate of 20 L/min and no turbu-
lence model is used in their simulation. However, Kleinstreuer Figure 2: The left view (left) and top view (right) of CT scans
et al. [14] found that part of the flow in the nasal cavity is tur- used for the reconstruction of the nasal cavity.
bulent at the inspiration flow of 15 L/min. Presently, there is

Figure 3: The surface grid (left) and the zoom of the grid at the
pharynx (right) of the mouth-throat.
tent with the realistic situation. The surface of the final geome-
try, which is used to generate the numerical grid on the surface
of the mouth-throat, is shown in Fig. 3. The zoomed grid shows
the triangle mesh. The grids must fulfill several conditions for
the simulations to converge fast, such as angles of the triangle
mesh are not to be sharp, which is also helpful to generate a
high-quality volume grid. The volume grid is generated with
Ansys ICEM-CFD 11.0. Here, a tetrahedral grid is used, which
consists of 21,452 nodes. More details of the generation of the
present mouth-throat model can be found in [10]. For the simu-
lations of the nasal cavity, both the surface and the volume grid
are generated in the same way as described above, and the vol-
ume grid generated for the simulation of the particle transport
in the nasal cavity consists of 207,180 grid nodes.
Large eddy simulation (LES) is used to describe the transitional
laminarturbulent flow in both the mouth-throat and the nasal
cavity, and the sub-grid scale (SGS) Smagorinsky model [16] is
adopted to model the sub-grid stress tensor. Lagrangian equa-
tions are used to track the particle motion. In the present situ-
ation, the volume occupied by the particles is small compared
to the gas volume so that particle interaction may be neglected,
and only drag force and gravitational force are considered [9].
The Brownian force is considered when the particle size is in
the range of sub-micron meters [17]. The software platform
OpenFOAM 1.5 is used to solve the governing equations. A
user-defined solver for the gas phase (using LES) and the parti-
cle motion with the Lagrangian tracking method is constructed
based on the solvers oodles and icolagrangianFoam using two-
Figure 4: The surface grid of the nasal cavity.
way coupling [19, 10, 21] in the case of poly-disperse particle
transport in the mouth-throat. In case of mono-disperse particle
motion in the nasal cavity, one-way coupling is used.
A steady inspiration flow rate of 30 L/min and initial velocity at
the inlet surface of 7.423 m/s with 2% fluctuations [23] is used
in the simulation of the mouth-throat; this results in an initial
Reynolds number of 5,011. The relative static pressure at the
outlet is set to zero. No-slip boundary conditions are adopted at
the walls. In case of the nasal cavity, a steady inspiration flow
rate of 7.5 L/min is assumed, and the initial velocity at the inlet
surface is 1.448 m/s with 2% fluctuations, corresponding to an
initial Reynolds number of 897. Other conditions are the same
as the boundary conditions used in the mouth-throat.
The poly-disperse particle distribution of a dry powder in-
haler (DPI) is studied experimentally by the group of Prof. Ur-
banetz (Research Center Pharmaceutical Engineering GmbH,
Graz, Austria), and their experimental poly-disperse particle
size distribution [22] is shown in Fig. 5, which is used as ini-
tial distribution for the present simulations of the mouth-throat.
The particle diameter ranges from 0.35 to 23.5 m. The mass
medium diameter is 1.79 m, and the Sauter mean diameter is
1.38 m. The particle density is 1,000 kg/m3 .
In the case of mouth-throat, the injection mass of 200 g for the
drug salbutamol sulfate from a dry power inhaler (DPI) [2] for
one actuation is considered. For this injection mass, the injec-
tion particle number reaches the value of about 1011 . There-
fore, it is impossible to track each particle, and the parcel
method [18, 20] is adopted. In the present study, 10,000 parcels
are injected simultaneously at the inlet plane. Each parcel is as-
sumed to have the same mass, and the parcel number distribu-
tion for each class is proportional to the experimental mass frac-
tion, c.f. Fig. 5. The initial parcel velocity equals the inspiration
flow velocity, and parcels distribute randomly but uniformly at
the inlet plane, see Fig. 6. The parcel position is controlled by
a Gaussian distribution. The injection process can be described
through equations
m
mparcel = in (1)
Np
and
min fi
N pi = = N p fi , (2)
mp
Figure 5: Poly-disperse particle size distribution of a dry pow-
der inhaler [22].

Figure 6: Right view of initial parcel positions at the inlet
plane [10].
where N p is the total parcel number, N pi is the parcel number
corresponding to the ith parcel class , min is the injection mass
of one actuation, m p is the mass of one parcel, and fi is the mass
fraction of the ith size class. In the computation, the injection
mass is set to min = 200 g, and the injection parcel number
is taken to be N p = 10,000.
In the case of the nasal cavity, monodisperse particles are in-
jected simultaneously at the inlet plane. The particle size, d p ,
is 10 g, particle density, p , is 912 kg/m3 , and N p = 10, 000
particles are injected. The initial particle velocity equals the
inspiration flow velocity, and particles distribute randomly but
uniformly at the inlet plane.
Results and Discussion
Particle Deposition in the CT-Based Mouth-Throat
The present methodology has been validated through the sim-
ulation of an air flow field in a constricted tube and the micro-
particle transport in a cast-based mouth-throat [10, 23].
The particle deposition efficiency is an important parameter, be-
cause it reflects the amount of the aerosol drug which deposits
in the upper respiratory system, whereas the remaining parti-
cles pass the human upper airways and reach the deep site of
the lung, where the pulmonary treatment occurs. In the present
simulation, the deposition efficiency of poly-disperse particles
depositing in the CT-based mouth-throat model is found to be
Figure 7: Poly-disperse particle deposition in different regions
of the CT-based mouth-throat model.
Figure 8: Poly-disperse particle deposition in different regions
of the cast-based mouth-throat model [11].
91.58%, whereas Cui and Gutheil [10] showed that the deposi-
tion efficiency of mono-disperse particles with the diameters of
2, 5, and 10 m in the present CT-based mouth-throat configu-
ration are 85.05%, 99.64%, and 100%, respectively. Although
both the mass medium diameter (1.79 m) and the Sauter mean
diameter (1.38 m) of the poly-disperse particle distribution are
smaller than 2 m, the deposition efficiency of the poly-disperse
particles is higher than the result using 2 m. This shows that
both diameters are not suitable to represent the particle depo-
sition characteristics of the poly-disperse particle size distri-
bution. In the cast-based mouth-throat model [11], the poly-
disperse particle deposition efficiency is only 6.37% using the
same initial poly-disperse particle size distribution. Thus, the
particle deposition efficiency is considerably higher in the CT-
based configuration compared to the cast-based mouth-throat
model. Besides the configurational differences, one major dif-
ference attributing to this dramatic increase of particle deposi-
tion efficiency in the CT-based model may be the different shape
of the injection plane as well as considerable constriction, for
instance, near the trachea.
Moreover, it is found that poly-disperse particles mainly deposit
in the mouth cavity and pharynx cavity of the CT-based mouth-
throat model seen in Fig. 7. A considerably lower particle num-
ber deposits in the larynx and the trachea, they attribute only
about 10% to the particle deposition efficiency in the CT-based
mouth-throat model. For comparison, Fig. 8 displays corre-
Figure 9: Particle deposition of 5 m particles on the surface
for the cast-based mouth-throat model for [10].
Figure 10: Particle deposition of 2 m particles on the surface
for the cast-based mouth-throat model [10].
sponding values for the cast-based mouth-throat model. In spite
of the fact that the particle deposition efficiency in both configu-
rations is considerably different, the majority of particles in this
configuration deposits in the pharynx and the larynx followed
by the mouth cavity and trachea.
A comparison of mono-disperse and poly-disperse particle de-
position in the cast-based and the CT-based mouth-throat con-
figurations is shown in Figs. 9, 10, 11, and 12. Figure 9 shows
that 5 m sized particles mainly deposit in the mouth and the
pharynx cavities, they distribute at the tip of the tongue, the top
side of the mouth cavity, the soft palate and the impact side of
the pharynx of the CT-based mouth-throat. Some particles pass
through the pharynx and only some of them deposit in the tra-
chea in case of the CT-based mouth-throat. When the particle
size is decreased to 2 m, more particles pass through the phar-
ynx and reach the trachea, see Fig. 10. More particles deposit
on the wall of pharynx and the trachea for 2 m particles: The
particles not only deposit on the impact side of wall, but also on
Figure 11: Poly-disperse particle deposition on the surface for
the CT-based mouth-throat model.
Figure 12: Poly-disperse particle deposition on the surface for
the cast-based mouth-throat model [11].
the side wall. This may be caused by the vortex in the trachea,
which is discussed by Cui and Gutheil [10].
In the case of poly-disperse particle deposition in the CT-based
mouth-throat model, Fig. 11 shows that particles mainly de-
posit in the mouth cavity and pharynx cavity just like in the
mono-disperse particle situation. Particles larger than 5 m are
blocked in the mouth cavity, and only the particles smaller than
5 m may deposit in the pharynx and trachea. Although some
particles smaller than 2 m can pass the mouth cavity, they
are blocked in the bottom of pharynx cavity. In contrast, the
poly-disperse particle deposition in the cast-based mouth-throat
model, c.f. Fig. 12, displays different properties compared to the
CT-based mouth-throat model. Figure 12 shows that large par-
ticles of 20 m and beyond may deposit in the pharynx and the
trachea. Even though the particles mainly deposit at impact and
contracted locations, there is also particle deposition on the wall
of the cast-based mouth-throat model, which, however, is much
lower than in the CT-based mouth-throat model. In the latter
configuration, particle deposition in the pharynx mainly con-
Figure 13: Contribution of each particle size class to poly-
disperse particle deposition in different regions of the CT-based
mouth-throat model.
 pharynx, and larynx, whereas larger particles deposit mainly in
the pharynx, and a lower amount in the larynx and in the mouth
cavity. More details of the poly-disperse particle deposition in
the cast-based mouth-throat can be found in [11].
In summary, particle deposition efficiency for both the mono-
disperse and the poly-disperse particle size distributions in the
CT-based and the cast-based mouth-throat models are shown to
occur in different regions of the human upper respiratory sys-
tem. Contributions of particles in the same size range show
completely different characteristics with respect to deposition
behavior in the CT-based and cast-based mouth-throat models.
Most stunning is that the difference in the total deposition effi-
ciency for the poly-disperse particle size distribution is higher
for the CT-based configuration by more than a factor of ten, and
more than 90% of the particles cannot reach the lung. The study
reveals that the cast-based models predict a much higher pene-
Figure 14: Contribution of each particle size class to poly- tration rate of particle to the lung, and further research is war-
disperse particle deposition in different regions of the cast- ranted to clarify these differences. Moreover, it is shown that
based mouth-throat model [11]. the deposition efficiency of the poly-disperse spray cannot be
represented by a mono-disperse particle size distribution with
Sauter mean diameter or mass medium diameter.
centrates in the bottom of pharynx cavity, but it also distributes Particle Deposition in the CT-Based Nasal Cavity
in the entire pharynx in the cast-based mouth-throat model.
The particle deposition efficiency is a important factor to eval-
To further study the properties of particle deposition, the con- uate the geometrical model and the numerical models to sim-
tribution of poly-disperse particles in different size classes to
the particle deposition in different regions of the CT-based and
cast-based mouth-throat models are shown in Figs. 13 and 14,
respectively. A comparison of the initial poly-disperse parti-
cle distribution shown in Figs. 5 and the distribution of parti-
cle deposition in the CT-based model (Fig. 13) shows that the
principal shape of the distribution is maintained in contrast to
the deposition pattern of the cast-based mouth-throat shown in
Fig. 14. Concerning the CT-based model, most particles de-
posit in the mouth cavity and a lower number of particles in the
pharynx. Particles in the size range of 1 to 5 m contribute to
the main particle deposition in the entire CT-based mouth-throat
model. In case of the cast-based mouth-throat model, a com-
pletely different situation prevails. Particles in the size range
between 1 and 5 m have an excellent chance to reach the deep
lung. Smaller particles deposit in the trachea, mouth cavity,

Figure 16: The initial position of released particles at the inlet

plane of the nasal cavity.

Figure 15: Poly-disperse particle deposition on the surface for

the cast-based mouth-throat model [11]. Figure 17: Particle distribution on the wall of the nasal cavity.
ulate the particle deposition in the nasal cavity. The present
results of the particle deposition characteristics in the nasal cav-
ity is compared with the numerical results of Matida et al. [24].
The present particle deposition efficiency in the nasal cavity is
24.54%, which is fit well with their result of 26.5% [24]. In the
previous study [24], the RANS/k model is used, whereas the
present study a combined LES/Smagorinsky model is adopted.
Even though it was shown that the present methodology is suit-
able to predict the particle deposition in the mouth-throat, and
the LES/Smagorinsky model improves the results obtained with
other models, it seems that for the present study in the nasal
cavity, the RANS/k model performs similarly well. How-
ever, the LES has the advantage of predicting the transitional
and turbulent flow, and thus, it might predict the particle dis-
persion and transport more precisely than the RANS model, be-
cause the vortex has great influence on the particle dispersion
and transport. Differences between these models may be more
pronounced when a fines grid is used and a more sophisticated
grid is employed.
Figure 18: Particle release positions at the outlet plane of the
nasal cavity.
In addition to the particle deposition efficiency, the relationship
between the released particle position and the final particle po-
sition is studied here. It can be seen from Fig. 16 that the final
particle position is related to the particle release postion. The
particles, which are located at the inlet plane left and right of
the nostril have different deposition properties, because of the
asymmetrical structure of the nasal passage. It can be seen that
at the left nostril, particle deposition in the nasal cavity mainly
occurs in the front portion of the inlet plane. In contrast, at right
nostril, the particles mainly deposit in the front and back por-
tion of the inlet plane. Moreover, it is observed that the particle
deposition in the nasal cavity mainly occurs in the anterior por-
tion and on the impact sides such as the nasal valve, the anterior
portion of middle meatus, and the the nasopharynx, as shown
in Fig. 17. The released particle positions at the inlet plane in-
fluences the final particle positions, i.e. particles deposit on the
wall or they exist in the nasal cavity. Figure 18 shows particles
which exit the computational domain and thus persist inside the
nasal cavity. The positions are related to the release positions of
the particles.
Summary and Conclusions
In this study, poly-disperse particle deposition is simulated in a
CT-based human mouth-throat model using two-way coupling.
LES/Smagorinsky coupled with a Lagrangian tracking method
is developed to describe the entire process. The results are com-
pared with the results of mono-disperse particle deposition in
the CT-based mouth-throat model, and poly-disperse particle
deposition in the cast-based mouth-throat model considering the
same experimental poly-disperse particle size distribution mea-
sured from a dry powder inhaler.
From the comparison of the mono-disperse and poly-disperse
particle distribution in the CT-based mouth-throat model, it is
found that the poly-disperse particle deposition efficiency is not
too different from the mono-disperse particle deposition, since
extremely high particle deposition rates occurs in the CT-based
mouth-throat model. The poly-disperse particle deposition effi-
ciency is higher than in the case of a mono-disperse distribution
with 2 m particle size, although the mass medium diameter
and Sauter mean diameter of poly-disperse particle distribution
is lower than 2 m. The particle deposition is very high even for
small particles, i.e. 85.05% for 2 m. Thus, the mono-disperse
distribution is not suitable to describe the poly-disperse deposi-
tion efficiency.
The contribution of particles in each size class is proportional
to the initial mass fraction of the size class because of the high
deposition in the CT-based mouth-throat model. The particles in
size range of 1 - 5 m contribute most to the particle deposition
in the CT-based mouth-throat. In contrast, particles in the size
range of 1 - 5 m contribute least to the particle deposition in the
cast-based mouth-throat. The difference mainly results from the
differences of the CT-based mouth-throat geometry compared
to the cast-based geometry.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Prof. Urbanez from TU Graz for provid-
ing the experimental poly-disperse particle distribution. They
gratefully acknowledge financial support of the German Sci-
ence Foundation (DFG) through the International Graduate Col-
lege 710 and Heidelberg Graduate School of Mathematical and
Computational Methods for the Sciences (MathComp). They
thank Prof. Baumann and Dr. Rohde from Medical School of
Heidelberg University for providing CT scans and Dr. Jungblut
from the Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific Computing at
Heidelberg University for help with the software NeuRa2.They
thank the Ministry for Education and Research and the Ministry
for Science, Research and Arts Baden-Wurttemberg for use of
the bwGrid at Heidelberg University.
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Measurement of Dynamic Surface Tension from a Profile of

Horizontal Capillary Jet

K. Katoh1 and T. Wakimoto1

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Osaka City University, Osaka 558-8585, Japan

Abstract tension changing with time, so-called dynamic surface tension,

has an important influence on many industrial problems such as
A novel method is proposed to measure the dynamic surface the process of printing or painting, fermentation, dyeing,
tension of surfactant aqueous solutions. The trajectory of a liquid floatation, and so on [1] [2].
jet ejected horizontally from a circular orifice was theoretically Usually the maximum bubble pressure method [3] or the
analyzed from a mechanical viewpoint. The ordinary differential oscillating jet method [4] have been mainly used to measure the
equation to govern the jet behavior was obtained from the force dynamic surface tension. In the former method, the air is injected
balance between inertial force, gravitational force, pressure and from a nozzle to the test liquid and the pressure inside the bubble
surface tension. The jet trajectories calculated from the equation is measured during the expansion. The dynamic surface tension
agree well with those measured experimentally for some test at the elapsed time can be obtained from the maximum pressure
liquids. The dynamic surface tension can be determined so as to determined through the help of Laplaces equation. Although the
fit the theoretical trajectory to the measured one for the surfactant method has an advantage that the time scale can be widely
solution. Several kinds of surfactant aqueous solutions with changed in the range from 10ms to 10s by adjusting the
different concentration were used to examine the validity of the expanding velocity of bubble, the apparatus is rather complicated
proposed method. The results of measured dynamic surface and expensive. In the latter method, on the other hand, a liquid jet
tensions agree well with those obtained by the oscillating jet is ejected downward from a vertical nozzle having an elliptical
method. The present method has some advantages such as simple cross section. The gas-liquid interface on the jet oscillates due to
measurement or good reproducibility, compared with other the action of surface tension to restore the shape of jet cross
methods. section to the circle. The dynamic surface tension can be
theoretically calculated from the measured wavelength of the
Nomenclature oscillating surface. Although the dynamic surface tension can be
measured by a relatively simple device, it is difficult to
Ca, Capillary number manufacture the elliptical nozzle and to measure the wavelength
g, gravitational acceleration in a satisfactory accurately.
M, momentum flux of jet flow In this report, a new method is proposed to measure the
P, pressure dynamic surface tension by use of the profile of a capillary jet
Q volume flow rate ejecting from a horizontal circular orifice. The jet trajectory is
R, jet radius theoretically analyzed from an approximate momentum equation
considering various forces acting on the jet. Since the jet
s, coordinate in jet axis direction behavior is dependent on the surface tension, the dynamic surface
U, jet velocity tension can be determined so as to fit the theoretical jet profile to
We, Weber number the experimental one. Applying the proposed method, the
x, coordinate in horizontal direction dynamic surface tension is actually measured experimentally for
y, coordinate in vertical direction several kinds of surfactant solutions. The validity and usefulness
of the method is discussed through the comparison with the
results measured by the other methods in the literatures.
, angle of jet expansion
, inclination of jet axis from horizon
wave length of oscillating jet surface
, viscosity
, density y Capillary jet
, surface tension O
s R
1. Introduction
U
When a fresh gas-liquid interface appears on the surfactant x
solution, the molecules of surface active agent in the solution are
transferred and adsorbed on the interface. One can observe that
the surface tension of the solution changes temporarily until the
interface is saturated by the adsorbed molecules. The surface Fig. 1 Schematic of capillary jet
2. Theoretical Analysis of Jet Trajectory
The momentum change should be equal to the resultant of
As shown in Fig. 1, a horizontal liquid jet with a uniform pressure, surface tension and gravitational force acting on the
velocity distribution ejected from a circular orifice is investigated element and the following equation of motion can be obtained in
in this study. Once a fresh gas-liquid interface is formed at the the s direction as:
orifice exit, the liquid surface tension changes with regard to the
elapsed time, corresponding to the distance from the orifice s
divided by the jet velocity. In principle, if the jet trajectory can be
dM
ds
d

R 2 P 2R cos R 2 g sin
ds
(4)
obtained theoretically, the dynamic surface tension can be
estimated so as to fit the experimental jet configuration. g is the gravitational acceleration. In a similar manner to Eq. (4),
As shown in Fig. 1, the center of the horizontal pipe exit is the equation of motion in the direction perpendicular to s can be
taken as the origin of the coordinate system and x and y axes are written as:
taken as the horizontal and the vertical directions, respectively. R
d d d
and U in the figure indicate the local radius of jet and velocity. M R 2 P 2R cos
Figure 2 shows the differential element of jet having the ds ds ds
infinitesimal length of ds. P and shown in the figure indicate R 2 g cos (5)
the pressure and the liquid surface tension, respectively. In
addition, the inclination angle of jet axis from the horizon is The liquid surface tension appearing in Eqs. (4) and (5) can be
indicated by and is the angle of jet expansion. Note that a dependent on the elapsed time ts after the gas-liquid interface is
simple geometrical relation can be written between R and as: initially formed at the pipe exit. Some relation between ts and the
coordinate s should be necessary to determine the value of (s) in
dR Eqs. (4) and (5). Since the gas-liquid interface is convected with
tan (1)
ds the jet, .ts can be related to the local velocity U and s as follows,
Now the momentum balance is investigated from the discussion dts 1
about various forces acting on the differential element shown in (6)
Fig. 2. The effect of viscosity on the jet behavior is assumed to be
ds U
negligible, since the velocity distribution is uniform and the It is known that the dynamic surface tension (ts) can be
capillary number defined by Ca=U/ (: viscosity) is less than approximated by the following empirical correlation including
0.01 in the system treated here. the surface tension of the solvent 0 (i.e., the initial surface
The momentum flux M through the element can be tension when the interface appears) and the equilibrium surface
estimated as: tension s after sufficient long time as [6]

M R 2 U 2 (2) 0 s
t s s (7)
1 t s / tr
n
where is the density of the test liquid. The pressure inside the
jet can be calculated from the well known Laplaces equation as where n is a positive constant and tr means a relaxation time to
[5]: reach the equilibrium state. In this study, the two parameters, i.e.,
n and tr, are determined experimentally so as to fit the measured
1 1
P (3) jet configuration with the theoretical one. From the results, the
r1 r2 dynamic surface tension can be obtained from Eq. (7).
Equations (1) and (4) to (6) can be non-dimensionalized by
where r1 and r2 indicate the principle radii of curvature appearing
on the gas-liquid interface shown in Fig. 2 and on the cross use of the capillary constant defined as 0 / g .
section perpendicular to the interface. Each radius of curvature
can be approximately obtained by the following expression if we dR
tan (8)
consider the differential geometry of the jet configuration. ds
1 d ( )
cos (3a) 2We d
r1 ds tan R sin
ds
1 cos
(3b) d
2
r2 R d
2
R 2 cos 2
sin sin (9)
ds ds

R2 d R cos d
dR sin R 1 0
ds d s
ds
+d WeR d d d R 2 cos
Flow R 1 R cos 0
ds ds ds
(10)

P
dt s R 0
(11)
ds We g 2
Fig. 2 Differential element of capillary jet
 including four dependent variables ( R , , and ts) were solved
numerically by use of the usual Runge-Kuttas method. From the
calculated solution, one can get the jet trajectory. In the
Circular orifice measurement of dynamic surface tension, the two parameters, i.e.,
n and tr in Eq. (7), were determined by the least square method to
0.2mm
fit the theoretical curve to the measured jet profile.

1.95mm 3. Experimental Apparatus and Method

Reservoir tank
Overflow
Orifice
Strobe
Digital camera
Measuring container
Electronic scale
Fig. 3 Experimental apparatus
where the over bar indicates the non-dimensional length and
is the non-dimensional surface tension defined by /0.
Also the local Weber number We is defined as:
3 5
U 2 R Q 2 Q2 g 2 2
We 2 2 3 (12) stated in the preceding section. For the sake of measurement of
0 0R 3
R 0
Q is the volume flow rate. It is noted that the last term including
d/ds in Eq. (9) indicates the tangential force due to the surface
tension gradient to accelerate the fluid particles close to the
interface. By the way, it is pointed out that the viscosity observed
near the interface could be quite large compared with that of the
bulk liquid because a large number of surfactant molecules gather
close to the interface. Some estimation showed that the surface
viscosity could be as 107 times large as the viscosity of bulk
liquid [7]. Although it seems quite difficult to include the
quantitative effect of surface viscosity in Eq. (9), one may guess
that the large viscosity could suppress the movement of the fluid
particles close to the interface relative to that in the bulk liquid.
In other words, the last tern in Eq. (9) including d/ds may be
almost counterbalanced by the effect of surface viscosity. The
effect of d/ds on the whole system will be discussed later in the
section treating comparison with the experimental results.
Under appropriate boundary conditions at the pipe exit, the
set of ordinary differential equations, i.e., Eqs. (8) to (11)
Figure 3 shows the experimental set up used in this study.
The test liquid in the upper tank 1 is introduced to the circular
orifice of 1.948 mm in diameter through the overflow 4 and is
ejected horizontally to the ambient air. The orifice is made of
PMMA sheet with poor wettability to prevent the liquid sticking
to the wall. The thickness of the sheet is 0.2mm to suppress the
development of boundary layer in the liquid flow. The jet
velocity was determined from the mass flow rate measured by the
electric balance 7. In order to make clear the effect of surface
tension on the jet trajectory, it is desirable to set the jet velocity
small as possible to suppress the effect of inertial force. The jet
velocity can be adjusted by the head of the overflow 2 and was
set at 0.364m/s, which is the lowest limit that the liquid does not
wet the wall around the orifice.
Distilled water, 10% ethanol solution having a static
surface tension were used as the test liquids to ascertain that the
jet trajectory can be estimated correctly by the theoretical model
the dynamic surface tension, on the other hand, poly-oxy-
ethylene-octyl-phenyl-ether was chosen as the typical surfactant
agent. Since the characteristics of the agent is dependent on the
molarity of ethylene oxide radical added to the molecule, two
kinds of agent having different addition molarities, i.e., Triton X-
100 and X-405, were used in this experiment. The physical
properties of the test liquids are represented in Table 1. The
density and viscosity were measured by the Baum hydrometer
and the Ubbelohde viscometer on the market. The static surface
tension was measured by the Wilhelmy method using the
electrobalance.
The photographs taken by a digital camera were used to
determine the jet trajectory. The x-y coordinate of the center of
the jet at each position was measured from the pictures on PC.
Note that one pixel in the picture roughly corresponds to 20m in
this experiment and the deviation of jet trajectory was within one
pixel among more than three times measurements under the same
experimental condition.
The coefficient of contraction Cc of the orifice is necessary
to determine the boundary condition for the set of ordinary

Table 1 Physical properties of test liquids (Liquid temperature 100.5)

Test liquid Concentration (kg/m3) (mm2/s) s ( m N / m )

Water 10000.5 1.280.02 74.60.2

Ethanol solution 10% 9860.5 2.090.02 50.50.2
250 ppm 10040.5 1.260.02 33.10.2
500 ppm 10040.5 1.270.02 32.70.2
Surfactant Triton X-100
1000 ppm 10040.5 1.260.02 33.10.2
solution
1500 ppm 10050.5 1.270.02 33.30.2
Triton X-405 1000 ppm 10020.5 1.290.02 54.50.2
 4. Experimental Results
Oval orifice
4.1 Jet Profile
2.05mm 1.30mm

1.85mm

1.15mm
Figures 5(a) to (c) show the examples of jet configurations
for distilled water, ethanol solution and the surfactant solution of
500ppm Triton X-100, respectively. As shown by the figures, the
Large type Small type curvature of the jet trajectory becomes larger in the order of
surface tension and is the greatest for the water of Fig. 5(a)
Reservoir tank having the largest surface tension. Figure 6 shows the dynamic
Overflow surface tensions measured by the oscillating jet method for three

Valve kinds of test liquids shown in Fig. 5. The abscissa indicates the
Oval orifice elapsed time after the interface is initially formed. The straight
Digital camera lines in the figure represent the static surface tensions for water
Traverser and ethanol 10% solution. As shown in the figure, the surface
Light tension is constant for these two kinds of test liquids, while it
decreases with time for the surfactant solution. The broken curve
Fig. 4 Oscillating jet method drawn in the figure indicates the result of Eq. (7) to which
tr=24.0ms, n=1.06 and S=33.1mN/m were applied. One can see
that the empirical relation Eq. (7) approximates well the
differential equations. The observation shows that Cc was hardly measured dynamic surface tension.
dependent on the kinds of test liquids and was determined from The jet trajectories were calculated based on the theoretical
the photos of jet profile as Cc=0.942 for the orifice used in this model in section 3 for three kinds of test liquids. Note that Eq. (7)
experiment. Hence the following boundary conditions to solve stated above was used for Triton X-100 while the static surface
Eqs. (8) to (11) can be written as: tension s shown in Table 1 was used for water and ethanol
solution. Figure 7 shows the comparison of the calculated results
s 0 with the experimental ones. The coordinate x and y of the jet
d center are plotted in the figure. Experimental points were
R 0.942R exit , 0 , 0 , 0 , ts 0 (13)
obtained from the pictures shown in Fig. 5(a) to (c) and the solid
ds
and broken lines represent the theoretical results obtained from
The dynamic surface tension was measured by the the solution of Eqs. (8) to (11). Two kinds of calculated results
oscillating jet method as well as the proposed method for the are shown for the surfactant solution, i.e., the broken line
purpose of comparison. Figure 4 shows the schematic of the indicates the result in which the term d/ds appearing in Eq. (9)
oscillating jet method. The test liquid is ejected vertically from was included while it was omitted in the solid line. Note that only
the elliptical orifice. The liquid surface vibrates in the downward the solid lines are drawn for other test liquids having the static
direction since the surface tension acts to restore the elliptical surface tension. As shown by the figure, the experimental jet
cross section to the circle. The wavelength of vibration was profile for the surfactant solution is approximated well by the
measured by the photo at each vertical position from the orifice. solid line while it apparently deviates from the broken line
The dynamic surface tension can be calculated theoretically from including d/ds. As suggested in section 2, the effect of space-
the wavelength as [4]: gradient of surface tension could be cancelled out by the surface
viscosity. In the following, the jet profile will be calculated by
37 2

2
4 Q 2 1 24 b a
2
3 2
the momentum equations without the term regarding d/ds. As
1 2 3

shown by Fig. 7, the calculated jet profiles for other two kinds of
6a2 1 5 2 a 2 2 Q Q test liquids approximate well the experimental ones. The
3
deviation from the experimental results is within 3% for each
(14) test liquid. We can say that the jet profile can be accurately
estimated by the theoretical method proposed in this study.
where a and b indicate the average jet radius and the amplitude of
surface vibration, respectively. The elapsed time ts was obtained 4.2 Measurement of Dynamic Surface Tension
from the jet velocity and the distance from the orifice.

(a) Water (b) 10% Ethanol solution (c) 500 ppm Surfactant solution
(Triton X-100)

Fig. 5 Photograph of capillary jet

 80 80

60 60
mN/m

mN/m
40 40
Water Osc. Present Osc. Present
10% Ethanol solution jet method C ppm jet method
C ppm
20 Surfactant solution 20 250 ppm 1000 ppm
(Triton X-100 500ppm) 500 ppm 1500 ppm
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
ts ms ts ms
Fig. 6 Dynamic surface tension measured by oscillating jet
method Fig. 9 Dynamic surface tension
(Triton X-100 solution)
0
Surfactant 80
(without d/ds)
-4 Water

Surfactant 60
y mm

Ethanol
-8 (with d/ds)

mN/m
Water 40 Present method
-12 10% Ethanol slution
Oscillating jet method
Surfactant solution
(Triton X-100 500ppm) 20 Maximum bubble pressure method
-16 [Fainerman and Miller (1995)]
0 5 10 15 20
x mm 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Fig. 7 Profile of capillary jet ts ms

Fig. 10 Dynamic surface tension

The jet trajectories of the surfactant solution Triton X-100
were measured for various concentrations from 250 to 1500ppm.
The experimental results are shown in Fig. 8. As shown in the
figure, the curvature of the jet profile becomes gentle as the
concentration of surface active agent increases. Since the density
or the static surface tension is hardly dependent on the
concentration as shown in Table 1, the dynamic surface tension
i.e., the change of surface tension with time should influence the
curvature and the shape of trajectories. Figure 9 shows the
measured results for the dynamic surface tensions by using the jet
profiles shown in Fig. 8. The dynamic surface tensions are drawn
against the elapsed time tr shown in the abscissa. The curves and
plots in the figure indicate the results obtained by the proposed
method and those by the oscillating jet method, respectively. As
shown by Fig. 9, both results agree well with each other within
the experimental error of the oscillating jet method. The
deviation between both methods is less than 3%. Figure 10 shows
(Triton X-405 solution)
the measured dynamic surface tension for another surfactant
solution (Triton X-405). In the figure, the experimental results
measured by the maximum bubble pressure method [8] are drawn
as well as those by the proposed method and the oscillating jet
method. The results obtained by the present method agree with
those by the other methods. The results of [8]. are a bit smaller
than others especially in the small ts region. This may be caused
by the difference of the test liquid temperature.
The method proposed in this study was validated through the
comparison with the measured results by the other methods as
shown by Figs. 9 and 10. The present method has some
advantages compared with other methods that the dynamic
surface tension can be measured with a good reproducibility by a
relatively simple apparatus.

5. Conclusion
0
A new method to measure the dynamic surface tension of
surfactant solutions was proposed based on the profile of
-4 capillary jet ejecting from a horizontal orifice. The jet profile was
theoretically analyzed from an approximate momentum equation
y mm

-8 C ppm considering the inertial force, surface tension, pressure and

250ppm gravitational force. The measured jet profiles were approximated
500ppm well by the calculated results. The dynamic surface tension can
-12 1000ppm be obtained so as to fit the calculated jet profile to the
1500ppm experimental one. The dynamic surface tensions were actually
-16 measured by the proposed method for some kinds of surfactant
0 5 10 15 20 solution with various concentrations. The results agreed well with
x mm those measured by the oscillating jet and the maximum bubble
pressure methods in the literatures.
Fig. 8 Profile of capillary jet
References [5] Adamson, A. W., Physical Chemistry of Surfaces, 5th ed.,
John Wiley Sons, New York, (1990), 1.
[1] Tamura T., Dynamics of Foaming and Antifoaming, Surface
[6] XI, Y. H. and Milton, J. R., Dynamic Surface Tension of
(in Japanese), 38, 2000,.482- 504.
Aqueous Surfactant Solutions (I. Basic Parameters), Journal
[2] Ishii, T., et al., Concepts in Basic Bubble and Foam
of Colloid and Interface Science, 124, 1988, 652-659.
Engineering (in Japanese), 2005, 19-26, Techno System.
[7] Davis, J. T. and Rideal, E. K., Interfacial Phenomena, 1961,
[3] Kloubek J., Measurement of the Dynamic Surface Tension by
251-265, Academic Press.
the Maximum Bubble Pressure Method, Journal of Colloid
[8] Finerman V. B. and Miller R.: Dynamic Surface Tension
and Interface Science, 41, 1972, 7-15.
Measurements in the Sub-millisecond Range, Journal of
[4] Matijevic, E., Surface and Colloid Science v.3, 1971, 27-45,
Colloid and Interface Science, 175, 1995, 118-121.
Wiley-Interscience.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

The Numerical Analyses for Co-firing of Adaro coal and Torrefied wood Blends in T-
fired boiler

Chia-Wei Chang1, Pei-Hsun Lin2 and Chiun-Hsun Chen1

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, HsinChu 30010, Taiwan
2
Department of New Materials R&D, China Steel Corporation, Kaohsiung 81233, Taiwan
E-mail : chchen@mail.nctu.edu.tw

Abstract recently. Generally, the extreme weather may attribute to the

The research utilizes a commercial package software ANSYS
FLUENT to simulate the burning behaviours of the Adaro coal
powders mixed with Torrefied wood pellets in a boiler. The
proportions of Torrefied wood in the mixed fuel are 0% (pure
coal), 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% (pure Torrefied wood),
respectively. Two types of devolatilization mechanisms termed
as pyro1 and pyro2 are used in the parametric studies. Pyro1 is
adopted from references [2] and [3], whereas pyro2 is derived
from the measurements by CSC. The simulation results show that
the highest temperature usually occurs at 13m-height position,
corresponding to the main combustion area in the boiler. The
highest temperatures are 1,493K by using pyro1 and 1,658 K by
pyro2, respectively. The temperatures and NOx emissions at
13m-height as a function of Torrefied-wood proportion. By using
the devolatilization process of pyro2, it shows that the
temperature difference in such location is only about 159K
between 0 % and 100 % wood ratios, indicating that the
combustion efficacy is reduced not too much by using the wood
completely to replace the coal. (The corresponding value is 79K
for pyro1) It also shows that the decrease of NOx emission is
apparent as the proportion of Torrefied-wood is more than 40 %.
As the proportion reaches 80 %, the declining rate of NOx
emission is being slowed. The NOx emission by burning the case
40% of Torrefied wood in the solid fuel is only about 87.1 ppm
less than that by burning pure Adaro coal (0% wood).
Nomenclature
Di , j , D Mass diffusion coefficient
E Total energy, activation
energy
F Force vector
g Gravitational acceleration
H Total enthalpy
h Species enthalpy
Diffusion flux
J
k Thermal conductivity
Mw Molecular weight
p Pressure
Pr Prandtl number
S Total entropy
Sc Schmidt number
T Temperature
u, v, w Velocity components in the
(x, y, z) system of coordinates
Introduction
The extreme weather impacts, such as draught, blizzard,
rainstorm, etc., on human life become more and more severe
tremendous emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) by using fossil
fuels, which are estimated to be consumed within 40 years.
Therefore, how to save energy usage and mitigate GHG
emissions become important issues in many countries. In
Taiwan, China Steel Corporation (CSC) is one of the large
energy users and great GHG contributors. So the corporation
takes many means to achieve the ultimate goal of energy saving
and GHG reduction for the manufacture processes of steel. One
of the methods is to use the biomass fuels. However, the energy
releases of such fuels are generally much lower than those of
common-used fossil fuels, like coal or heavy oil. Therefore, it is
impossible to replace the fossil fuels completely by the biomass
ones in furnace, because the change of manufacture process due
to different temperature can cause the qualities and properties of
steel products inevitably to change. A possible and acceptable
solution is to mix the coal with the biomass fuel, therefore, an
evaluation must be carried in advance to justify the optimal
proportion of biomass fuel in the combustible mixture used in
furnace to maintain the required qualities of steel products. The
biomass fuel selected by CSC is wood pellet, which is a
renewable energy. About 85% of European countries, including
Sweden, Netherlands, Austria, England, Denmark, utilize such
fuel recently [1]. The wood pellet fuel is applied in a coal-fired
boiler for a demonstration purpose.
The wood fuel is defined as zero carbon emission by Kyoto
protocol, because, unlike the fossil fuel, its released carbon
element after burning can be absorbed by plants/forest, forming a
carbon cycle. However, burning a block of wood is not only low
efficiency due to unstable combustion, but also low calorific
value due to high water content. Therefore, a method termed as
Torrefaction is developed to remove the moisture as well as
superfluous volatiles to enhance the quality of wood fuel. This
kind of treatment applies thermo chemical process that the wood
is heated at 200 to 320 C under atmospheric condition in
absence of oxygen [4]. After that, the wood has to be made of
particles (Pelletizing) by screening, crushing, drying,
compression, and molding, then the fuel particles more or less
should to be the same size, uniform heating value, long storage
life, and easy to transport. The final product is referred as
Torrefied biomass or Torrefied Wood.
There are several advantages of wood particle, such as the
excellent combustion efficiency and low water content, etc.. The
only shortage is that its calorific value is lower than that of coal,
mentioned previously. In order to be renewable and sustainable,
many countries attempt to use the wood pellet to instead some of
coal powders that is being regarded as the most ideal fuel form.
The combustion for solid fuel begins with the pyrolysis (or
devolatilization) process, which occurs at around 200-300C,
undergoing gasification reactions. Volatiles are released and char
is produced, resulting in up to 70% weight loss for solid fuel.
This process is strongly dependent on the coal constitutes
(obtained by Ultimate analysis) and char compositions (obtained
by Proximate analysis) [5].
The coal-fired boiler of CSC is illustrated in Fig. 1. The
appearance model is a rectangular structure, which is divided into
three parts: the combustion chamber, heating tubes and water
pipe walls. The heating tubes are above the neck of boiler and
composed by three groups of tubes. The four pipe walls are
around the boiler.
There are eight fuel inlets at the four corners of the
combustion chamber (For example, No.4 to 7 indicate the nozzle
locations, where the nozzle pair at each number consists of the
upper and lower one). The coal particles are blown by
combustion air into the coal-fired boiler from the eight inlets. The
fuel mixed with air is fired by ignition that provides high
temperature in the boiler. The resultant high temperature gas flow
firstly losses heat to the water pipe walls around the boiler, then,
it goes through the neck of boiler and exchanges the heat
secondly with the three groups of heating tubes. Finally, the flue
gas flow with residual heat is discharged into the economizer.
1 2
3
4
5 The two mixture fraction approach could successfully predict the
6 synergistic combustion behaviour and provide an effective tool
7
Figure1. The configuration of coal-fired boiler
The three groups of heating tubes are demonstrated in Fig 2.
The tubes are the main device to produce the high-temperature
steam in coal-fired boiler. Each of them obtains the heat
sequentially from the gas flow. First, the saturated water is
injected into the heating tubes of group 3 from the lower water
drum, then, the saturated water is heated and vaporized into
superheated vapours by hot gas flow and goes into the upper gas
drum. After this process, the superheated vapours in gas drum
flows into the inlet of group 1. At this point, the temperature and
pressure of gas drum are 308 and 98.8 kg/cm2, respectively.
The superheated vapours in the group 1 of heating tube are
heated again by gas flow, and the exhausted vapour temperature
is increased to 421.83 from 308. Then, the superheated
vapours are added with some cooling water to control the vapour
temperature before injecting into the heating tubes of group 2. At
last, the exhaust temperature, pressure and mass flow rate at
tubes of group 3 are measured as 509.9 , 93.3 kg/cm2 and
204.6 ton/h.
Anthony and Howard [6] intensively reviewed the theories
of coal pyrolysis. They found that the coal particle in the high
temperature environment produces more volatiles than those
predicted by using proximate analysis. They had also fully
introduced the complete devolatilization mechanisms with first
order and second order at isothermal and non-isothermal
conditions.
Figure2. The configuration of three groups of heating tubes
Agarwal et al. [8] investigated devolatilization model for a
single particle. They indicated that the coal particle
devolatilization is affected by heat transfer and pyrolysis
mechanism. When the particle size is greater than 1mm, the main
control factor is dominated by thermal transfer.
Sheng et al. [9] conducted a numerical simulation of coal
combustion in a coal-fired furnace by using FLUENT, a
commercial CFD code. They presented that coal exhibit
synergistic effects when co-fired with other coals. They used two
approaches, single coal approach and two mixture fraction
approach, to predict the combustion behaviours of coal powders.
for full-scale applications. On other hand, the single coal
approach was only applicable to the similar coals with non-
synergistic combustion.
Sami et al. [10] conducted a research for the burning
characteristics of coal and biomass fuel at different stages. The
result showed that the flame will deviate at the nozzle exit in the
combustion burner as the mixing flow rate increases. The co-
firing of coal/biomass blends can effectively reduce the nitrogen
oxide, sulphur oxide and carbon dioxide emissions in the existing
coal-fired power plants. However, there are many associated
handling problems with the fuel processing and characteristics of
coal/biomass blends limit the extensive application of co-firing
technology.
Zulfiqur et al. [11] found that the sawdust particles have
cohesive strength. The coal blends mixed with sawdust particles
can reduce the likelihood of flow stoppage. Therefore, using
liquid biomass fuel during coal combustion process can certainly
get some improvements. The proportion of sawdust mixed with
the coal has to be at least about 10 %.
Obernberger et al. [12] found that the wood particles during
processing usually cause machinery wearing and excessive loss
that seriously affects the quality of wood particle. Thus, the
addition of a little amount of bio-adhesive additives (such as corn
and rye) during production can reduce the wearing.
Mondo et al. [13] conducted a numerical simulation of the
co-fire of pulverized straw with coal and undertook the
examination for the difference of the two solid fuels in
combustion characteristics. Their approach adopted Finite-
Rate/Eddy-Dissipation model with a two-step mechanism,
illustrated as follows:
CHyOy + 0.54 O2 CO + 1.12 H2O (1)
CO + 0.5 O2 CO2 (2)
According to the simulation results, the burning of rice straw can
extend the flame length, and the imported quality and distribution
of the particles strongly affect the combustion efficiency.
 c p t (7)
k eff k
Mathematical Model Prt
This study carries out a parametric study numerically to where k, in this case, is the thermal conductivity. The default
evaluate the combustion characteristics by use of Torrefied value of the turbulent Prandtl number is 0.85.
pellets in a boiler. The parameters include devolatilization
mechanisms (pyro1 and pyro2) and the proportions of Torrefied The Finite-Rate/Eddy-Dissipation Model
pellets in the mixed solid fuel.
The reaction rates that appear as source terms in the species
transport equation are computed as follows. To consider the
Domain description turbulent chemistry model, and adopts the Finite-Rate/Eddy-
The simulation domain was illustrated in Fig. 1. Figure 3 Dissipation model. The finite-rate model computes the chemical
shows the configuration of subdomain for water pipe walls. source terms using Arrhenius expressions, ignoring the effects of
turbulent fluctuations. The net source of the chemical species i
due to reaction Ri, is computed as the sum of the Arrhenius
reaction sources over the Nr reactions in which the species
participate:
Nr
Ri M w,i R i ,r
r 1 (8)
where Mw,i is the molecular weight of species i and Ri,r is the
pipes Arrhenius molar rate of creation/destruction of species i in
reaction r.
The Species Transport Equation
(9)
( Y ) ( v Y ) J R S
t
i i i i i

204.6 ton/s308
where Ri is the net rate of production of species i by chemical
reaction and Si is the rate of creation by addition from the
Figure3. The architecture configuration of water pipe walls
dispersed phase plus any user-defined sources.
Governing equations
Chemical mechanism
In order to make the physical problem more tractable and
This research applies the one-step devolatilization and two-
simplified, some assumptions are made as follows:
step chemical reaction models to simulate the co-firing
1. The flow is steady, compressible, and turbulent.
behaviours of coal/Torrefied wood. Table 1 and 2 are the ultimate
2. All gaseous mixtures are regarded as the ideal gases.
and proximate analyses for Adaro coal and Torrefied wood,
3. Specific heat capacity for each checker is constant.
respectively. These data for Adaro coal and Torrefied wood are
4. Consider the wall heat transfer.
obtained from Refs. [2] and [3] and the CSC measurements.
5. Use one-step devolitiliztion model.
6. Use conjugate heat transfer model Table 1 Ultimate analysis
7.
Pyro1 Pyro2
The Continuity Equation Adaro Torrefied Adaro Torrefied
(3) Elemental analysis coal wood coal wood
ui 0
t xi (wt%)[2] (wt%)[3] (wt%) (wt%)
The Momentum Equation C 73.8 56.5 75.35 64.23
u u (4)

t x j
u
u i u i u j P i j 2 ij l
xi x j x j xi 3 xl

x

u iu j H 4.9 6.2 5.2 4.78
j N 0.9 0.83 0.792 0.442
The Energy Conservation Equation S 0.1 0 0.118 0.06297
(5)
( E ) ui ( E p) k eff T ui ( ij ) eff Sh

O 20.3 36.2 18.52 30.49
t xi x j x j
Table 2 Proximate analysis
where E is the total energy, keff is the effective thermal
conductivity, and ( ij ) eff is the deviatoric stress tensor, defined as Proximate analysis Ash Volatile Fix Carbon Moisture
u j u i 2 (6)
( ij ) eff eff eff u i ij Pyro1
x x 3 xi
i j
The term involving ( ij ) eff represents the viscous heating, and Adaro coal (wt%)[2] 1.0 43.5 41.0 14.5
is always computed in the coupled solvers. It is not computed by Torrefied wood (wt%)[3] 2.1 72.4 23.3 2.2
default in the segregated solver, but it can be enabled in the
Viscous Model panel. Pyro2
Adaro coal (wt%) 1.52 44.09 40.46 13.92
Turbulence modelling
Torrefied wood (wt%) 1.82 55.88 34.64 7.66
The coal fired boiler turbulence has been simulated using the
standard k- model with standard wall function, and the standard
k- models, the effective thermal conductivity is given by
Based on the above data, the one-step reaction of Adaro coal
devolatilization (Pyro1) is:
1.51C+2.18H+0.57O+0.0289N+0.0014S+1.02O2 Temperature (K) 325
Adaro Coal 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0%
1.51CO+1.09H2O+0.0144N2+0.0014SO2 (10) Torrefied Wood 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Table 5 The boundary conditions for combustion air
The one-step reaction of Torrefied Wood devolatilization (Pyro1)
is: Pyro 1 Pyro 2
Ratio of TW
Inlet of Velocity (m/s) Inlet of Velocity (m/s)
1.06C+2.43H+0.9O+0.0226N+0.68O 0% 47.86 47.57
20 % 48.82 48.53
1.06CO+1.21H2O+0.0113N2 (11) 40 % 50.27 49.97
60 % 51.72 51.41
The one-step reaction of Adaro coal devolatilization (Pyro2) is: 80 % 53.17 52.85
100 % 54.62 54.29
1.3C+3.0H+0.67O+0.0329N+0.0021S+1.06O2 O2 0.232
N2 0.768
1.3CO+1.5H2O+0.0164N2+0.0021SO2 (12)
Temperature (K) 529
The one-step reaction of Torrefied Wood devolatilization (Pyro2)
Table 6 The boundary conditions for superheated steam tube and
is: water-pipe walls
1.05C+2.3H+0.92O+0.0153N+0.0009S +0.63O The location of Inlet of Velocity Temperature (K)
1.05CO+1.05H2O+0.0164N2+0.0021SO2 (13) tube (m/s)
Group 1 (Steam) 84.09 581
Table 3 lists the derived pre-exponential factors (A) and the Group 2 (Steam) 43.19 655
activation energies (E) for the of devolatilization rate equations in Group 3 (Water) 0.006324 581
Arrhenius form for the respective Adaro coal and torrefied wood. Wall of water 0.004189 581
The derivation is carried out automatically by FLUENT, which pipes(Water)
the related input data are from Table 1 and 2.
Table 3 Constants for devolatilization rate equations
Grid independence Tests
Single Rate Devolatilization Constant Table 7 lists the results of a series of grid independence tests.
A (1/s) E(j/kmol) It indicates that all of the test errors, such as the group 1&2
Pyro1 superheated steam tube outlet temperatures as well as the
Adaro Coal 4.92x105 7.4x107 Economizer inlet temperature and NOx concentration, are
5
Wood 3.12x10 7.4x107 within 10% comparing with the corresponding measurements
Pyro2 under the condition of pure coal combustion. From the
Adaro Coal 837.48 2.3738x107 information given by the table, the predicted NOx of grid number
Torrefied wood 316.23 1.704x107 830,000 (error~1.1 %) is closest to the measured value in actual
operation. It is naturally to select such grid number to
The gaseous combustion mechanisms are: compromise the computational time and acceptable accuracy.
1.06CO+0.5O2CO2 (14) Table 7 Grid test results of different regions for combustion case
H2+0.5O2H2O (15) Error (%) of Error (%) of
Error (%) of NOx (%)Error
superheated superheated
Grid
tube Outlet tube Outlet
Economizer at
Number inlet Economizer
Boundary conditions temperature of temperature of
temperature inlet
Group 1 Group 2
The boundary conditions for the fuel particle, combustion air, 710,000 4.0 5.2 5.5 8.1
superheated steam tubes and water pipes walls are tabulated in 830,000 4.7 1.4 6.3 1.1
Table 4, 5 and 6 respectively. The radiuses of coal particles are 960,000 5.4 1.0 7.1 2.6
composed of 0.25 mm, 0.15 mm and 0.075 mm. Their mass 1,140,000 5.6 3.1 7.9 9.2
distribution ratios are 0.8, 5 and 94.2 %, correspondently.
The three groups of superheated steam tubes and water pipe
walls are simulated by the model of Conjugate Heat Transfer for Results and Discussion
heat exchanging with gas flow of boiler. The saturated water in
wall pipes is heated by high temperature gas flow to become the Under the restriction of maintaining the actual configuration
superheated vapours. However, the default solution is unstable to of coal-fired boiler geometry, it needs to justify the co-fire
simulate the two phase flow phenomena; therefore, it must load a performance by using the mixed fuel of coal and torreified wood
user-defined function for simulation rather than the default blends for the purpose of reducing NOx emission generated from
solution. The material of wall is steel, whose density, specific the original coal-fired boiler.
heat and thermal conductivity are 8,030 kg/m3, 502.48 j/kg-k and Before carrying out the parametric studies by varying the
16.27 w/m-k, respectively. devolatilization mechanism (pyro1 and pyro2) and the Torrefied
Wood proportion (0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100%), a comparison
between the simulation, termed as reference case, results and the
Table 4 The boundary conditions for fuel particle corresponding measurements is given in advance in order to
Inlet Mass Flow confirm the model capability.
0.568 The actual operation of coal-fired boiler blows fuel (coal)
Rate (kg/s)
particles with combustion air from eight nozzle inlets located at
the boiler corners; see Fig.1. The process is divided into two parts: rotational in these planes (Figure 4). However, no combustion
burning and followed by producing steam. They occur at the occurs in the central area, indicating that the coal particles cannot
combustion chamber and above the neck of boiler, respectively. reach to centre zone due to the rotational flow.
The gas flow is heated to high temperature during the burning in They show that the highest temperature zones are matched
the combustion chamber and then the three groups of tubes gain with the most reactive burnout ones in Fig. 7, which is The coal
the heat from the up-rising hot flow to produce the required burnout distributions at the sections of z=9.7 m and z=10.7 m in
steam via the heat exchange process. coal-fired boiler. Burnout rate also represent a relationship with
pyrolysis reaction, It can be found that there is an intense burnout
Simulation for coal combustion in coal-fire boiler (Reference between the sections of z=9.7 m and z= 10.7 m.
cases)
A reference is set up in advance to serve as the comparison
base for the parametric study. It adopts the experimental case
carried out by CSC, which investigated the performances of pure
coal combustion in a coal-fired boiler. The inlet velocity and coal
mass flow rate are 47.57 m/s and 0.568 kg/s, respectively. The
coal particles are 0.25 mm, 0.15 mm and 0.075 mm with the
corresponding mass distribution ratios of 0.8, 5 and 94.2%.
Certainly, the devolatilization mechanism adopted pyro2, derived
by CSC. Figure 6. The temperature distributions at the sections of z=9.7 m
Figure 4 shows the velocity distributions at the sections (x-y and z=10.7 m in coal-fired boiler
planes) of z=9.7 m and 10.7 m, which are the heights of the lower
and upper nozzles, described in Fig. 1. The flows are in the
pattern of counter-clockwise vortices. It is because the
combustion air carrying the coal blends is blown into the boiler
tangentially via the nozzles located at the four corners.

Figure 7. The coal burnout distributions at the sections of z=9.7

m and z=10.7 m in coal-fired boiler
Figure 8 presents the visible flame defined by this research
in coal-fired boiler. In order to justify the flame contour, this
research assumes the temperature of visible flame is above 1,300
Figure 4. The velocity distributions at the sections of z=9.7 m and k and uses post-processing software TECPLOT360 to represent
z=10.7 m in coal-fired boiler the iso-thermal surfaces. The intervals of isotherms are all
marked with red colour. A counter-clockwise rotational spiral
Figure 5 is velocity profile at the vertical middle plane. It flame is rising upward in the boiler because a strong vortex is
can be seen that the flow is accelerated upward from the nozzle built by the coal/combustion air mixture ejection tangentially
planes because it is heated by the combustion there. As expected, by eight nozzles.
it is decelerated near the ceiling, then, it turns into the section of
superheated steam tubes.
The burning in the boiler is a non-premixed combustion. The
combustion rate of solid fuel can be indicated by its burnout rate,
which represents the mass consumption of coal particles per
second. Its profile more or less can be served as an indication of
the flame structure (combustion zone).

Figure8. The visible flame in coal-fired boiler

Figure 9 is temperature profile at the vertical, middle plane.
It shows that all of the combustion reaction occurs below the
neck of boiler. The maximum temperature, 1,658 K, occurs at the
section of z=13 m. When the heated gas flow goes through the
neck, the three groups of tubes absorb the heat to generate the
steam that decreases the gas flow greatly.

Figure5. Velocity distribution at the vertical middle plane of

coal-fired boiler
Figure 6 is the temperature distributions at the sections of
z=9.7 m and z=10.7 m in coal-fired boiler. The high-temperature
zone is in a presence of an annular shape because the flow is

Figure 9. Temperature distribution of coal-fired boiler
Figure 10 is NOx distribution at the vertical middle plane.
Refer to Fig. 9, it reveals that NOx is primarily generated in the
combustion flame that the high concentration areas of NOx
almost coincide with the high-temperature regions. After that,
NOx goes/diffuses to the neck of boiler and is accumulated there.
Therefore, it can sufficiently counteract the emission of NOx by
injection ammonia at that position of z=16.78 m. In reality, CSC
does do such action by injecting ammonia to reduce NOx
emission at this location that now is confirmed correctly by this
simulation.
Figure 11 shows the resultant highest temperature and
averaged temperature as a function of Torrefied wood ratio in the
mixed solid fuel by using two different devolatilization
mechanisms (pyro1 and pyro2). The simulation results show that
the highest temperature occurs at 13m-height position, where
corresponds to the main combustion area in the boiler. It can be
found that the highest temperatures are 1,493K by using pyro1
and 1,658 K by pyro2, respectively that both fuels used are pure
coal. Then, these two temperatures decrease with an increase of
wood ratio, showing the effect of lower caloric value of torreified
wood. The resultant flame (highest) temperatures of pyro2 are
higher than these of pyro1 when wood ratio 40%, whereas the
trend is reversed as wood ratio 40%. It indicates that the
pyrolysis rate of pyro2 is faster as wood ratio 40%, on other
hand, pyro1 becomes faster as wood ratio 40%.
As to the averaged temperatures, it seems that these two
devolatilization mechanisms make not too much difference. For
pyro2, it shows that the averaged temperature difference at z =
13m is only about 159K between 0 and 100 % wood ratios (The
corresponding value is 79K for pyro1). From these results, it
seems that the combustion efficiency is reduced not too much if
replace the coal completely by using the wood. However,
Zulfiqur et al. [11] presented that the sawdust particles have
cohesive strength such that it has a great probability to cause flow
stoppage. Therefore, using wood complete instead of coal is not
the best way to maintain the boiler temperature and achieve the
goal of environmental technology.

1700
(Pyro1)Average in Z=13 m
(Pyro1)Flame
1600
(Pyro2)Average in Z=13 m
(Pyro2)Flame
1500
Temperature (K)

1400
Figure10. NOx distribution of coal-fired boiler
1300
Now, the comparison between the numerical results and the
available experimental measurements are given in Table 8. It can 1200
be seen that the predicted temperatures are usually higher than
experimental ones about 10~34K, because the combustion 1100
reactions are two-step and faster relatively with respective to the
real condition. However, the NOx prediction is quite well. To 1000
sum up, the prediction accuracy by the present model is 0 20 40 60 80 100
acceptable. Wood (%)
Figure 11 The resultant highest and averaged temperatures as a
function of wood ratio in the mixed solid fuel
Table 8 The comparisons between the predicted and measured
data.
Figure 12 is NOx emissions as a function of wood ratio in
Superheated the mixed solid fuel by using two different devolatilization
Superheated tube ECO ECO
tube Outlet mechanisms (pyro1 and pyro2). Generally, both curves seems to
Grid Outlet temperature inlet Inlet
temperature of be parallel, and NOx emissions by pyro1 are always greater than
Number of Group 2 temperature NOx
Group 1
(K) (K) (ppm) those of pyro2. It shows that the NOx emission is reduced with an
(K)
increase of wood ratio. When the wood ratio is greater than 40 %,
experiment 695 783 664.5 186
the decrease of NOx is apparent. As it reaches up to 80 %, the
Simulation 729 794 709 184
declining trend of NOx emission becomes slow. As expected, the
Error(%) 4.7 1.4 6.3 1.1
NOx production rate for torriefied wood (100% wood) is much
less than that for Adaro coal (0 % wood). The difference is
In order to evaluate the combustion characteristics of mixing
about 102.4 ppm for pyro1, and 87.1 ppm for pyro2. Accordingly,
Adaro coal with Torrefied-wood, the simulations are carried out
the coal constituents of pyro1 result in more NOx emission.
by utilizing two types of devolatilization mechanisms in six
different proportions of the two types of solid fuels. The
proportions of Torrefied wood in total solid fuels are: (1) 0%
(pure coal), (2) 20%, (3) 40%, (4) 60%, (5) 80% and (6) 100%
(pure Torrefied wood), respectively. The two types of
devolatilization mechanisms are termed as pyro1 and pyro2.
Pyro1 is adopted from references [2] and [3], and pyro2 is
obtained from measurements by CSC.
 220 The simulation result for predicting NOx emission find that
200 Pyro 1 the primary generation of NOx usually occurs at neck of coal-
Pyro 2 fired boiler. Therefore, it is efficient to counteract the emission of
180
NOx by injecting ammonia at the position of z=16.78 m.
160
The highest temperature usually occurs at 13m-height
NOx (ppm)

140 position, where corresponds to the main combustion area in this

120 boiler. The highest temperatures are 1,493K by using pyro1 and
100 1,658 K by pyro2, respectively. The flame (highest) and averaged
temperatures decreases with an increase of wood ratio in the
80
mixed solid fuel. The average temperature difference for pure
60 coal combustion (0% wood) and for pure torrfied wood
40 combustion (100% woods) is about 159 K by using pyro2 (The
20 corresponding value is 79K for pyro1). It indicates that the
combustion efficiency is reduced not too much if replace the coal
0
completely by using the wood.
0 20 40 60 80 100
Wood (%) The flame temperatures of pyro1 and pyro2 are approaching
Figure12. NOx emissions as a function of wood ratio in the when the wood ratio is around 50% and the averaged
mixed solid fuel temperatures are very close when the wood ratio approaches 80%.
The NOx emission by the case of 40% of Torrefied wood in
Table 9 lists the predicted results of different regions for the mixed solid fuel is only about 87.1 ppm, which is much less
both pure-coal and pure-torrefied-wood combustion cases by than that by burning the pure Adaro coal (0% wood). The
using pyro2. The results show that temperature of generated corresponding value is 102.4 ppm for pyro1. According to these
steam by burning Torrefied wood is lower, because heat value of predictions, we may conclude that under the considerations of
Torrefied wood (22,400 kJ/kg) is lower than that of Adaro coal maintaining the heating value and reducing the NOx emission, the
(24,384 kJ/kg). The burning of Torrefied wood is not conducive optimal mixing ratio is 40% Torrefied wood pellets and 60%
to generate the enough energy to produce the steam.by coal-fired Adaro coal powders.
boiler. On the other hand, the table also shows that using biomass
can reduce the NOx emission substantially. Therefore, the Acknowledgments
research has to find the optimal mixing ratio for burning The authors would like to thank the National Science
behaviours of the Adaro coal powders mixed with torrefied wood Council of the Republic of China, Taiwan, for financially
pellets in coal-fired boiler. That will be more economic and supporting this research under Contract No. NSC 97-2623-7-009-
pollution reduction. 006-ET.

Table 9 The comparisons between the pure Adaro coal and pure References
Torrefied wood
[1] D. Lin, Industrial furnace combustion and energy,
Superheated Superheated Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng
ECO ECO
tube Outlet tube Outlet Kung University, Corporate Synergy Development Center.
inlet Inlet
temperature of temperature of
temperature NOx
Group 1 Group 2
(K) (ppm)
[2] N. Spitz, R. Saveliev, M. Perelman, E. Korytni, B
(K) (K) Chudnovsky, A. Talanker, E. Bar-Ziv, 2008, Firing a sub-
Pure bituminous coal in pulverized coal boilers configured for
Adaro 729 794 709 184 bituminous coal, Fuel, Vol. 87, pp. 1534-1542.
coal
Pure [3] T. G. Bridgeman, J. M. Jones, A. Williams and D. J.
Torrefied 617 718 676 104 Waldron, 2010, An investigation of the grindability of two
wood torrefied energy crops, Fuel, Vol. 89, pp. 3911-3918.
[4] G. Sridhar, D. N. Subbukrishna, H. V. Sridhar, S. Dasappa,
Conclusions P. J. Paul and H. S. Mukunda, Torrefaction of Bamboo,
The 15th European Biomass Conference &exhibition, May ,
The research utilized a commercial package software, 2007.
FLUENT, to simulate the burning behaviours of Adaro coal
mixed with Torrefied wood blends in coal-fired boiler. The [5] L. D. Smoot and D. T. Pratt, Pulverized-Coal Combustion
simulation applied the one-step devolitilization and combustion and Gasification Theory and Applications for Continuous
models with conjugate heat transfer model to analyse the burning Flow Processes, New York and London, 1979.
in the coal-fired boiler and heat transfers between the resultant [6] D. B. Anthony and J. B. Howard, Coal Devolatiliztion and
hot gas flow, steam tubes and ECO. The study attempts to predict Hydrogasification, AIChE Journal, Vol. 22, pp. 625-656,
the NOx emission and combustion limit in the different ratios of 1976.
mixing wood and coal. According grid test, it selects the grid
number of 830,000 to compromise the computational time and [7] G. Sridhar, D. N. Subbukrishna, H. V. Sridhar, S. Dasappa,
acceptable accuracy. P. J. Paul and H. S. Mukunda, Torrefaction of Bamboo,
The research can illustrate the visible flame by using post- The 15th European Biomass Conference &exhibition, May ,
processing software TECPLOT360. The flame structure is 2007.
counter-clockwise rotational spiral shape, and it is rising upward
[8] P. K. Agarwal, A single Particle Model for the Evolution
in the boiler by a strong vortex generated by the nozzles, which
and Combustion of Coal volaties, Fuel , Vol. 65, pp. 803-
tangentially blows the combustion air carrying with solid fuel
810, 1986.
blends.
[9] C. Sheng, B. moghtaderi, R. Gupta, T. F. Wall, A
computational fluid dynamics based study of the
combustion characteristics of coal blends in pulverized coal-
fired furnace, Fuel, Vol. 83, pp. 1543-1552, 2004.
[10] M. Sami, K. Annamalai, and M. Wiildridge, Co-firing of
coal and biomass fuel blends, Progress in Energy and
Combustion Science, Vol. 27, pp. 171-214, 2001.
[11] M. Zulfiqar, B. Moghtaderi and T. F. Wall, Flow properties
of biomass and coal blends, Fuel processing Technology,
Vol. 87, pp. 281-288, 2006.
[12] I. Obernberger and G. Thek, Physical characterization and
chemical composition of densified biomass fuel with regards
to their combustion behavior, Biomass and bioenergy, Vol.
27, pp. 653-669, 2004.
[13] M. Mando, L. Rosendahl, C. Yinm, H. Sorensen,
Pulverized straw combustion in a low-NOx multifuel
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Mechanism and Performance of a Novel Atomizer for Metal Powder
Production with Supersonic Configuration
M.R. Wang1 and P.J. Chen1
1
Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics
National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC
Abstract
A novel internal-mixing atomizer was design to produce metal
powder at lower gas pressure (up to 4 bar) with convergent-
divergent configuration to achieve supersonic atomization. The
atomization mechanism was investigated by high speed
photography. The atomization performance was characterized by
atomization of water and melt of copper for the parametric study.
Results show that median mean particle size d50 of 8.22 m can
be achieved with water. The copper powders with median mean
particle size d50 of 64.83 m were obtained which is in spherical
shape.
Introduction
Metal powders have been widely used in powder metallurgy
(PM), metal injection moulding (MIM) and laser forming to
produce near-net shape parts. They are also used to form coatings
on substrates by thermal spraying and cold spraying processes.
There are four categories for the production of metal powders
based on mechanical comminution, chemical reaction,
electrolytic deposition, and molten metal atomization [1]. Among
these methods, atomization technique has been taken as the major
method due to its high production rate and possibility to control
the size, size distribution, shape and morphology. Rapid
solidification of droplets in atomization process is also beneficial
for producing fine-scale microstructure powders.
Two-fluid atomization, including water atomization and gas
atomization, is the most common method of atomizing metals on
industrial scale. Water atomization is used for high production
rate process with lower cost. The particles produced by water
atomization, however, are irregular and with higher oxygen
content. Gas atomization is used to produce spherical powders
with lower contamination by atomizing melt with inert gas.
(b) Confined
(a) Free fall
Figure 1. Gas atomizations (a) free fall design and (b) confined
nozzle [2]
Typically, there are two common types of gas atomizer, namely
free fall atomizer and closed-coupled atomizer [2] and the
schematic diagram is shown in Figure 1. The free fall atomizer
allows the melt stream to flow a distance from 100 to 200 mm
downward the nozzle tip before high velocity gas impinging on it.
It has the advantages to avoid freezing-off at the nozzle tip and
easy operation. However, the gas jets in free fall atomizer dont
impinge on the melt stream instantly, which may cause energy
loss and result in lower efficiency. Hence the free fall atomizer is
not suitable for fine powder production [3]. In closed-coupled
atomization process, the gas jets impinge on the metal stream at
the point where it emerges from the delivery or guide tube. This
configuration is suitable for efficient atomization and the
production of fine powders because: (a) the gas jets can be
positioned very close to the emerging metal stream and (b) the
gas streams can be directed at the metal stream at a high angle of
attack [4]. In the past thirty years, several close-coupled
atomizers have been worked out and the mechanism and
performance have been studied [5,6,7]. These atomization
processes, however, are operated at high gas pressure (typically
above 2 MPa) which means higher cost for the higher gas
consumption. In contrast, the concept of internal mixing atomizer
is to mix high velocity gas with liquid in the atomizer. Studies
have shown that internal mixing atomizer is capable for fine
metal powder production at low pressure and gas consumption
[8]. However, melt needs to be pressurized in internal mixing
atomization process; therefore, some problems may occur due to
the pressurized processes of high temperature medium in the
container.
In the present study, a novel internal mixing atomizer has been
developed for metal powder production under low gas
atomization pressure. Liquid was delivered to the atomizer by
gravity and aspiration processes at the nozzle tip. Water was used
as the atomization medium to investigate the mechanism of the
atomizer. The effect of gas atomization pressure and inner
diameter of delivery tube on droplets size was also investigated.
Furthermore, molten copper was atomized to investigate the
performance of the internal mixing atomizer for metal powder
production.
Experimental Setup
The atomizer developed in the presented work is based on an
internal-mixing design concept with lower gas pressure, as shown
in Fig. 2. In the atomizer, gas flowed through a convergent
divergent section constructed by the atomizer body and the
nozzle and was accelerated to supersonic speed at the nozzle tip.
The throat area of the annular flow channel was 46.7 mm2, and
the area ratio of the exit of nozzle to throat was 1.9. To
investigate the performance of the atomizer, experiments were
first carried out with water. Air was used as the atomizing agent
in order to understand the atomization mechanism of the internal
mixing atomizer. An acrylic atomizer was used for flow
visualization and a high speed camera (IDT) was used to
investigate the interaction between gas and water at several
stages of the atomization process. The atomization efficiency was
determined by atomizing water and the experimental equipment
is shown as Figure 3.
Liquid
Gas
Figure 2. Schematic of supersonic internal-mixing atomizer
The gas atomization pressure was set by the gas regulator and the
flow rate was measured by a rotameter. The water droplet size
was analyzed by a real-time measurement with INSITEC RT-
Sizer at a downstream distance of 10 cm from the atomizer exit.
The gas pressure was controlled under 1 to 4 bar so that the gas
flow leaved the channel at overexpanded condition. The inner
diameter of the delivery tube was 2 mm to 4 mm. Atomization of
melt was performed by atomizing molten copper to understand
the performance of the atomizer for metal powder production.
Copper was melted by an induction heater in a crucible and
flowed through the delivery tube to form spray when the stopper
rod in the crucible was pulled up. The copper powder was then
collected and powder size was analyzed by Coulter-LS230
particle size analyser and the powder morphology was
determined by scanning electron microscopy (HITACHI S-
3000N).
Figure 3. Schematic of the equipment in water atomization
experiments: (1) atomizer, (2) crucible, (3) INSITEC RT-Sizer (4)
A/D converter, (5) computer, (6) Air reservoir, (7) flowmeter, (8)
regulator, (9) water supply, (10) ventilator
Results and Discussion
Atomization Mechanism
The interaction between gas and liquid inside the internal-mixing
atomizer and the downstream flow pattern at the exit of the
atomizer were observed by a high speed camera in order to
understand the atomization mechanism of the novel atomizer.
The gas pressure was fixed at 4 bar and the inner diameter of
delivery tube was 2 mm. In the experiments, water was firstly
poured into the crucible and the water stream flowed out the
nozzle by gravity. The water stream was developed into the water
spray as the gas flow was introduced to the atomizer with valve
opened. The images were recorded by the high speed camera as
shown in Figure 4. It can be observed that, at the beginning of the
atomization processes at t = 5 ms, the liquid stream was first
impinged by gas flow at a distance downstream from the nozzle
tip and disrupted into two sections (see Figure 4(a)). Liquid in the
downstream of the impingement point was then atomized;
however, liquid in the upstream was draw back to the nozzle tip
by recirculation flow caused by the atomization gas (see Figure 4
(b) and (c)). The recirculation and the aspiration at the nozzle tip
were still weak owing to the low velocity gas under lower gas
pressure. Hence the liquid was accumulated at the nozzle tip and
cannot be spread to form a thin liquid film (Figure 4(d) to (f)). As
a result, the atomization performance was worse at this beginning
stage.
(a) 6.0 ms (b) 8.5 ms (c) 11.0 ms
(d) 31.0 ms (e) 41.0 ms (f) 58.5 ms
Figure 4. Evolution of atomization processes at the beginning
stages
After a period of time, the liquid stream was accumulated at the
nozzle tip. The recirculation zone was suddenly moved upstream
along the surface of the nozzle at the divergent section. This can
be observed as water was suddenly drawn upward near the throat
of the flow channel, as shown in Figure 5. Water was then
pushed back to the nozzle tip at t = 73 ms. As the gas pressure
was further increased, the gas flow reached sonic speed through
the convergent section. However, the pressure ratio of the
instantaneous gas pressure to back pressure was not high enough
at this moment and a shock occurred at the divergent section to
adjust the static pressure to meet the back pressure. The shock
changed the flow direction and the gas flow no longer attached to
the divergent surface of the nozzle; therefore the space between
the gas flow directed after shock and the nozzle became an
upward extension of the recirculation zone. As the instantaneous
gas pressure further increased, the shock moved downstream
along the divergent section and the recirculation zone moved
back to the nozzle tip. After the shock moved out the divergent
flow channel and the starting gas pressure reached the setting gas
pressure, the pressurized period was over and the spray was
performed at the atomization period.
(a)73.0 ms (b) 76.0 ms (c) 93.0 ms
(d) 108.0 ms (e) 114.5 ms (f) 127.5 ms
Figure 5. Movement of water in the recirculation zone
The flow pattern at the atomization period determines the
performance of the atomizer because whole atomization process
is preformed at this condition. As showed in Figure 6, gas flow
downstream the nozzle tip in the atomizer was confined by the
atomizer body and the liquid film caused by the recirculation.
Owing to the overexpanded design condition, it was believed that
internal shocks and expansion waves may occur and the area of
the gas flow downstream the nozzle tip may change as shown in
Figure 6. It can also be observed that the gas flow was further
expanded as it flowed out the atomizer and the spray formed a
neck flow pattern. Mates and Settles mentioned that there are
two type of primary breakup mechanism in liquid atomization as
melt sheet and fountain primary breakup models, as shown
in Figure 7 [5]. The primary breakup mechanism of the internal-
mixing atomize designed in the present study may be a
combination of the two models, since the liquid stream flowed a
certain distance out of the nozzle and liquid film still occurred by
the recirculation. The instability of the liquid stream can also be
observed, since the liquid stream may be centered in the middle
of the recirculation zone or attached to both sides of the liquid
film.
Neck
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Two kinds of flow patterns during atomization process
Figure 7. Primary breakup models of melt sheet and fountain
[5]
Atomization Performance
In the internal-mixing atomizer studied in this research, the liquid
was forced to flow through the delivery tube by the pressure
difference between the bottom of the crucible and the exit of the
nozzle tip plus gravity. Therefore, the aspiration pressure at the
nozzle tip determines the liquid flow can be atomized or not and
was investigated firstly at different gas pressure, as shown in
Figure 8. The aspiration increases as gas pressure increasing from
1 to 4 bar. The aspiration at the nozzle tip is caused by the
recirculation zone as high velocity gas flows out of the
convergent-divergent channel. As a result, the recirculation is
stronger as the gas velocity increases owing to the increase of gas
pressure.
 delivery tube was 2 mm. The median particle size was 64.83 m
0.25
and the size distribution was shown in Figure 10. The
morphology of the atomized particles is shown in Figure 11. The
particles were generally spherical as shown in the SEM
0.20
photographs. As a result, the supersonic internal-mixing atomizer
is capable for production of metal powders at low cost.
Aspiration (bar)

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

0 1 2 3 4 5

Gas Pressure (bar)

Figure 8. Dependence of aspiration on gas pressure

The atomization characteristics of the atomizer were firstly

investigated by atomizing water to have a whole observation on
the efficiency of the new atomizer. Figure 9 shows the Figure 10. Particle size distribution of the copper powder
dependency of median particle size d50 on gas pressure at
different inner diameters of delivery tube. It can be observed that
the median particle size decreases with increasing gas pressure.
As the inner diameters of the delivery tube decreases from 4 mm
to 2 mm, d50 decreases from 17.91 m to 8.22 m at gas pressure
of 4 bar. The gas velocity increases as gas pressure was increased.
Hence the gas flow offered more kinetic energy for the disruption
of the liquid film or ligaments. As a result, fine particles can be
obtained at higher gas pressure. In addition, the influence of inner
diameter of delivery tube can also be observed in Figure 9.
Better atomization performance is achieved by reducing the inner
diameter of delivery tube. Since the kinetic energy is the same at
same gas pressure, atomization with less liquid flow rate at
smaller inner diameter of delivery tube results in better
performance.

70
Figure 11. SEM micrograph of the copper powder
D=2.0 mm
60 D=3.0 mm
D=4.0 mm

50
Conclusions
d50 (m)

40 A novel internal-mixing gas atomizer was studied by

investigating the atomization mechanism and performance. Flow
30 pattern was observed and a movement of recirculation zone was
found owing to the downward movement of internal shock at the
20 divergent section as the gas increasing at the pressurization
period. The change of gas flow area is caused by the existence of
10
internal shock and expansion waves. The atomization
performance is investigated by atomizing water and copper melt.
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Fine and spherical copper powders are obtained. As a result, the
atomizer is capable for metal powder production.
Gas Pressure (bar)
References
Figure 9. Dependence of median mean particle size on gas [1] German, R.M., Powder Metallurgy Science, MPIF, 1994
pressure at different inner diameters of delivery tube
[2] Yule, A.J. and Dunkley J.J., Atomization of Melts, New
York: Oxford University Press, 1994
In the melt experiment, copper was atomized to investigate the [3] Neikov, O. et al., Handbook of Non-ferrous Metal Powders:
performance of the internal-mixing atomizer to produce metal Technologies and Applications, Elsevier Science and
powders. The gas was 4 bar and the inner diameter of the Technology, 2009
[4] Hopkins W.G., Fine Power! Close-Coupled or Open-Die
Atomization?, Met. Powder Rep., 45, 1990, 41-42
[5] Mates, S.P. and Settles, G.S., A Study of Liquid
Atomization Using Close-Coupled Nozzles, Part 1:Gas
Dynamic Behavior, Atomization Sprays, 15, 2005, 1940.
[6] Anderson, I.E. and Terpstra R.L., Progress toward gas
atomization processing with increased uniformity and
control, Mater. Sci. Eng. A-Struct, A326, 2002, 101-109
[7] nal R., The influence of the pressure formation at the tip of
the melt delivery tube on tin powder size and gas/melt ratio
in gas atomization method, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 180,
2006, 291295
[8] Wang M.R., Lai T.S., Lin T.C., Chiu C.H., Yang C.J., Sheu
M.S., Optimization of metal powder production by gas
atomization processes with internal-mixing mechanism, in
Zhongguo Hangkong Taikong Xuehui Huikan/Transactions
of the Aeronautical and Astronautical Society of the
Republic of China 37 2, 2005, 153-162
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Characteristics of Self-sustained Oscillatory Flow

in a Dimpled Channel

J. Lee1 and K.-S. Lee1,*

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 133-791, Korea
*Corresponding author, ksleehy@hanyang.ac.kr

Abstract
Introduction
In this study, a numerical unsteady analysis was conducted in the
laminar and turbulent regimes to investigate the characteristics of In the design of a compact heat exchanger, researchers have used
a self-sustained oscillatory flow with dimples and protrusions. In experimental and numerical analyses to reduce the size of the
the laminar regime, the flow did not oscillate. However, the heat unit and maximize the heat transfer surface area and heat transfer
transfer and pressure drop both increased in the turbulent regime, coefficient. In particular, dimples are widely used in plate heat
due to the oscillatory flow known as vortex shedding. At ReH = exchangers, due to the higher heat transfer augmentation obtained
5000, heat transfer augmentation was highest in the region where by enlarging the heat transfer surface area and inducing an
the flow impinged against the protrusions and heat transfer oscillatory flow. However, a periodically repeated dimple
augmentation in this region had a dominant influence on the geometry also increases the pressure drop between the inlet and
performance of a heat exchanger. Heat transfer augmentation was outlet of a heat exchanger. Therefore, data incorporating both
also higher in the reattachment region within the dimple cavities, heat transfer and pressure drop are required for plate heat
and at the rear of the dimples due to secondary flow. To predict exchanger design.
the heat transfer and pressure drop efficiently according to Many researchers have studied the properties of dimples. Ligrani
channel geometry and flow, a steady-state simulation based on a et al. [1] experimentally investigated the characteristics of flow
turbulent model was carried out, and the results were compared and heat transfer with dimples and protrusions, and reported that
with the data from the unsteady simulation. In the laminar regime, dimples and protrusions increased heat transfer and pressure drop
the results obtained with a laminar model agreed well with the in the turbulent regime compared with those of dimplessmooth
data yielded by the unsteady model. In the turbulent regime, the top. Xiao et al. [2] investigated heat transfer and pressure drop in
results of the steady-state simulation using the Shear Stress the laminar regime. Mahmood et al. [3] investigated variations in
Transport k turbulent model were in good agreement with Nusselt number according to the arrangement of protrusions.
those of the unsteady simulation. These results suggested a Burgess and Ligrani [4] and Burgess et al. [5] investigated how
correlation for the critical Reynolds number, which distinguishes dimple depth affected Nu and f.
laminar from turbulent flow. Correlations were also suggested for
the friction factor f and the Colburn factor j, considering various Researchers have also conducted many numerical analyses of
geometric and operating conditions. dimples. Elyyan et al. [6] and Elyyan and Tafti [7] numerically
investigated the characteristics of flow and heat transfer under
laminar, weakly turbulent, and fully turbulent conditions. They
Nomenclature
reported that oscillatory flow occurs in the turbulent regime. Park
Cp specific heat et al. [8] and Won and Ligrani [9] investigated flow and heat
D dimple print diameter transfer in the turbulent regime, using the Reynolds Averaged
f friction factor Navier-Stokes (RANS) model. A variety of other such studies
H channel height have been conducted, but these cannot be applied to design
problems, due to limitations on the geometric and operating
j Colburn factor
conditions.
turbulent kinetic energy
k
thermal conductivity In this study, a numerical unsteady analysis was conducted to
Nu Nusselt number investigate the characteristics of self-sustained oscillatory flow
p pressure with dimples and protrusions. Correlations for the friction factor f
Pr Prandtl number and Colburn factor j were suggested, considering various
ReH Reynolds number based on channel height geometric and operating conditions.
S dimple stream-wise pitch
T temperature Problem Formulation
t time Figure 1 shows the geometry of the dimples and protrusions. The
u velocity geometric parameters are the dimple print diameter (D), dimple
thermal diffusivity depth (), dimple streamwise pitch (S), and channel height (H).
dimple depth Twenty rows of dimples and protrusions were arranged along the
dynamic viscosity flow direction, and the entrance and exit regions were located
shear stress between the inlet and outlet of the heat exchanger. Periodic
specific dissipation rate conditions were applied in the spanwise direction, and constant
heat flux boundary conditions were applied at the surface of the
Figure 1. Geometric parameters of the dimples and protrusions.

heat exchanger. ANSYS FLUENT 13.0 was used for the

numerical analysis. The following assumptions were made to
enable a numerical investigation of heat transfer and flow
characteristics around the dimples and protrusions: (a) Protrusion
(1) The flow is incompressible.
(2) The working fluid is single-phase, and its properties are
constant.
(3) Natural convection and radiation are negligible.
The flow around dimples and protrusions can be divided into
laminar flow and turbulent flow, and a turbulent regime requires
an unsteady simulation, due to the oscillatory flow. Therefore, in
this study, heat transfer and flow characteristics were investigated
via unsteady simulation. Steady-state simulations using the SST
k turbulent model [10] were also conducted to ensure efficient
numerical analysis. The governing equations can be expressed as
follows:

+ ( ui ) =
0 (1)
t xi

p ui
( ui ) + ( uiu j ) =
+ ( + t )
(2)
t x j xi x j x j (b) Dimple
Figure 2. Local Nusselt number distributions on dimples and
T T 2
ui protrusions at ReH = 5000
C p
t
+ C p
x j
( u jT ) =
keff 2 + ui ( ij )
x j eff x
(3)
j

for the friction factor f and Colburn factor j were derived from
t k these results, considering various geometric and operating
( u=
ik ) + + Gk k
* (4)
conditions.
x j x j k x j
Characteristics of Oscillatory Flow

t An unsteady analysis was conducted to clarify the heat transfer

( ui =) + + Gk
2
and flow characteristics. The numerical simulations used the
x j x j x j t (5) values D = 50.8 mm, = 10.2 mm, S = 82.2 mm, and H = 25.4
1 k mm. Figure 2 shows the time-averaged local Nusselt number
+2 (1 F1 ) ,2 distributions around the dimples and protrusions at ReH = 5000.
x j x j As these graphs indicate, Nusselt number had an irregular
distribution with respect to time, due to the oscillatory flow in the
Results and Discussions turbulent regime. Figure 2(a) shows the local Nusselt number
distribution around the protrusions: the flow that came into
In a turbulent regime, a heat exchanger with dimples and contact with the front part of the protrusions had an increased
protrusions has oscillatory characteristics that increase the heat Nusselt number, and the Nusselt number in the region between
transfer and pressure drop. Thus, the characteristics of the the protrusions also increased. However, hardly any heat transfer
unsteady flow around the dimples and protrusions were occurred at the rear of the protrusions, due to flow separation,
investigated numerically in this study. Steady-state simulations and the flat regions at the front and rear of the protrusions had
based on a turbulent model were also carried out to predict the low Nusselt numbers, due to the relatively weak momentum.
heat transfer and pressure drop efficiently. And then, correlations
 0.06 Case /D H/D D/S
LES (unsteady)
Laminar 1 0.100 0.678 0.357
SST k-w (turbulence)
2 0.109 1.513 0.337

0.04 3 0.117 1.235 0.474

4 0.126 1.443 0.239
5 0.135 1.304 0.552
f

6 0.143 0.609 0.630

0.02
7 0.152 1.930 0.415
8 0.161 1.861 0.591
9 0.170 0.817 0.317
0.00 10 0.178 2.000 0.650
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Recr ReH 11 0.187 1.026 0.572
12 0.196 0.748 0.454
Figure 3. Validation of steady-state simulation using turbulent
13 0.204 1.652 0.396
model.
14 0.213 1.374 0.278
15 0.222 0.400 0.200
Figure 2(b) shows the Nusselt number distribution around the
dimples. Heat transfer augmentation was higher in the 16 0.230 1.583 0.533
reattachment region within the dimple cavities, and at the rear of 17 0.239 0.539 0.259
the dimples due to secondary flow. As shown by the local
Nusselt number distribution, the flow around the protrusions had 18 0.248 0.470 0.435
a dominant influence on the overall heat transfer augmentation of 19 0.257 1.791 0.220
the heat exchanger. At ReH = 5000, the Nusselt number
augmentation in a heat exchanger with dimples and protrusions 20 0.265 1.096 0.298
was 2.5 times that of a smooth duct. 21 0.274 0.957 0.611
Correlation for Critical Reynolds Number 22 0.283 1.165 0.376
An unsteady analysis is required to clarify the exact 23 0.291 0.887 0.513
characteristics of oscillatory flow. In this study, a steady-state 24 0.300 1.722 0.493
analysis based on a turbulent model was also conducted to enable
a more efficient analysis, and the results were compared with the Table 1. 24 design points by optimal Latin hypercube design
data generated by the unsteady analysis. Figure 3 shows the (OLHD).
results of numerical analyses using a large eddy simulation,
laminar, and SST k turbulent models for ReH = 200 ~ 5000. In
the laminar regime, the flow did not oscillate; the results of the Correlations for Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop
laminar analysis agreed well with the data yielded by the
unsteady analysis. In the turbulent regime, the results of the Table 1 was also used to obtain correlations for the friction factor
steady-state analysis using the SST k turbulent model were in f and Colburn factor j in a heat exchanger with dimples and
good agreement with the data obtained from the unsteady protrusions. In this case, the working fluid was air (Pr = 0.72),
analysis. However, the data from the laminar model were and the Reynolds number range was 200 ReH 10,000.
underestimated in the turbulent regime, compared with the data Fifteen Reynolds numbers were applied to each design point. For
yielded by the unsteady analysis. Therefore, an exact numerical the steady-state analysis, the laminar model was used for ReH <
analysis requires distinguishing the flow as laminar or turbulent, ReH,cr, and otherwise the SST k turbulent model was used. The
and then selecting the appropriate analytical model. resulting correlations, considering various geometric and
In Figure 3, ReH,cr is the critical Reynolds number marking the operating conditions, can be expressed as follows:
boundary between laminar and turbulent flows. In this study, a
0.239

0.847 0.917
correlation for the critical Reynolds number was derived. Table 1 H D
( Re H )(
0.082ln Re H 1.453)
lists the 24 design points of the optimal Latin hypercube design f = exp ( 4.67 )
(OLHD). The correlation for the critical Reynolds number, D D S
obtained via the numerical analysis, can be expressed as follows: (7)

0.005

0.257 0.391
0.2111 0.1929 0.2596 H D
( Re H )(
0.062ln Re H 1.263)
H D (6) j = 5.695
Re H , cr = 174 D D S
D D S
(8)
For ReH < ReH,cr, the flow is laminar, and laminar steady-state
Least-squares regression was used to obtain the correlations, and
analysis is possible. However, for ReH ReH,cr, the flow is the coefficient of determination (R2) was 0.96. Equations (7) and
turbulent, and steady-state analysis using the SST k turbulent (8) are applicable for 0.1 /D 0.3, 0.4 H/D 2, 0.2 D/S
model can efficiently predict the f and j values. 0.65, and 200 ReH 10,000.
 0.06
the performance of the heat exchanger. Heat transfer
augmentation was also higher in the reattachment region within
15% the dimple cavities, and at the rear of dimples due to secondary
flow. Accurate prediction of the heat transfer and pressure drop
in a turbulent regime requires an unsteady simulation, and a
0.04 -15% steady-state analysis based on a turbulent model was also carried
out. The results of the steady-state simulations using the SST k
f (correlated)

turbulent model were in good agreement with those of the

unsteady analysis. Therefore, to obtain the f and j values, laminar
analysis is possible in the laminar regime, where the flow does
0.02 not oscillate. The SST k turbulent model must be used for
steady-state analysis in the turbulent regime, where oscillatory
flow occurs. These results suggested a correlation that can predict
the critical Reynolds number according to the specified
geometric parameters. Correlations for the friction factor f and
0.00 Colburn factor j were also suggested, considering the geometric
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06
and operating conditions.
f (numerical data)
Acknowledgments
(a) f factor
This work was supported by the Brain Korea 21 project in 2012.

References
0.010
15% [1] Ligrani, P.M., Mahmood, G.I., Harrison, J.L, Clayton, C.M.
and Nelson, D.L., Flow structure and local Nusselt number
0.008 variations in a channel with dimples and protrusions on
opposite walls, Int. J. Heat Mass Trans., 44, 2001, 4413
-15% 4425.
j (correlated)

0.006
0.004
0.002
0.002 0.004 0.006
j (numerical data)
(b) j factor
Figure 4. Validations of derived correlations with arbitrary
geometric and operating conditions.
To verify Equations (7) and (8), a numerical analysis based on 17
arbitrary points was conducted, and the results were compared
with the predictions of the correlations. The discrete points in
Figure 4 indicate the numerical results obtained from the
arbitrary points. The f and j values obtained from the arbitrary
points coincide with the predictions of the correlations within an
error of 15%.
Conclusions
The local Nusselt number distributions around dimples and
protrusions were investigated at ReH = 5000. Oscillatory flow
occurred in the turbulent regime, and the heat transfer and
pressure drop increased. The flow that came into contact with the
front part of the protrusions increased the heat transfer and heat
transfer augmentation in this region had a dominant influence on
[2] Xiao, N., Zhang, Q., Ligrani, P.M. and Mongia, R., Thermal
performance of dimpled surfaces in laminar flows, Int. J.
Heat Mass Trans., 52, 2009, 20092017.
[3] Mahmood, G.I., Sabbagh, M.Z. and Ligrani, P.M., Heat
Transfer in a Channel with Dimples and Protrusions on
Opposite Walls, J. Therm. Heat Trans., 15, 2001, 275283.
[4] Burgess, N.K. and Ligrani, P.M., Effects of dimple depth on
0.008 0.010
channel nusselt numbers and friction factors, J. Heat Trans.,
127, 2005, 839847.
[5] Burgess, N.K., Oliveira, M.M. and Ligrani, P.M., Nusselt
number behavior on deep dimpled surfaces within a channel,
J. Heat Trans., 125, 2003, 1118.
[6] Elyyan, M.A., Rozati, A. and Tafti, D.K., Investigation of
dimpled fins for heat transfer enhancement in compact heat
exchangers, Int. J. Heat Mass Trans., 51, 2008, 29502966
[7] Elyyan, M.A. and Tafti, D.K., Large eddy simulation
investigation of flow and heat transfer in a channel with
dimples and protrusions, J. Turbomach., 130, 2008, 041016
[8] Park, J., Desam, P.R. and Ligrani, P.M., Numerical
predictions of flow structure above a dimpled surface in a
channel, Numer. Heat Trans.; Part A, 45, 2004, 120
[9] Won, S.Y. and Ligrani, P.M., Numerical predictions of flow
structure and local Nusselt number ratios along and above
dimpled surfaces with different dimple depths in a channel,
Numer. Heat Trans.;Part A, 45, 2004, 549570
[10] Menter, F.R., Two-equation eddy-viscosity turbulence
models for engineering applications, AIAA J., 32, 1994,
15981605
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Experimental study on the flow characteristics with bio-mimetic structure of a

fish caudal fin

Han-Chieh Chiu1, Ren-Horn Hsieh1, Jer-Huan Jang*2, and Jian-Shen Huang2

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Teipei Chengshih University of Science and Technology, Peitou 112, Taiwan
2
Graduate Institute of Eleltro-Mechanical Engineering
Min-Chi University of Technology, Taishan 243, Taiwan
*Corresponding author, Email address: jhjang@mail.mcut.edu.tw
Tel: 886-2-29089899#4522 / Fax: 886-2-29063269

Abstract 1 high foil angular velocity(rad/s)

In the past decade, researchers pay lots of attentions on the
development of biomimetic structure for robots. Some
researchers focus on creatures in water and the others focus on
creatures in the air. Almost all of the biomimetic structures in
present time produce sinusoidal angular velocity profile.
However, the optimal angular velocity profile may not be in the
sinusoidal form. In this study, a novel structure has been
developed to simulate the movement of a fish caudal fin. A motor
driven grooved cam and a flapper with linkage are the
components of this mechanism. The purpose of the novel
structure is to generate a variant angular velocity during a period
of oscillation. This research experimentally investigates air flow
in rectangular duct driven by bio-mimetic oscillating foils. Two
angular velocity profile is assigned to study the effect of
rotational velocity ratio on the mass flow within a given flow
channel. Three kinds of foils are made to investigate the effect of
flexural stiffness. In addition, the flapping frequency is
considered in the study. Time-averaged volume flow rate was
estimated through measurement of axial velocity. Flow
visualization technology was utilized to see the two-dimensional
flow structures as well. Strouhal numbers were calculated to see
the effects of the parameters on the flow efficiency. It is found
that the effect of angular velocity profile is significant on driving
fluid flow as well as flexural stiffness. Combination of
appropriate angular velocity profile and flexural stiffness can
enhance volume flow rate by 80%.
Keywords: bio-mimetic structure, oscillating foil, Strouhal
number, angular velocity profile, flexural stiffness
Nomenclature
A excursion of the trail edge of foil (0.173m)
D hydraulic diameter of duct (m)
E Youngs modulus of the foil material (MPa)
F flexural stiffness (Nm)
f flapping frequency (Hz)
h foil height (m)
I moment of inertia (m4)
L foil length (m)
RAV angular velocity ratio of foil angular velocity
t foil thickness (m)
U cross-sectional averaged velocity in duct (m/s)
air density (kg/m3)
air viscosity (kgm/s)
2 low foil angular velocity(rad/s)
Re Reynolds number
St Strouhal number
Introduction
Flapping foil has attracted extensive research in the past decades
due to its prevalence among animals and insects, and its potential
application in bio-mimetic movement. Many scientific researches
were dedicated to bio-mimetic mechanism, e.g. birds wing,
insects legs, for higher movement (locomotion) efficiency or
special requirement in robotic design. Fishs caudal fin is one
among those attract high research attention for propulsion
efficiency or fluid flowing.
Breder [1] classified locomotion of fish and built basic
system for fish locomotion mechanism, i.e. undulatory body
motion and oscillatory fin motion. Undulatory bodies result in
less efficient but more maneuverable motion. On the other hand,
oscillatory fins cause high propulsive efficiency and are
appropriate for long distance and long term movement. The
research of oscillating foils involves the flow field structure,
velocity, propulsive efficiency, and interaction between fluid and
foil. Koochesfahani [2] and Fremuth [3, 4] conducted early flow
field observation behind oscillating foils undergoing uniform
stream. It was pointed out in Freymuth [3] that oscillating foil
can generate a staggered array of vortices moving downstream
resembling a reversed von Karman vortex street. The staggered
vortex pairs cause propulsive force. In the wake region, the time-
averaged streamwise velocity profile shows a jet when the
flapping results in propulsion. It was pointed out in Triantafyllou
et al. [5] that the preferred Strouhal number to produce thrust is
between 0.25 and 0.35, and that optimal foil efficiency is
achieved within this range. Taylor et al. [6] and Rohr and Fish [7]
presented a more general range of 0.2-0.34 for cruising fish and
cetaceans swimming.
Triantafyllou et al. [8] reviewed recent experimental and
theoretical work identifying the principal mechanism for
producing propulsive and transient forces in oscillating flexible
bodies and fins in water, the formation and control of large-scale
vortices. It was noted that the flapping frequency had effects on
flow structure and characteristics. Besides, flapping give rise to
propulsion for locomotion under water. Anderson et al. [9]
conducted experiments on the propulsion of oscillating foil with
simultaneous heave and pitch motion. Both the heaving and the
pitching were set as sinusoidal functions with a phase angle
difference. Read et al. [10] further studied the effects of
resulting angle of attack related to the heave velocity and pitch
angle. The velocity of angle of attack was found to approach
harmonic, square, or sawtooth profile, depending on the
combination of heave, pitch, and angular velocity. Propulsive
efficiency was investigated as combined results of maximum
angle of attack and strouhal number. It was also found that the
ultimate efficiency took place at the phase angle difference of
about 90 degree. Hover et al. [11] studied the velocity profile of
the angle of attack. Hu et al.[12] worked on the unsteady vortex
structures due to root-fixed flapping wing. The experiment was
done through piezoelectric material.
Flexibility is an important factor in hydrodynamics of
flapping foils as well as heaving and pitching correlation. Heo et
al. [13] studied the effect of stiffness on propulsion by artificial
caudal fin. It was found that appropriate stiffness of foil caused
propulsion increased by about 20% and reduced Strouhal number
by about 15% compared with rigid plate. Heathcote et al [14, 15]
studied propulsion generated by flexible flapping foils and found
that appropriate flexural stiffness improved thrust. It was also
found that flexural stiffness affected the spacing of vortex rows.
Ferreira de Sousa and Allen [16] numerically studied the flexural
stiffness of flat plate on the thrust efficiency. The stiffness was
found to affect plate deformation and by turn to affect the vortex
street. It also showed significant effect on Strouhal number and
propulsive efficiency.
Most of the researches considered pitching velocity
symmetric to the central axis of the oscillation. However, the
optimal angular velocity profile may not be in the sinusoidal
form or a harmonic function. From the aspect of fluid dynamics,
the angular velocity should be higher when the fin is sweeping
toward downstream (see Fig. 1). In other word, the rotation of
foil from one end to the central line could be faster than that from
the central line to the other end. The motivation of this research is
investigating the effects of the flapping angular velocity profile
and foil flexural stiffness on the fluid flow in a rectangular duct
driven by an oscillating foil.
Mechanism of Bio-mimetic Structure
The designated position of oscillating foil is shown as Fig. 1.
The total angle in sweeping from one end to the other is set as
120 degree.
Figure 1. Designated position of oscillating foil
If a plane four-bar linkage mechanism is used to drive the
foil, the movement of the foil is a harmonic function. Therefore,
a novel structure is presented in this paper. A motor driven
grooved cam and a foil with linkage are the components of this
mechanism. The foil is oscillating in a rectangular duct. The foil
is rectangular with 10.0 cm in length and 5.0cm in height,
respectively. The aspect ratio is 0.5. The cross section of the duct
is 20cm x 6.0cm, leaving 0.5cm clearance between the foil and
the walls of duct. The foil is attached to a pole inserted in a
bearing. A linkage links the foil pole and the cam with another
bearing. The second bearing was inserted in a sliding trench
machined on the cam. The schematic diagram of this bio-mimetic
structure is shown in Fig. 2.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of this bio-mimetic structure
Groove Cam
The motor and the linkage are fixed with bearing to the
frame of the system. The foil is fixed on the linkage and rotates
with the linkage. One end of the linkage is inserted into the
groove of the cam. When the cam is driven by a motor, the
bearing slides in the trench and the linkage transforms the rotary
motion into flapping of the foil. The trajectory of the sliding
trench was designed so that the foil can flap with specified
angular velocity variation. The angular velocity varies during the
pitching of the foil from one side to the other. The pitching is
separated into two parts as shown in Fig 1. When the foil rotates
from one end to the central line, the angular velocity is higher.
When the foil rotates from the central line to the other end, the
angular velocity is lower. The averages of high and low angular
velocities are assigned as 1 and 2, respectively.
Since the swept angles are the same in the two parts, the
following relation is easily obtained
1T1 = 2T2 (1)
where T1 and T2 are time periods for the two parts,
respectively. The two angular velocities have the following
relation
2f1
2 = (2)
( 21 2f )
where f is the flapping frequency. Hence once 1 and f are
specified, the 2 can be obtained by equation (2). The ratio of the
two angular velocities is expressed as
R AV = 1 / 2 (3)
The Electric current was adjusted to drive the motor and to
attend expected flapping frequency. Therefore, the mechanism of
the structure transforms a rotational motion of the cam into a
periodic motion of the foil.
Figure 3 shows the designated relation between the angular
velocity and time for RAV =1 and RAV =3. The ideal situation for
the periodic motion of foil is the combination of two step-
function profiles. However, it is impossible to reach the step-
function profile. Some modifications need to be done on the
sharp change of rotational velocity in order to obtain a smooth
groove profile.
 Table 1, the calculated flexural stiffness for each foil is shown in
Table 2.
material aluminium PP PVC
flexural 2.871N-m 0.0273N-m 0.0151N-m
stiffness
Table 2 flexural stiffness for each Foil
In previous study [17-19], the dimensionless parameters
used for estimation the propulsion performance or efficiency in
fish locomotion are Reynolds number and Strouhal number.
Reynolds number can be defined as
(a) UD
Re = (5)

where is the density of air, D is the hydraulic diameter of
the duct, and U is the cross-sectional averaged velocity of the air
flow. The flow efficiency is defined by Strouhal number, which
can be expressed as
fA
St = (6)
U
where f is the flapping frequency, A is the excursion of the
trail edge of foil. In the present study, the length of the foil is
10cm in length, and the sweeping angle is 120 degree, A can be
(b) calculated to be 17.32cm.
Figure 3. Angular velocity profile of oscillating foil: (a) RAV=1;(b)
Apparatus
RAV =3.
Velocity measurement was done with a hot wire
With the angular velocity profiles given above, the cam
anemometer as shown in Figure 2. The measurement was done at
profiles can be found as shown in Fig. 4
the inlet of the duct, which is away from the rotating axis by
15cm. Only the points in a quarter of the cross section were
measured with the assumption of symmetry. Cross-sectional
averaged velocity is obtained with six-point velocity. The
positions of each point are indicated in Figure 5. The reading of
the hot wire anemometer fluctuated due to the oscillation of foil.
The time averaged velocity was estimated for a recording period
long enough compared with the oscillating frequency. The time
averaged volume flow rate was then estimated through the
integral of measured velocity on cross section area.
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Groove cam profile with (a) RAV=1;(b) RAV =3.
Oscillating Foil
In this study, three kinds of foils are used to induce air flows
into the rectangular duct. They are made of aluminium, PP and
PVC. Required properties are list in Table 1.
material aluminium PVC PP
thickness 1.0mm 0.5mm 0.9mm
Youngs modulus 68900Mpa 2900Mpa 900Mpa Figure 5. Cross-sectional positions for measured velocity
The volume flow rate was calculated for various
Table 1 Required properties of Foil combinations of cam (i.e. angular velocity ratio) and foils (i.e.
The flexural stiffness (F) of the foil is an important flexural stiffness). In this research, the angular velocity ratio RAV
parameter because it affects the flow field and by turn affects the is 1 and 3. For each foil, the measurement was done at flapping
flow efficiency. It is defined as frequency from 1Hz up to 5Hz.
The two-dimensional flow field in the duct was also
EI Eht 3
F= = (4) observed with visualization scheme. Figure 6 shows the
L 12 L schematic of the measurement setup. A 300 mW laser source is
where E is Youngs modulus of the foil , I is the moment of used with 532 nm green laser. The laser sheet thickness is 0.2mm,
inertia, h is the height of foil, t is thickness of foil, and L is the and the expand angle is 45 degree. Smoke wires are attached to
length of foil. With the geometry of the foil and the properties in the inlet of the duct. When the foil was oscillating, the camcorder
records the flow at the speed of 30 fps. From the image of the
pictures, the deformation of foil and fluid flow structure can be
observed. Due to high dissipation of smoke at high frequency, the
images are taken only for frequency at 1 Hz.
stiffness can be calculated in the same manner. Due to the limit
of this paper, the velocity measurements of each case are not
shown here. These cross-sectional averaged velocity values are
listed in Table 3. It is found that the cross-sectional averaged
velocity increases as oscillating frequency increases. This can be
easily understood that the higher frequency of foil oscillation
generates more vortices resulting in higher velocity. It is also
noticed in Table 3 that the cross-sectional averaged velocity
increases as the angular velocity ratio increases.

(a)
Figure 6. Visualization setup

Results and Discussions

For the flow visualization observation, the groove cam
rotation speed is set at 1 rev/s. So the foil sweeps 240 degree in 1 (b)
second. Three types of foils are used for the experiment. Figure 7
shows the flow pattern with oscillating frequency equals to 1
with RAV=1. Air flows towards the right hand side in the photo. It
is seen that when the foil sweeps up to the upper end, a clockwise
vortex is induced through the trailing edge of the foil. It is seen
that the induced vortex interact with previous counterclockwise
vortex produced by downward sweeping foil. The countinual (c)
flapping of the foil draws the air into the duct and forces the
vortices move to the downstream. Three types of foils produce Figure 8. Flow visualization of RAV=3 with (a) aluminium foil;
similar flow pattern. It is also observed that both the PP and PVC (b)PP foil; (c) PVC foil
foil deflects. It is noticed that the PP foil shows concave RAV=1
deflection at the end positions. The deflection is due to inertia.
Also, PVC foil shows convex deflection during sweeping. Foil type f=1Hz f=2Hz f=3Hz
aluminum 0.120 0.153 0.226
PP 0.170 0.224 0.337
PVC 0.173 0.312 0.399
RAV=3
(a)
Foil type f=1Hz f=2Hz f=3Hz
aluminum 0.173 0.286 0.307
PP 0.154 0.383 0.657
PVC 0.185 0.38 0.621
(b)
Table 3 Cross-sectional averaged velocity (unit: m/s)
In order to find the foil efficiency, the Strouhal number and
Reynolds number are determined with known cross-sectional
averaged velocity. Table 4 indicates both Strouhal number and
Reynolds number with corresponding cross-sectional averaged
velocity. It is seen that the Reynolds number increases as
(c) oscillation frequency increases. However, the Strouhal number
Figure 7. Flow visualization of RAV=1 with (a) aluminium foil; (b) also increases as oscillation frequency increases. This indicates
PP foil; (c) PVC foil that the foil efficiency is not improve with higher oscillation
frequency. It is also seen in Table 4 that the Strouhal number of
The flow visualization of RAV=3 with three types of foils is PVC foil is the lowest among the three foils at RAV=1.
presented in Figure 8. However, the flow velocity is not able to
quantify through these photos. When RAV=3, the Strouhal number decrease, while Reynolds
number increases for all cases. For aluminium foil at f=1Hz, the
The cross-sectional velocity for six points as indicated in Strouhal number decrease almost 45%. It shows that the foil
Figure 5. Each point velocity has been measured three times and efficiency increase dramatically with increasing angular velocity
taken the average value. The cross-sectional averaged velocity is ratio. However, increase oscillation frequency does not improve
averaged through the cross-section area. Therefore, the cross- the foil efficiency. This indicates that the angular velocity ratio
sectional averaged velocities for different frequency and flexural increase the foil efficiency. It is interesting to see that the
Strouhal number for both PP and PVC foils decreases as This research is partially supported by the National Science
oscillation frequency increases. Although the PVC foil has better Council, ROC, under the Contract NSC100-2221-E-149-010 and
foil performance at low oscillation frequency, the PP foil show NSC101-2221-E-131-029. Also, the support from Taipei
the best foil efficiency at f=3Hz. This is could be due to the Chengshih University of Science and Technology is
stiffness flexural of PP is not so small as PVC, less deflection is acknowledged.
formed at high oscillation frequency. In present study, the
increase of angular velocity ratio and foil change to a less References
stiffness material will improve the foil efficiency more than 80%.
[1] Breder C.M., The locomotion of fishes, Zoologica, 4, 1926,
Strouhal # RAV=1 159-256.
Foil type f=1Hz f=2Hz f=3Hz [2] Koochesfahani, M.M., Vortical patterns in the wake of an
oscillation airfoil, AIAA Journal, 27, 1989, 1200-1205.
aluminum 1.443 2.268 2.298
[3] Freymuth, P., Propulsive vortical signature of plunging and
PP 1.016 1.543 1.54 pitching airfoils. AIAA Journal, 26, 1988, 881-883.
PVC 1 1.107 1.3 [4] Freymuth, P., Visualizing the connectivity of vortex systems
Strouhal # RAV=3 for pitching wings, Journal of Fluids Engineering, 111, 1989,
217-220.
Foil type f=1Hz f=2Hz f=3Hz
[5] Triantafyllou, M.S. Triantafyllou, G.S. and Gopalkrishnan,
aluminum 0.999 1.209 1.693 R., Wake mechanics for thrust generation in oscillating foils,
Physics of Fluids A, 3, 1991, 2835-2837.
PP 1.123 0.903 0.79
[6] Taylor, G.K., Nudds, R.L., and Thomas, A.L.R., Flying and
PVC 0.935 0.911 0.836 swimming animals cruise at a Strouhal number tuned for
Reynolds # RAV=1 high power efficiency, Nature, 425, 2003, 707-711.

Foil type f=1Hz f=2Hz f=3Hz [7] Rohr, J.J., and Fish, F.E., Strouhal numbers and optimization
of swimming by odontocete cetaceans, The Journal of
aluminum 775.7 961.8 1423.9 Experimental Biology, 207, 2004, 1633-1642.
PP 1073.4 1413.7 2124.6 [8] Triantafyllou, M.S., Triantafyllou, G.S., and Yue D.K.P.,
Hydrodynamics of fishlike swimming, Annual Review of
PVC 1089.8 1969.8 2517 Fluid Mechanics, 32, 2000, 33-53.
Reynolds # RAV=3 [9] Anderson, J.M., Streitlien, K., Barrett, D.S., and
Foil type f=1Hz f=2Hz f=3Hz Triantafyllou, M.S., Oscillating foils of high propulsive
efficiency, Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 360, 1998, 41-72.
aluminum 1091.6 1804.3 1933.3 [10] Read, D.A., Hover, F.S., and Triantafyllou, M.S., Forces on
PP 971.7 2415.3 4140.4 oscillating foils for propulsion and maneuvering, Journal of
Fluids and Structures, 17, 2003, 163-183.
PVC 1166.1 2393.9 3915.1
[11] Hover, F.S., Haugsdal, O., and Triantafyllou, M.S., Effect of
Table 4 Strouhal and Reynolds numbers with corresponding angle of attack profiles in flapping foil propulsion, Journal
cross-sectional averaged velocity of Fluids and Structures, 19, 2004, 37-47.
[12] Hu, H., Clemons, L., and Igarashi, H., An experimental
Conclusions study of the unsteady vortex structures in the wake of a root-
A novel mechanism has been designed and assembled in fixed flapping wing, Experiments in Fluids, 51, 2011, 347
order to generate a non-harmonic movement of oscillating foil. 359.
Flow visualization in duct has been made to observe the [13] Heo, S., Wiguna, T., Park, H.C., and Goo, N.S., Effect of an
interaction between vortices. Velocity of air flow is also artificial caudal fin on the performance of a biomimetic fish
measured with an oscillating foil undergoing with two angular robot propelled by piezoelectric actuators, Journal of Bionic
velocity profiles. According to the experimental results, major Engineering, 4, 2007, 151-158.
conclusions of the work can be drawn as the following:
[14] Heathcote, S., Martin, D., and Gursul, I., Flexible flapping
1. A novel mechanism has been design and assembled to airfoil propulsion at zero freestream velocity, AIAA Journal,
produce a foil in non-harmonic movement. 42, 2004, 2196-2204.
2. The angular velocity ratio show strong effects on the cross- [15] Heathcote, S. and Gursul, I., Flexible flapping airfoil
sectional averaged velocity and foil efficiency. propulsion at low Reynolds numbers, AIAA Journal, 45,
3. The flexural stiffness has effects on the cross-sectional 2007, 1066-1079.
averaged velocity and foil efficiency as well. [16] Ferreira D.E., Sousa, P.S.A. and Allen, J.J., Thrust
4. The foil efficiency is improved by the decrease flexural efficiency of harmonically oscillating flexible flat plates,
stiffness of the foil as well as the increase in angular Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 674, 2011, 43-66.
velocity ratio. [17] Blake, R.W., Fish Locomotion, New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1983.
Acknowledgments
[18] Mller, U.K., Stamhuis, E.J. and Videler, J.J., Riding the [19] Sfakiotakis, M., Lane, D.M. and Davies, J.B.C., Review of
waves: the role of the body wave in undulatory fish fish swimmingmodes for aquatic locomotion, IEEE J.
swimming, Integr. Comp. Boil., 42, 2002, 981-987. Oceanic Eng., 24, 1999, 237- 252.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Correlation for Flow Boiling Heat Transfer Coefficients of Ammonia

inside a Horizontal Spirally Grooved Tube
S. Momoki1 , T. Fukunaga1 , K. Narumiya1, T. Arima2 , T. Yamaguchi1 and T. Shigechi1

1 GraduateSchool of Engineering
Nagasaki University, Nagasaki 852-8521, Japan
2 Institute of Ocean Energy

Saga University, Saga 840-8502, Japan

Abstract Xtt Lockhart-Martinelli parameter [-]

The flow pattern and heat transfer of ammonia evaporating in-
side a horizontal spirally grooved tube were experimentally in-
vestigated. The test tube used for this heat transfer experiments
was made of STB-340-SC steel, the dimensions of the test
grooved tube are 12.5mm in maximum inner diameter, 0.4mm
in groove height, 32 in the number of grooves, and 15 degrees in
lead angle of the inner groove. Experimental conditions were 30
to 100 kg/(m2 s) in mass velocity, about 0.7 MPa in pressure, and
0 to 20 kW/m2 in heat flux. The present experimental data were
sorted into the following three kinds of flow regimes: separated
flow with liquid meniscus, annular flow, and mist flow. The cor-
relation method were proposed for both flow pattern transitions
from separated flow to annular flow and that from annular flow
to mist flow. Also the correlation equations for heat transfer co-
efficients in the annular flow regime were developed based on
the assumption that the heat transfer enhancement by the inner
grooves on the heat transfer surface varies by mass velocity. The
present equation correlated them in approximate 10% accu-
racy. Using this equation for the well wetted surface at bottom
and the previously proposed correlation for the fluorocarbons
on the thin liquid menisucus, the present experimental results
could be correlated within 17% for the data in the separated
flow regime.
Nomenclature
Bo boiling number [-]
di mean inner diameter [m]
Fr Froude number [-]
2 ten formed on the inner surface of the tube especially in low
g gravity acceleration [m/s ]
hfg Latent heat of evaporation [J/kg]
G mass velocity [kg/(m2 s)]
P Pressure [MPa]
Pr Prandtl number [-]
q heat flux [W/m2 ]
Re Reynolds number (= Gdi /) [-]
T temperature [K]
x vapor quality [-]
y mass fraction of ammonia [kg/kg]
heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2 K)]
T temperature difference [K]
thermal conductivity [W/(mK)]
viscosity [Pas]
the boundary angle of the well-wetted perimeter from the bot- tric heating and to measure the temperature distribution in the
tom of the tube [rad.]
s the boundary angle of the perimeter of well-wetted perimeter
from the bottom for a smooth tube [rad.]
density [kg/m3 ]
surface tension [N/m]
Subscript
cal. calculated value
mes. measured value
l liquid
sat saturated condition
v vapor
w at tube inner wall
wo at tube outer wall
Introduction
Currently internally spirally grooved tubes are widely used
as heat enhanced tube for evaporator/condenser of refrig-
erators, air-conditioners and so on. Therefore many re-
searches have been performed on the forced convective boil-
ing/condensation heat transfer inside these internally spirally
grooved tubes[e.g.1-3], and some correlation equation have
been proposed[e.g.4-9]. Nevertheless most of these results are
correlated empirically and their extrapolative accuracy may be
insufficient due to the complexity of gas-liquid two-phase flow
phenomena.
The authors have been investigating flow regimes of the flow
boiling inside a horizontal internally spirally grooved tube and
also heat transfer performance there based on the flow regime
information[9, 10, 11, 12]. In the flow boiling inside a inter-
nally spirally grooved tube, the very thin liquid meniscus is of-
mass velocity condition. This thin liquid meniscus significantly
improves the evaporation heat transfer from the tube surface
to the fluid. While the evaporation from the gas-liquid inter-
face and the heat conduction are dominant in the heat transfer
mechanism for the case with the thin liquid meniscus, the forced
convection and some nucleate boiling are dominant for the case
with the usual liquid film flowing on the heat transfer surface.
The authors have proposed that the flow pattern classification
based on this difference of the heat transfer mechanism[12]
through the experimental investigation using the horizontal in-
ternally spirally grooved steel tube. The steel tube is suitable
for the research about the flow regime based on the heat trans-
fer mechanism due to its low thermal and electric conductivity,
which makes it easy to perform the experiment by direct elec-
circumferential direction of the tube.
The steel tube has another advantage that it can be applied to
ammonia, which has excellent physical properties as a working
fluid for refrigerators but cannot be used with the widely used
copper tube due to its corrosion behavior. The authors have
already investigated the flow regime and heat transfer of fluo-
rocarbon refrigerants evaporating inside this internally spirally
grooved steel tube[9-12], so far. In the present study we have
performed the experiments using ammonia and tried to correlate
its flow pattern and heat transfer performance.
Experimental Apparatus and Procedure
Experimental Apparatus
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the experimental appa-
ratus, which is made up of a closed test fluid loop and two water
loops to supply warming/cooling fluid to preheater/condensers,
respectively. The pump was used for the circulation of the test
fluid in order to exclude the effect of compressor lubricating oil
that is required in practical vapor compression refrigeration sys-
tems. The preheater is a plate heat exchanger where the heated
water is supplied to control the vapor quality of the test fluid.
At the preheater, the pressure and temperature of test fluid are
measured at the inlet in order to determine the bulk enthalpy,
and the flow rate and temperature change of water are measured
in order to calculate the heat transfer rate. Figure 2 shows the
scheme of the test evaporator and the arrangements of the sen-
sors. The test fluid flowing inside the tube is heated directly
by alternating current, and the supplied heat rate was obtained
by measuring the electric power input. The outer wall temper-
atures of the tube were measured at three locations of 1350,
2150 and 2950 mm apart from the inlet with six T-type ther-
mocouples, which were soldered on the outer surface at every
60-degree point in circumferential direction from the top of the
tube. Absolute pressure at the test section outlet was measured
with an absolute pressure transducer, while a differential pres-
sure transducer was applied for measurement of pressure drop
in the entire test tube.
Temperature
TC
1. Pump 6. Secondary condenser IN
2. Mass flow / density meter 7. Ammonia tank
3. Preheater 8. Warm water tank Ammonia
4. Test section 9. Cold water tank
5. Condenser 10. Mass flow meter
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the test apparatus
Table 1: Experimental range
Fluid Ammonia
Pressure, P [MPa] 0.7
Mass velocity, G [kg/(m2 s)] 30 100
Heat flux, q [kW/(m2 )] 0 20
Vapor quality, x [-] 0.2 0.9
The internally spirally grooved tube used in the present study
was made of STB-340 steel and originally developed as a heat
transfer enhancement tube for air conditioning applications us-
ing an ammonia refrigerant. The configurations of the tube are
15 mm in outside diameter, 12.5 mm in maximum inside diam-
eter, 12 mm in average inside diameter, 32 in number of fins,
0.4 mm in fin height, 15 degree in helix angle, and 1.34 in area
expansion ratio.
Experimental Procedure
A series of experiments listed in Table 1 were carried out. All
data were taken after that all of the mass flow rate, inlet pres-
sure, and three wall temperatures at the top of the tube in cir-
cumferential direction, had reached nearly steady state condi-
tion. Electric voltages corresponding to required temperatures
and pressures were measured five or ten times in each exper-
iment, and their arithmetical mean were used to calculate the
corresponding temperature or pressure. The number of this
voltage measurement for one physical quantity depends on the
experimental conditions. The experiment in adiabatic condi-
tion was performed at first, and the correcting values for each
thermocouple on the tube wall were determined so that the esti-
mated ammonia temperature from the measured pressure agrees
with the measured wall temperature. The heat transfer experi-
ments were performed immediately after this adiabatic exper-
iment, and above mentioned correcting values were applied to
the measured wall temperatures.
Average heat flux, wall temperature and refrigerant temperature
required in calculation of the axially local and circumferentially
averaged heat transfer coefficient, , are defined as follows. (1)
The heat flux, q, is defined based on the average inner diam-
eter, (2) the circumferentially averaged inner surface tempera-
ture, T wi , is computed from an one dimensional heat conduction
equation in the radial direction that contains a heat source using
a circumferentially averaged value of the measured outer sur-
face temperatures, and (3) as for the fluid temperature, T b , the
saturation temperature corresponding to the measured pressure.
Altenating Current
Pressure P
Differential Pressure
P TC
Ammonia TC TC TC
Test tube
1350 800 800
3087
3397
3500 OUT
TC: K-type Thermocouple
unit of length : mm
(a) Dimensions of the test section (b) Thermocouple loca-
tions in circumstantial
direction
Figure 2: Schematic view of the test section
Results and Discussion
Flow Regime
Usually the configuration of gas-liquid interphase forms com-
plex configuration in gas-liquid two-phase flow in a pipe due
to effect of surface tension and to large difference in thermo-
physical properties of gas and liquid, such as specific volume,
viscosity, and so on. In this situation, the heat transfer perfor-
mance and flow stability are strongly affected by the configu-
ration and variation of the gas liquid interface, therefore, the
flow regime information is extremely important, especially for
horizontal tube due to the effect of gravity force.
The authors have been also investigating flow boiling of fluoro-
carbon refrigerants using same test tube, and have proposed a
special flow regime classification method that is primary based
on the change of local heat transfer performance[11, 13]. In this
method we evaluate the averaged wall temperatures for both up-
per and lower halves of the tube in circumferential direction(see
Figure 2 (b)), their trend for vapor quality, and the characteris-
tics of the average axially local and circumferentially averaged
heat transfer coefficients. Figure 3(a) shows the typical trend of
the average wall temperatures, T wo , at upper and lower halves
for vapor quality x, as an example, where the mass flux, G, is
about 80 kg/(m2 s), and heat flux, q is about 15 W/m2 . The wall
temperature at the upper half of the tube decreases almost uni-
formly with increasing vapor quality, and this trends can be ex-
pressed one straight line before dryout point where vapor qual-
ity is about 0.8. On the other hand, wall temperature at the lower
half shows two different trends in the region with x < 0.36 and
with x > 0.36. In the region with x < 0.36, the temperatures at
the lower half are higher than those at the upper half. In this re-
gion, such trends of wall temperatures suggest the existences of
very thin liquid meniscus on the tube surface in the upper part
of the tube and enough amount of liquid in the lower part. On
the other hand, in the region with x > 0.36, both temperatures
tion, pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient in flow boiling
inside a pipe. The authors have been investigating this flow
pattern of fluorocarbon refrigerants and ammonia flowing in-
side a horizontal spirally grooved tube, and have proposed the
correlation equations for the border of the annular flow region
of fluorocarbon refrigerant and ammonia evaporating inside the
present groove tube[15]. We explain this correlation and show
the comparison results using the mass velocity, G, vs. vapor
quality, x, style flow regime maps in this paper to discuss heat
transfer coefficients based on the flow pattern information later.
Transition from separated flow to annular flow: The transition
quality from separated flow to annular flow, xA , is estimated
by the following method. Assuming that the boundary between
the well-wetted surface and the area covered by the thin liquid
meniscus is almost equal to the boundary between the wetted
and dried surfaces in the flow boiling inside a smooth tube, the
following Mori et al.[7] correlation is applied for the boundary
angle of well wetted perimeter from the bottom for a smooth
tube, s , at first.
n
x l 0.5
( !)
s exp 1.06 23.8 l , (1)
= 1 + 0.75
0 1 x v v
where
n = 0.26 Frv 0.84 (Bo 104 )0.16 (2)
1 0 sin 0 cos 0
= 1 . (3)
1 + {(1 x)/x} (v /l )
The boundary angle of well wetted surface for ammonia flowing
inside a present grooved tube, , is expressed by the following
3
Upper half average
Lower half average
T = Two Tsat [K]

2 Annular
take the same value at the position, and they decrease for vapor
quality, x, which means heat transfer coefficient increase for x.
Such trend in this region is the typical one of the annular flow in dryout

which the high-speed vapor core drags the circumambient liq-

1
uid film. However the extent of the wall temperature decrease Separated
in this region shown in Figure 3(a) is much smaller than that
NH3 P= 0.7[MPa]
of HCFC123, which is shown in Figure 3(b). It is noted that
G = 80[kg/(m2s)] q= 15[kW/m2]
the data shown in Figure 3(b) were obtained for HCFC123 with 0
using same grooved tube to the present one[14]. On the con- 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Vapor quality, x[]
trary to ammonia as above mentioned, the average wall tem-
perature at the lower half for HCFC123 decreases uniformly (a) Ammonia, G=80 kg/(m2 s), q=15 W/m2
with larger vapor quality. These opposite trends in annular flow
3
regime suggest that the liquid film on the tube wall for ammo-
Upper half average
nia may be thinner than that for HCFC123. Also, the smaller Lower half average
extent of the wall temperature decrease shown in Figure 3(a) Annular
suggests that some small liquid droplets flow in the vapor core
T = Two Tsat [K]

2
in the case with ammonia. In post dryout region, the difference
dryout
of HCFC123 data at between upper and lower halves shown in
Figure 3(b) suggest that the dryout occurs at upper area of the
tube at first because of the effect of gravity force. For the case 1
with ammonia the both temperatures at upper and lower halves Separated
are almost same in post dryout region. This means that the thin
HCFC123 P = 0.2[MPa]
liquid film keeps almost uniformly in circumferential direction, G = 100[kg/(m2s)] q = 5[kW/m2]
and that the cause of the increase of wall temperature in this re- 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
gion may be the increase of the ratio of the period with the dry Vapor quality, x[]
wall surface to the elapsed time in measurement.
(b) HCFC123, G=100 kg/(m2 s), q=5 W/m2
Prediction of the flow pattern is essential to establishment of
correlation for practical physical quantities such as void frac- Figure 3: The average wall temperature at upper and lower
halves for vapor quality
equation. for the heat transfer coefficients of single phase fluid flowing
inside a pipe. We assume that the enhancement effect by the
= Y s (4) grooves on the heat transfer surface decrease with the increas-
Y = 0.073Frv0.92 (Bo 104 )0.37 Xtt1.05 + 1.0 (5) ing mass flux, and propose the following equation.

where Y is the enhancement factor for the grooved tube used
in the present study and was correlated empirically by using the
present experimental data. The transition quality from separated
flow to annular flow, xA , is the solution of the equation = .
Transition from annular flow to mist flow : Yoshida et al.[16]
proposed the correlation for the quality at the beginning of dry-
out for fluorocarbon refrigerants evaporating inside a smooth
tube. In order to predict the quality at the border between an-
nular flow regime and mist flow regime, xD , we modified the
Yoshida et al. correlation for a smooth tube, and so far devel-
oped the following empirical equation tentatively for xD , by us-
ing the available experimental data for ammonia evaporating
inside a grooved tube used in the present study.
cv = g + (1 )s , (8)
where g , s and are the heat transfer coefficient calculated
by the authors correlation[9, 12] proposed for fluorocarbon re-
frigerants evaporating inside a grooved tube, the heat transfer
coefficient calculated by Mori et al. correlation[7] proposed for
a smooth tube, and the enhancement factor that express the ef-
fect of the spirally grooves on the tube surface. The convec-
tive heat transfer coefficients for a grooved tube, g , and for
a smooth tube, s , are calculated by the following equations,
respectively.
g = Fg glo (9)
s = Fs slo , (10)

xD = 0.46Frv0.18 Bo0.034 (6) where

.
glo = 0.040 Re0.8 0.4
lo Prl l di (11)
Comparison of predicted and measured flow pattern : Experi-
 v 0.25  v 0.25
mental dataset were sorted by the flow pattern by using the Fg = 1.0 + 2.0Xtt0.88 + 1.1 Xtt1.26 (12)
method above mentioned. Figure 4 shows the generated flow l l
pattern map in the mass velocity versus vapor quality style as
.
Relo = G(1 x)di l (13)
examples. Figure 4 (a) is for the low heat flux case and (b) is .
for the high heat flux case. As seen in both figures the present slo = 0.023Re0.8 0.4
lo Prl l di (14)
regime prediction methods can estimate proper flow pattern for Fs = 1 + 2Xtt0.88 . (15)
the most of experimental data. We also assessed this method
using the experimental data for HCFC123[13, 14, 15], and the Assuming that the enhancement factor, , depends on mass ve-
results are shown in Figure 5. The present method predict locity, was determined empirically and calculated by the fol-
the flow regime accurately for both ammonia and HCFC123 lowing equation.
even the large difference in thermophysical properties. The pri-
mary cause of this may be the excellent performance of Mori et = 0.904 0.132Frv (16)
al. correlation for border angle of wetted perimeter[7].

Correlation of Heat Transfer Coefficients The nucleate boiling heat transfer contribution, nb The con-
tribution of nucleate boiling, nb , is calculated by using the fol-
The authors have reported some experimental results for the lowing equation, which is a nucleate boiling heat transfer term
heat transfer coefficients of ammonia evaporating inside a hor- of Takamatsu et al.[18] equations for fluorocarbon refrigerant
izontal grooved tube, and explained that the authors previously inside a smooth tube, tentatively.
proposed correlation for fluorocarbon refrigerant cannot be ap-
plied for ammonia. In the present study we tried to develop nb = K 0.745 S pb , (17)
more accurate correlation for the axially local but circumferen-
tially averaged heat transfer coefficient of ammonia in annular where
flow regime and separated flow regime with liquid meniscus.
1
K 0.745 = (18)
Heat Transfer Coefficient in Annular Flow Regime 1 + 0.768 + 0.351 2 + 0.347 3 + 0.131 4
cv
Based on the Mori et al.[7] correlation for smooth tube and on = (19)
S pb
the authors correlation proposed for fluorocarbon refrigerant in-
side a grooved tube previously, the following Chen[17] type 1 e
S= (20)
correlation is proposed for the heat transfer coefficients in the
annular flow regime, A . cv
= 1.2 105 Ja1.25 La (21)
l
A = cv + nb , (7) l C pl
Ja = T sat (22)
v hfg
where cv and nb are the contributions of the forced convective  0.255 q !0.745 !0.581
and nucleate boiling heat transfer, respectively. pb = 246 l
v
Pr0.533 (23)
La T sat l l
The forced convective heat transfer contribution, cv The au- s
thors already published that the contribution of the nucleate 2
La = . (24)
boiling was very small in the flow boiling heat transfer in the g(l v )
present experimental condition, and that the effect of the mass
velocity on the heat transfer coefficients are much smaller than It is noted that the equation (23) is based on Stephan-
that is expected from the well known Dittus-Boelters equation Abdelsalams[19] correlation for pool boiling heat transfer.
 150 150
Separated flow xA Separated flow
xA Annular flow xdi Annular flow xdi
Mass velocity, G [kg/(m s)]

Mass velocity, G [kg/(m s)]

Mist flow Mist flow
2

2
100 100
S A M
S A M

50 50

NH3 NH3
2 2
q=5[kW/m ] q=15[kW/m ]
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Vapor quality, x [] Vapor quality, x []

(a) q=5W/m2 (b) q=15W/m2

Figure 4: Flow pattern map for ammonia

300 300
Separated flow
xA Annular flow xdi xA Separated flow xdi
250 250 Annular flow
Mass velocity, G [kg/(m s)]

Mass velocity, G [kg/(m s)]

Mist flow
2

200 200
S A M S A M
150 150

100 100

50 50
HCFC123 HCFC123
2 2
q=5[kW/m ] q=15[kW/m ]
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Vapor quality, x [] Vapor quality, x []

(a) q=5W/m2 (b) q=15W/m2

Figure 5: Flow pattern map for HCFC123

Heat Transfer Coefficient in Separated Flow Regime mentioned method for vapor quality as examples. The values
predicted by the Momoki[12] correlation that the authors pro-
In the present study no experimental data of ammonia was
posed for fluorocarbon refrigerants are also indicated by the dot-
sorted into separated flow with dry surface so far, and the pre-
ted line in the figures. While the mass velocity, G, and the heat
diction method for the data in separated flow regime was dis-
flux, q, of the data shown in Figure 6 (a) are relatively smaller
cussed only for the separate flow with liquid meniscus regime.
values, 40kg/(m2 s) and 5W/m2 , G and q of the data shown in
Using the equation (4) for the boundary angle of well wetted
Figure 6 (b) are larger values, 80kg/(m2 s) and 20W/m2 . The
surface, , the heat transfer coefficient in this regime, SM is
authors previous correlation for fluorocarbon refrigerants gives
expressed as the following equation.
much higher values in the case with high mass velocity, G = 80
1 kg/(m2 s). On the other hand the present equation gives a good
+ , SM = (25)
A VT agreement with the measured values for the data in both annular
where A is the heat transfer coefficient at the well-wetted sur- and separated flow regimes,
face, A , and obtained by the equation (7). VT is the heat trans-
Furthermore we compared the present correlation with our pre-
fer coefficient at the surface covered by the liquid meniscus, and
vious experimental data for HCFC123[13, 14, 15], and the re-
calculated by the following equation.
sults are shown in Figure 7 (a) and (b) for small and large mass
 0.16 0.2  0.85  velocity conditions, respectively. On the contrary to the case
v l
VT = 5.93 103 Rev 104 Bo 104 Frv0.8 . with ammonia, the present correlation gives relatively smaller
l di
(26) values for HCFC123 with large mass velocity as shown in Fig-
It is noted that the above equation (26) was developed for fluo- ure 7 (b). In order to correlate both ammonia and fluorocarbon
rocarbon refrigerants[12] previously. by the same equation, we need further improvement, especially
for the method to treat the effect of mass velocity.
Comparison with Experimental Data
Table 2 lists the deviations of circumferential heat trans-
Figure 6 (a) and (b) indicate the circumferential average heat fer coefficients between the measured values and predicted
transfer coefficients measured and calculated by using the above
 30 30
Heat transfer coefficient, [kW/(m K)]

Experiment Experiment

Heat transfer coefficient, [kW/(m K)]

Present Present
2

25 Momoki et al. 25 Momoki et al.

2
NH3 P= 0.7[MPa]
20 2 20
G= 40[kg/(m s)]
q = 5[kW/m2]
15 15

Mist
10 10

Separated Annular
5 Separated Annular Mist 5
NH3 P= 0.7[MPa]
2 2
G = 80[kg/(m s)] q = 20[kW/m ]
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Vapor quality , x [] Vapor quality , x []

(a) ammonia, G=40kg/(m2 s), q=5W/m2 (b) ammonia, G=80kg/(m2 s), q=20W/m2

Figure 6: Heat transfer coefficients of ammonia, , for quality, x

5
Heat transfer coefficient, [kW/(m K)]

Heat transfer coefficient, [kW/(m K)]

Experiment 7
Present
2

Momoki et al.
4 6

5
3
4 Mist
Separated Annular
2 3
Separated Annular Mist Experiment
2 Present
Momoki et al.
1 R123 P= 0.2[MPa]
2 1
G= 75[kg/(m s)] R123 P= 0.2[MPa]
2 2 2
q = 5[kW/m ] G = 200[kg/(m s)] q = 15[kW/m ]
0 0
0 0.20.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Vapor quality , x [] Vapor quality , x []
(a) HCFC123, G=75kg/(m2 s), q=5W/m2 (b) HCFC123, G=200kg/(m2 s), q=15W/m2

Figure 7: Heat transfer coefficients of HCFC123, , for quality, x

Table 2: Deviations between the measured and predicted heat transfer coefficients
Momoki et al.[12] present
Fluid
Flow regime N AD MD AD MD
NH3 Annular 87 44.7 45.4 0.1 9.6
Separated 118 14.8 16.8 15.1 16.9
HCFC123 Annular 62 12.5 24.1 27.0 27.9
Separated 46 10.2 9.8 20.4 27.4

ones by the present method and by the authors correla- obtained flow regimes and heat transfer coefficients were inves-
tions proposed previously for fluorocarbon refrigerants. In tigated and correlated. Experimental conditions were 30 to 100
this table, AD denotes the averaged deviation and its defi- kg/(m2 s) in mass velocity, about 0.7 MPa in pressure, and 0 to
20 kW/m2 in heat flux. The conclusions are as follows:
Pn o.
nition is (exp. mes. )/mes. N [%]. MD is defined by
Pn o.
|exp. mes. |/mes. N [%]. The present correlation ob- 1. In annular flow regime the liquid film thickness of ammonia
viously improved the accuracy for ammonia, and deteriorated is much thinner than that of HCFC123, and some small liquid
for HCFC123. However the extent of the improvement by the droplets are considered to flow in the vapor core in the case
present correlation for ammonia, is larger than the deterioration with ammonia.
for HCFC123. 2. Even in a horizontal tube, the dryout process of ammonia
progress uniformly in circumferentially direction, and the ra-
Conclusions tio of the period with the dry wall surface increase with in-
The experiments were carried out on the flow boiling heat trans- creasing vapor quality in post dryout region.
fer of ammonia inside a horizontal internally spirally grooved 3. The transition point from separated flow to annular flow was
steel tube with 12mm in the averaged inner diameter, and the correlated based on Mori et al correlation for the border angle
 of wetted perimeter. This correlation also predicts the tran-
sition point of HCFC123 accurately even the experimental
results shows that the structure of the liquid film for ammo-
nia is slightly different from that for HCFC123.
4. Assuming that the heat transfer enhancement by the inner
grooves on the heat transfer surface varies by mass velocity,
the correlation equations for heat transfer coefficients in the
annular flow regime were developed using the Mori et al. cor-
relation for a smooth tube and Momoki et al. correlation for
fluorocarbon refrigerants evaporating inside a grooved tube.
The present equation correlates them in approximate 10%
accuracy. Using this equation for the wetted surface at bot-
tom and the previously proposed correlation for the fluoro-
carbons on the liquid meniscus, the present experimental re-
sults were correlated with 17% accuracy for the data in
the separated flow regime.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge partial support of this effort by
JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research C, Grant Number
23560237, and by a Cooperative Research Program of IOES,
Institute of Ocean Energy, Saga University, Accept Number
11007D.
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relation for Forced Convective Boiling Heat Transfer of
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
The experimental study on improving Performance using
ultrasonic wave in PEM Fuel cell Cathode Channel
K.H.Nam1, N.H.Choi1, J.I.Lee1 and Y.D. Choi2
1
Graduate student of Mechanical Engineering
Korea University, Seoul 136-713, Korea
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Korea University, Seoul 136-713, Korea
Abstract
The hydrogen energy development is being conducted
competitively for market dominance in 21C energy market. Thus
it is reasonable for energy-poor country to focus on hydrogen
energyfuel cell technology development in order to secure
steady supply of energy and to be dominant in 21C energy
market. Also, commercialization of fuel cell is accelerating so
need for technology development regarding hydrogen energy is
urgent.
Flooding phenomenon occurs as air flow in fuel separator
changes unsteadily and pressure drop increases. Thus unsteady
supply of fuel causes increase in pressure drop, and pressure drop
is one of the important parameter in channel flooding. Also,
experimental result yields dramatic decrease of fuel cell output
voltage when pressure drop occurs with value over 0.5 kPa.
Operation under constant current was conducted to remove
flooding and improve performance through ultrasound vibration.
The current was 10A, inlet temperature 40 degree, RH 80%, and
gas was supplied with 2.0 stoichiometry at cathode and
stoichiometry 1.5 at anode. With continuous operation, fuel cell
cannot operate more than 5 minutes due to flooding.
Experiment to observe performance variation according to
current density was conducted. Operation was conducted in 3
ultrasonic frequencies-50 kHz, 100 kHz, and 150 kHz. With
ultrasonic vibration applied to fuel cell, performance was
increased by 5% compared to present fuel cell.
Nomenclature
gen generate force
adh adhere force
w water
eff efficiency
S surface area
F force
contact angle
Introduction
Although PEMFC has relatively low efficiency compared to
other types of fuel cells, it is recognized as one of the most highly
effective fuel cells due to its compact size and minimum
maintenance requirements. Also, designing process and operation
is relatively simple-operation can be conducted in room
temperature in PEMFC, resulting in low production cost. Thus
PEMFC system is expected to accomplish major role as next
generation energy source. But many technological difficulties
and barriers are to be overcome before commercialization.
One of the major technological obstacles in PEMFC is excessive
water production at Cathode during electrochemical reaction.
Produced water exists as small water droplet and blocks
GDL(Gas Diffusion Layer) gas supply as water droplets are
accumulated. Blockage of GDL gas supply results in voltage
drop, unstable voltage output, and abrupt stop of electricity
generation in worst cases.[1-2]
Water droplet can fill GDL and hinder oxygen diffusion to
catalyst layer, eventually covering up catalyst region. This
phenomenon is called GDL/CL flooding. Column of water can
form inside flow channel and interrupt gas flow when water
accumulation is excessive. The state in which flow channel is
blocked with water is called flow channel flooding. Water
channel flooding affects reaction rate, resulting in fuel cell
performance loss. [3-6]
To rid of flooding phenomenon, Tuber et al. [7] suggested
supplying greater amount of reaction fluid to cathode than needed
in normal stoichiomety to remove water constructed separation
plate in capillary tube form to remove water.
Since flooding occurs inside fuel cell and cannot be observed
directly, visualization studies are also being conducted. Yang et
al. [8] studied merging and separation process of water droplets
through visualization experiments observing water transfer
mechanism. Wang et al.[9] visualized droplet in wettability GDL
to study water transfer phenomenon. Liu et al.[10] observed
effects of flow field shape, temperature, mass flow rate variation
in two-phase flow field to study flooding phenomenon.
In this study ultrasonic wave is applied to aid water flow in
cathode supply channel and to suppress fuel cell performance
reduction, and to observe effect of ultrasonic wave frequency
variation on fuel cell.
Droplet movement
To remove droplet produced from electrochemical reaction, force
that can affect droplet is needed. Such force is named generating
force and expressed as Fgen. Also, adhesion exists between
droplet and separation plate surface, which is expressed as Fadh.
Basic equation for droplet removal is shown in equation (1).
Fgen = Fadh (1)
Adhesion effecting droplet on separation plate surface is derived
from Israelachvili et al.[11] and Torkkeli et al.[12]. Adhesion is
function of surface tension and contact angle.
Fadh = w (1 + cos 0 ) (2)

w is droplet surface tension, and is droplet width,

= 2 R sin ( 0 ) . 0 is contact angle.

Fgen must be larger than Fadh for droplet removal. Fig.1 shows
water droplet existing on separation plate surface. Assumption is
made so that droplet exists in hemisphere form on separation
plate surface. In Fig.1 0 is contact angle and R is radius of the
assumed hemisphere. Contact angle is a property determined by
droplet and separation plate type. Separation plate is made of
graphite. The separation plate is hydrophilic material. The actual
volume of droplet Veff on separation plate and surface area Seff
are calculated from equation derived by Hunter et al.[13].

R3
Veff = (1 cos 0 ) ( 2 + cos 0 )
2
(3)
3

Seff = 2 R 2 (1 cos 0 ) (4)

Inferred from equation (3), (4) force needed for droplet removal
differs according to contact angle variation. Thus in this study
contact angle is momentarily altered by ultrasonic vibration to
observe its effect in flooding phenomenon. Fig.2 is schematic of
flooding suppression through ultrasonic vibration.

PEMFC unit cell setup

Separation plate is applied to stack unit cell for capacity increase.
Separation plate prevents gas from mixing between unit cells and
supports electric circuit connection. In this study separation plate
made of graphite is used to construct unit cell. Graphite has high
electrical conductivity and strong corrosion resistance, but also
high price and high fragility.
Current collector plate is replaced with 0.5mm copper wire
inserted in graphite. Installing cooper wire instead of current
collector plate can reduce electric resistance. Considering
humidifier installation between gas supply channel, Hydrogen
and Oxygen inlet, outlet direction are identically designed. To
prevent gas and cooling water leakage in unit cell, O-ring and
sillicon sheet are used. Steel plate and bolt are applied to end
plate to fix fuel cell.
Figure. 2 Schematic of critical flooding area using vibration
source.
flow rate is controlled by passing 99.9% Hydrogen gas (0.1% air)
through MFC(Mass Flow Controller). Dry Hydrogen and oxygen
after MFC process could result in fuel cell performance decline.
Reaction gas with low relative humidity causes insufficient
hydration of MEA and low ion conductivity, thus decline of fuel
cell performance. On the other hand, reaction gas with high
relative humidity causes excessive water production and
hinderance in mass transfer at electrode catalyst surface, which
also degenerates fuel cell performance. Thus in this study, gas
passed through MFC flows through humidifier to maintain
adequate relative humidity.

Unit cell performance experimental apparatus is composed as
shown in Fig.3 for PEMFC performance measurement. Mass-
Figure.1 Schematic of droplet
After reaction gas is passed through MFC and humidifier,
flowrate and relative humidity of the reaction gas is controlled.
However, adequate temperature must also be maintained for the
reaction gas. Line heater is installed so reaction gas temperature
could be controlled before the reaction gas enters unit cell inlet.
Reaction gas temperature could be altered by heat transfer in unit
cell after entering inlet. Thus in this study heater is installed at
unit cell End plate to maintain constant temperature in unit cell
separation plate. Also pressure gauge is installed at cathode inlet
to measure unit cell inlet pressure, and differential pressure gauge
in installed between inlet and outlet to calibrate outlet pressure.
Most of energy in ultrasonic device is absorbed in End plate,
thus actuator is installed at separation plate lower side in fuel cell
system to achieve direct energy transfer to separation plate. Fig.4
is schematic of unit cell performance measurement system used
in this study. MEA used in unit cell is Series Gore 57 made by
Gore Co. with 25cm2 active surface area. Comp-onents for unit
cell performance measurement system are Mass flow rate control
device (MFC) from Bronk horst High-Tech Co., reaction gas
humidifier, and 300W DC-Loader from E.L.P Tek Co. that
maintains current and voltage produced from fuel cell. Maximum
electric load is 300W, while maximum current is 50A. Constant
Figure. 3 Experimental apparatus of the fuel cell system. Figure. 5 Ultrasonic wave actuator controller.
current, constant voltage, constant resistance experiment could be
conducted. Load current is controlled by BCN socket on rear side
of the apparatus. Accuracy is 0.1%, control of unit cell response
characteristic, output characteristic, and system are also possible.
Model- EJA110A pressure gauge and Model- EJA530A
pressure gauge from YOKOGAWA Co. are used to measure
reaction gas inlet pressure and outlet pressure. HMT 337 series
hygrometer from VAISALA Co. is used to measure inlet and
outlet humidity.

Piezo actuator
Piezo actuator used in this study is stack type piezo actuator. PZT
is used for material, which can resist up to 150. Such type of
piezo actuator has natural frequency. Thus it is difficult to
generate various frequencies from one piezo actuator. So 3
specific frequency regions 50 kHz, 100 kHz, and 150 kHz are
experimented in this study. Epoxy adhesive is used for fuel cell
adhesive, and since characteristics of actual voltage activated on
piezo actuator differs according to frequencies, they are adjusted
as shown in Table 1. Controller is used to control frequency and
voltage. Ultrasonic wave actuator controller is shown in Fig.5,
and its specifications are shown in Table 2.
Figure. 4 Schematic of the unit-cell experiment setup.
Fuel cell performance experiment according to frequency
variation
Frequency Indication Value Real Value In this study, vibration by ultrasonic actuator is applied during
experiment to eliminate flooding and improve fuel cell
50[kHz] 20 Vpp 20 Vpp
performance. Fuel cell performance experiment operation
100[kHz] 18 Vpp 20 Vpp condition is inlet temperature 40, relative humidity 80%, and
150[kHz] 15 Vpp 20 Vpp Hydrogen and air are supplied with stoichiometry of 1.5 at anode
and 2.0 at cathode.
Table 1. Voltage transformation for piezo actuator.
The results are shown in Fig. 6. Fig. 7 shows comparison of
ULTRASONIC GENERATOR current-power curve without ultrasonic wave with that of
frequency 50 kHz, 100 kHz, and 150 kHz. As can be inferred
Operationg
50/100/150 [kHz] from Fig. 6, overall increase of fuel cell performance can be
Frequency
observed from fuel cell performance curve. Fuel cell mass
Rated Voltage 220 [V] transfer characteristic is improved through ultrasonic vibration
Rated Current 1 [A] effect which generates turbulence. The turbulence impedes air
Rated Frequency 60 [Hz] flow and eliminates flooding by vibration, in frequency 150 kHz,
Interrupting Rate 15 [A] about 5% improvement in efficiency compared to commercial
fuel cell is observed.
Table 2. Specifications of Ultrasonic Generator
 Fig. 9 shows results of constant-current experiments. During
0.9 Ref_Cell operation with constant current 10A, flooding phenomenon
50[kHz] occurred before 5 minutes in fuel cell performance experiment.
0.8
100[kHz] Fuel cell without ultrasonic vibration actuator showed quick
150[kHz] occurrence of flooding and continuously unstable behavior of
voltage. In unit cell fuel cell with utlrasonic frequency variation,
0.7 the slope of voltage drop is similar to the slope without ultrasonic
Voltage[V]

frequency variation in initial state, but the slope is gradually

0.6 reduced as operation time increases. Fuel cell operation state can
be maintained for twice as much time with single channel and
ultrasonic vibration. In case of 50 kHz , operation time was about
0.5
250 seconds with reference of 0.3[V], and operation time at
100kHz was about 300 seconds. Fuel cell with vibration of 150
0.4 kHz showed greater voltage drop compared to other frequencies
in initial state but generated constant voltage value around 0.4[V]
0.3
after steady state. Fig. 10 shows unit cell inlet and outlet pressure
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 difference at cathode. Without ultrasonic vibration, rapid increase
Current[A]
of pressure inside cathode channel was observed. The pressure
increase is due to flooding phenomenon. In other words, pressure
inside cathode channel increases with accumulation of water
Figure. 6 Effect of Ultrasonic wave on cell performances with
droplet which blocks part of the flow channel. Active surface
RH 80% and 2.0 stoichiometry.

8.0
7.5
7.0
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
Power[W]

4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
Ref_Cell
2.0
50[kHz]
100[kHz]
1.5
150[kHz]
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Current[A]

Figure. 7 Effect of Ultrasonic wave on cell Power with RH 80% Figure. 8 Pressure drop as a function of time of RH 80%, 2.0
and 2.0 stoichiometry. stoichiometry and cathode inlet temperature 28.5.

Flooding experiment in constant-current 3.2

Constant-current experiments are conducted with inlet

temperature 28.5 and 40 respectively, to observe ultrasonic 3.0
vibration effect. Fuel and air are supplied to MEA for about 1
Pressure Drop[KPa]

hour before the experiment to provide moisture. Experiment was

conducted with current 10A and relative humidity 80%. 2.8
Operational flow rates are stoichiometry 2.0 at cathode and
stoichiometry 1.5 at anode. Cathode separation plate is altered to
2.6
single channel to generate flooding phenomenon quickly.

Fig. 8 shows constant-current experimental results at 28.5. 2.4 Ref_Cell

Experimental results showed that inlet and outlet pressure 50KHz
difference at fuel cell cathode was maintained lower than 0.5 for 100KHz
longer than 2000 seconds regardless of frequency variation. The 2.2 150KHz
pressure difference results showed that flooding phenomenon did
not occur in low temperature. The results are in accord with 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
visualization experiments. Time[s]
Figure. 9 Voltage as a function of time of RH 80%, 2.0
stoichiometry and cathode inlet temperature 40.
 0.8
Ref_Cell
0.7
50KHz
100KHz
0.6
150KHz
Pressure Drop[KPa]
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 100 200
Time[s]
Figure. 10 Pressure drop as a function of time of RH 80%, 2.0
stoichiometry and cathode inlet temperature 40..
area is decreased due to the blockage effect and reaction is
disturbed. To resolve this problem, ultrasonic vibration is applied
in this study. With ultrasonic vibration, pressure difference
between cathode inlet and outlet was reduced and flooding
phenomenon was cell delayed, thus fuel supply in cathode was
stabilized. Present fuel without ultrasonic vibration showed 3.0
kPa pressure difference at cathode after operating for 100
seconds. With ultrasonic vibration, pressure difference was
maintained around 3.0 kPa after 340 seconds. With frequencies
50 kHz and 100 kHz, pressure difference in 150 kHz was
comparatively large between 0 second~ 270 seconds, but was
maintained at relatively low level afterwards. From the results, it
can be inferred that ultrasonic vibration with frequencies 50 kHz
and 100 kHz has delaying effect in flooding. In case of 150 kHz,
pressure difference was maintained at 2.6 kPa, thus flooding was
suppressed.
Fuel cell operating with vibration actuator frequency 50kHz
and 100kHz showed higher performance than fuel cell with 150
kHz actuator. The cause of higher performance in 150 kHz seems
to be larger permeability. As fuel and air are supplied to MEA to
generate moisture, 150 kHz vibration energy with higher
permeability affects water and the water droplets are merged
together and increases in size, thus triggering flooding
phenomenon. But after water droplets are merged, the shoving
effect of vibration is increased and therefore 150 kHz shows
higher performance. Additional studies with visualization
experiments are recommended.
Results and Conclusion
This study carried out ultrasonic wave is applied to aid water
flow in cathode supply channel and to suppress fuel cell
performance reduction, and to observe effect of ultrasonic wave
frequency variation on fuel cell. A conclusion of this study is
same as follows.
1) To rid of flooding phenomenon in fuel cell separation plate
and to improve fuel cell performance, actuator with various
frequencies are applied. Overall improvement in fuel cell
performance curve was observed. Ultrasonic effect generates
turbulence, which in turn generates recirculation of air flow in
side the channel. Thus flooding effect is suppressed through
vibration. Improvement of fuel cell performance was more
distinct in higher frequency. In case of 150kHz 5% increase in
fuel cell performance was observed.
2) In case of fuel cell operation without ultrasonic vibration,
flooding occurred faster than in case of fuel cell operation with
vibration and also showed unstable voltage output. In unit fuel
cell operation with ultrasonic frequency, the slope of voltage
drop is similar to the slope without ultrasonic frequency variation
in initial state, but the slope is gradually reduced as operation
time increases. Electric energy can be obtained for twice as much
time compared to present fuel cell.
3) Without ultrasonic wave, sharp increase in cathode channel
was observed, which is due flooding phenomenon. In present fuel
cell pressure difference close to 3.0 kPa occurred after 100
seconds of operation. With ultrasonic wave applied the pressure
difference reached 3.0 kPa after 340 seconds of operation. The
300
pressure difference was greater with 150 kHz applied than with
frequencies 50 kHz and 100 kHz until 270 seconds, but was
smaller afterwards. The results showed delay of flooding and in
case of 150 kHz pressure difference was maintained at 2.6 kPa
and flooding phenomenon was removed.
References
[1] W. B. Bezerra, L. Zhang, H. Liu, and K. C. Lee, A review of
heat-treatment effects on activity and stability of PEM fuel
cell catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction, J. of Power
Sources 173 (2007) 891908.
[2] N. Yousfi-Steiner, P. H. Mocoteguy, D. Candusso, D. Hissel,
A. Hernandez, A. Aslanides, A review on PEM voltage
degradation associated with water management, J. of Power
Sources 183 (2008) 260-274.
[3] J. J. Hwang and P. Y. Chen, Heat/mass transfer in porous
electrodes of fuel cells, Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer 49
(2006) 23152327.
[4] F. A. Coutelieris, S. L. Douvartzides and P. E. Tsiakaras,
Heat transfer phenomena in a solid oxide fuel cell:An
analytical approach, Chemical Engineering Science 60
(2005) 44234430.
[5] A. A. Kulikovsky, Heat transport in the membraneelectrode
assembly of a direct methanol fuel cell: Exact solutions,
Electrochimica Acta 53 (2007) 13531359.
[6] M. Purmann and Z. Styczynski, Simplified evaluation of
PEM-fuel cells by reduction of measurement parameters and
using optimised measurement algorithms, J. of Power
Sources 145 (2005) 399406.
[7] Tber K., Pocza D. and Hebling C., 2003, Visualization of
water buildup in the cathode of a transparent PEM fuel cell,
J. Power Sources, Vol. 144, pp. 403-414.
[8] Yang X.G., Zhang F.Y., Lubawy A.L. and Wang C.Y., 2004,
Visualization of liquid water transport in a PEFC,
Electrochem. Solid-State Lett., Vol. 7, No. 11, pp. A408-
A411.
[9] C. Y. Wang, Fundamental Models for Fuel Cell Engineering,
Chemical Reviews, 104 (2004) 4727-4766.
[10] H. C. Liu, W. M. Yan and C. Y. Soong, F. Chen, Effects of
baffle-blocked flow channel on reactant transport and cell
performance of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell, J.
Power Sources 142 (2005) 125-133.
[11] J. Israelachvili, Intermolecular and Surface Forces,
Academic Press, New York, 1991, 89-92.
[12] A. Torkkeli, J. Saarilahti and A. Haara, Electrostatic
Transportation of Water Droplets on Superhydrophobic
Surfaces, 14th IEEE International Conference on Micro
Electro Mechanical Systems, (2001) 475478.
[13] R.J. Hunter, Foundations of Colloid Science, Oxford
University Press, NewYork, 2001, pp. 100-112.Cooley, J.W.
and Tukey, J.W., An Algorithm for the Machine
Computation of Complex Fourier Series, Math. Comp.,19,
1965, 297301.
23 rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Performance of Oil-Separator Adopting Nature-Inspired Surface

Joon Ahn, Seongil Jang and Si Hyung Lim
1
School of Mechanical Systems Engineering,
Kookmin University, Seoul 136-702, Korea
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Graduate School,
Kookmin University, Seoul 136-702, Korea

Abstract
A bio-inspired surface which is a repeating pattern of
hydrophobic and hydrophilic segments is found in the skin of a
desert insect and known to be used to collect water from fog.
From the idea, an oleophobic and oleophilic patterned surface has
been manufactured and applied to an oil-separator for a
refrigeration system. The effect of the treatment has been
examined by an open loop type experimental setup, which
supplied oil mist to the separator. For the Stokes number, which
is typical for an oil separator, the novel surface can enhance the
separation efficiency up to 1.2%.

Introduction (a)
In nature, there are various surfaces collecting moisture. For
example, Namib Desert beetle (Figure-1(a)) has carapace
consisted of hydrophilic and hydrophobic pattern to collect
moisture (Figure-1(b)) [1]. Inspired by the idea in the natural
skin, we apply the characteristics to the oil-separating module of
water and solvent circulation technology formatting oleophilic
and oleophobic surface.
The compressor of refrigerator uses lubricating oil. In general,
the lubrication oil circulates a refrigeration system with
refrigerant. The energy loss and shortage of lubricating oil occurs
during this process. It should also deteriorate the performance
and damage the compressor. Hence, an oil separator is needed for
separating the lubricating oil and returning to compressor.
There are two types of oil separating mechanisms primarily for
refrigeration system. One is cyclone type (Figure-2(a)) and the
other is porous type (Figure-2(b)). (b)
The cyclone type is to flow lubricating oil to downward after Figure 1. Hydrophilic and hydrophobic surface in nature.
collecting oil on the side wall and flow the refrigerant to upward
(a) Namib Desert beetle. (b) Surface photo to enlarge [1].
outlet by centrifugal force arisen b y forced circulation through
helical passage in the chamber. The porous type separates the Proto type is equipped with the screw and its pitch is a little
lubricating oil by the collision with porous media in the chamber. longer than existing ones and underside of body designs funnel-
This study adopts cyclone type that is easier to apply the surface shaped on purpose to flow well the oil.
treatment than the other oil separating mechanism. Body is made
of copper with oleophilic surface to easily attach the particles of Experimental Setup
oil on the wall and under cup is to be oleophobic with automatic Testing setup is mad into an open system. Working fluid is air
returning structure to compressor flowing off well the oil without and oil, which i s edible olive oil rather than lubricating oil. A
a ball tap. preparatory experiment shows that edible olive oil also forms a
contact angle similar to that of lubricating oil of refrigerator on
Experimental setup and procedure the copper surface.
We set the air pressure is 2.13 bar and the flow rate at 7.7 g/s.
Fabrication of proto type oil separator Discharge rate of the oil is 7.7 g/s and the mass fraction is 0.29%.
On the assumption that the size of oil particles inside the
In this study, proto type oil separator is fabricated from the refrigerator is around 10 m, we supply the size of oil particles as
copper which is able to materialize oleophobic with oleophilic 2 m to have a similar Stokes number for a real refrigerator. The
surface. Oleophobic surface makes copper panel up washing and oil is supplied as the oil particles through an oil mist generator
drying after putting in 0.03M NH 4OH solution of 60 C and (Win&Tech WT- T10) (Table -1).
heating for 20 hours. The result of an experiments shows that
contact angle is 15 before treatment but 151 after treatment.
Pressure 213kPa
Flow rate 7.7g/s
Oil discharge rate 0.022g/s
Oil mass fraction 0.29%
Oil Particle diameter 2m
Table 1. Test Conditions.

(a)
(a)

(b)
Figure 2. Cross-sections of oil separators. (a) Cyclone type.
(b) Porous type.

After compressing the air by a compressor, the compressed air

sprays oil particles in the air flowing the oil mist generator and (b)
then oil particles are gathered on the tank under the oil separator Figure 3. Experimental setup. (a) Schematic diagram. (b)
flowing through the oil separator as an oil-air mixture. Photograph.
The air get out after flowing the oil separator. Oil separation
efficiency is measured by the weight of the oil in the tank under
the oil separator (Figure-3).

Procedure of the Experiment

The commercially available oil separator OUB-1 (Figure-4(a))

are compared as porous type and Henry S-5182 (figure-4(b)) as
cyclone type. In case of proto type oil separators, we compare
with surface treated and untreated one (Figure-4 (c)).
With 4 types of oil separator, the commercial oil separators of (a)
cyclone type and porous type, proto type oil separator of surface
treated and untreated. We measure oil separation efficiency by
100 hours running and 3 times tests with each type of separator,
respectively.

Results and discussion (b)

The oil separation efficiency of commercial oil separators of

cyclone type is 91.9 % and that of porous type is 92.1%. In case
of proto types, the oil separation efficiency of surface untreated
separator is 92.1 % and the ones of surface treated is 93.1%
(Figure-5).
The proto type separators show higher oil separation efficiency
than that of ready- made cyclone type for the reason of longer
screw and pitch. And surface treated separator on under cup (C)
shows higher oil separation efficiency than that of untreated. Figure 4. Oil separators. (a) Porous type OUB-1.
The main reason of oleophobic treatment on under cup is smooth (b) Cyclone type S-5182. (c) Present proto type.
oil returning to compressor without ball tab.

Figure 5. Oil separation efficiency.
Figure 6. P ressure drop across the oil separator.
But we get the additional result of improving the performance of
oil separation.
The oil separation pressure drop of ready- made porous type oil
separator is 52.9 kPa, cyclone type is 68.4 kPa. And that of
surface untreated proto type is 73.9 kPa and treated type is 66.7
kPa (Figure-6).
This result shows that performance of oil separation is improved
and oil separation pressure drop is reduced by proper control of
oil wettability of the surface.
Conclusions
The oil separation efficiency of proto types increases 0.23%
compared to commercial porous type oil separator and 0.64 %,
and compared to commercial cyclone type.
The oil separation efficiency of surface treated proto type is
increased by 1.05 % compared to that of untreated type.
As for the oil separation pressure drop, proto types increases
17.49 % compared to commercial porous type oil separator and
8.04 % in compare with commercial cyclone type.
But the surface treatment reduces 9.72 % in compare with
untreated type.
As the result of this study it is verified that the performance of oil
separation is improved and oil separation pressure drop is
reduced by proper control of oil wettability of surface .
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by grants from the Global Excellent
Technology Innovation R&D Program, and Human Resources
Development Program (No. 20114010100070) of the Korea
Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning
(KETEP) funded by the Ministry of Knowledge Economy,
Republic of Korea.
References
[1] Nrgaard, T. and Dacke, M., "Fog-Basking Behaviour and
Water Collection Efficiency in Namib Desert Darkling
Beetles," Front. Zool. 2010, 7, pp.23~30.
[2] Kang, B. H., Kim, K. J. and Lee, S. K, 2009, "An
Experimental Study on Oil Separation Characteristics of
CO 2/PAG Oil Mixture in an Oil Separator," Int. J. Air-
Conditioning & Refrigeration, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 88~93
[3] Cho, Y. S., Lee, S. W., Woo, K. S., Yoon, Y. B., Park, Y. J.,
Lee, D. Y., Kim, H. and Na, B., 2008, "A Numerical
Analysis of Flow Characteristics and Oil Separation
Performance for Cyclone Oil Separator Design," Tran .of the
KSAE, Vol. 16, No. 5, pp. 22~28.
[4] Kang, W. M., Kim, A. R., Lee, D. Y. and Ko, H. S., 2011,
"A Study on Cyclone Flow inside Oil Separator," Proc. of
the KSME Fluid Eng. Division Spring Annual Meeting, pp.
330~331.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Study on Radiant Properties of Materials for Measurement of Temperature
and Heat Flux Using Infrared Thermometry
T.H. Kim1, K.H. Do1, D.-W. Oh2, and J. Lee2
1
Department of Plant Safety Technology,
Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials (KIMM), 305-343, South Korea
2
Department of Extreme Thermal Systems,
Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials (KIMM), 305-343, South Korea
Abstract
In this study, radiant properties of materials such as silicon,
quartz, and sapphire, which are candidates for measurement of
temperature and heat flux using infrared thermometry, are
investigated. The technique for measurement of temperature and
heat flux using infrared thermometry in the mid-IR range was
proposed by Kim et al. [1]. For successful measurement of
temperature and heat flux by using the technique, materials
should be transparent to IR radiation. Kim et al. [1] have used
silicon which is largely transparent to IR for a substrate. For
finding the other materials for measurement technique,
comparisons of radiant properties between silicon and the other
materials such as quartz and sapphire are performed. First of all,
basic parameters such as index of refraction and absorption
coefficient of materials in the mid-IR range are investigated
based on the literature value. Based on the basic parameters, the
effect of the substrate thickness on the radiant properties is
obtained. As a result, it is shown that the sapphire has the quite
large apparent transmissivity in the materials.
Nomenclature
Cp,s heat capacity
E radiation energy
I intensity
k thermal conductivity
L thickness of a layer
n index of refraction
q" heat flux
T temperature
absorption coefficient
e emission coefficient
r reflectivity
rs density
s Stefan-Boltzmann coefficient
t transmissivity
Introduction
Spray and impingement jet cooling as technologies for cooling
extremely high temperature surfaces have been usually used in
many industries such as steel making, electronics, etc. Thermal
characteristics of spray cooling and impingement jet cooling for
the extremely high temperature surfaces are very complex
because of phase change processes. However, definitive
understanding of phase change heat transfer mechanisms such as
spray and impingement jet cooling remains elusive due to its
sensitivity to many variables, but also due to a lack of reliable
local information that can enable models to be tested. Although
point measurements or area averaged measurements or area
averaged measurements of variables such as temperature and heat
flux have been made, techniques whereby these quantities can be
measured over large areas are generally lacking.
Many researchers have tried developing temperature and/or heat
flux measurement with high speed and resolution for applying
phase change heat transfer investigation. Han and Kim [2]
developed the diode temperature sensor array (DTSA) for
measuring the temperature distribution on a small surface with
high resolution. Although the DTSA has 1024 diodes for
measuring temperature in an 8 mm 8 mm surface area, it is
impossible to measure heat fluxes due to the limitation of the
temperature measurement technique by using diodes. Kims
group in University of Maryland had developed the microheater
array for studying pool boiling heat transfer, droplet evaporation
and spray cooling [3-5]. The microheater array can achieve local
surface temperature and heat flux measurements by an array of
96 platinum resistance heater elements deposited on a quartz
wafer. Each of these elements is 0.26 mm 0.26 mm in size. By
using feedback loop circuit control, it can make the constant
temperature condition. Although the microheater array can
measure the temperature and heat flux simultaneously, its
resolution is not high for phase change heat transfer phenomena
with high heat fluxes and high evaporation frequency. Gerardi et
al. [6] used infrared thermometry for obtaining time- and space-
resolved information on bubble nucleation and heat transfer in
pool boiling of water. However, they did not measure local heat
fluxes on the surface where bubbles are nucleated. In order to
overcome these defects, Kim et al. [1] developed the novel
technique to simultaneously measure temperature and heat flux
distributions over relatively large areas with high temporal and
spatial resolutions using infrared thermometry. Kim et al. [1]
used a midwave IR camera (3.6 - 5.1 mm) to measure the
temperature variations within a multilayer consisting of a silicon
substrate coated with a thin thermal insulator that is partially
transparent to IR. Since silicon is largely transparent to IR
radiation, the temperature of the inner and outer walls of the
multilayer can be measured by coating selected areas with a thin
IR opaque film.
The objective of this study is to find new materials which can be
used for the novel technique presented by Kim et al. [1]. First of
all, relations for thermal radiation from a translucent layer are
described. For obtaining the relations of materials, index of
refraction and absorption coefficient of the materials in the mid-
IR range are investigated. Finally, the thermal radiation
properties are discussed for the several materials such as silicon,
sapphire, and quartz. In appendix, the brief explanation about the
novel measurement technique presented by Kim et al. [1] is
presented.
Theoretical background
In this chapter, thermal radiation relations for translucent
materials are discussed. First of all, for understanding the thermal
 Medium n rm-n Medium m rm-n Medium n
dx
Em
(1 - rm-n ) Em
r m - n Em
t m r m - n Em
t m r m2 - n Em
a ,e t m2 r m2 - n Em
2 2
(1 - rm-n ) r t
m-n m Em
t m2 r m3 - n Em
t m3 r m3 - n Em
t m3 r m4 - n Em
t m4 r m4 - n Em
x (1 - rm-n )t m4 rm4 -n Em
t m4 r m5 - n Em

Figure 1. Radiation emitted within a translucent layer
radiation of translucent materials, Beer-Lambert law should be
(a) Energy emitted by m towards the left n-m interface that leaves
considered. Beer-Lambert law can be explained as follows.
the left n-m interface
Beer-Lambert Law
Medium n rm-n Medium m rm-n Medium n
Consider radiation of intensity I0 (W/m2) striking a layer of
thickness L. The intensity of the radiation (I) exiting the other Em
side is given by I = I0exp(-aL) where a (m-1) is the absorption t m r m - n Em
r m - n Em
coefficient and represents the ability of the layer to attenuate the (1 - rm-n ) rm-nt m Em
t m r m2 - n Em
incoming radiation. The transmissivity of a layer due to
t m2 r m2 - n Em
absorption alone can be expressed as
t m2 r m3 - n Em
t = exp ( -a L ) (1) 3 3 t m3 r m3 - n Em
(1 - rm-n ) r t
m-n m Em
t m3 r m4 - n Em
This exponential decay is called Beer-Lambert law. t m4 r m4 - n Em
t m4 r m5 - n Em
t m5 r m5 - n Em
(1 - rm-n ) rm5 -nt m5 Em

Thermal Radiation from a Translucent Material
To start with Beer-Lambert law, thermal radiation from a

translucent material can be discussed. Translucent materials

simultaneously generate and absorb radiation. Radiation
generated within the layer must travel through the material before
it reaches the surface, during which it is attenuated in accordance
with the Beer-Lambert law. Part of the radiation reaching the
surface is emitted and the remainder can be reflected back into
the layer where it can be re-absorbed and re-reflected. The
effective radiant properties of translucent materials are derived
below. It is assumed that all optical properties are independent of
temperature. Consider first the radiation emitted by a differential
layer of thickness dx with an emission coefficient e (m-1) and an
absorption coefficient a (m-1) as shown in Figure 1. The emission
coefficient characterizes how black the layer is. The radiation
flux emitted from the differential thickness dx in the x direction is
4 part of the radiation reaching the surface of a layer can be
given by es T ( x ) dx . Because the differential element is thin,
all of this radiation leaves the differential volume. The radiation
that is not absorbed by the material that strikes the surface of the
4 the layer that reaches the left n-m interface is given by Em and
film at x = 0 is given by es T ( x ) exp -a x dx . The total
radiation energy generated by the layer that strikes x = 0 can then
be obtained by integration:
L 4
es T ( x ) exp -a x dx absorbed within m before arriving at the right m-n interface is
E=
0
(2)
For the special case where the temperature in the layer is uniform,
equation (2) reduces to
e
E= s T 4 1 - exp ( -a L ) (3)
a
In the limit of infinitely thick films, equation (3) indicates that
the energy flux is
(b) Energy emitted by m towards the right m-n interface that
leaves the left n-m interface
Figure 2. Emission from medium m through the left n-m interface
e
EL = sT 4 (4)
a
Since very thick films act like a blackbody radiating energy at T,
the layer will emit radiation according to EL = s T 4 ,
indicating that the relation between emission and absorption
coefficients is e = a .
Consider next reflection at the surfaces. As mentioned above,
reflected at the surface or transmitted through the surface
multiple times as shown in Figure 2 where medium m is
sandwiched between the same medium n. The energy emitted by
can be calculated from equation (2). The fraction of this energy
that escapes from this surface is (1 - r m - n ) Em while the energy
reflected back into m is r m - n Em . The reflected energy that is not
given by exp ( -a m Lm ) r m - n Em = t m r m - n Em . This radiation is
reflected again at the right m-n interface, absorbed within m, and
arrives at the left n-m interface. The second contribution to the
energy that escapes the left n-m interface is thus
(1 - rm - n ) rm2 - nt m2 Em (5)
This process of reflection occurs again with the result that the
third contribution is
 (1 - rm - n ) rm4 - nt m4 Em (6) Medium n rm-n Medium m rm-n Medium n

En
The energy escaping through the left n- m interface is therefore (1 - rm-n ) En
r m - n En (1 - rm-n )t m En
(1 - rm - n ) Em + ( 1 - r m - n r m2 - nt m2 Em
) (1 - rm-n ) rm-nt m En
(7)
i
+ (1 - r m - n ) r m4 - nt m4 Em + L = (1 - r m - n ) Em ( r
i =0
2 2
m - nt m ) 2
(1 - rm-n ) rm-nt m2 En
(1 - rm-n ) rm-nt m2 En
(1 - rm-n ) rm2 -nt m2 En
Thus far, only the radiation emitted toward the left n-m interface (1 - rm-n ) rm2 -nt m3 En
has been considered. Radiation is also emitted toward the right
m-n interface and part of this energy escapes through the left n-m
(1 - rm-n ) rm3 -nt m3 En

interface. By applying the same processes as shown in Figure 3 4
(1 - rm-n ) rm3 -nt m4 En ( m-n ) m4 -n m4 n
2 1- r r t E
2(b), the energy leaving the left surface can be expressed as
(1 - rm-n ) rm-nt m En
(1 - rm - n ) rm - nt m Em + (1 - rm - n ) rm3 - nt m3 Em

5 5
+ (1 - r m - n ) r m - nt m Em + L (8)

i (a) Apparent reflectivity
= (1 - r m - n ) r m - nt m Em ( r
i =0
2 2
m - nt m ) Medium n rm-n Medium m rm-n Medium n

En
The total emission from the left n-m interface (Em-n) is the (1 - rm-n ) En (1 - rm-n )t m En 2
summation of equations (7) and (8): (1 - rm-n ) t m En
(1 - rm-n ) rm-nt m En

i (1 - rm-n ) rm-nt m2 En
(1 - rm - n )(1 + rm - nt m ) Em ( r
i =0
2 2
m - nt m ) (9)
(1 - rm-n ) rm2 -nt m2 En

Since rm-n and tm are always less than unity, the infinite series
(1 - rm-n ) rm2 -nt m3 En 2
(1 - rm-n ) rm2 -nt m3 En
may be written in analytical form as (1 - rm-n ) rm3 -nt m3 En

Em - n =
(1 - rm - n )(1 + rm - nt m ) E (10)
(1 - rm-n ) rm3 -nt m4 En
m
1 - r m2 - nt m2 (1 - rm-n ) rm4 -nt m4 En
(1 - rm-n ) rm4 -nt m5 En
The energy emitted by m that escapes from the right m-n 2

(1 - rm-n ) rm4 -nt m5 En

interface is the same as equation (10).

Apparent Reflectivity and Transmissivity of a Single Layer
Let us first consider the reflection of incoming radiation En from (b) Apparent transmissivity
a single layer as shown in Figure 3(a). Part of the incoming Figure 3. Energy reflected and transmitted from medium m
energy is reflected from the left n-m interface. The remainder is
attenuated by medium m, and part of this is reflected from the
right m-n interface back towards the left n-m interface. Using a t app, n - m =
(1 - rm - n )2 t m (13)
similar line of reasoning as above to account infinite number of 1 - r m2 - nt m2
reflections, the total energy reflected from m is the sum of the
energies leaving the left n-m interface shown in Figure 3(a): The apparent absorptivity of m can also be determined from a
similar accounting of energy absorbed within m to be
2
En - m = r m - n En + (1 - r m - n ) r m - nt m2 En
a app, m - n =
(1 - rm - n )(1 - t m ) (14)
2 3 4
+ (1 - r m - n ) r m - nt m En + L 1 - r m - nt m

i The apparent radiation properties have the following relation.

2
= En r m - n + (1 - r m - n ) r m - nt m2 (
r m2 - nt m2 ) (11)
r app, m - n + a app, m - n + t app, m - n = 1 (15)
i =0

= En r m - n +
(1 - rm - n )2 rm - nt m2 Results and discussion
1 - r m2 - nt m2

In order to use the novel measurement technique presented by
The apparent reflectivity is therefore given by Kim et al. [1], the transparency in radiation properties of
2
materials is very important. According to the theoretical
2
r app, n - m =
En - m
= rm-n +
(1 - rm - n ) rm - nt m (12)
background part, the apparent transmissivity represents the
En 1 - r m2 - nt m2 transparent characteristic of the translucent material. For
obtaining the apparent transmissivity (tapp), reflectivity (r) and
The apparent transmissivity of medium m to En is found in a transmissivity (t) should be known. As mentioned before, the
similar manner by summing the energies leaving the right m-n transmissivity is defined as equation (1). Also, reflectivity
interface in Figure 3(b): between materials 1 and 2 can be defined as
 2 Conclusions
n1 - n2
r1- 2 =
n1 + n2
where n is index of refraction (or refractive index). So,
absorption coefficient (a) and index of refraction (n) should be
determined for obtaining the apparent transmissivity. As
mentioned before, the selected materials are silicon, sapphire, and
quartz. Because the mid-IR range is considered for the
measurement technique, we should obtain the absorption
coefficient and index of refraction in the mid-IR range. From the
several literatures [1, 7, 8], these values in the mid-IR range (3
5 mm) are obtained as shown in Table 1. In Table 1, the
reflectivity is obtained under the assumption that the translucent
material is placed in the air. The index of refraction for air is 1.
Absorption Index of
Materials
coefficient (m-1) Refraction
Silicon 53 3.43
Sapphire 224 1.67
Quartz 1470 0.03
Table 1. Radiant properties for materials
As shown in equation (1), the transmissivity is dependent on
thickness of a translucent material. Naturally, if the absorption
coefficient and reflectivity are given, the apparent transmissivity
is only dependent on thickness of a translucent material. In other
words, the transparent characteristic of the translucent material is
dependent on the thickness of the material. As the apparent
transmissivity is large, the accuracy and sensitivity of the
temperature and heat fluxes measured based on the novel
measurement technique presented by Kim et al. [1] become large.
Therefore, the effect of thickness on the transparent
characteristics of the material should be discussed. By using
equation (13), the effect of the thickness on apparent
transmissivity is shown in Figure 4. When the thickness of silicon
is below 1.0 mm, the apparent transmissivity is almost 0.5. When
the thickness is over 1.0 mm, the apparent transmissivity
decrease as the thickness increases. Although the absorption
coefficient of silicon is small, the apparent transmissivity is not
large. This is because the reflectivity of silicon is quite large. In
the case of quartz, the apparent transmissivity dramatically
decrease as the thickness increases. This is because the
absorption coefficient of quartz is largest in the three materials.
Contrary to silicon and quartz, sapphire has the largest apparent
transmissivity in the materials in the thickness range of 0.1 4.0
mm. So, sapphire is the best option for the measurement
technique using infrared thermometry in terms of the optical
characteristic.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
Apparent transmissivity
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Thickness (mm)
Figure 4. Comparison of apparent transmissivity
(16) In this study, the apparent transmissivity of materials such as
silicon, sapphire and quartz are theoretically compared. For this,
the apparent radiation properties are derived. Based on the
comparison, the apparent transmissivity of sapphire is largest in
the selected materials such as silicon, sapphire, and quartz in the
thickness range of 0.1 4.0 mm, when temperature and heat flux
are measured using the novel technique presented by Kim et al.
[1].
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Energy Efficiency & Resources of
the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and
Planning (KETEP) grant funded by the Korea government
Ministry of Knowledge Economy (2011T100200316).
Reflectivity
Appendix Measurement technique
0.340
0.063 The measurement technique can be accomplished by combination
0.029 of infrared thermometry measurement and the inverse heat
transfer analysis. The brief explanation about the measurement
technique as follows.
First of all, consider the multilayer wall consisting of a substrate
onto which a black coating is attached as shown schematically on
Figure A1(a). In this system, the substrate should be largely
transparent to IR radiation. The black coating should be much
thinner than the other layer and be also opaque to IR radiation.
The black coating may be exposed to heat transfer medium. To
obtain the heat transfer coefficient at the fluid-wall interface, the
temperature gradient within the layer is required. If the time-
varying temperatures of the black surface Ts1 ( t ) and Ts 2 ( t )
are known, the instantaneous temperature profile within the
multilayer can be obtained through an unsteady heat conduction
simulation. If the layer is thin compared with the spatial
resolution of the camera and the temperature gradient is much
larger in the x-direction than the y- and z-directions, a 1-D heat
conduction assumption can be used. The 3-D heat conduction
equation must be used otherwise. Assuming 1-D heat conduction,
the governing equations within the multilayer is given by
T
r s c p, s = k 2T + q& s (A1)
t
And the system is subject to the boundary conditions
T = Ts1 ( y, z , t ) at x = 0, T = Ts 2 ( y, z , t ) at x = LS.
Consider now the calculation of the black surface
temperature Ts1 ( t ) . This temperature is not directly available
since the energy measured by the IR camera consists of emission
from the black surface, emission from the substrate (which
Silicon
depends on the temperature profile within it), and reflection from
Sapphire
Quartz the surroundings. The total energy measured by the camera (Ec)
is the sum of the energies emitted by each layer within the
spectral bandwidth of the IR camera (l1- l 2):
Ec = r- c E + e s - c Es + t b - c Eb (A2)
where E = Fl1 - l2 s T4 is the blackbody radiation due to the
Ls 4
a s Fl1 - l2 s Ts ( x ) exp ( -a si x ) dx
surroundings, Es =
0
is
the energy emitted by the substrate. Fl1 -l2 is total emitted
energy from a blackbody contained with the wavelength interval
l1- l2 and can be obtained from tables or by integrating the Plank
distribution. The coefficients r - c , e s- c , and t s- c account for
the attenuation and reflection within the layer wall, and can be
 Fluid 1. Assume an arbitrary temperature profile within the layer
z y Ts1 ( t ) Black coating
at t = 0.
x
2. Compute Es from the temperature distribution and
Ls
determine an updated Eb and surface temperature Ts,1
r s , c p ,s , ks Substrate
from equation (A2).
3. Solve the conduction equation using the updated Ts,1 to
Ts 2 ( t )
obtain a new temperature profile at t = Dt.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for each successive time step.
(a) System schematic for the conduction problem
The effect of the assumed initial temperature profile within the
Fluid
z y Black coating ( e S < 1, t s = 0 ) multilayer will decay after which the true temperature profile will
rb - s
x Eb
be known. The heat flux from the wall to the fluid can be
obtained from the derivative of the instantaneous temperature
profile within a layer at the black surface as follows.
Es Substrate (a S )

T
q = - k s (A6)
r s - x x =0
Black surfaces
Ec
E References
[1] Kim, T.H., Kommer, E., Dessiatoun, S., and Kim, J.,
IR
Measurement of Two-phase Flow and Heat Transfer
Parameters Using Infrared Thermometry, Int. J. Multiphase
(b) System schematic for the radiation problem Flow, 40, 2012, 56-67.
Figure A1. Model descriptions [2] Han, I.Y. and Kim, S.J., Diode Temperature Sensor Array
obtained based on equations (12), (13), and (14) as shown in for Measuring Micro-scale Surface Temperatures with High
equations (A3), (A4), and (A5). Resolution, Sens. Actuators. A, 141, 2008, 52-58.
[3] Rule, T.D. and Kim, J., Heat Transfer Behavior on Small
r -c = r s - +
(1 - r s - )2 rb - st s2 (A3) Horizontal Heaters During Pool Boiling of FC-72, ASME J.
1 - r s - rb - st s2 Heat Transfer, 121,1999, 386-393.
[4] Lee, J., Kim, J., and Kiger, K.T., Time- and Space-resolved
t b -c =
(1 - r s - )(1 - rb - s )t s (A4) Heat Transfer Characteristics of Single Droplet Cooling
1 - r s - rb - st s2 Using Microscale Heater Arrays, Int. J. Heat and Fluid Flow,
22, 2001, 188-200.
e s -c =
(1 - r s - )(1 + rb - st s )(1 - t s ) (A5) [5] Abbasi, B., Kim, J., and Marshall, A., Dynamic Pressure
1 - r s - rb - st s2
Based Prediction of Spray Cooling Heat Transfer
The detailed derivation of the above equations is given in Ref. [1]. Coefficients, Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 36, 2010, 491-502.
The optical properties of the various layers along with the [6] Gerardi C., Buongiorno, J., Hu, L.-W., and McKrell, T.,
temperature of the surroundings (T) are assumed to be known. Study of Bubble Growth in Water Pool Boiling through
The temperature distribution within the substrate [Ts(x)] and the Synchronized, Infrared Thermometry and High-speed Video,
temperature of the black surface (Ts,1) are not known initially, but Int. J. Heat Mass Trans, 53, 2010, 4185-4192.
can be obtained by solving the coupled heat condition and [7] http://www.valleydesign.com/sapppic.htm
radiation problems according to the following algorithm:
[8] http://www.sciner.com/Opticsland/FS.htm
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Comparison of Thermal Performance of Recuperators

with Offset Strip and Plain Fins

K.H. Do1, T.H. Kim1, Y.S. Han1, B.-I. Choi1, and M.B. Kim1
1
Department of Plant Safety Technology
Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials, Daejeon, 305-343, Republic of Korea

Abstract power supply that can enrich and help industrial activities and
social welfare by providing various applications and
In this study, thermal performance of recuperators with plain and opportunities for either mobile or highly distributed use.
offset strip fins is investigated to enhance the thermal efficiency
of a micro gas turbine. Thermal cycle analysis is conducted to Because the specific fuel consumption of the micro gas turbine is
determine major design parameters of a single-pass counter-flow inversely proportional to the thermal efficiency, it is essential to
recuperator. In order to evaluate the performance of the improve the thermal efficiency for achieving compactness and
recuperators with plain and offset strip fins, the effectiveness and lightness. The easiest way to enhance the thermal efficiency is to
the pressure drop in the recuperators are chosen as the objective raise pressure ratio and the turbine inlet temperature (TIT) from
function and the constraint, respectively. The optimized the thermodynamic cycle of view. In cases for the micro gas
geometries for internal structure of the recuperators with plain turbine, it is hard to increase the pressure ratio and TIT due to
and offset strip fins are obtained with varying fin spacing and limitations of materials and manufacturing processes. Therefore,
height. In addition, the effect of longitudinal wall conduction on an alternative way is to shift into regenerative cycle. Every text
the thermal performance of the recuperators is examined. Finally, on gas turbines states about the regenerative cycle benefits of
the comparison of the thermal performance of the optimized substantial gain in the thermal efficiency due to waste heat
recuperators with plain fins and offset strip fins is performed. It is recovery and also lowering the optimum cycle pressure ratio,
shown that the recuperator with offset strip fins has better which seem to suit quite well to solve the present technical
thermal performance compared to that with plain fins when the difficulties [2].
fin spacing is smaller than 1.45 mm.
In this study, thermal performance of recuperators with plain and
offset strip fins is investigated. First of all, thermal cycle analysis
Nomenclature is conducted to determine major design parameters of the
Ak cross-sectional area for longitudinal wall conduction recuperator, such as the mass flow rate and the inlet temperatures
Ao minimum free flow area, m2 at both the hot and cold sides. In order to evaluate the
f Fanning friction factor performance of the recuperators with plain and offset strip fins, a
G mass velocity, kg/m2 quantitative criterion for performance evaluation is required.
gc proportionality constant in Newtons 2nd low of motion There are many kinds of performance evaluation criteria by
j Colburn factor which an objective function is optimized under the given
k thermal conductivity, W/mK constraints [3]. In the present study, the effectiveness and the
nf total number of fins in the recuperator core pressure drop in the recuperator are chosen as the objective
p pressure, Pa function and the constraint, respectively, to evaluate the thermal
q total heat transfer rate, W performance of the recuperators with plain and offset strip fins.
T temperature, K In the case of the recuperator with plain fins, as varying the fin
x ratio of the cold side fin height to the hot side fin height spacing and height, the optimized geometries of the plain fins are
efficiency obtained. The optimized geometries satisfy the design constraint
dynamic viscosity, Pas of the effectiveness and have the minimum pressure drop in the
density, kg/m3 recuperator. In the case of the recuperator with offset strip fins,
Subscripts also, the optimization processes are performed as varying offset
fd fully developed flow strip fin spacing and height. In addition, the effect of longitudinal
I inlet wall conduction on the thermal performance of the recuperators
m mean is examined. Finally, the thermal performance of the optimized
max maximum recuperator with offset strip fins is compared with that of the
min minimum optimized recuperator with plain fins.
O outlet
w wall Thermal Cycle Analysis
As the first step of designing a recuperator, thermal cycle
Introduction analysis is conducted to determine the pressure and temperature
There are numerous applications for mobile power sources, values for each component. The pressure ratio, TIT, and mass
which require energy density not attainable by batteries such as flow rate are 3.0, 1200 K, and 20 g/s, respectively, as system
robots, small UAV (Unmanned Air Vehicles), and exoskeletons. design conditions. Component efficiencies and pressure losses
They require higher power density and energy density in the are given in Table 1. Under the assumption that the
range of 0.1~0.6 kW/kg and 0.2~6 kWhr/kg, respectively [1]. thermophysical properties of the exhaust gas is the same as those
Recently, a micro gas turbine is in the spotlight as one of the best of dry air, the pressure and temperature values for each
choices among various, including both ordinary and emergency, component can be determined from the results of thermal cycle
analysis, as shown in Table 2.
 Component Efficiency (%) Pressure Loss (kPa) for the cold side. The thickness of fins and plate are fixed as =
Compressor 68 - 0.1 mm and w = 0.1 mm, respectively.
Diffuser - 6.08
Combustor 90 9.12
Turbine 70 - ls
Cold Side 9.12
Recuperator 75
Hot Side 6.66
Table 1. Component efficiencies and pressure losses

L
6
1
Recuperator 4 (a) Counter-flow recuperator core
2
3
Combustor
w w
5
Plate Plate

Compressor Turbine

h h
s s

T1 (K) 288.15 p1 (kPa) 101.325
T2 (K) 444.40 p2 (kPa) 303.975
T3 (K) 1200.0 p3 (kPa) 279.655 (b) Plain rectangular fin (c) Offset strip fin
T4 (K) 1022.16 p4 (kPa) 107.985
Figure 2. Schematic diagrams of recuperators with plain and
T5 (K) 877.72 p5 (kPa) 288.775
offset strip fins
T6 (K) 642.82 p6 (kPa) 101.325
Recuperator with Plain Fins
Table 2. Thermal cycle analysis results
In order to accurately predict the thermal performance of a
Design of Recuperator recuperator with plain rectangular fins, appropriate correlations
for fluid flow and heat transfer characteristics should be applied.
In the present work, a single-pass counter-flow recuperator is to The problem under consideration is a laminar parallel flow
be designed, which satisfies the system design constraints based through rectangular fins because the Reynolds number based on
on the thermal cycle analysis results. Two types of internal the hydraulic diameter of the unit cell is less than 2,000. Also, the
structure of a recuperator are chosen; one is a recuperator with entrance effect cannot be neglected since both the dimensionless
plain fins and the other a recuperator with offset strip fins hydrodynamic entrance length, Lhy+ and the dimensionless
because plain fins and offset strip fins are most commonly used thermal entrance length, Lth* are less than 0.2. Therefore, the
on both sides in gas-to-gas heat exchangers [4]. Figure 1 shows correlation for the apparent frictions factor including the entrance
the schematic diagram of a micro gas turbine. The main goal of effect is expressed as the following equation [5] :
the present research is to develop a 500W level micro gas turbine

0.5
within 1 liter volume which includes a compressor, a combustor, f app Re 3.44 x
a turbine, a generator, and a recuperator module. The recuperator
K 4x f
module consists of six recuperators and is located outside of the 0.5

Re 3.44 x (1)

annular type combustor, as shown in Fig. 1. In order to meet the fd

2
volume requirement, the height, width, and length of the unit 1 C x
recuperator are determined as 35.9 mm, 12 mm, and 81 mm,
respectively. where

x h GDh 2hs m
H x , * , Re , Dh ,G
Dh Re s h s n f hs
W

f fd Re 24 1 1.3553 * 1.9467 *2
(2)
1.7012 *3 0.9564 *4 0.2537 *5
K 0.674 0.77034 tanh 2.4686 *1.2170 (3)

C 2.9 105 2.6334 104 tanh 2.7052 *1.6824 (4)

Figure 1. System layout of a micro gas turbine
Figure 2(a) illustrates a schematic of a single-pass counter-flow
recuperator core, employing corrugated fins. The idealized plain
rectangular fin and offset strip fin geometries are shown in Fig.
2(b) and Fig. 2(c), respectively. In order to improve the thermal
performance, internal structure of the recuperator such as the
The mean Nusselt numbers for simultaneously developing flow
in the rectangular duct with axially uniform heat flux and
peripherally uniform temperature at the wall are presented by
Hwang and Fan [6] and data fitting of Num,H1 with respect to the
aspect ratio yields

thickness of fins and plate, and the fin spacing and the fin height C
Num, H 1 NuH 1, fd 1 A x* ,
B
(5)
for both the hot side and the cold side can be varied. In the

present study, the fin height for the hot side, hh and the fin height
for the cold side, hc and the fin spacing, s are selected as variable where NuH1,fd and x* are the Nusselt number for the fully
parameters and the fin spacing for the hot side is the same as that developed flow in the rectangular duct, as shown in Eq. (6) and
the dimensionless thermal entrance length, which is defined as
Gi2 i , I
x*=x/(DhRePr), respectively. The coefficients according to the pi
2 g c i , I
2

1 i K c ,i 2 1

aspect ratio, A, B, and C are listed in Table 3. i ,O (11)

NuH 1, fd 8.235 1 2.0421 3.0853 * *2
(6) fi
4L 1

i , I 1 i2 K e ,i
i , I

2.4765 *3 1.0578 *4 0.1861 *5 Dh ,i i m i ,O

UA
The heat transfer coefficient can be computed from the definition NTU (12)
of the Nusselt number as follows: Cc
kf where
h Nu . (7)
Dh 1
1 1 ,
UA w
*
o hA h ks Aw o hA c
A B C
0 0.013916 -1.1389 0.40632 tanh ml Af ,
1/4 0.07587 -0.98735 0.39375 o 1 1
1/3 0.09894 -1.0319 0.36218 ml A
1/2 0.13554 -1.1382 0.31701
2hi hi
1 0.1817 -1.1499 0.31724 ml i 1 for plain fins,
k s L 2
Table 3. Coefficients for Eq. (5) according to the aspect ratio
Recuperator with Offset Strip Fins 2hi hi
ml i 1 for offset strip fins,
The offset strip fin is one of the most widely used enhanced fin k s ls 2
geometries in many industries that do not require mass
production [4]. The most comprehensive correlations of f and j
factors for the offset strip fin geometry are provided by Manglik
2

K e 1 , K c 0.42 1 2 , i h or c .
and Bergles [7] as follows:
In the case of a counter-flow recuperator, the effectiveness is
0.1856

0.3053 0.2659 dependent on NTU and the heat capacity rate ratio, C*, as shown
s
f 9.6243Re 0.7422 in Eq. (13).
h ls s (8)

0.1 1 exp NTU 1 C *

3.767

0.920 0.236 (13)
4.429 s
1 7.669 10 Re
8
1 C * exp NTU 1 C *
h ls s

0.1541 0.1499 0.0678

Longitudinal heat conduction in the wall cannot be negligible for
0.5403 s a high-effectiveness recuperator having a short flow length. The
j 0.6522 Re reason is that it significantly reduces the effectiveness of the
h ls s (9) recuperator having very steep temperature changes in the flow
0.1
s
0.504

0.456

1.055 direction. In this work, the influence of longitudinal wall heat
1 5.269 105 Re1.340 conduction is considered. The effectiveness for C* < 1 has been

h ls s obtained and correlated by Kroeger [8] as follows:

1 C*
where 1 (14)
exp r1 C *
GDh 4shls m
Re , Dh ,G .
2 sls hls h s Ao where

ls and Ao are the strip length of an offset strip fin and the free-
r
1 C NTU , *

1 *
,
flow area and the value of the strip length of an offset strip fin is
1 1 *
1
fixed as ls = 3 mm in the present analysis. The heat transfer
coefficient for the offset strip fin is expressed as
1 1 C* 1
12

jGc p * , ,
h 1 1 1 C* 1
2
. (10)
Pr 2 3
ks Ak C C
By using the correlations for the friction factor and the heat C * NTU , , C * min c .
transfer coefficient, the total core pressure drop and NTU LCc Cmax Ch
(Number of Transfer Units) of recuperators with plain and offset
strip fins are estimated. The total core pressure drop on each fluid Once the effectiveness is obtained, outlet temperatures and
side and NTU for a single-pass counter-flow recuperator are corresponding wall temperatures for both the hot and cold sides
given as can be calculated as
 ph pc
Effectiveness max ,
p pc ,max
h ,max

Th ,O Th , I
Cmin
Ch
Th,I Tc,I 2
(15) 25
2
0.85
0.85
Tc ,O Tc , I
Cmin
Cc
Th,I Tc,I 1
0.8
20
01.8
q q
Tw,h Tm,h , Tw,c Tm,c 0.75 0.75
(16)
o hAh o hAc

NH
0.7
15
0.7 0.4

where 0.6

0.75
4
0. 0.6

q Cmin Th,i Tc ,i .

1 0.8
10
0 .2

0.4

0.7
The correlations for Nu (or j) and f presented in Eqs. (1), (5), (8)

0.6
5 0.4
and (9) are obtained when the fluid properties remain constant
1 2 3 4
throughout the flow field. In order to apply to the current s (mm)
problem, the modification for the variation within a recuperator ph pc
(b) x
Effectiveness = 0.50 max ,
should be made. The temperature-dependent property effects are p
h ,max pc ,max
correlated by the following equations for the Nusselt number and
the friction factor:
n m 25
Nu Tw f T
, w (17)
Nucp Tm f cp Tm 0.85
20 5
0.8
2 2
where subscript cp denotes constant properties and Tw and Tm are NH
0.8 0.8
the wall temperature and the fluid bulk mean temperature, which
are absolute temperatures. In Eq. (17), m and n are empirical 15 0.75
1
1
constants and these values are m = 1.0 and n = 0.0 for the heating 0.7
condition and m = 0.81 and n = 0.0 for the cooling condition, 75
0.
0.8

respectively [9]. 10 0.7 0.6

0.6 0.4
1

0 .4
Results and Discussion 0.2
5
0.4
6

As mentioned above, the effectiveness and the pressure drop at

0.

1 2 3 4
the hot and cold sides of the recuperator are chosen as the s (mm)
objective function and the constraints, respectively, to evaluate
(c) x = 0.35
the thermal performance. Maximum allowable pressure drops at
the hot and cold sides are ph,max = 6.66 kPa and pc,max = 9.12 Figure 3. Contour plots for the effectiveness and the maximum
kPa, respectively, as shown in Table 1. We focus on finding the pressure drop with respect to x (ks = 20 W/mK)
optimum geometries to maximize the effectiveness under the
given constraint with varying hh, hc, and s.
Thermal Performance of a Recuperator with Plain Fins Optimization results Remarks
s (mm) 0.9 1.4 1.9 -
Nh 17 20 20 -
ph hh (mm) 1.108 0.905 0.905 -
pc
Effectiveness max
p
, hc (mm) 0.554 0.452 0.452 -
h ,max pc ,max
ph (kPa) 6.66
0.85

6.40 6.51 5.96

0.8 0.8 pc (kPa) 6.90 8.42 7.91 9.12
25 0.784 0.797 0.792 0.75
0.75 1 0.75 Th,o (K) 581.8 573.8 576.7 642.9 (Cycle analysis)
2

Tc,o (K) 897.4 904.8 902.1 877.8 (Cycle analysis)

0.8

1
20 0.7
5

Table 4. Optimum geometries of the recuperator with plain

0.7

0.7
rectangular fins for the specific fin spacing (ks = 20 W/mK)
NH

0.6
15 0.6
0.4 Figure 3 illustrates contour plots for the effectiveness and the
0 .4 maximum pressure drop of a recuperator with plain rectangular
1

fins according to x (= hc/ hh) with varying the fin spacing and
0.7

10 the number of the hot side passages when the thermal

0.75

conductivity of the plates and fins is 20 W/mK. When x = 1 and x

0.4 0 .2
0.6

= 0.35, the effectiveness doesnt meet the design requirement, of

0 .4

5 which value is 0.75. This is because the maximum pressure drop

1 2 3 4 totally depends on the pressure drop of the hot side passages for x
s (mm) =1 and the pressure drop of the cold side passages is dominant
(a) x = 1.0 compared with that of the hot side passages as the ratio of the fin
height for the cold side passage to that for the hot side passage
decreases. On the other hand, an available design area is
maximized when x = 0.50, as shown in Fig. 3(b). From these
results, the thermal optimization of the recuperator with plain
rectangular fins is performed for x = 0.50. The optimum
geometries that satisfy the design requirement of the
effectiveness and have the minimum pressure drop in the
recuperator are presented in Table 4 for the specific fin spacing.
Figure 4 shows a contour plot for the effectiveness and the
maximum pressure drop with varying the fin spacing and the
number of the hot side passages when the friction factor and the
Nusselt number correlations for hydrodynamically and thermally
fully developed flow are used, which are presented in Eq. (2) and
Eq. (6), respectively. As shown in Fig. 4, the effectiveness
decreases and the maximum pressure drop slightly decreases
compared with the results presented in Fig. 3(b) since the values
of both the friction factor and the Nusselt number for the
hydrodynamically fully developed flow are lower than those for
simultaneously developing flow. As a result, the thermal
performance of the recuperator with plain rectangular fins is
underestimated about 5% when Eqs. (2) and (6) are used.
Therefore, the entrance region effect should be considered for
accurately evaluating the thermal performance of the recuperator
with plain rectangular fins.
Effectiveness
2
2
25 0.85
85
0.
efficiency for the higher thermal conductivity of the fins. On the
other hand, when longitudinal heat conduction in the wall is
considered, the effectiveness increases at the low thermal
conductivity of plates and fins and tend to decrease smoothly
then, as shown in Fig. 6. This trend can be explained as follows:
as the thermal conductivity of plates and fins increases, the fin
efficiency increases. At the same time, the longitudinal heat
conduction effect becomes larger. Longitudinal conduction in the
wall flattens the temperature distribution along the flow direction,
decreases the mean outlet temperature of the cold fluid, and thus
reduces the effectiveness of the recuperator. At the low thermal
conductivity, the increase of the effectiveness due to the
enhancement of the fin efficiency is larger than the decrease of
the effectiveness because of the longitudinal heat conduction
effect in the wall. As the thermal conductivity increases, the
reduction of the effectiveness because of the longitudinal heat
conduction effect is dominant and the effectiveness including the
longitudinal wall heat conduction effect significantly deviates the
effectiveness with zero longitudinal wall heat conduction.
Therefore, longitudinal heat conduction in the wall should be
considered to accurately predict the thermal performance of the
recuperators with both plain and offset strip fins. The optimum
thermal conductivity of plates and fins corresponding to the
effectiveness is about 20 W/mK and the values for the
recuperators with plain and offset strip fins are 0.784 and 0.801,
ph pc respectively. This indicates that the thermal performance of the
max ,
p
h ,max pc ,max recuperator having plates and fins with relatively lower thermal
conductivity such as stainless steel is better than that with highly
conducting materials such as aluminium alloy and copper.
0.85

1
0.8 ph pc
Effectiveness max ,
20 0.8 p
1 h ,max pc ,max
0.75
0.75
2

0.8
NH

0.7 0.7
0.4 0.8
15
25 1
0 .4 0.6 1

0.75
0.7

0.2
0.8

0.85
0.75
1

10
6
0.

0.8

20
0 .2 0.4 0.7
5

0.4
0.7
NH

5
0 .4

15 0.4
1 2 3 4
s (mm) 7 0 .4
0.
5
0.7

Figure 4. Contour plot for and pmax using f and Nu correlations 0.6
0.8

10
in Eqs. (2) and (6) (x = 0.50, ks = 20 W/mK) 0.2

0.6
Thermal Performance of a Recuperator with Offset Strip Fins
1

5
0.4

2
0.7

The optimum geometries for the recuperator with offset strip fins
0.

1 2 3 4
are determined in the same manner of those with plain fins. In the s (mm)
case of offset strip fins, an available design area is maximized
Figure 5. Contour plots for and pmax in the recuperator with
when x = 0.50, as shown in Fig. 5. The optimum geometries for
offset strip fins (x = 0.50, ks = 20 W/mK)
the recuperator with offset strip fins that satisfy the design
requirement according to the fin spacing are presented in Table 5.
In order to examine the influence of longitudinal wall heat Optimization results Remarks
conduction on the effectiveness of the recuperators, the thermal s (mm) 0.9 1.4 1.9 -
conductivity of plates and fins are varied. Figure 6 shows the Nh 17 22 23 -
effect of longitudinal wall heat conduction on the thermal hh (mm) 1.108 0.8 0.754 -
performance of the recuperators with plain and offset strip fins hc (mm) 0.554 0.4 0.377 -
when the fin spacing, the number of the hot side passages, and
ph (kPa) 6.44 6.26 5.76 6.66
the ratio of the cold side fin height to the hot side fin height are
pc (kPa) 7.16 8.48 8.45 9.12
0.9 mm, 17, and 0.5, respectively. Dashed lines represent the case
of zero longitudinal heat conduction, and solid lines represent the 0.801 0.796 0.785 0.75
results considering longitudinal heat conduction by Eq. (14). In Th,o (K) 571.0 574.5 580.8 642.9 (Cycle analysis)
the case of zero longitudinal heat conduction in the wall, the Tc,o (K) 907.4 904.1 898.3 877.8 (Cycle analysis)
effectiveness monotonically increases as the thermal conductivity Table 5. Optimum geometries of the recuperator with offset strip
of plates and fins increases. This is due to the increment of the fin fins for the specific fin spacing (ks = 20 W/mK)

Figure 6. Effect of the thermal conductivity of plates and fins on
the effectiveness of the recuperators with plain and offset strip
fins
Figure 7. Ratios of the effectiveness of the recuperators with the
optimized plain rectangular fins to that with the optimized offset
strip fins (ks = 20 W/mK)
Figure 7 depicts the ratio of the effectiveness of the recuperators
with the optimized plain rectangular fins to that with the
optimized offset strip fins. This ratio can be successfully used for
comparing the thermal performance of the recuperators with
plain and offset strip fins. In Fig. 7, in the region where the ratio
is above 1, the effectiveness of the optimized offset strip fin
recuperator is higher than that of the optimized plain fin
recuperator. On the other hand, the effectiveness of the optimized
plain fin recuperator is higher than that of the optimized offset
strip fin recuperator when the ratio is below 1. From the results
shown in Fig. 7, the recuperator with offset strip fins has better
thermal performance when the fin spacing, s is smaller than 1.45
mm and the thermal performance of the recuperator with plain
rectangular fins is higher than that with offset strip fins in the
region of s 1.45 mm. It is thought to be helpful in determining
the best designs for internal structure of single-pass counter-flow
recuperators.
Conclusion
In this study, thermal performance of recuperators is studied to
improve the thermal efficiency of a micro gas turbine. Based on
the thermal cycle analysis results, the system design constraints
and the major design parameters of the single-pass counter-flow
recuperator are determined. Recuperators with plain and offset
strip fins are chosen, which are most commonly used on both
sides in gas-to-gas heat exchangers. The optimized geometries
for internal structure of the recuperators with plain and offset
strip fins are obtained with varying fin spacing and height. The
thermal performance of the optimized plain fins recuperator is
compared with that of the optimized offset strip fin recuperator.
From the result, the recuperator with offset strip fins has better
thermal performance when s < 1.45 mm and the thermal
performance of the recuperator with plain rectangular fins is
higher than that with offset strip fins in the region of s 1.45
mm. In addition, it is found that the entrance region effect and the
longitudinal wall heat conduction effect should be taken into
account for the recuperator with both plain and offset strip fins to
accurately predict the thermal performance.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the Next Generation Military
Battery Research Center program of Defense Acquisition
Program Administration and Agency for Defense Development.
References
[1] Nagashima, T. et al., Lessons Learnt from Ultra-Micro-Gas
Turbine Development at University of Tokyo. Invited
Lecture, von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics Lecture
Series on Micro Gas Turbines, Burssels, 2005.
[2] Saravanamuttoo, H., Rogers, G. Cohen, H., and Straznicky,
P., Gas Turbine Theory, 6th ed., Pearson Education Limited,
UK, 2009.
[3] Webb, R.L. and Scott, M.J., A Parametric Analysis of the
Performance of Internally Finned Tubes for Heat Exchanger
Application, J Heat Trans. 102, 1980, 38-43.
[4] Shah, R.K. and Sekulic, D.P., Fundamentals of Heat
Exchanger Design, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., NJ, 2003.
[5] Shah, R.K. and London, A.L., Laminar Flow Forced
Convection in Ducts, Supplement 1 to Advances in Heat
Transfer, Academic Press, New York, 1978.
[6] Hwang, C.L. and Fan, L.T., Finite Difference Analysis of
Forced-convection Heat Transfer in Entrance Region of a
Flat Rectangular Duct, Appl. Sci. Res., Sect. A 13, 1964,
401-422.
[7] Maglik, R.M. and Bergles, A.E., Heat Transfer and Pressure
Drop Correlations for the Rectangular Offset-strip-fin
Compact Heat Exchanger, Exp. Thermal Fluid Sci. 10, 1995,
171-180.
[8] Kroeger, P.G., Performance Deterioration in High
Effectiveness Heat Exchangers Due to Axial Heat
Conduction Effects, Adv. Cryogen. Eng. 12, 1967, 363-372.
[9] Rohsenow, W.M., Hartnett, J.P., and Ganic, E.N., Handbook
of Heat Transfer Applications, McGraw-Hill, New York,
Chap. 4, 1985.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Study on Bubbling Behaviour in Hall-Heroult Cell Using Low Temperature
Electrolyte
Morshed Alam1, Subrat Das2, Yos Morsi1, William Yang3, John Chen4 and Geoff Brooks1
1
Faculty of Engineering and Industrial Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia.
2
Faculty of Science and Technology, School of Engineering, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
3
CSIRO Minerals, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
4
Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
Abstract
In the Hall-Heroult electrolytic process of aluminium smelting,
CO2 bubbles are generated under the horizontal anode which play
an important positive role in homogenisation of the alumina
distribution and the temperature field in the electrolytic bath. On
the other hand, the gas bubbles increase the ohmic voltage drop
underneath the anode surface which in turn results in higher
energy consumption for the smelting process. Therefore, a clear
understanding of the bubble generation mechanism and
movement underneath the horizontal surface is important to
optimize the process. In the present study, the formation and
movement of a single bubble underneath the horizontal anode
was investigated first. Bubble size was found to decreases at
lower surface tension of the electrolyte. Then, a 1/4th scale low
temperature electrolytic model of the Hall-Heroult process was
developed to investigate the electrolytic bubble behaviour under
the horizontal anode surface. Dynamic similarity between the
model and real cell was maintained using dimensionless Eotvos
number. It was observed that electrolytic bubbles generate
uniformly under the whole anode surface and grows through gas
diffusion and coalescence. At higher current density and higher
anode inclination angles bubbles escaped quickly from
underneath the anode surface.
Nomenclature
q Gas generation rate per unit surface area (m3s-1m-2)
g Density of gas (kg/m3)
l Density of electrolyte (kg/m3)
l Dynamic viscosity of electrolyte (Ns/m2)
Surface tension of electrolyte (Nm)
g Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
Introduction
Aluminium is produced by Hall-Heroult electrolytic process
which was invented independently by Hall and Heroult in 1886.
In this method, alumina (Al2O3) is dissolved in a molten cryolite
(Na3AlF6) bath at around 9500C where it is reduced to give liquid
aluminium metal and oxygen ions. The liquid aluminium metal is
slightly denser than the electrolyte and is continuously deposited
at the bottom of the cell while the oxygen reacts with the carbon
anode to form CO2. The anodes are continuously consumed to
give off approximately 2.5m3 of CO2 for every kg of Al produced
[1]. The overall cell reaction is:
2Al2O3(solution) + 3C(s) = 4Al(l) + 3CO2(g) (1)
The gas bubbles induce flow in the cell which play an important
positive role in homogenisation of the alumina distribution and
the temperature field in the electrolytic bath. Oppositely, the gas
bubbles increase the ohmic voltage drop underneath the anode
surface which in turn results in higher energy consumption for
the smelting process. The phenomenon of bubble formation and
sliding underneath the horizontal surface is complex due to the
bubble shape, surface tension and the surface characteristics. A
number of studies have been carried out in the past on the bubble
behaviour under the anode surface and its effect on the
electrolyte flow. Fortin et al.[2] used a full-scale 2D water model
to investigate the gas bubble behaviour. Anodic gas evolution
was simulated by passing air through a micro-porous
polyethylene plate. The flow rate of air was selected from the
current density and gas evolution correlation (four electrons are
necessary to produce one mole of CO2) which is 10 kAm-2 = 2.71
Lm-2s-1. The gas bubbles nucleate at the porous sections on the
anode surface and undergo spherical growth, lateral spread,
mutual impingement and coalescence to form a big bubble as
shown in Figure 1(The shape of the bubble profile consisted of a
thick bubble front and thin long trailing portion). The bubbles are
then roll along the anode surface and escape around the anode
edge with the speed of the air. Similar observations were made in
some later studies [3-7]. The measured gas bubble layer thickness
was approximately 5mm for horizontal anode. The releasing
bubbles leave the anode surface clean for further electrolysis. The
effects of current density (CD), anode-cathode distance (ACD)
and anode inclination angle on the gas layer geometry, anode
coverage, bubble velocity and gas release frequency were
investigated. ACD had no effect on gas bubble behaviour. An
increase in CD increased the bubble size, thickness of bubble
front, average fraction of anode surface covered by bubbles and
the bubble velocity while an inclined anode was found to
decrease these parameters. The bubble release frequency was
found to vary from 0.2-3.3 Hz depending on the anode
inclination angle and was not influenced by the CD.
Figure 1 Bubble shape according to Fortin et al.[2]
Solheim and Thonstad [3] measured the bubble size, accumulated
gas volume under the anode as well as bath resistance. The
bubble size was found to decrease with the addition of i-propanol
which inhibits the coalescence. It was reported that the smaller

bubble size results in higher accumulated gas volume as well as
higher resistivity in the bubble layer.
Shekhar and Evans [8] observed that the bubble layer becomes
thinner in case of tilted anode which in turn helps in lowering the
bubbling effect. Xiang-peng et al.[9] reported that the bubble
detachment volume decreases and bubble sliding velocity
increases with an increase in anode inclination angle which is in
consent with the previous experimental study [10]. The bubble
velocity was found to decrease when ACD was less than 4cm
which is in contrast with the results of Fortin et al.[2] where it
was reported that ACD has no effect on bubble behaviour.
Che et al.[10] observed that the bubble shape changes from
ellipsoid to crescent with an increase in gas flow rates. In a later
studies, Perron et al.[11] also observed out the two different
shapes of the bubbles underneath the anode surface. They
attributed the existence of two distinct regimes, creeping
bubble and the bubble on a wetting film under the anode
surface for the different shapes of the bubbles as shown in Figure
2.
Figure 2 Regimes of movement of the bubbles[11].
Bubble a and b are in the creeping zone. In this zone, the Experimental model
buoyancy force is strong enough to overcome the surface force to
deform the equilibrium shape of the bubble. The bubble travels
along the entire surface maintaining a contact line. As the bubble
continues to travel, its nose starts to climb on the liquid and
formation of wetting film starts. Aussilllous and Quere [12] also
reported the formation of a liquid film between the bubble and
solid. During creeping motion, the longer axis lies in the
direction of the displacement while for wetting film bubble the
longer axis lies perpendicular to the displacement.
Solheim et al.[13] observed that liquid velocity under the anode
surface decreased when interpolar distance was less than 3cm at
constant current density. They [13] also calculated liquid velocity
through a mathematical model. The results indicated that the
circulation velocity increases with higher current density, higher
angle of inclination and reduced bath viscosity. The anode
immersion depth was found to have no significant effect on the
bath circulation which was also confirmed by Xian-peng et al.[9]
in a later study.
Cooksey and Yang [14, 15] measured bubble induced liquid flow
in a full scale water model of aluminium reduction cell using
Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) technique. A recirculation
zone was detected in both the centre and side channel of the cell.
The area of high turbulence was located in the gas plume region
near the end of the anode and at the liquid surface. Wang et al.[4]
observed similar phenomenon through Laser Dopler Velocimetry
(LDV) technique in their physical modelling study.
In the modelling studies that have been discussed so far, gas
bubbles were generated mechanically by injecting air underneath
the anode surface. Qian et al.[16, 17] pointed out from their low
temperature electrolytic model that electrolytically generated
bubbles are smaller compared with the bubbles formed by forcing
air through porous plate. 2M NaOH was used as electrolyte in
their study and the anode surface was covered with foamy layer
of tiny. It was found that at equal current density or equivalent
2
gas generation ratio, the difference in bubble resistivity
measurement was 20% for the two cases.
There had been a number of studies [18-25] using bench-scale
experiments where bubbles were generated electrolytically and
the electrochemical reactions are similar to those in an actual cell.
However, in those studies the anode surface area was too small
(10-20mm) compared with the actual cells except the one of
Aaberg et al.[26]. As a result, measured bubble size may be
different as it is known from the physical modelling that bubbles
coalesce during movement under the horizontal anode. Aaberg et
al.[26] carried out bench-scale experiments of real Hall-Heroult
cell using 100mm graphite anode. The average bubble volume at
release, bubble thickness and fraction of anode surface covered
by anode were reported. As a result, measured bubble size may
be different as it is known from the physical modelling that
bubbles coalesce during movement under the horizontal anode.
However, it is very difficult to make visual observation of the
electrolytic bubble formation, coalescence and growth
mechanism due to the opaque electrolytic bath of bench-scale
experiments.
In the present study, effect of electrolyte properties on the bubble
formation mechanism have been investigated first using a
physical model. After that work a low temperature see through
electrolytic model of the Hall-Heroult Cell has been used to
enhance the current understanding of the electrolytic bubble
formation, movement and detachment characteristics, under the
horizontal anode surface.
Physical model
In the physical model, air was injected at a rate of 0.06ml/s using
a peristaltic pump to generate bubbles underneath a Perspex plate
as shown in Figure 3. Details of the the experimental rig have
been presented elsewhere[27]. Water ( = 0.071N/m) and Olive
oil ( = 0.032N/m) were used as electrolyte to study the effect of
electrolyte surface tension on the initial bubble formation and
detachment. There is no phase change or chemical reactions
occurring in the system. A high speed camera and a diffused light
source were used to record the bubble characteristics
perpendicular to their direction of motion. Images were recorded
at 125 frames per second.
Figure 3 Experimental set-up of physical model
Figure 4 shows the bubble formation mechanism underneath the
anode surface with 2 degree angle of inclination. The images are
plotted at 0.01s apart. The figure shows that Bubbles evolved
spherically and then converted to ellipsoidal shape with a circular
frontal nose. It is also apparent from Figure 4(a) and Figure 4(b)
that generated bubble length was smaller in case of olive oil
 3

compared with water. Also, in case of olive oil, bubble detached

quickly from the nucleation point compared to water. This was
because surface tension of olive oil is lower than the water.
Figure 5 shows the main forces that have significant effect on a
sliding bubble: the buoyancy (Fb), surface tension and drag
forces (Fd). The surface tension force attempts to maintain the
initial spherical shape of the bubble and the drag forces acts in
the opposite direction of the motion of the bubble.The x-
component of the buoyancy force (Fbsin) acts parallel to the
anode surface and causes bubble sliding while the y-component
of the buoyancy force acts perpendicular to the anode surface and
flattens the bubble. At lower electrolyte surface tension, the
magnitude of surface tension force is low which in turn results in
smaller bubble size before detachment and the bubbles detach
quickly from the nucleation point.

Figure 5 Force balance on a sliding bubble

Electrolytic modelling

In designing the low temperature electrolytic model geometric

and dynamic similarity between the actual cell and the model was
maintained. A 1/4th scale model of the Hall-Heroult cell was built
by maintaining complete geometric similarity. In order to
maintain the dynamic similarity several dimensionless numbers
were considered first based on the study of Zhang et al.[28].
After analysing all of them, Eotvos number and Morton number
were considered for the present study because Eotvos number is
the ratio of buoyancy and surface tension force which are the two
most important parameters for the bubble size and shape
underneath the anode.

Eotvos number = (Buoyancy force)/(Surface tension force)

=(g(l-g)L2)/

Morton number = (gl4(l-g))/(l23)

(a) The similarity analysis along with the electrolyte properties are
presented in Table 1:

Real Cell Present model

Electrolyte Cryolite 0.28M
CuSO4+20%H2SO4
Electrolyte density 2100 1108[29]
(kg/m3)
Electrolyte surface 129 98.7[30]
tension (mN/m)
Electrolyte viscosity 0.00251 0.00065[29]
(kg/ms)
Bubble cross section 11 - 13[22, 5 - 18
diameter before 24]
release, (mm)
Anode length, (m) 1.35[2] 0.35
Eotvos number 19.32 - 27 2.75 35.66
Morton number 8.637210-11 1.64210-12
Table 1 Electrolyte properties and similarity analysis

In the previous low temperature electrolytic study of Qian et

al.[16], 2M NaOH was used as electrolyte where bubbles
(b) generate both at the cathode and anode. But in the actual cell, no
bubbles are generated at the cathode. Therefore, a separator was
Figure 4 Bubble formation underneath an anode submerged in (a) used to isolate the bubbles that generate at the cathode in order to
Water and (b) Olive oil. minimize the effect of cathode bubbles on the anode. In the
present study, the electrolyte was selected in such a way that no

bubbles generate at the cathode. After studying the available
aqueous solution it was found that CuSO4 solution is an excellent
candidate for that and therefore, was used in the current study. In
the electrolysis of CuSO4, Cu is deposited at the cathode and O2
gas is generated at the anode similar to the phenomenon of Hall-
Heroult cell. The overall electrolytic reaction is:
CuSO4(aq) + 2e- + H20 = Cu(s) + H2SO4(aq) + O2(g) (2)
Figure 6 shows the schematic of present experimental set-up. The
inside dimensions of the Perspex tank was 500mm x 115mm x
400mm. The anode and cathode dimensions were 350mm x
115mm and were placed parallel to each other. These dimensions
were decided according to 1/4th scale geometrical similarity
analysis with the real cell[2]. The anode to cathode distance
(ACD) was fixed at 50mm which is the usual value in actual
Hall-Heroult cell. Lead and Stainless steel were used as anode
and cathode respectively. The anode immersion depth was fixed
at 200mm. The CuSO4 solution was stored in a tank where it was
heated and maintained at 500C. The electrolyte was supplied into
the Perspex box through the inlet at the bottom as shown in
Figure 6. When the electrolyte level reached 250mm from the
bottom, it passed through the electrolyte overflow line into the
Figure 6 Schematic of experimental rig.
heated tank. A DC power supply (0- 500A) was used to supply
current for the electrolysis. A 200mm flexible reinforced PVC
pipe was placed on top of the Perspex box to extract the
generated acid mist. A High speed camera was used to record the
bubble formation, movement and detachment underneath the
anode surface at 250 frames per second.
The electrolyte (0.25M CuSO4 + 20% H2SO4) in the tank was
heated to 500C and circulated continuously from the heated tank
to the experimental rig to ensure that the temperature of the
electrolyte remains around 45-500C inside the Perspex box which
is the requirement for the electrolysis of CuSO4 solution. The
temperature was monitored through a digital stem thermometer
(accuracy 0.10C). The circulation was turned off each time prior
to the commencement of electrolysis so that the liquid velocity
did not affect the bubble behaviour. Then, the power supply was
turned on and set to the desired current density to commence the
electrolysis. The experiments were run at different current
densities and anode inclination angles to investigate the effect of
these parameters on the bubble characteristics. The operating
4
conditions used in the present study have been presented in Table
2:
Experiment Angle of Current
number inclination density
(degree) (A/cm2)
1 1 0.074
2 1 0.087
3 1 0.1
4 1 0.112
5 2 0.074
6 2 0.087
7 2 0.1
8 2 0.112
9 3 0.074
10 3 0.087
11 3 0.1
12 3 0.112
Table 2 Operating Conditions.
The current densities used in the present study were lower
compared to real aluminium smelting cell which in turn resulted
in underprediction of bubble sliding velocity. But the main goal
in this experiment was to generate bubbles electrolytically which
are comparable with the bubbles of real Hall Heroult cell and
then study the bubble formation, movement and detachment
under the horizontal anode. That is why emphasis was given on
the Eotvos number and Morton number as these numbers
characterize the bubble shapes. Images were recorded at 250
frames per second from two different locations: (a) perpendicular
to the direction of motion of the bubbles and (b) tilted from the
horizontal plane to capture the bubble image underneath the
anode surface. The captured images were processed using the
image processing software ImageJ to measure the bubble
dimensions and velocity underneath the anode surface.
Figure 7 shows the electrolytic bubble formation under the anode
surface at 1 degree angle of inclination from the horizontal. After
the start of electrolytic process, the entire underside of the anode
was covered by tiny bubbles as shown in Figure 7. Gradually the
immobile bubbles grew in size due to the gas diffusion and then
through coalescence with the surrounding bubbles. There were no
clear areas under the anode as compared to water modelling
studies [2, 4, 31]. It was observed in the present study that the
bubbles remained stationary at the nucleation point and continued
to grow until the component of the buoyancy force, parallel to the
anode surface, was large enough to overcome the surface tension
force and drag force. At this point, bubbles detached from the
nucleation point and glided along the anode surface as shown in
Figure 7. At the beginning of electrolysis, the shapes of the
bubbles were spherical and then slowly converted to ellipsoid as
it grew in size. This was also observed in the physical modelling
study. The formation and movement mechanism was similar at
both higher and lower current densities. Figure 7 also shows that
although small bubbles generate under the entire anode surface,
the bubble grows bigger only at a limited number of nucleation
sites which may depend on the morphology of the anode surface.
A separate study on this particular issue is required to understand
the effect of anode properties on bubble characteristics.
After detachment from the nucleation sites, the bubbles moved
under the anode surface, coalesced with other bubbles along the
way and grew in size. The average bubble cross-sectional
diameter and thickness of the departing bubbles from the edge of
the anode surface were measured from the high speed camera
recordings using the image analysis software imageJ. Table 3
shows the bubble dimensions and thickness at 1 degree anode
inclination angle. The measured mean bubble cross-section

diameter was 10.76mm with a standard deviation of 4.47mm.
This value is lower than the reported value of 18mm by Cassayre
et al.[24] at similar current density. The reason for the under-
prediction might be that the anode was perfectly horizontal in the
previous study [24] whereas in our case the anode angle was 1
degree. But the present results agreed well with the results of Xue
and Oye [22] which ranged from 11-12mm at practical current
density of smelting cell. The gas bubbles under the anode
penetrated a maximum of 4.1mm with an average of 3.71mm in
case of 1 degree anode inclination angle. This is in good
agreement with reported maximum thickness of 4mm and 5mm
from the previous laboratory scale aluminium electrolysis studies
[21, 22, 26]. It was observed that, bubbles escaped quickly from
underneath the anode surface at higher anode inclination angles.
This was expected because buoyancy force component, parallel
to the anode plane, increases at higher anode inclination angle.
t=4 sec
t=20 sec
Figure 7 Intial bubble formation under the anode surface at 0.087
A/cm2 current density and 1 degree angle.
Bubble cross-sectional 10.76mm
diameter before departure
Bubble thickness 3.7mm
Table 3 Bubble dimensions
Conclusions
The mechanism of bubble formation and movement under the
anode surface was investigated using physical model and a 1/4th
scale low temperature electrolytic model of Hall-Heroult cell.
The bubble size was found to increase with an increase in
5
electrolyte surface tension. A 0.28MCuSO4 + 20%H2SO4
solution was used as electrolyte in the low temperature
electrolytic modelling that produced O2 bubbles under the anode
surface during electrolysis. Proper similarity analysis was carried
out to make the model geometrically and dynamically similar
with the real cell. The behaviour of the electrolytically generated
bubbles were analysed through high speed camera. It was
observed that electrolytic bubbles generate uniformly under the
anode surface and then grow in size due to gas diffusion and
coalescence. The average bubble size before detachment from the
anode edge and thickness was found to be 10.76mm and 3.7mm
when the anode was nearly horizontal. These values were close to
previous literature predictions. The bubble terminal velocity was
not quantified. But it was observed that bubbles escaped quickly
at higher inclination angles. The average bubble size will also
depend on the anode inclination angle which will be reported in
our future study.
Acknowledgments
Authors would like to acknowledge Dr Krishna Mohanarangam,
research scientist of CSIRO, for his kind help during the
experiment and also CSIRO Light Metals Flagship for funding
the project.
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Experimental Trial to Active Control of Protein Mass Flux in Hindered

Diffusion Field

A. Komiya1, J. Chevalier2
1
Institute of Fluid Science
Tohoku University, Sendai 9808577, Japan
2
MATEIS Laboratory
University of Lyon - INSA de Lyon, Villeurbanne 69621, France

Abstract one of significant thermophysical properties from scientific as

well as technological or industrial viewpoints. A better
In this study, we report the experimental results of a series of understanding of diffusion phenomena is one of the essential key
hindered diffusion phenomena of protein by using thin factors and also contributes to, for example, quantitative
membranes for mass transfer. The transient concentration field of evaluation of mass transfer in solutions or production of high
proteins due to mass diffusion in the vicinity of the membrane quality materials such as foods, medicines and new materials [2].
was quantitatively visualized by phase shifting interferometer. However, most of all experiments for determination of mass
The protein passed through the narrow channels in membrane diffusion coefficients are complex and time-consuming because
and partial diffusion occurred. The visualization experiments the diffusion process occurs quite slow and small area should be
were performed under the isothermal condition by using typical precisely measured. Even though in binary diffusion system, the
protein, Lysozyme. The mass flux in each condition was concentration dependence of the diffusion coefficient is not
determined and compared one another. Numerical simulations of simple and satisfying explanation of diffusion phenomena cannot
free diffusion were performed for the comparison of hindered be achieved from the experimental data. Therefore, constant
diffusion. From the results, it is considered that the active mass diffusion coefficients expressing the behaviour at one single
flux control of protein can be realized by changing the pore size component are usually determined from experiment. To date a
and density of channels. The capability and technique for active number of experimental techniques were developed and
control of protein mass transfer are discussed. evaluated [3-7]. These developments focus on the formation of
stepwise distribution of concentration somehow at the initial step
Nomenclature of diffusion, and precise concentration profile at the initial step
makes required measurement time shorter compared with
A amplitude of light previous method [8].
c concentration
c0 speed of light in vacuum Recently, biological engineering requires information about
D diffusion coefficient diffusion phenomena of several proteins in order to study the
d pore diameter mass transfer system in human body. The mass diffusion
E electric field of light coefficients of several proteins are nowadays most important
I intensity of light properties for the studies of medicine, mechanism of digestive in
J mass flux human body and so on. However, intravital condition cannot be
l length between neighbouring channel assumed to free diffusion because there are several kinds of
t time chemical components in the system. The influence among these
tm thickness of membrane components on diffusion phenomena has not been fully
x horizontal coordinate understood yet. Furthermore, the components are not always
x0 position of initial contact transferred in liquid phase such as blood or lymph. It means a
Y dimensionless concentration hindered diffusion occurs in human body. Therefore the most
y vertical coordinate significant problem is the diffusion phenomena of several
Greeks proteins in intravital condition cannot be expressed by traditional
height data of diffusion coefficient.
0 electric permittivity in vacuum At a viewpoint of hindered diffusion, the diffusion phenomena of
polarizing angle proteins have been studied by observing diffusion fields under
wave length the conditions of several kinds of gel or membrane system, and
phase difference effective diffusion coefficients were determined and evaluated
angular frequency [9-11]. Also, by comparing the experimental results with those of
Subscripts free diffusion, the relationship between circumstance condition
r reference and diffusion phenomena was evaluated [12]. These conventional
t test works can be categorized to be a passive control of protein
diffusion.
Introduction
Meanwhile, in this study, we aim to conduct the diffusion
In the research field of transport phenomena, thermophysical experiment at a view point of active mass transfer control of
properties such as viscosity, conductivity, specific heat, thermal protein. As a precursor study, the transient diffusion field of
diffusivity and diffusion coefficient are considered to be Lysozyme is carefully visualized with changing the condition
significant elements to design of chemical processes, equipment such as a diffusion channel diameter by using optical
of fluid flow and heat/mass transfer [1]. Diffusion coefficient is interferometer. From the experimental data, we evaluated the
possibility to control the mass flux of proteins by using
membranes. The experimental result was presented and
compared to literature data of free diffusion.
Experimental setup and procedure
A set-up for performing visualization of small hindered diffusion
fields and precise measurements of the mass flux and diffusion
coefficient must satisfy several strict design requirements. The
device contains optical system, small diffusion cell, image
processing unit and monitor for in-situ measurement. Figure 1
shows a schematic of the visualization system. In this study,
Mach-Zehnder interferometer was used as a basic arrangement of
optical apparatus.
Phase-shifting interferometer
A He-Ne laser (=633nm) (A) that is linearly polarized at an
angle of /4 with respect to the horizontal plane passes through a
ND filter (B) for adjusting an intensity of the beam. The diameter
of laser beam is amplified by an objective lens (C) and filtered
spatially by a pin-hole (D). The beam is collimated by a convex
lens (F) located on an optical rail (G). The convex lens also plays
a role of aperture, so the only the most homogeneous part of the
Gaussian intensity distribution can be obtained as shown in
Figure 1.
The beam is divided into a test beam and a reference beam by a
polarizing beam splitter (H). The polarization angles are /2 and
0 with respect to the horizontal plane. After dividing, the test
beam passes through a diffusion cell on cell stage (I). The test
beam and the reference beam are then combined by another
polarizing beam splitter. At this point, the polarization planes of
these two beams are still perpendicular to each other, therefore
there is no interference between two beams.
In order to make the beams to interfere, a quarter-wave plate (J)
is placed after the convex lens (F). The test beam and reference
beam become circularly polarized. Since the angle of the axis of
the quarter-wave plate is /4, the direction of both circularly
polarized beams is opposite, the test beam is clockwise circularly
polarized while the reference beam is counter-clockwise
circularly polarized. Then the combined circularly polarized
beam passes through a polarizer (K). The beam is filtered for a
single polarization angle, and interferogram image can be
obtained. These three optical devices (convex lens, quarter-wave
plate and polarizer) are settled on an optical rail (G), therefore
they can be moved parallel to the optical axis and magnification
of the field of view can be easily changed and adjusted. A CCD
camera (L), which has 640480 pixels resolution, is located at
the end of optical path and detects interferogram patterns. A
monitor (O) is also installed for in-situ observation of transient
diffusion phenomenon.
In order to attain accurate and reliable measurement of hindered
diffusion area, we utilized the phase shifting technique, a kind of
image processing technique, firstly proposed by Bruning et al.
[13]. The technique requires three different images of
interference for image processing. In this study the proposed
system was modified to obtain these images manually. In front of
the CCD camera (L), the polarizer (K) was mounted in rotating
optical mount. Previous phase shifting interferometer installed
three polarizers in front of CCD cameras. Their fixed polarizing
angles were /4, 0 and /4 respectively and three different
images are taken by three CCD sensors [14,15]. This
configuration often yields difficulty of setups and bias
measurement error caused by individuality of CCD sensors. For
the avoidance of these difficulties, a concept of rotating polarizer
shown in Figure 2 was adopted. It can detect three different
images with only one CCD camera. These detected three
different images are delivered into the image processing unit (M).
The image processing unit calculates phase shifted data with 8bit
brightness digital data (0 to 255 brightness value) from the
detected interferograms.
The electric field of the laser beam E passing through a rotating
polarizer with an angle of is
E ( , ) = Er cos(t ) + Et cos( t + ), (1)
where , and t is the angular frequency of the circularly
polarized light, the phase difference between the reference beam
and the test beam, and time, respectively. The subscripts r and t
denote the reference beam and the test beam, respectively. The
intensity of light I can be expressed as a time average of the
square of light amplitude A. Therefore, the intensity of the beam
can be written as
2 2
I ( , ) = A( , ) dt = c0 0 E ( , ) dt ,
2 2
(2)
0 0
where c0 and 0 denote speed of light and electric permittivity in
vacuum, respectively. From equations (1) and (2), I (, ) can be
expressed as
1 2
I ( , ) =
2
( Ar + At2 ) + Ar At cos( + 2 ). (3)
The intensity distribution depends on both the polarizing angle
and the phase shift . In experiment, three interferograms of
intensity I (, ) are recorded at = 0, 2/3 and 4/3. By using
these three interferograms, the phase difference can be finally
expressed as [16]
I (2 3) I (4 3) (4)
= arctan 3 .
I (2 3) 2 I (0) + I (4 3)
This is the phase-shifting equation that is the base of the image
processing in this study. The image processing unit stores three
different images of 640240 pixels in the memory. The phase
shifted data are calculated applying equation (4) in each pixel,
and stored in a hard disk recorder (N). The advantage of phase-
shifted data is that the precise concentration distribution can be
obtained with spatially high resolution. Therefore, accurate
contour map of concentration field can be obtained.
Figure 1. Schematic of visualization system; A: He-Ne laser, B:
ND filter, C: objective lens, D: pin-hole, E: mirror, F: convex
lens, G: optical rail, H: polarized beam splitter, I: cell stage, J:
quarter-wave plate, K: rotating polarizer, L: CCD camera, M:
image processing unit, N: HDR, O: monitor
Figure 2. Schematic of detecting system for phase shifting
technique by using rotating polarizer. The combined beam passes
through a rotating polarizer inclined 0, 2/3 and 4/3 [rad].
Figure 3(a) shows a typical image of phase-shifted data. Each
pixel has phase difference datum, so transient mass diffusion
field can be obtained with spatially high resolution. The
distribution of phase-shifted data shown in Figure 3(b) is
connected at discontinuous points and the connected intensity
distribution shown in Figure 3(c) becomes one smooth line which
indicates concentration distribution of transient diffusion field. In
this study, the spatial resolution is in the range of 2 10 m.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3. Relationship between phase-shifted data and concent-
ration profile; (a) typical image of phase-shifted data, (b)
intensity distribution of phase-shifted data, (c) connected
intensity distribution at discontinuous points, which can be
interpreted as concentration profile.
Diffusion cell
For the formation of small transient diffusion field, a commercial
quartz glass cell for optical measurement was applied. The cell is
comprised of quartz glass, four copper blocks and a thin
membrane as shown in Figure 4. In order to keep optical path
against thermal expansion, a quartz glass was applied. The four
blocks forms a diffusion channel at the center of quartz glass,
which has dimensions of 4mm in width, 40mm in height and
10mm in depth. A thin membrane, which is exchangeable, is
fixed between upper and lower blocks as shown in Figure 4, and
separates the diffusion channel into two regions.
Figure 4. Schematic of diffusion cell, which consists of quartz
glass for optical measurement, four copper blocks and
microchannel plate (membrane).
Experimental procedure
The experiments were performed under isothermal condition at
298K in temperature-controlled room. The phase-shifting
interferometer and the other apparatus were placed on a vibration
isolating common bed. In this study, typical protein, Lysozyme
(molecular mass = 14307), was applied as target protein. The
protein (from egg white, Lot.K40380581) was provided by
Merck Millipore Japan. Distilled water was used as solvent in all
the solutions. The experiments were conducted by using two
solutions couple whose concentrations are slightly different. In
order to analyze transient diffusion field clearly, the
concentration difference was fixed to 20mg/ml. This concent-
ration difference generates analyzable number of fringes in a
view area.
As precursory experiments for active control of protein diffusion,
several types of the Millipore membrane filters were used.
Representative pore sizes of membrane used in this study were
3m, 5m and 8m. The experimental conditions and parameters
are tabulated in Table 1. Prior to visualization experiment, the
membrane was settled at the center of quartz glass cell. After
high concentration solution was injected up to middle height of
the channel, it was checked whether air bubble exists or not.
After the check, the membrane was put on the two copper blocks
and the bottom half of the channel was covered by the membrane.
The other two copper blocks were then placed in the quartz cell
as shown in Figure 4. Finally low concentration solution was
carefully injected into the channel up to the top of quartz cell.
Then the visualization experiment started and visualized images
of transient diffusion field by the interferometer are stored in the
HDR at the elapsed time, 15, 20 and 25 minutes.
temperature, K 298K
concentration difference, mg/ml 20.0
solute Lysozyme
solution Distilled water
pore size, m 3, 5, 8
thickness of membrane, m 100
Table 1. The experimental conditions and parameters.
Evaluation
Numerical simulation
In this study, an optical interferometer is used for visualization of
hindered diffusion field. It is obviously known that the obtained
images by interferometer give integrated values of the difference
of refractive index (concentration difference in this case) between
reference beam and test beam parallel to the optical axis. It
means there is a difficulty for the evaluation of three-dimensional
structure of concentration profile in the vicinity of membrane
surface. Therefore a simple two-dimensional simulation was
performed for the estimation of the area in which three-
dimensional concentration profile is formed. The fringes or
phase-shifted data obtained in this area contain complicated
information of three-dimensional concentration structure, so that
they are inappropriate to the quantitative evaluation of mass
transport phenomena.
In numerical simulation, the pore location pattern on the
membrane was modelled on repeatable regular pattern as shown
in Figure 5(a). The parameters for calculation are pore diameter,
d, and the length between neighboring channels, l. For the
evaluation of inappropriate area, the height of the area, , was
estimated. As shown in Figure 5(b), there is a layer in which
three-dimensional structure was formed. By comparing two
concentration profiles along line A and line B shown in Figure
5(b), the height, , was determined. Generally, the diffusion
coefficients of Lysozyme give values within a range of 1.010-10
to 1.010-11 m2/s. So, the concentration profiles of an instant time,
t = 900 s, was evaluated at the consideration of the size of
calculation domain and measurement time in experiment.
The governing equation is two dimensional diffusion equation
expressed as
c 2c 2c (5) noted that the elapsed time of diffusion should be longer than 900
= D 2 + 2 ,
t x y s for qualitative evaluation.
where c is the concentration of protein, t is elapsed time, and D is
the diffusion coefficient that is assumed to be constant. Above
governing equation is discretized by a finite difference method
with uniform grids of 200 1100 (x y) in each pit. The
calculation domain has dimensions of 0.4 mm 2.2 mm (x y).
A periodic boundary condition was applied to both left and right
boundaries. Several parameters for the calculation were tabulated
in Table 2.
Figure 5. Parameters and calculation domain; (a) pore location
pattern on the membrane, (b) calculation domain, conditions and
the definition of height, .
length l, m 20, 40, 50, 80, 100, 200
pore diameter d, m 6, 10, 18
diffusion coefficient, D, m2/s 1.010-10, 1.010-11
thickness of membrane tm, m 50, 100, 150
Table 2. Parameter list for numerical simulation.
Figure 6 shows calculation results. As shown in Figure 6(a), the
channel diameter gives no influence of the height, , in case of
the same diffusion coefficient and same membrane thickness.
The height only depends on the length between channels, l. This
is because the relative distance between evaluation points of
concentration profiles, lines A and B in Figure 5(b), are same
when the length, l, is constant even though the molar mass flux is
changed due to the channel diameter. Figure 6(b) gives the
influences of diffusion coefficient and membrane thickness upon
the height, . As is obvious from Figure 6(b) that there is no
influence of diffusion coefficient over a wide range of the length,
l, under the condition of elapsed time at t=900s. When
considering the value of diffusion coefficient range and elapsed
time, the concentration variation reaches that of neighboring
channel under the condition that the length, l, is less than 200 m.
Therefore the concentration profile was already flattened in this
condition and influence of diffusion coefficient could not be
explicitly appeared. In case of small length, l, the thickness of the
membrane slightly affects the height, . This variation is caused
by the difference of time at which concentration change reaches
at the outlet of pores. When the membrane thickness is thin, the
time becomes short and concentration profile is flattened at early
stage in elapsed time. Therefore the height, , was decreased
compared with the case of thicker membrane at the same elapsed
time. According to these results, the transient diffusion field that
is at least 300 m far from the surface of the membrane can be
quantitatively analyzed from the visualization data. It should be
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Numerical simulation results; (a) effect of pore
diameter, (b) effects of diffusion coefficient and the thickness of
membrane.
Evaluation method
For quantitative evaluation of hindered diffusion phenomena,
mass flux of protein instead of mass diffusion coefficient was
focused. From the experimental data, the mass flux was
determined and compared with that of free diffusion. Under the
condition of isothermal diffusion, the concentration at any
location is a function of the Boltzmann parameter which is given
by (x-x0)/t1/2 where x0 denotes the position of initial contact
between high concentration and low concentration solutions. The
mass flux, J, can be determined as a function of a distance x at a
constant time t, which is expressed as [17]
1 c ( x* )
J ( x * ) = + ( x x0 )dc. (6)
2t c
As shown in Figure 7, concentration c is expressed in terms of
the relative dimensionless concentration variable, Y defined by
c ( x, t ) c + (7)
Y ( x, t ) = .
c c+
From equations (6) and (7), the mass flux J can be determined as
a function of location x*, which is expressed as
c *
( x x0 )Y * + * Ydx ,
J ( x* ) = (8)
2t x
The required values are elapsed time t, concentration difference
c, concentration c and initial contact location x0, which are
obtained from the experiment. In the experiment, each pixel has
values of location and concentration information. Therefore
spatially high-resolution evaluation can be done.
Figure 7. Schematic of concentration profile and definition of
dimensionless concentration Y.
Results and discussion
Figure 8 shows the typical result for visualization of hindered
diffusion phenomena. These interferograms were obtained from
the experiment under the condition of 5 m pore size membrane
use at an elapsed time t = 900s. The hindered diffusion in the
vicinity of membrane at the side of low concentration field
(upper region) was visualized and the performance of
visualization system was evaluated. The height of the fields of
view was approximately 1.5mm.
Figure 8. Visualized images of hindered diffusion field;
interferograms which pass through a rotating polarizer inclined
(a) 0 [rad.] (b) 2/3 [rad.] and (c) 4/3 [rad.], (d) is the phase-
shifted data. Black region in (a) to (c) is membrane.
As is obvious in Figure 8, transient diffusion field was clearly
visualized by the interferometer and phase-shifted data was
successfully obtained as shown in Figure 8(d). According to
numerical simulation, the thickness of the region where one-
dimensional diffusion process cannot be verified was
approximately in the order of 102 m, however the fringes near
the surface showed straight pattern as well as phase-shifted data.
It can be considered that the membranes used in this study have a
large number of pores on the surface. Therefore, all data obtained
were taken as an object of reliable data.
Figure 9 shows concentration profiles in the vicinity of
membrane surface at elapsed time t = 900s. Theoretical concent-
ration distribution of Lysozyme free diffusion, which is assumed
that the diffusion coefficient was constant at D = 1.010-10 m2/s
and the concentration difference was 20 mg/ml (lower for 20
mg/ml and upper for distilled water), was also indicated.
Experimental data were plotted in the range from x = 0.05 mm to
approximately 1.5 mm, which corresponds to the position of low
concentration solution. In the case of hindered diffusion, the mass
transport was drastically repressed, and it was supposed that the
concentration profile discontinuously changed at the surface of
membrane. Additionally pore size of the membrane affects the
concentration profile, however the diffusion process is scarcely
affected by the membrane because concentration variations
reached to approximately same position with the case of free
diffusion.
Figure 9. Concentration profiles of hindered diffusion field at
elapsed time t = 900s. Theoretical distribution for free diffusion
is also plotted.
In Figure 10, mass fluxes of hindered diffusion processes were
summarized as a function of location x. Theoretical line in case
of free diffusion was also plotted as well as Figure 9. From the
comparison of the cases between hindered diffusion and free
diffusion, the membrane could efficiently control mass flux only
in the vicinity of its surface, however free diffusion is dominant
in bulk region of solution. In case of the experiment utilizing
small pore size, the result showed the mass flux near the
membrane could be approximately quartered. As parameters for
active control of protein transport phenomena, pore size is one of
applicable parameter even though the pore diameter is much
larger than representative size of protein molecules.
At the view point of time variation of mass flux, Figure 11
summarises the comparison of mass fluxes between numerical
simulation and experiments in the vicinity of membrane surface.
Despite the fact that the mass flux in numerical simulation hardly
changed with time advanced, the experimental results showed the
mass flux was decreased with time. This is because the lack of
supplying molecules from the membrane causes the decrease of
mass flux. The amount of molecules penetrating the membrane is
small even the penetrated molecules were transferred to bulk area
by free diffusion. This reduction regarding to time also has a
potential to control the protein transport actively.

. Bromide in Aqueous Solution, Trans. of the JSRAE, 14,
Figure 10. Mass flux of hindered diffusion field at elapsed time t
= 900s. Theoretical distribution was also plotted.
Figure 11. Time variation of mass flux and comparison between
numerical simulation and experimental results.
Conclusions
In this study, the experimental results of a series of hindered
diffusion phenomena of protein by using membranes were
reported. The transient concentration field of proteins due to
mass diffusion in the vicinity of the membrane was quantitatively
visualized by phase shifting interferometer. From the
experimental data, the concentration profiles were obtained and
mass flux was quantitatively evaluated. It is shown that the pore
size of membrane is one of appropriate parameter for active
control of protein transport even though the pore diameter of
membrane is much larger than representative size of protein
molecules. Furthermore, time variation of mass flux in the
vicinity of the membrane was discussed. For the achievement of
active control of protein transport, suitable yet useful evaluation
method of mass transfer was proposed.
Acknowledgments
The part of this research was funded by the Grant-in-Aid for
Young Scientists (A) (No.21686020) of The Japanese Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT).
The author would like to express the gratitude to the Strategic
Young Researcher Overseas Visits Program for Accelerating
Brain Circulation of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science.
References
[1] Wakeham, W.A., Nagashima, A. Sengers, J.V.,
Measurement of the transport properties of fluids, Blackwell
Scientific Publications, 1991.
[2] Maruyama, S., Shibata, T., Tsukamoto, K., Shimizu, K.,
Measurement of solutal and thermal di usion subjected to
rapid cooling in microgravity by parabolic flight, Heat
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[3] Bochner, N., Pipman, J., A simple mehod of determining
diffusion constants by holographic interferomentry, J. Phys.
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[4] Hattori, M., Aoki, K., Yamada, S., Okubo, T., Holographic
Measurement of the Diffusion Coefficient of Lithium
1997, 97104.
[5] Capobianchi, M., Invine Jr., T.F., Tutu, N.K., Greene, G.A.,
A new technique for measuring the Fickian diffusion
coefficient in binary liquid solutions, Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci.,
18, 1998, 3347.
[6] Komiya, A., Torres, J.F., Maruyama, S., Measurement of
Mass Diffusion Coefficient of Multi-Component System in
Aqueous Media by Phase Shifting Interferometer, Defect
and Diffusion Forum, 297301, 2010, 624630.
[7] Nesmelova, I.V., Skirda, V.D., Fedotov, V.D., Generalized
Concentration Dependence of Globular Protein Self-
Diffusion Coefficients in Aqueous Solutions, Biopolymers,
63, 2002, 132140.
[8] Komiya, A., Maruyama, S., Precise and short-time
measurement method of mass diffusion coefficients, Exp.
Therm. Fluid Sci., 30, 2006, 535543.
[9] Varzakas, T., Escurero, I. and Economou I.G., Estimation of
endoglucanase and lysozyme effective diffusion coefficients
in polysulphone membranes, J. Biotechnol., 72, 1999, 7783.
[10] Gutenwik, J., Nilsson, B. and Axelsson, A., Determination
of protein diffusion coefficients in agarose gel with a
diffusion cell, Biochem. Eng. J., 19, 2004, 17.
[11] Liang, S., Xu, J., Weng, L., Dai, H., Zhang, X. and Zhang,
L., Protein diffusion in agarose hydrogel in situ measured by
improved refractive index method, J. Control. Release, 115,
2006, 189196.
[12] Mattisson, C., Roger, P., Jnsson, B., Axelsson, A. and
Zacchi, G., Diffusion of lysozyme in gels and liquids A
general approach for the determination of diffusion
coefficients using holographic laser interferometry, J.
Chromatogr. B, 743, 2000, 151167.
[13] Bruning, J.H., Herriot, D.R., Gallagher, J.E., Rosenfeld, D.P.,
White, A.D., Brangaccio, D.J., Digital Wavefront Measuring
Interferometer for Testing Optical Surface and Lenses, Appl.
Opt., 13, 1974, 26932703.
[14] Onuma, K., Tsukamoto, K., Nakadate, S., Application of
real time phase shift interferometer to the measurement of
concentration field, J. Cryst. Growth, 129, 1993, 706718.
[15] Maruyama, S., Shibata. T., Tsukamoto, K., Measurement of
di usion elds of solutions using real-time phase-shift
interferometer and rapid heat-transfer control system, Exp.
Therm. Fluid Sci., 19, 1999, 3448.
[16] Torres, J.F, Komiya, A., Shoji, E., Okajima, J. Maruyama, S.,
Development of phase-shifting interferometry for
measurement of isothermal diffusion coefficients in binary
solutions, Opt. Lasers Eng., 50, 2012, 12871296.
[17] Dayananda, M.A., Multicomponent Diffusion Studies in
Selected High-temperature Alloy Systems, Mater. Sci. Eng.,
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23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Artificial active transportation device with enzyme reaction

for self-regulation system of glucose level

Munkhjargal Munkhbayar, Kumiko Miyajima,

Takahiro Arakawa, Hiroyuki Kudo, Kohji Mitsubayashi*
Department of Biomedical Devices and Instrumentation,
Inst. of Biomaterials & Bioengineering, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Japan

Abstract The artificial active transportation organic engine is a

Artificial active transportation device Organic Engine with
enzyme reaction for self-regulation system of glucose level was
constructed and tested. Application to an artificial pancreas in
mind, a drug release unit that works with the mechanical force
generated by glucose oxidase (GOD) reaction was constructed
only with organic materials (Figure 1). The drug release unit
utilizes the pressure decrease resulted from GOD reaction. The
system consists of two units: the decompression unit (based on
the artificial active transportation organic engine) and the drug
release unit. The decompression unit was constructed by
separating a cell into a gas-cell and a liquid-cell with an enzyme
immobilized membrane. These units were evaluated respectively
and combined together to construct the drug release system. The
drug release system was tested in a closed circuit of glucose
solution for the feedback control of the glucose level by glucose
dehydrogenase as a pseudo glucose reducer. As a result, an
intermittent drug release action was confirmed by circulating
glucose solution in the loop. The interval of the drug release
depended on the glucose level and consequently the glucose level
was regulated at an expected level, determined by the release
pressure of the drug release unit. Since the system can control
glucose level without any other power source, artificial pancreas
application is expected.
biochemical actuator that converts chemical energy to
mechanical energy (actual pressure) by exploiting enzyme
reactions. For instance, we reported a tonometric biosensor [1-3].
Since the reactions can be proceeded at room temperature and its
components are gases, pressure rises or decreases by the amount
of gaseous reactants consumed or produced during the reactions
as a source of the mechanical force. There are varieties of the
organic engine applications and one of the most promising
candidates is an artificial organ that requests mechanical actions.
There are numbers of commercially available insulin pumps for
diabetes care. However, they still have some disadvantages to be
cleared. For instance, the diabetics need to monitor their blood
sugar several times per day and perform injections manually by
themselves. The devices also requires electrical power source
(batteries). We focused on the advantage of the artificial active
transportation organic engine that can use glucose as power
source because the blood glucose can be used in this purpose.
In this work, an autonomous drug release system based on the
artificial active transportation organic engine was fabricated
and tested. The system consists of two units: the decompression
unit (based on the organic engine) and the drug release unit. At
first, each element was evaluated respectively and then they were
combined together with the purpose of application to artificial
pancreas.

Experimental
The decompression unit was constructed by dividing an acrylic
cell into a gas-cell and a liquid-cell with an enzyme immobilized
membrane.

Figure 1. Self-regulation system of glucose level with artificial

active transportation device.

Introduction
ATP-powered protein motors (actin/myosin and kinesin etc.)
convert chemical energy to mechanical work in living bodies.
Finding inspiration on those proteins, we have developed an
artificial active transportation organic engine which is a chemo- Figure 2. Structure of the drug release unit with 3 PMMA cells
mechanical conversion devices based on enzyme reaction. and some PDMS membranes
The drug release unit was developed exploiting flexible and
adsorptive features of PDMS membrane (thickness: 40m) and
transparent poly-methyl-methacrylate (PMMA) cells. Pressure
release valve, diaphragm and check valve were prepared with
PDMS. The drug release unit was fabricated by assembling
PMMA cells, PDMS membrane, o-ring and rod (Figure 2).
The drug release system was then fabricated by connecting gas
cells (top cell) and liquid cells (bottom cell) of the decompression
unit and the drug release unit, respectively. Then, the system was
evaluated in a closed loop feedback setting (Figure 3).
Characterization of the active pressure control system was carried
out by circulating glucose solution to the liquid-cell. In the drug
chamber, glucose dehydrogenase was prepared as a pseudo
glucose reducer. The pressure change in the gas-cell (top cell)
was measured using a differential pressure sensor.
Figure 3. Experimental setup for closed loop test with
decompression unit and drug release system connected glucose
solution tube.
Results and Discussion
Characteristics of the decompression unit are given in the related
article. The drug release unit was also evaluated. At first the
reservoir chamber was filled with the test sample (pigment) and
glucose solution was flown into the liquid-cell. The pigment was
successfully released from the drug chamber at the same of the
system pressure release. The pigment release procedure is given
as follows: once glucose solution becomes applied in the system,
the pigment in the reservoir flew into the drug release chamber
by pressure reduction. Backflow to the reservoir is limited by the
check valve. At the same time, valve rod pushes up the pressure
release valve with the upward movement of the diaphragm and
once the valve rod opens pushing the pressure release valve,
pigment releases into the flow loop under diaphragm pumping
strokes by the pressure restoration in the top cell. Consequently,
the system showed excellent integrated and sustained actuations
of both units as a system.
Figure 4 shows the measured pressure change of the system in
closed loop during circulation of glucose solution (100mmol/l).
The release pressure was set to -500 Pa. The actuation interval
(i.e. drug-release interval) of the drug release system became
longer from 402 seconds to 655 seconds. This can be associated
with the reduction of glucose level by the effect of GDH, which
was used as the pseudo glucose reducer. NADH dependent GDH
is known as a high specificity to the D-glucose. GDH was chosen
as glucose reducer to evaluate the glucose reducing effect
utilizing its specificity for the glucose molecule and decrease
glucose concentration by catalysing to gluconic acid.
Figure 4. Pressure change of the drug release system on the
closed loop test with glucose circulation.
The interval of the drug release depended on the glucose level
and consequently the glucose level was regulated at an expected
level, determined by the release pressure of the drug release unit.
Since the system can control glucose level without any other
power source, artificial pancreas application is expected.
Conclusions
A novel drug release system based on the artificial active
transportation organic engine was constructed and tested. The
system works only with the glucose and does not require any
external power source. In addition, the system can be constructed
only with biomaterial and organic materials. In this study, the
drug release system is tested in intermittent drug release action
with the purpose of artificial pancreas applications. As the result
of the closed loop test, which was inspired from the blood flow in
human bodies, the glucose reducer was successfully released into
the glucose circuit and the release timing was determined by the
glucose level.
Acknowledgments
This work was partly supported by Japan Society for the
Promotion of Science (JSPS) Grants-in-Aid for Scientific
Research System, by Japan Science and Technology Agency
(JST) and by MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology) Special Funds for Education and
Research Advanced Research Program in Sensing Biology.
References
[1] Mitsubayashi, K., Organic Engine with Enzyme Catalysis
and Biochemical Actuators with Intelligent Functions A
Biochemical Pump with an Active Transportation System ,
Proceedings of 2nd International Symposium on Next-
Generation Actuators Leading Breakthroughs (April 2008,
Chiba, Japan), p. 163-166.
[2] Y. Wakabayashi, T. Okamoto, H. Saito, H. Kudo, K.
Mitsubayashi, Artificial active transportation system with
biocatalytic reactions for chemo-mechanical energy
conversion, Abstract book of The Nineteenth International
Symposium on Transport Phenomena (August, 2008,
Reykjavik, Iceland).
[3] Mitsubayashi, K., Ohgoshi, T., Okamoto, T., Wakabayashi,
Y., Kozuka, M., Miyajima, K., Saito, H., Kudo, H., Biosens.
Bioelectron. 24 (5), 2009, 15181521
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Modulation of Taylor Vortex in Turbulent Taylor-Couette Flow

over Roughened Inner-Cylinder Surface

T. Tsukahara1, Y. Ishigami1, 2 and Y. Kawaguchi1

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Tokyo University of Science, Yamazaki 2641, Noda, Chiba 278-8510, Japan
2
Department of Engineering Science
The University of Tokyo, Komaba 4-6-1, Meguro, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan

Abstract instance, Krogstad & Antonia [1] demonstrated that the surface
geometry significantly affected on the turbulent characteristics.
We investigated the effects of surface roughness elements on Leonardi et al. [2] investigated turbulent channel flows through
turbulent flows between two concentric rotating cylinders, that is, transverse square bars attached to one wall by direct numerical
roughened turbulent Taylor-Couette flows, by means of direct simulations (DNS). Recently, we also studied the dependence of
numerical simulation. Our main focuses are placed on the flow the (form) drag on ribs immersed in the Taylor-Couette flow [3].
transition with respect to Taylor-votex cells for various radius They reported that the streamwise interval and the height of the
ratios of = Ri/Ro = 0.3790.723. The Reynolds number based roughness elements were important parameters to evaluate the
on the inner cylinder wall speed and the gap between cylinders relationship between the drag and the roughness. However, to
was fixed at 3200, while the outer cylinder was at rest. Due to the authors knowledge, these effects on the Taylor vortex are not
presence of the ribs, the roll cells were found to be dramatically well understood yet. For the aims of estimation and improvement
enhanced compared to those in smooth cylinders. The roll cells of the mixing performance of the roughened Taylor-Couette flow,
were decreased in terms of diameter, but their strengths (vortices) we examined the flow using DNS.
were increased to be 10100 times as large as those in the smooth
case. It implies that the ribs would enhance the fluid mixing. Flow system and numerical procedure
Definitions: Taylor-Couette flow with ribs
Nomenclature
In the Taylor-Couette flow system, the fluid is enclosed between
d gap of cylinders, = Ri Ro two co-axially rotating cylinders with radiuses Ri and Ro for the
h height of rib inner and the outer ones, respectively. The gap width between the
Li length of computational domain cylinders is denoted as d. We limit our present study to the case
Ni number of grid points where the outer cylinder is at rest, while only the inner cylinder is
p pressure rotating at a constant angular velocity . Several transverse ribs
r radial coordinate as the roughness blocks are installed on the inner cylinder surface
Ri inner cylinder radius with a regular interval in the circumferential direction. Figure 1
Ro outer cylinder radius shows the coordinate system and one of test cases where two ribs
Rf flux-Richardson number are located at 180-degree different positions. The interval w and
Rew Reynolds number the height h of the ribs are fixed for each test case. The section of
u velocity vector, = (ur, u. uz) the rib is in the form of square as h h with h = 0.1d, if it is
Uw wall speed of inner-cylinder surface mapped to the Cartesian coordinate.
w streamwise interval of ribs
z axial coordinate
ratio of radius, = Ri Ro
circumferential coordinate Computational
Grid number
kinematic viscosity Case w/h domain
(N Nr Nz)
angular velocity of inner cylinder (L Lr Lz)
time-averaged streamwise vorticity Smooth /2 1 4.58
R2 49 1 4.58
Introduction R4 0.617 24 /2 1 4.58
R8 11 /2 1 4.58
As well known, the Taylor-Couette flow with the smooth
R12 7 1 4.58
cylinders has been studied by a number of researchers as a
Smooth- 128 256
challenging problem due to its rich nonlinear dynamics. In /2 1 4.58
particular, the steady vortex state, the so-called Taylor-vortex large 0.723
flow, has been well documented in the literature. This stable and R4-large 40 /2 1 4.58
Smooth-
large vortex may be applied efficiently and practically into some 1 4.58
industrial machines for mixing. In the case of these applications, small 0.379
roughness elements or obstructions on the cylinder surfaces R4-small 9 1 4.58
would affect on the fluid flow characteristics more or less. For
Table 1. Computational parameters and conditions
 zz

Ribs 1 Bilson et al. (2007, DNS)
Smith&Townsend (1982, Exp.)
(for R2)
R2 Smooth
R2 R8
0.8 R4 R12

U /Uw
0.6

0.4

R
R1i 0.2

Ro2
R 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
r/d
rr
dd Figure 2. Wall-normal distribution of mean streamwise velocity
depending on the number of ribs.
Figure 1. Configuration of flow system between two concentric
cylinders with ribs installed on the inner-cylinder surface.
1 Smooth R2
Table 1 summarizes some computational parameters that pertain Smooth-large R4-large
Smooth-small R8
to ribs, such as, the radius ratio of = Ri/Ro and w/h, and to the 0.8 R4-small
numerical conditions, namely, the domain size to calculate and
the grid number in each direction. Each index represents the
U /Uw

number of ribs mounted on the inner cylinder surface. In addition, 0.6

the suffixes of -large and -small indicate a case of large
cylinders (with larger ) and that of small cylinders (smaller ),
respectively. For instance, R4-large represents the case of four
mounted ribs on the cylinder with = 0.723. The case of
Smooth corresponds to the smooth surface of the cylinders
without any rib.
Numerical implementation and conditions
The present DNS was carried out utilizing a finite-difference
computer code, where the incompressible momentum equation
was discretized in cylindrical coordinates by the 2nd- or 4th-
order central difference scheme and the presence of roughness
blocks was demonstrated by the immersed-boundary method [4].
The non-dimensional governing equations we adopted are
u 0 (1) data in the literature, although those measurements are limited in
and
t u u u p Re w1 2 u 2 u, (2) Smith & Townsend [7] is attributed to the differences in the
with Rew = Uwd/ the Reynolds number based on the wall speed
of the inner cylinder, namely, Uw = Ri.
At least, for the smooth-cylinders case, we confirmed a reliability
of our DNS by obtaining some consistent results with existing
works. As mentioned above, we tested various cases in terms of
the number of ribs, that is, the interval of regularly spaced ribs
was systematically changed from w = 7h to 49h (h is the rib
height and set to be equal to tenth of the gap width).
In the present study, we restrict the discussion to the Taylor-
Couette flow with a rotating inner cylinder and a static outer one.
The Reynolds number was fixed at Rew = 3200. According to the
flow map obtained by Andereck et al. [5], we may expect that
turbulent Taylor-vortex cells should occur and be stationary in
time and space at this Reynolds number.
Results and discussion
Mean velocity profile
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
r/d
Figure 3. Same as Figure 2, but an emphasis is placed on the
dependency on the radius ratio, i.e., the curvature effect.
Figure 2 shows the mean velocity (circumferential velocity u)
distribution along the radial axis, normalized by the outer scale.
In order to validate the present simulation, let us compare with
smooth cylinders and at different Reynolds numbers. The present
result in the case of Smooth agrees well with the profile obtained
by Bilson et al. [6]. The deviation from the experimental result of
Reynolds number and the radius ratio. As for the cylinders with
ribs, it can be clearly seen that the mean velocity is increased
throughout the gap, as shown in Figure 2. This upward shifting
becomes large with increasing the number of ribs, since the form
drag due to the ribs on the inner cylinder surface increases.
The dependency of u on the curvature is examined in Figure 3.
For the smooth cylinders, the mean velocity increases uniformly
in the core region for SS-large, where the curvature is relatively
large. It is consistent with the fact that the mean velocity profile
should become symmetric with respect to the centre of the gap
and its bulk would be Uw/2 as 1. On the other hand, when
decreases, the velocity decreases especially in the outer half of
the gap. Also shown are R4-large and R4-small, which have the
almost same length of the rib interval, w/h, with R2 and R4,
respectively. The cases of R2 and R4-large reveal increases of u
compared to those for each counterpart. However, the area where
u is significantly raised appears in r > 0.1d, while the profile in r
0.1d does not depend apparently on but on w/h. It can be
concluded that the outer layer above the rib would be affected by
 (a) (b) (c) 1.5

1
0.009

, rms
0.006

, rms
0.5 0.003

0
-0.1 0 r/d 0.1

0
0 10 20 30 40
w/h
Smooth R2 R4
Smooth-large R8 R4-large
Smooth-small R12 R4-small
z/d Figure 6. Intensity of Taylor vortex, or root-mean-square of time-
-0.02 0.02 -2.0 2.0 averaged vorticity, as a function of interval of ribs.
r/d
u r u z
Figure 4. Time-averaged velocity vector and contour of vorticity r , , z (3)
in an r-z plane: (a) Smooth, (b) R2, and (c) R4. z r .
Figure 4 shows distributions of in an r-z cross section at the
(a) (b) (c) midpoint between ribs for R2 and R4. As for the smooth case, an
arbitrary plane is chosen for comparison. Note that the vectors
and exhibited less dependency on (figure not shown for
another circumferential position), indicating the fact that the
Taylor vortexes we observed here were homogeneous with
respect to the circumferential direction. Even with the ribs, their
diameter and spacing in the axial direction seem to be unchanged
in R2. In contrast, the vortexes for R4 align with shorter spacing.
Although not shown in the figure, other cylinder cases with more
ribs, i.e., R8 and R12, are accompanied by three pairs of counter-
rotating cells. It should be noted that the contour level of Figure
4(b) and (c) is as large as 100 times of that of (a). Therefore, the
magnitude of the Taylor vortex is significantly enhanced by the
ribbed surface. The axial spacing of roll cells is also affected,
although further DNS with a much larger domain is required to
estimate the variation of the Taylor-vortex diameter.
Kobayashi et al. [8] demonstrated that the strength of the Taylor
vortex would be varied by different curvatures, i.e., the radius
z/d ratio of . In Figure 5, the distributions for the smooth
cylinders with different and the case of R4 are compared. With
r/d -0.02 0.02 -2.0 2.0 an increase of , the magnitude of vorticity is slightly enhanced,
but the Taylor vortex practically remains unchanged. As for
Figure 5. Same as Figure 4, but for (a) Smooth-large, (b) Smooth- Smooth-small, any regular pattern of roll cells cannot be clearly
small, and (c) R4-small. seen: the time-averaged flow shown in an arbitrary cross section
was actually found to alter randomly. This is consistent with the
the change of , resulting in somewhat gentle velocity gradient as result of Kobayashi et al. [8], where the absence of Taylor vortex
1, in the similar manner with that of the smooth case. in small was reported. However, it must be worthwhile to note
that the ribbed cylinder (R4-small) with the same with Smooth-
Modulation of Taylor vortex small gives rise to stable-state roll cells with their hundredfold
vorticity. It implies that ribs would make roll cells stable to occur.
It is of interest to analysis the changes in the Taylor vortexes
depending on the rib installation, as mentioned in Introduction. For the all cases we tested, the strength of the Taylor vortex is
The Taylor vortex generally has the diameter comparable to the plotted in Figure 6 as a function of w/h. The integral of the root-
channel gap width and is characterized by rather long time scale mean-square value of is calculated as an indicator of the
relative to turbulent time scale. For extracting such a large-scale Taylor-vortex strength. It can be clearly seen that the Taylor
structure from turbulent flows, it must be appropriate to see the vortex was enhanced significantly by the ribs. The results
quasi-mean velocity field, which is averaged in a reasonable time obtained for the smooth cases are plotted at w/h = 0. Their orders
period. We here employ the time-averaged streamwise vorticity: of ,rms are found to be O(102), and the changes in induces
20% variation of ,rms. In the cases of ribbed cylinders, ,rms
increases by two order of magnitude. One may observe two
distinct regimes that ,rms increases until w/h reaches a certain
 (a) (b)
(c) (d)
z/d
z/d
R
1/d
Ri/d
u u Rf corresponds to stabilization of the relevant flow, a negative
Figure 7. Instantaneous streamwise velocity fluctuation in an z-
plane: (a) at r/d = 0.005 and (b) at r/d = 0.995, for Smooth; (c) at
r/d = 0.005 and (d) at r/d = 0.995, for R8.
length and then it exhibits a weak dependence on w/h. The length
of its turning point is much longer than the reattachment length.
This may correspond to a lengthening of the separated region
adjacent to the cavity floor [2].
Typical snap shots of turbulent flow fields are given in Figure 7,
where the streamwise velocity distributions in a near-inner plane
or a near-outer plane are visualized. While the streaks with
herringbone-like patterns, which occur near the smooth inner
cylinder and may be allocated by the Taylor vortex (see Figure
7(a)), are less observed in Figure 7(c) due to the disturbing by the
ribs, some traces of the Taylor vortexes appear more clearly in
the roughened case: please compare Figures 7(b) and (d). The
herringbone streaks are known to be pronounced by the in-flow
pertaining to the Taylor vortex [9-11]. For the ribbed cases, the
out flow should be also strengthened by ribs, resulting in
herringbone-like patterns in the near-outer plane, as given in
Figure 7(d).
Flux-Richardson number
In the literature, the Taylor number defined by
Ta Re 1
1
w 1
(4)
. super-computers NEC SX-9 of Cyberscience Centre at Tohoku
is often used as a parameter to quantify the instability of the
Taylor-Couette flow, which is governed only by the Reynolds
number and the radius ratio. As discussed above, the present flow
is should be strongly affected by the presence of ribs, that is not
taken account in Equation (4). Hence, let us employ the flux-
Richardson number proposed by Bradshaw [12] to determine the
flow instability locally with respect to different wall-normal
positions. The flux-Richardson number
0.5
Smooth
0.4 Smooth-large
Smooth-small
R8
R4-small
0.3
r/d
0.2
0.1
0
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0
Rf
Figure 8. Wall-normal distribution of Flux-Richardson number.
2U r
Rf (5)
r (U r ) r .
is an revised Richardson number, which can be applied also for
curved flows where the centrifugal force becomes dominant.
Here, U represents the ensemble-averaged u. While a positive
means destabilization. Figure 8 present the wall-normal profile of
this quantity for several cases with emphasis on half of the gap
near the inner cylinder. Three smooth cases with different and
two ribbed cases with different but the same w/h are compared.
It can be clearly seen that, for the small cylinders with low , the
negative Rf becomes large, inducing the destabilization of the
flow and stimulating the Taylor vortex. This tendency is
confirmed also in the ribbed cases. Moreover, the presence of
ribs is found to make the flow unstable with large negative R f, as
given in Figure 8.
Conclusions
We have presented an investigation of roll-cells modulation and
augmentation in Taylor-Couette flows, roughened with transverse
ribs using direct numerical simulation. The variations of the
Taylor-vortex cells in terms of size and magnitude have been
determined for a range of w/h. The distributions of time-averaged
vectors and streamwise vorticity, in conjunction with the RMS
value of the vorticity, indicate that the Taylor vortex has been
stimulated by ribs on the inner-cylinder surface. The maximum
of its vorticity occurs at w/h = 11. Herringbone streaks appear
clearly also near the outer-cylinder wall, since the outflow from
the inner-cylinder side is strengthened by the ribs. The present
results imply that the ribs would enhance the mixing of fluid.
Acknowledgments
The present series of simulations were performed with the use of
University and of Earth-Simulator Centre of JAMSTEC.
References
[1] Krogstad, P.-. and Antonia, R.A., Surface Roughness
Effects in Turbulent Boundary Layers, Exp. Fluids, 27, 1999,
450460.
[2] Leonardi, S., Orlandi, P., Smalley, R.J., Djenidi, L., and
Antonia, R.A., Direct Numerical Simulation of Turbulent
 Channel Flow with Transverse Square Bars on One Wall, J.
Fluid Mech., 491, 2003, 229238.
[3] Ishikawa, M., Tsukahara, T., Motozawa, M., Iwamoto, K.,
Kawashima, H. and Kawaguchi, Y., Direct Numerical
Simulation of Turbulent Taylor-Couette Flow with a
Roughened Inner Cylinder, Proc. the Eighth KSME-JSME
Thermal and Fluids Eng. Conf., Incheon, Korea, Mar. 1821,
2012, GSF24-006 (USB), 4pp.
[4] Fadlun, E.A., Verzicco, R., Orlandi, P. and Mohd-Yusof, J.,
Combined Immersed-boundary Finite-difference Methods
for Three-Dimensional Complex Flow Simulations, J.
Comput. Phys., 161, 2000, 3560.
[5] Andereck, C.D., Liu, S.S. and Swinney, H.L., Flow Regimes
in a Circular Couette System with Independently Rotating
Cylinders, J. Fluid Mech., 164, 1986, 155183.
[6] Bilson, M. and Bremhorst, K., Direct Numerical Simulation
of Turbulent Taylor-Couette Flow, J. Fluid Mech., 579,
2007, 227270.
[7] Smith, G.P. and Townsend, A.A., Turbulent Couette Flow
between Concentric Cylinders at Large Taylor Numbers, J.
Fluid Mech., 123, 1982, 187217.
[8] Kobayashi, M., Maekawa, H., Takano, T. and Yamada, Y.,
An Experimental Study on Turbulent Taylor Vortex Flow
between Concentric Cylinders, Trans. JSME Ser. B, 55-517,
1989, 25812589 (in Japanese).
[9] Barcilon, A., Brindley, J., Lessen, M. and Mobbs, F.R.,
Marginal Instability in TaylorCouette Flows at a Very High
Taylor Number, J. Fluid Mech., 94, 1979, 453463.
[10] Dong, S., Direct Numerical Simulation of Turbulent Taylor
Couette Flow, J. Fluid Mech., 587, 373393.
[11] Dong, S., Herringbone Streaks in Taylor-Couette Turbulence,
Phys. Rev. E., 77, 2008, 035301, 4 pp.
[12] Bradshaw, P., The Analogy between Streamline Curvature
and Buoyancy in Turbulent Shear Flow, J. Fluid Mech., 36,
1969, 177191.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Gas-Liquid Interaction in Internally Mixed Twin-Fluid Atomization

J. Jedelsky1 and M. Jicha1

1
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Brno University of Technology, Brno 61669, Czech Republic

Abstract gas with atomized liquid, discharge of two-phase gas-liquid

mixture, primary breakup of the liquid structures and secondary
Twin-fluid atomizers with internal mixing, such as effervescent breakup of formed droplets [15]. Input pressure energy of both
atomizers, are based on mixing of a gas with the sprayed liquid the fluids, mostly stored in the energy of the compressed gas, is
prior to discharge. Near nozzle two-phase flow undergoes converted into their motion, expansion work, interaction with
fragmentation process, mixing with surrounding air and gas surrounding air and into increased surface energy of the droplets.
expansion leading to a complex character of flow field. We first All these steps are closely related to the gas-liquid interaction and
generally describe the interaction between droplets and gas jet governed by the pressurised gas expansion. Break-up mechanism
using simple theoretical models, following with elucidation of and spray development of internally-mixed atomizers have been
dynamics of droplets in an effervescent spray using experimental intensively studied in past two decades [5, 6, 9, 11, 12, 14]
data. Spatially resolved data were acquired using Phase Doppler however more detailed insight into the development of the spray
anemometry for a range of operation conditions. Significant and energy transfer between gas and liquid is important for
discrepancy between real spray and the model predictions was continuing advancement of their atomization performance. We
found and related to spray unsteadiness, break-up of the liquid, address the issue studying the gas-liquid interaction in the spray
dense flow and a highly complex three-dimensional character of
the jet with turbulent flow and mixing with ambient air. Velocity
field of the droplets is affected by the gas less than predicted by
simple models and the difference between predictions and real
situation depends on character of the internal flow. Particle
velocity close the spray centreline depends on discharge
conditions. Gas flow affects strongly small particles near the
nozzle and also larger particles with increasing axial distance.
Near the spray edge mixing of the spray mass with surrounding
air takes place which leads to selective deceleration of small
particles.

Nomenclature
a acceleration
D diameter
GLR specific entropy
p pressure Figure 1. Principle of effervescent atomization.
r radial distance
Stk Stokes number
t time
w velocity
w normalised velocity y x
Z0 decay constant
10 mm

z axial distance z
dynamic viscosity
density

Indices
0 original value
d droplet
g gas
r relative

Introduction
Twin-fluid atomizers with internal mixing, such as effervescent
and Y-jet atomizers, have been used in a number of practical
applications, for example for combustion of heavy liquids, in gas
turbine engines, internal combustion engines, for spray drying,
Figure 2. Photography of an effervescent spray, p = 10 kPa,
spray coating, in process industries and others. Their spray
GLR = 0.1 %.
formation process consists of the internal mixing of atomizing
generated by a single-hole effervescent atomizer. Dynamics of
droplets is described using simple theoretical examples and
compared with experimental data acquired using Phase Doppler
anemometry (PDA).
Working principle of an effervescent atomizer is clear from
Figure 1. The gas is injected with low relative velocity into a
liquid flowing through central channel of the atomizer. Gas-
liquid two-phase flow is created upstream of the atomizer
discharge orifice. The liquid, reaching the discharge orifice, is
transformed by the gas volumes into thin film and ligaments. Gas
volumes emerging from the nozzle at significant pressure drop
(typically hundreds of kPa), expand rapidly and disintegrate the
liquid into droplets. Interaction between the two fluids depends
significantly on relative amount of gas and liquid in the mixture
(gas to liquid mass ratio, abbrev. GLR).
The atomizer E34 used in our study uses light heating oil, which
is sprayed continuously with air as an atomizing medium in the
outside-in gas injection configuration. For more data about the
atomizer, test bench and measurement technique see [4].
Figure 3. Size number distribution for regime p = 0.3 MPa, GLR
= 5 %, axial position z = 100 mm, varying radial distance.
Figure 4. Velocity profiles for regime p = 0.3 MPa, GLR = 5 %,
varying axial distance.
Typical spray structure is shown in Figure 2, where
continuous liquid structures emerging the exit orifice
change into liquid ligaments, stretch and finally break up
due to shear forces. This process leads to a wide and
spatially variable size distribution (Figure 3). The droplet
size spectrum spans from micron sized droplets to more
than one hundred micron drops. Discharged mixture is
heterogeneous with significant differences between the
velocity of the gas and the liquid phase. Gas flows with
relatively high velocity (choked for pressures in 0.2 MPa
range) tearing of the relatively slowly flowing liquid. Exit
liquid velocity is thus always lower than the gas velocity.
Moving away the gas expands, mixes with surrounding air
and decelerates. The propelling gas effect thus disappears
with radial distance and with distance from the exit orifice
as seen in Figure 4. The gas/liquid interaction shows a
two-way coupling effect [13].
Dynamics of Droplets in Gas Flow
Twin-fluid sprays can be, in the simplest approximation,
modelled as a cloud of droplets dispersed in a gas flow. Velocity
of gas discharged with the velocity wg0 decays with the flight
distance z approximately as [2]:
wg wg 0 exp z Z 0 (1)
where Z0 is the decay constant. The velocity of individual
droplets is governed by a momentum equation [16, 17], relating
the acceleration, ad, of a droplet to the relative velocity of the gas
to the droplet:
18 g
ad
dwd
dt
l Dd2
wd wg . (2)
Initial (discharge) velocities of the gas and liquid phases depend
on the operation conditions and internal flow regime and
gas/liquid thermodynamic interaction [1]. In the case of very well
mixed phases (homogeneous flow, abbrev. HF) velocity of both
the fluids at the moment of discharge can be similar, however
usually the gas flows with higher velocity compared to the liquid.
The highest slip between gas and liquid velocities occurs in the
case of separated phases (separated flow abbrev. SF). Real slip
between the phases will be somewhere between both the limiting
cases of the discharge.
A simulation based on equations 1 and 2 was made for three
cases: a) identical initial (i.e. discharge) velocity of the liquid and
gas wd0 = wg0 (i.e. HF), b) wd0 = 0.5 wg0, c) wd0 = 0 (i.e. SF
neglecting the liquid discharge velocity, which is for low
pressures small compared to the gas velocity) as seen in Figure 5.
Particle behaviour is expressed using their Stokes number:
l Dd2 wd 0 wg 0
Stk (3)
18 g Z 0
g wg wg 0 and
To generalize the results relative velocities w
d wd wg 0 and relative distance zr = z/Z0 are used on the
w
corresponding axis.
Particles with Stk << 1 reach the gas velocity in short distance for
all the inspected cases. In case a) relative velocity difference
((wd-wg)/wd) increases from zero to about 5 % at zr = 0.17 due to
fast initial drop in the gas velocity and then gradually decreases
for larger distances, falling below 2 % at zr = 1.
High original relative velocity difference in cases b) and c) drops
down fast, changes from negative to positive when the wg drops
below wd and after its positive maximum about 4 % at zr = 0.25
for case b) and at zr = 0.26 for case c) decreases similar way as in
the case a). Larger particles need more time to reach the
equilibrium with gas flow. Particles with Stk = 1 flow with
relative velocity difference > 27 % for all the cases at zr = 1.
Better agreement is found for cases b) and c) due to lower initial
droplet velocity. Large Stk particles move almost without change
of velocity for cases a) and b) at least up to zr = 2. In case c) they
accelerate up to about 22 % of wg0 at zr = 1.5 reaching actual wg.
Real behaviour of droplets in twin-fluid sprays is not as simple as
described above due to several reasons:
The discharge of the gas-liquid mixture is a complex process
with a momentum and heat transfer. HF and SF models are
the extreme cases of what occurs in real discharge. The
liquid breaks up into ligaments, larger droplets and final
droplets and also droplet agglomeration takes place. Droplet
size and shape therefore varies during the flow.
The discharge is highly turbulent [11] and transverse mixing
due to the turbulent motion causes a mass and momentum
transfer in transverse direction which flattens (homogenizes)
the radial velocity profile and induces larger forces to
droplets compared to the linear trajectory case.
Internally-mixed sprays are known to be unsteady [8, 10].
Discharge of two-phase mixture is characterized with
temporally varying GLR. Portions of higher and lower than
average gas-liquid fractions are observed. This gas-liquid
separation, leading to a formation of droplet clouds
(clusters), results in reduced transfer between the gas and
liquid phase (also the drag force is thus lower than estimated
Figure 5. Relative velocity of gas and particles with different Stk
for different cases of discharge.
by our simple simulation) and to a velocity bias when
estimating the gas velocity using droplet velocity. Particle
concentration, as estimated using PDA data, depends on
operation conditions and it is in order 103104 cm-3 in the
spray centreline and in order 102103 cm-3 in r = 40 mm at z
= 100 mm. It suggests for relatively dilute two-phase flow
for randomly positioned particles. However due to the
clustering effect local concentration could grow tenfold. In
that case two-way and perhaps also four-way coupling is to
be considered. A study of particle-laden jet [3] shows the
droplets cause suppression of turbulence; this effect is
proportional to the droplets' concentration.
Gas density varies during the expanding flow and equation 1
describing the velocity decay, does not include also other
effects of choked two-phase flow.
The simple simulation was made for movement in axial
direction, flow in other directions would be more complex.
Experimental Data
We have done a measurement of droplet velocity in twin-fluid
spray using PDA. The measurement, described in detail in [4],
was performed for various operation conditions and positions in
the spray. Figure 6 show arbitrary results of size-velocity
correlations in two different positions. Individual particles are
represented by dots, also 50 particle flowing average and +/-
standard deviation are displayed. Data for more axial and radial
positions at different operation conditions were acquired. They
are documented in Table 1. Mean and fluctuating velocity was
calculated for 11 particle size classes represented by their mean
size. The first size class (0.5 m), which contains the smallest
particles, was included as an estimate of the gas flow.
Description of these results is arranged according the operation
regimes represented by pressure and GLR.
Regime: p = 0.1 MPa, GLR = 2 %, rr = 0
All four data sets for individual z positions show similar
behaviour; particles up to certain size (up to 20 m for z = 50
mm, to 30 m (100 mm), to 40 m (150 mm) and to 60 m (200
mm)) show relatively low velocity and reasonably growing
velocity for larger droplets. An exception are the smallest
droplets (05 m) with higher velocity compared to e.g. 10 m
droplets. The velocity difference between the fastest and slowest
particles is relatively small, also when compared with the rms
velocity for individual size classes; it is about 15 % at 50 mm and
increases to 30 % at 200 mm. The effervescent spray, which is
inherently unsteady [10], is characterised with temporally
varying gas to liquid mass fraction at exit orifice. Discharge
velocity of the heterogeneous mixture varies between low values
when more liquid occupies the exit orifice and high values for
more gas discharged. The smallest particles, with low Stk, are
most likely found also in the high velocity cases. Drop in particle
velocity at low GLR intervals, as seen in Figure 7 top, results in
negative size-velocity correlation (Figure 7 bottom). Higher
velocity of large particles is attributed to their inertia which
prevents their deceleration in the cases where gas velocity drops
below the droplet velocity (Figure 5). Lower size limit of such
resisting droplets increases with axial distance.
Fluctuation velocity wrms (which is an estimation of the velocity
standard deviation) is 23 m/s for all the cases, particles with D <
40 m show systematically decreasing rms velocity with axial
distance. No correlation between particle size and wrms was
found. Droplet velocity fluctuations are caused by two factors
mainly: turbulent flow motion and unsteadiness in the spray.
Normalized fluctuation velocity w rms wrms wmean (estimation of
the coefficient of variation) decreases moderately with particle
size, except for the smallest particles, suggesting for lower effect
of the gas turbulence to large particles. The wrms is relatively
high for all particle sizes which suggests it is mainly caused by
the flow unsteadiness.
Regime: p = 0.3 MPa, GLR = 5 %, rr = 0
As in the previous case only very small differences between
velocities of different size classes are found. Indistinctive
velocity maximum for 40 m (z = 50 mm), 60 m (z = 50 mm),
80 m (z = 50 mm) and probably 100+ m is seen in Table 1. So
that gas velocity already decelerates the droplets having effect on
particles smaller than these mentioned at given distance.
Normalized fluctuation velocity wrms is about 20 % and varies
with size and distance. It systematically decreases for particles
bellow 40 m and have chaotic character for larger particles.
Regime: p = 0.5 MPa, GLR = 10 %, rr = 0
Internal flow is probably annular in this case, with gas flowing
centrally and liquid flowing close to the walls.
Low number of droplets was found for z = 50 mm which
confirms this assumption. More particles in larger z positions
appear due to turbulent transverse mixing. Size velocity
correlation is very weakly positive for distances 100 and 150 mm
and negative for 200 mm. It is difficult to explain this behaviour
as intensity of the transverse particle transport depends on
particle size and concentration, turbulence intensity and also
power spectral density of the fluctuations. Effect of the transverse
transport on the size velocity correlation for other regimes (as the
previously described cases) is weaker. For cases with lower GLR
(bubbly flow) the initially large particle concentration in the
centreline is less affected by the transport from outer - less
seeded positions and vice versa. Discharge at lower input
pressures leads to less turbulent flow.
Regime: p = 0.5 MPa, GLR = 10 %, rr = 0.2 and 0.4
Strong positive size velocity correlation is seen for z = 50 mm.
For larger z distances the correlation diminishes. In these radial
positions mixing of the jet-like flow with still ambient air leads to
deceleration of particles which naturally affects small particles
more significantly than larger ones.

p GLR r/z w size [microns]

[MPa] [%] [mm/mm] [m/s] 0.5 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100
0/50 16.5 15.4 14.9 15.0 15.6 16.1 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.8 16.7
wmean

0/100 13.7 13.9 12.7 12.7 13.0 13.5 14.3 14.6 15.3 15.3 15.6
0/150 0.0 13.4 11.6 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.8 12.2 13.1 13.1 13.9
0/200 12.2 11.8 10.5 10.4 10.5 10.5 10.6 10.8 12.0 12.4 13.3
0.1 2
0/50 1.58 2.49 2.84 2.79 2.79 2.47 2.33 2.47 2.35 2.37 2.24
0/100 2.34 2.56 2.47 2.54 2.58 2.53 2.28 2.42 1.95 1.85 1.81
wrms

0/150 0.00 2.74 2.18 2.16 2.28 2.13 2.43 2.19 2.21 2.15 1.89
0/200 2.91 3.03 2.05 1.95 2.12 2.13 2.33 2.25 2.36 1.96 2.01
0/50 65.8 62.8 63.1 65.7 69.6 70.8 69.9 67.6 66.0 63.0 59.2
wmean

0/100 57.3 53.4 52.2 54.1 56.8 60.4 60.8 62.3 59.7 58.5 54.2
0/150 46.1 44.8 45.2 45.6 46.2 47.3 48.2 49.2 50.2 53.2 50.8
0/200 39.2 39.8 39.6 40.1 40.8 41.2 41.4 42.6 45.5 45.7 48.5
0.3 5
0/50 14.2 14.9 14.9 15.1 15.1 14.6 14.5 14.3 12.8 12.7 11.6
0/100 11.1 11.2 10.8 11.5 11.6 12.6 11.7 10.8 11.0 10.5 9.2
wrms

0/150 8.49 8.60 8.75 8.45 9.14 9.23 10.1 10.3 10.0 10.6 9.0
0/200 5.25 7.15 7.42 7.53 8.04 8.55 9.69 9.52 10.4 9.6 7.0
0/50 95.6 101 99.2 95.8 97.4 95.6
wmean

0/100 76.2 74.7 76.7 77.7 78.6 81.7 82.6 82.4 87.1 88.1
0/150 66.5 65.8 65.5 66.1 66.0 65.7 65.5 67.0 65.1 66.3 75.5
0/200 58.0 56.0 56.2 56.8 55.9 55.0 54.5 52.1 54.6 55.0 48.7
0.5 10
0/50 12.7 15.4 15.8 14.1 13.2 13.8
0/100 14.9 14.8 14.3 14.2 14.8 15.6 15.0 13.8 13.1 14.8
wrms

0/150 14.1 10.9 12.1 11.7 12.8 13.4 14.0 14.5 15.9 15.8 21.5
0/200 12.8 10.6 10.5 10.7 11.0 11.7 12.2 12.5 13.4 10.2 14.4
10/50 24.8 26.5 25.9 26.6 29.2 32.7 35.8 38.4 40.5 39.0
wmean

20/100 9.3 9.3 10.0 8.7 8.1 8.6 8.5 9.8 11.4 14.1 20.8
30/150 4.0 3.6 3.6 2.7 3.1 3.7 3.6 3.8 3.8 3.7 4.4
40/200 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.1 1.7 1.8 2.1 2.3 2.3 2.0 2.6
0.5 10
10/50 9.51 11.1 11.6 11.8 11.9 11.3 9.70 7.98 7.87 8.32
20/100 5.34 5.70 6.70 5.82 5.23 5.20 5.33 6.24 7.16 7.97 6.96
wrms

30/150 2.71 3.11 2.76 2.63 2.67 2.89 2.93 2.92 2.99 3.05 3.46
40/200 1.54 1.55 2.12 1.06 1.97 1.83 1.75 1.82 1.69 2.15 2.26
20/50 8.3 8.5 7.1 7.2 6.2 8.2 10.2 12.9 15.3 17.2
wmean

30/50 8.7 7.9 3.3 1.9 3.1 4.5 6.3 7.8 12.1
40/50 5.2 3.3 1.6 1.5 2.3 5.1 7.6 11.5
60/50 1.3 1.4 1.7 2.9 7.3
0.5 10
20/50 5.71 7.60 4.74 5.16 5.30 5.67 6.08 6.06 5.78 4.29
30/50 6.69 4.79 2.90 2.48 3.08 3.65 4.20 4.24 2.44
wrms

40/50 4.72 3.19 2.29 1.50 2.57 3.11 2.98 1.08

60/50 0.92 2.12 1.81 2.03 0.50

Table 1. Size resolved mean and rms velocity of particles for different operation conditions and positions in the spray.

Figure 6. size-velocity correlation, p = 0.5 MPa, GLR = 10 %,
top: rr = 0.0, z = 200 mm, bottom: rr = 0.4., z = 50 mm.
Figure 7. Variation of liquid flow rate and droplet velocity with
time (top), correlation between liquid flow rate and droplet
velocity (bottom), p = 0.5 MPa, GLR = 10 %, rr = 0.
The difference between small and large particles velocity
increases with radial distance, as seen in last eight rows in Table
1 for data with varying rr. Low number of droplets in larger axial
distances is attributed to the effect of the spray warping as the
ratio between radial and axial velocity reduces with the distance
from exit orifice. The particles do not follow straight path but
incline to the spray centreline.
Normalized fluctuating velocity increases with axial distance for
the same radial distance from about 0.2 in the spray centreline to
1 and more in the spray edge. The normalized fluctuating
velocity also varies with axial distance, however it shows a
uniform tendency only for positions with rr = 0.2 where it
increases with axial distance. Dependence on particle size is
evident only close to the spray edge, where wrms decreases with
size.
Small particles are created as primary as well as secondary
droplets and their trajectory may be straight as well as turbulent
driven. This complex history does not allow to use small droplets
as good estimate of the gas velocity unless additional corrections
done.
The size-velocity correlations described above suggest for a very
specific structure of the gas-liquid velocity field. Fragmentation
of liquid volumes causes a reduction in their momentum relative
to drag forces implied. Stokes number analysis show the smallest
droplets follow the gas flow closely. But large, high momentum,
droplets are not affected by the flow so significantly [10]. As a
result a correlation between size and velocity of the droplets
exists within the spray. This correlation is positive or negative
depending on the position in the spray and, character of the
discharge (choked/non-choked [7]) and relative energy of the
compressed gas compared to the input energy of the atomized
liquid (which varies with operation pressure and gas-to liquid-
ratio). Motion of fine droplets, driven mostly by the turbulent gas
flow, leads to their transverse motion (mixing) and to their
clustering. Large droplets move according to their inertia direct
way with high velocity. The velocity difference contributes to
droplet agglomeration. This heterogeneous, size dependent,
particle transport results in spatially and temporally local size and
concentration distributions which have important consequences
in most of the application areas mentioned above.
Conclusions
Simple model of droplet motion in gas flow was used for
qualitative assessment of a real twin-fluid spray. Significant
discrepancy between the real spray and this model was described
and related to spray unsteadiness, liquid break-up, dense flow
(four way coupling) and a highly complex three-dimensional
character of the jet with turbulent flow and mixing with
surrounding air.
The unsteady discharge reduces the momentum transfer between
gas and liquid and thus reduces the efficiency of the atomization.
Velocity field of the droplets is not as significantly driven by the
gas as predicted by simple models and the difference between
predictions and real situation depends on the character of internal
flow. Difference between mean velocity of large and small
droplets in the centreline trajectories is very small for all the
inspected axial distances. Significant bias exists between the
velocity of the gas and the velocity of low Stk droplets. Also
change of the droplet velocity with distance is lower than
predicted by the simple model.
Particle velocity close the spray centreline depends on discharge
conditions. Gas flow affects strongly small particles close the
nozzle and also larger particles with increasing axial distance for
low GLR. Transverse mixing is important for sprays at high
GLR. Particle velocity in large radial positions is strongly
influenced by mixing with surrounding air which leads to
selective deceleration of small particles.
 analysis of droplet arrival statistics - The influence of
Acknowledgments
fluids properties and atomizer internal design.
Authors acknowledge financial support from project No. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 35:190-198
101/11/1264 funded by the Czech Science Foundation. 9. Lund MT, Sojka PE, Lefebvre AH, Gosselin PG
(1993) EFFERVESCENT ATOMIZATION AT LOW
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1. Corradini ML (2007) Fundamentals of Multiphase OF SURFACE TENSION. 3:77-89
Flow. [online], URL: < 10. Luong JTK, Sojka PE (1999) Unsteadiness in
http://wins.engr.wisc.edu/teaching/mpfBook/>, effervescent sprays. Atomization and Sprays 9:87-109
accessed July 2007. 11. Panchagnula MV, Sojka PE (1999) Spatial droplet
2. Grant PS, Cantor B, Katgerman L (1993) velocity and size profiles in effervescent atomizer-
MODELING OF DROPLET DYNAMIC AND produced sprays. Fuel 78:729-741
THERMAL HISTORIES DURING SPRAY 12. Santangelo PJ, Sojka PE (1995) A HOLOGRAPHIC
FORMING .1. INDIVIDUAL DROPLET INVESTIGATION OF THE NEAR-NOZZLE
BEHAVIOR. Acta Metallurgica Et Materialia STRUCTURE OF AN EFFERVESCENT
41:3097-3108 ATOMIZER-PRODUCED SPRAY. Atomization and
3. Hetsroni G, Sokolov M (1971) DISTRIBUTION OF Sprays 5:137-155
MASS,VELOCITY, AND INTENSITY OF 13. Shavit U (2001) Gas-liquid interaction in the liquid
TURBULENCE IN A 2-PHASE TURBULENT JET. breakup region of twin-fluid atomization. Experiments
Journal of Applied Mechanics 38:315-& in Fluids 31:550-557
4. Jedelsky J, Jicha M, Slama J, Otahal J (2009) 14. Sovani SD, Crofts JD, Sojka PE, Gore JP, Eckerle
Development of an Effervescent Atomizer for WA (2005) Structure and steady-state spray
Industrial Burners. Energy & Fuels 23:6121-6130 performance of an effervescent diesel injector. Fuel
5. Lefebvre AH (1996) Some recent developments in 84:1503-1514
twin-fluid atomization. Particle & Particle Systems 15. Sovani SD, Sojka PE, Lefebvre AH (2001)
Characterization 13:205-216 Effervescent atomization. Progress in Energy and
6. Lefebvre AH, Wang XF, Martin CA (1988) SPRAY Combustion Science 27:483-521
CHARACTERISTICS OF AERATED-LIQUID 16. Srivastava AK, Ojha SN, Ranganathan S (1998)
PRESSURE ATOMIZERS. Journal of Propulsion and Microstructural features and heat flow analysis of
Power 4:293-298 atomized and spray-formed Al-Fe-V-Si alloy.
7. Leung JC, Epstein M (1990) A GENERALIZED Metallurgical and Materials Transactions a-Physical
CORRELATION FOR 2-PHASE NONFLASHING Metallurgy and Materials Science 29:2205-2219
HOMOGENEOUS CHOKED FLOW. Journal of Heat 17. Szekely J (1979) Fluid flow phenomena in metals
Transfer-Transactions of the Asme 112:528-530 processing. Academic Press, New York
8. Liu M, Duan YF, Zhang TN, Xu YQ (2011)
Evaluation of unsteadiness in effervescent sprays by
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Multi-Physics CFD Simulation of Icing Phenomena

on Fan Rotor Blade

T. Matsuura1, M. Suzuki2, M. Yamamoto3, S. Shishido4 and T. Murooka4

1
Graduate School of Mechanical Engineering, Tokyo University of Science
1-14-6 Kudankita, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 102-0073, Japan
2
Aviation Program Group, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
7-44-1 Jindaiji-Higashi, Chofu, Tokyo, 182-8522, Japan
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tokyo University of Science
1-14-6 Kudankita, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 102-0073, Japa
4
Aero-Engine and Space Operations, IHI Corporation
229 Tonogaya, Mizuho-machi, Nishitama-gun, Tokyo, 190-1297, Japan

Abstract
Introduction
Ice accretion is a phenomenon where super-cooled water
Ice accretion is a phenomenon where super-cooled water
droplets impinge and accrete on a body. When ice layer is
droplets impinge and accrete on a body. It has two types of
formed on an aircraft wing, it affects on the performance
ice shape. One is called rime ice which is generated at
by increasing drag and reducing lift, and it may cause a
very low temperature (less than -10 C). On rime ice
serious accident. On a jet engine, ice accretion disturbs the
conditions, droplets in the air freeze at the impingement
inlet flow, and separated ice pieces can damage to the
point instantly. The other is called graze ice which is
compressor and casing. Actually, there have been several
generated at 0 to -10 C. On graze ice conditions, droplets
instances of accidents due to ice accretion. The estimation
gradually freeze with running along a body (so-called
of ice accretion is necessary to avoid accidents and useful
runback). When ice layer is formed on an aircraft wing, it
to reduce the cost and the design time in the design phase
affects on the performance by increasing drag and
of aircrafts and jet engines. The rotor blade of a jet engine
reducing lift, and it may cause a serious accident. On a jet
fan is one of the aircraft components where ice often
engine, ice accretion disturbs the inlet flow, and separated
accretes. However, few experimental and computational
ice pieces can damage to the compressor and casing, which
researches on rotor blade icing have been carried out.
leads to the severe performance degradation. Actually,
Therefore, in the present study, we focus on the ice
there have been several instances of accidents due to ice
accretion on a fan rotor blade. Three-dimensional Multi-
accretion. Obviously, it is essential that the mechanisms of
Physics CFD simulations are carried out, in order to clarify
ice accretion are deeply understood. The estimation of ice
the icing mechanism on a fan blade. Moreover, icing
accretion is necessary to avoid accidents and useful to
characteristics of linear and swept blade configurations
reduce the cost and the design time in the design phase of
were numerically investigated.
aircrafts and jet engines. However, experimental
investigations are very difficult, because it is not easy to
Nomenclature
set ice accretion conditions repeatedly in a wind tunnel.
CD Drag coefficient Therefore, it is expected computational fluid dynamics
dp Droplet diameter (CFD) will be a useful way to predict ice accretion
rp Radial position of droplet phenomenon. The rotor blade of a jet engine fan is one of
E Energy
the aircraft components where ice often accretes. However,
f Freezing rate
H Enthalpy few experimental and computational researches on rotor
ks Surface roughness blade icing have been carried out. Therefore, in the present
m Mass study, we focus on the ice accretion on a fan rotor blade.
S Surface area Three-dimensional Multi-Physics CFD simulations are
T Time or Temperature carried out, in order to clarify the icing mechanism on a
q Heat flux fan blade. Moreover, icing characteristics of linear and
Up Droplet velocity swept blade configurations were numerically investigated.
Ur Relative velocity
Rotational speed Numerical Procedures
f Air density
The three-dimensional ice accretion codes used in this
p Droplet density study are composed of iterative computations for fluid
w Water density motion, droplet trajectories and thermodynamics of icing.
Below each computational procedure are described.
The rotor flow field is assumed to be three-dimensional,
compressible and turbulent. In order to save the
computational time, we use a RANS method. Therefore,
the governing equations are Favre-averaged continuity,
Navier-Stokes and energy equations. Since we use the
rotating coordinates (i.e. relative system), Coriolis force
and centrifugal force are added as body forces in the
governing equations. The standard k- turbulence model
proposed by Launder and Spalding [1] is applied to
estimate turbulence. Here, k and are turbulent kinetic
energy and its dissipation rate. Since it is well known that
the standard k- model excessively predicts turbulence
energy production for irrotational strain, Kato-Launders
modification [2] is adopted for the correction. We adopt a
finite difference method in our computations. The
governing equations are discretized with using second-
order upwind TVD scheme proposed by Yee and Harten
[3] for the inviscid terms, second-order central difference
scheme for the viscous ones, and 4-stage Runge-Kutta
method (Jameson and Baker, [4]) for the time integration.
The mass of the icing water is expressed as follow:
m ac = f (m im + m in )
(4)
where f is the freezing rate, given as:
mimHim + minHin mvaHva + (mva mim min)Hou + q
f= (5)
(mim + min)(Hac Hou)
where H is the enthalpy, and q is the heat flux by convective heat
transfer. Through this thermodynamics calculation, the freezing
rate is estimated. An actual iced surface is so rough, and so the
roughness affects runback. In this study, the roughness model is
considered as a hemisphere. Therefore, the runback water
remains in between the roughness elements, and it is expressed
by:
mou = (1 f )(mim + min ) mac mst (6)
where mst is the remaining water mass, and it is given as follow:

mst = (1 Al ) w k s S
Droplet trajectory calculation based on a Lagrangian (7)
approach is performed to obtain the droplet collection
efficiency on the blade. Each droplet is traced and the
where Al is the volume filling rate, w is the water density, ks is
impact to a wall is judged at every time step. The equation
the roughness height, and S is the area of the surface. The
of droplet motion is given by
r roughness height is a function of the surface temperature Tsur and
f 1 r r
{ ( )}
dU p 3 r r r r r
= CD U r U r 2 U p rp (1) the liquid water content LWC [6], and it is written:
dt 4 p dp k s = 0.6839k 0 (0.047Tsur 11.27)
(8)
where t is the time, Up is the droplet velocity, Ur is the (
0.571 + 0.246LWC + 1.257LWC 2 )
relative velocity between the gas and the droplet, dp is the
k0 = 0.628
droplet diameter, and f and p are the air and the droplet
density. The second term on the right-hand-side represents
the centrifugal force and Coriolis force, where is the
rotational speed, and rp is the radial position of the droplet.

When super-cooled water droplets impinge on a body, ice

deposits on the surface by heat transfer among the water, the gas
and the solid surface [5]. On rime ice condition, droplets freeze at
the impingement points instantly. On graze ice condition,
droplets runback along the body because of the small heat
transfer. In the present study, so-called Messinger model [5] is
adopted because of the high reliability. In the model, mass and
energy balances are assumed in each control volume on the blade
or ice surface. The schematic view is shown in Figure1.

The mass and energy entering in a control volume are equal to
the outgoing mass and energy, which is given by:
m im + m in = m va + m ou + m ac (2)
E im + E in + E ac + q f = E va + E ou + q c (3)
In the above equations, m is the mass, and E is the energy. The
subscript im is the impinging, in is the runback-in from the
upstream control volume, va is the evaporation or the sublimation,
ou is the runback-out to the downstream control volume, and ac
is the icing water. Additionally, qf is the heat due to the friction,
qc is the heat transfer due to the convection.
Fig. 1 Schematic of energy balance of ice accretion
Computational Conditions
In this study, Multi-Physics CFD simulations are
conducted on the rotor blade of commercial axial fan
(Showa Denki Co., Ltd. Kairyu series A2D6H-411).
Figure 2 exhibits this target fan. The details of the fan
specification are as follows: the motor output is 11kW; the
design rotational speed is 2920 rpm; the casing inner
radius is 630 mm; and the design mass flow rate is 8.70
kg/s.
The overlapping grid system is used in all computations.
Figure 3 shows the computational grids for the fan blade
 passage, consisting of an H-type of 151 61 101 grid
points along the flow path (i.e. Main grid, in blue) and an
O-type grid of 201 31 101 grid points around the blade
(i.e. Sub grid, in red). The sub grid is set to satisfactorily
reproduce the boundary layer over the blade with relatively
small number of grid points. It should be noted that the tip
clearance is ignored for simplification.
Fig. 2 Computational target fan
z the linear blade surface. This contour means the
x The left figure is for the pressure side, the center is for the
y (a) Bird view (b) Blade surface
Fig. 3 Computational grids
(Blue: Main grid, Red: Sub grid)
(a) Rotor passage
0 120
Fig. 4 Streamlines around the rotor blade [m/s]
The authors impose that inlet total pressure is atmospheric
pressure of 101.3 kPa, and inlet total temperature is 263.15
K. We set the exposure time of droplets to be 5 seconds,
the liquid water content (LWC) is 1.02 g/m3 and the
median volume diameter (MVD) is 30 m.
In addition, to clarify the effect of blade sweep on icing
phenomena, linear and swept blades are simulated, and the
numerical results are compared. The blade loadings of
these blades are same, but the stacking is different.
Numerical Results and Discussion
Figure 4 shows the streamlines around the linear rotor
blade before icing. The colour denotes flow velocity in m/s
and it is shown in a relative coordinate system. This fan is
the subsonic one so that the inflow Mach number is less
than 0.1 and the maximum value of local Mach number is
less than 0.3. In Fig. 4(b), it seems that the flow is
separated at the suction side near the hub. It is because the
flow is drawn by the pressure difference for the radial
direction and the external force represented by centrifugal
force.
Figure 5 indicates the pattern of the typical droplet
trajectories. The results are shown in a relative coordinate
system. Fig. 5(a) is the top view of the trajectories. It
seems that the droplet speed is slow near the hub and is
fast as closing to the tip, since the droplets is affected by
the gas flow field. Figure 5(b) presents the front view of
the trajectories. It seems that the droplets near the hub
move outward but the droplets in the other place tend to go
straight. This would be because the velocity near the hub is
too slow and thus centrifugal force affects the droplets
more strongly than inertia force.
Figure 6 shows the collection efficiency of the droplets on
normalized number of collision droplets per surface area.
leading edge, and the right is for the suction side. It is
apparent that many droplets impinge on the leading edge,
while few droplets impinge near the hub. This is attributed
(b) Suction side near the hub
 (a) Top view (b) Front view
0 110

Fig. 5 Typical droplet trajectories [m/s]

T.E. P.S. L.E. S.S. T.E.

0 1.0 T.E. P.S. L.E. S.S. T.E.
0.00 7.60
Fig. 6 Collection efficiency on the blade wall
Fig. 7 Ice geometry and thickness [mm]

to the flow separation near the hub and centrifugal force.

Droplets also impinge on the pressure side. However,
droplets do not impinge on the midspan around the
midchord of the blade. This is because the droplets follow
to the flow field along the blade twist.

Figure 7 depicts the geometry of the accreted ice on

the linear blade. We can find that thick ice layer is formed
around the leading edge little away from the hub. This
results from the frequent impingements of droplets on the
leading edge. On the other hand, ice layer is not formed on
the tip side. This is because the static temperature is higher
than the freezing point (i.e. 273.15 K) near the tip, as
T.E. P.S. L.E. S.S. T.E. shown in Fig.8. From these results, we can confirm that ice
layer is formed by the interaction of droplet impact and
257 287 surface temperature.
Fig. 8 Wall temperature on the blade wall [K]
Finally, the predicted ice layers on the linear and swept
blades are compared. Figure 9 exhibits the results. The
time history is plotted until 141s every 10 seconds, and the
colour denotes the ice thickness in mm. The thickest ice
layer is formed near the leading edge and the hub of the
 1s 11s
(a) Linear blade
1s 11s
(b) Swept blade
0.0
Fig. 9 Evolution of ice geometry and thickness on linear blade and swept blade
pressure side in both cases. This is because a lot of
droplets impinge on the region. Additionally, ice accretion
does not occur near the tip again, since the temperature
near the tip is over 273.15K. Comparing the two cases (i.e.
linear blade and swept blade), we can find that the iced
area of swept blade is slightly narrower than that of linear
blade. This is caused from the fact that the surface
temperature of swept blade is a little higher than that of
linear blade (not shown here).
Summary
Three-dimensional Multi-Physics CFD simulations of ice
accretion on the fan rotor blades were conducted. The
knowledge obtained in the present study is described
below:
1. Droplets near the hub move towards the tip. Therefore,
ice is not formed near the hub.
2. Thick ice is formed around the leading edge little away
from the hub. This is because the droplet impact is
frequent there.
3. Ice is not formed on the tip side, since the static
temperature is higher than the freezing point.
4. The swept blade is more favourable than the linear blade
in view of the smaller ice layer.
In our future study, we are planning to perform a
simulation in which ice shedding from the blade surface by
centrifugal force is taken into account.
21s 31s 41s
21s 31s 41s
9.5 [mm]
References
[1] Launder, B.E., Spalding, D.B., (1974), The Numerical
Computation of Turbulent Flows, Computer methods
in applied mechanics and engineering, Vol.3 No.2,
pp.269-289.
[2] Kato, M., Launder, B. E., (1993), The Modeling of
Turbulent Flow Around Stationary and Vibrating
Square Cylinders, Proceedings of 9th Symposium on
Turbulent Shear Flows, Kyoto, pp.10.4.1-10.4.6.
[3] Yee, H.C., (1987), Upwind and Symmetric Shock-
capturing Schemes, NASA-TM-89464.
[4] Jameson, A., Baker, T.J., (1983), Solution of the Euler
Equations for Complex Configurations, AIAA-83-
1929, pp.293-302.
[5] Tran, P., Brahimi, M. T., (1994), Ice Accretion on
Aircraft Wings with Thermodynamic Effects, AIAA-
94-0605.
[6] Anderson, D. N., Daniel, B. H., (1998), Measurement
and Correlation of Ice Accretion Roughness, AIAA-
98-0486.
[7] Vargas, M., Howard, B., (2005), Local and Total
Density Measurements in Ice Shapes, NASA-TM-
2005-213440.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

A Kind of Micro Mechanical Pump for Micro Cooling System

T.H. Guo, Y. Zou, X.B. Luo*

School of Energy and Power Engineering
Huazhong Univ. of Sci. & Tec., Wuhan, 430074, China
*Luoxb@mail.hust.edu.cn

Abstract
With the extensive applications of high power electronic
components, it is of great significance to develop more effective
thermal management methods.[1-3] One of the common
methods for thermal management is utilizing active cooling
systems, among which fluid circulating systems and
micropumps are usually needed[3-5]. As the key functional
component of the circulating systems, micro pumps with the
size at centimetre scale have gathered enormous attention. In
this paper, on the basis of classical theories of centrifugal pump,
a kind of micro mechanical pump was developed by integrating
various structural optimization designs, including the
increasing-flow design method and so on. Through precision
machining, a series of micro mechanical pumps were fabricated.
Their sizes are about 34 22 22mm . The experimental tests
3 small centrifugal pumps, and pointed out the difficulty of
on the micro pumps were conducted. The results show that at
the power consumption of 0.6W, the micro-pump with 6 straight
blades can get the flow rate of 611ml/min and the pressure head
of 1.82m. While the micropump with 2 tangential blades can
obtain the flow rate of 637ml/min and the pressure head of 1.2m
at 0.8W. Compared to the design data, the experimental data
deviation was below 20%. Based on the experimental data, it
was found that micro pump with more blades has higher
pressure head, and the tangential blade structure can effectively
improve the performance of such kind of micro pumps.
Introduction
With the extensive applications of high power electronic
components, radar antenna and micro satellite, it is of great
significance to develop more effective thermal management
methods [1-3]. One of the common methods for thermal
management is utilizing active cooling systems, among which
fluid circulating systems and micropumps are usually needed [3-
5]. As the key functional component of the circulating systems,
micro pumps with the size at centimeter scale have gathered
enormous attention.
Laser and Santiago [6] surveyed progress over the past 25 years
in the development of microscale devices for pumping fluids.
They classified the micropumps into two major categories: (1)
displacement pumps and (2) dynamic pumps. Despite plenty of
obstacles have been overcome, most of these kinds of
micropumps are critical to fabrication and commercialization.
Besides, there are still some micropump-related problems need to
be solved and optimized, such as bubble-tolerance and precision
dosing [7]. In addition, the size of the abovementioned
micropumps usually ranges from several micrometers to several
millimeters, and their flow rate is blow 1 ml/min. The flow rates
of these micropumps are very small, and difficult to be used in
the active cooling systems. Therefore, the micro pumps with
relatively large flow rate are desirable for micro cooling systems.
Some researches were conducted for micro and small pump with
large flow rate in the past decades. A satellite propellant pump
was developed at NASA and a pumped system was proposed
with payload benefits up to 40% accruing from both increasing
rocket performance and reducing pressurization system dry mass
[8]. Luo and Cho developed a kind of valveless small gas pump
based on synthetic jet actuator to achieve gas pumping with large
flow rate [9]. Russian scientists did a deep research into the
theory of high speed centrifugal pumps in aviation and aerospace
engineering, through which a plenty of formulas and optimization
methods were obtained [10]. Sixsmitht and Giarratano designed a
mini centrifugal pump operating in the temperature range of
7 2
liquid helium and the pressure up to 10 N/ m [11]. Williams
described three kinds of turbines suitable for the application of
predicting the turbine performance accurately [12].
To develop a kind of micro pump with high flow rate, using
existed big pump technology is a rather typical way. Since the
traditional centrifugal pumping technology continuously makes
progress and is gradually matured after several decades of rapid
development, centrifugal platforms have been considered elegant
means to systems like lab-on-chip [13]. How to combine such
classical centrifugal pump theory with the features of micropump
to produce a centrifugal micropump within dozens of millimeters
in diameter is the keystone and difficulty of our research.
Furthermore, it is full of challenge to find effective design
method without large deviation with final pump samples.
The aim of this paper is to develop a kind of micro mechanical
pump with relatively large flow rate for active cooling systems.
Based on the classical theory of centrifugal pump design and
fluid mechanics, we combined a variety of structural optimization
design methods specific to the micropump characteristic and
finally got a set of design methods. Then a series of micro-
mechanical pumps were fabricated and tested.
Principle of Micro Mechanical Centrifugal Pump
Figure.
1 Structure of Centrifugal Pump
The centrifugal micropump we developed is composed of three
main parts, as shown in Fig.1. The upper part includes the motor
and motor housing while the lower part consists of the volute,
bearing, and the impeller. The middle part is the shaft and the
rear cover that connect the upper part and lower part.
For the present micro pump, when the DC electricity is input, the
motor will rotate. Relying on the power provided by the rotating
motor, the impeller which is directly assembled with the shaft of
the motor can afford the necessary torque and propulsion for
fluid transportation. The resulting centrifugal force produced by
the impeller throws the working fluid to the outlet along blade
passage, leading to a low pressure area at the impeller inlet.
Therefore, driven by the pressure difference between the liquid
inlet and the impeller inlet, the working fluid continuously flows
into centrifugal pump and gains kinetic energy, then discharges
out through liquid outlet. Obviously, a motor cycle is one cycle
of the present micropump as for fluid transportation.
As for the micro-mechanical pump shown in Figure 1, it has its
own characteristics: (1) high rotational speed which could reach
as high as 12000-15000 r/min, far more than that of normal
centrifugal pumps(2) low specific speed which could easily
lead to inefficiency and overload; (3) compact structure and small
size which put forward higher request on manufacture process
and machining accuracy; (4) low efficiency, small flow rate and
high pressure head. In the following design, it is necessary to
consider the differences between typical big centrifugal pumps
and micro centrifugal pumps to find the suitable design
methodology for the present micro pump.
Design for micro centrifugal pump
Through years of development, a complete set of centrifugal
pump design theory has been built. And enormous empirical
coefficients and formulas have been given through long-term
accumulated experimental data as well as practical experience.
Nowadays, the widely used design methods are the speed
coefficient method and the similarity method [14]. They are both
essential to determine the final parameters by analogy to other
similar pumps. Since the similarity method is based on one
similar pump while the speed coefficient method is upon a series
of similar pumps, the speed coefficient method is more precise
and convenient [15].
Although conventional pump design theory is a power tool to
achieve good pumps, it is mainly focused on the big flow pumps
which have relatively high specific speed. Most empirical
coefficients and formulas accumulated are applied to pumps in
medium or large size. Furthermore, because of manufacturing
accuracy, surface roughness, clearance effect and low Reynolds
number, there are just few studies involved with pumps whose
impeller diameter is between 5-50mm. [16].
On the basis of previous literature and experimental data, Carats
and Lukin [10] summarized a series of formulas to determine
pump parameters and to predict pump performance for small
flow rate centrifugal pumps. Although these optimized methods
and formulas are not totally suitable for micro-mechanical pumps
presented in this paper, there are still some experiences we can
use.
The first design method we adopted is the increasing-flow design
method. As the pump geometric parameters and the performances
are directly determined by the design parameters like flow rate,
pressure head and specific speed, it is a favorable strategy for
better pump quality by revising design parameters. It can be
concluded from large scale pump that the efficiency of
centrifugal pumps increases dramatically with the increase of
flow rate and specific speed in the range of small flow rate and
low specific speed. So higher pump efficiency could be achieved
by enlarging design flow rate and specific speed. This is the
fundamental principle for greater flow procedure, and the
formula can be written as [17]:
Q ' = k1Q 1
ns = k2 ns
' 2
'
Where Q and n s are revised design flow and specific speed,
Q and n ' are initial design flow and specific speed.
s
The second procedure adopted is the area ratio procedure which
was first proposed by Anderson in 1983 [18]. It indicated that
impeller structure is not the only influencing factor for the actual
pump flow rate and the pressure head. The ratio of impeller exit
flow area to throat area is also important and an optimal value
could be found. The whole size for the micro-mechanical pump
presented in this paper is very small. During the design procedure
for such a pump, the influence of area ration on pump
performance must be taken into full account. Area ratio Y is
defined as follows:
D2b2 sin 2 0.95
Y= 3
Ft
Where D2 is impeller diameter, b2 is blade outlet width, 2 is
impeller outlet angle and Ft is throat area.
Considering that the velocity of the fluid is inversely proportional
to the flow area, area ration Y can also be expressed as follows:
v3
Y= 4
W2
Where v3 is the throat velocity and w2 is the bulk velocity of
the impeller outlet.
Finally, a calculating formula for theoretical head H t could be
written as:
1
v32 (1 ) + u22
Ht = Y2 5
2g
Where u2 is the circular velocity of the impeller outlet.
In the present design model, the key geometric parameters were
amended in view of pump properties and manufacturing process.
For example, by selecting larger impeller outlet width, flow area
from inlet to outlet can be increased while additional congestion
would be reduced.
Through combining different design methods with classical
centrifugal pump design theory, the design process has been
finally determined as shown in Figure 2.
A program was written to make the calculation more
convenient and effective, in which the required theoretical
flow rate, pressure head and the motor speed were used as
input variables. By such a program, we could get the
parameters of the micropump. Thenthrough kinematics
analysis and interference checking, the final parameters of
the micropumps were determined after the further revision
of the initial design.
 Design flow rate, design Inlet diameter, outlet
head and motor diameter, inlet velocity Pump efficiency Shaft dimension
parameters and outlet velocity

Large deviation
for head Large deviation
for impeller's outside
diameter

Not qualified

Deviation Pressure head checking Impeller parameters

Output parameter calculation
qualified

Figure 2. Design Process of Micro-mechanical Pumps

rear cover. The last one is the axial sealing of motor shaft
Fabrication
and rotating impeller.
Due to the small dimension, very small machining errors could
lead to serious impact on the performance or even failure, After assembling all the components, the micro-mechanical
especially for the impeller and pump body because of their pump was finally completed. Figure 4 shows one micro pump
complicated structures. So most of the components of the sample and its overall size was about 34 22 22mm3 .
micropump were formed by Computerized Numerical Control
(CNC) machining whose accuracy could reach as high as
0.02~0.05mm.
The impellers were the most important part of the pump and its
fabrication was one of the manufacturing difficulties. They were
machined by wire cutting technology while the hole in the central
axis of the impeller was made by the electrical spark-erosion
perforation. To analyze the effect of the impeller structure on the
pump performance, two kinds of blade structures, i.e. tangential
blade structure and straight blade structure are intentionally
designed and fabricated according to the partial pump theory[19].
Their detailed structures are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 4. A Sample of the Present Micro-mechanical Pump

Section and subsection headings should be in lower case with the

1 2
Figure 3. (1) Straight Blade Structure; (2) Tangential Blade
Structure
After the component fabrication, assembling the total micropump
was the other part of the fabrication process. For example,
mounting the impeller onto the shaft was one of the important
packaging processes. It was an artful work since the high rotation
speed requires a firm joint, and it was difficult to design complex
structure in the tiny shaft for connection. Sealing was another
difficulty and plays a vital role not only in maintaining normal
working condition to reduce energy consumption, but also in
improving equipment efficiency and ensuring equipment safety.
The whole sealing system of this micro pumps consists of four
parts. One is the connection between the pump body and the rear
cover. The second sealing part is between the nozzles and the
pump body. The third one is between the motor housing and the
first letter of major words in upper case. Do not use
subsubsections.
Tests and results
It can not be ignored that actual processing quality, working
environment as well as the working fluid have impact on the
performance of the micro-mechanical pump. Our tests focused on
the measurement of pressure head, flow rate and motor speed as
the micropumps were under normal operation conditions. A non-
contact laser tachometer was used for motor speed measurement.
The test results indicated that the high speed electric motor could
reach a stable rotating speed as high as 12000r/min under the
rated working voltage of 3V which is in accordance with
theoretical value. For flow rate measurement, the classic
volumetric method and a flowmeter were adopted to insure the
accuracy of the test results. Through comparison of the test
results from differential manometer and the water column height,
the pump lift value could be obtained.
A performance comparison between the micro-mechanical pump
with 2 straight blades and 2 tangential blades was conducted.
Figure 5 shows the results. In our test, we found that under the
rated working voltage of 3V and power consumption of 0.8W,
the micro-pump with 2 tangential blades could reach a pressure
head of 1.2m, while the pressure head for the pump with 2
straight blades was only 1.0m. As demonstrated in Fig. 5, the
flow rate monotonously increased with the increasing of the input
voltage. It was also found that the micro-mechanical pump with
tangential blades had higher flow rate relative to the micropump
with straight blades. Under the rated working voltage, the micro-
mechanical pump with 2 tangential blades and 2 straight blades
could reach the flow rate of 637.13ml/min and 537.21ml/min
respectively. This is consistent with the consequence of
theoretical analysis that the tangential blade has better
streamlines and performance compared with the straight blade
shape.
In terms of the effect of the number of blades on the performance
of micro-mechanical pump, it is uncertain according to the Fig. 6 Flow rate with the power input with different
numbers of blades
classical pump theory. On the one hand, larger number of blades
means larger frictional resistance. On the other hand, more blades
can have positive effects of reducing the backflow and vortex
significantly. To figure out what matters more, a comparative test Table 1. A Comparison Between Theoretical Design Value and
was conducted on two micro-mechanical pumps with 2 and 6 Experimental Result
straight blades. From the test curve of flow rate shown in Figure We also conducted a comparison between the pump with 2
6, it can be found that micro-pumps with 6 blades structure had
better performance. Pressure
Flow Rate
Headm
zSu 2 ml/min
2 = 1 (6)
D2 Theoretical
2 straight 783.71 1.11
design value
Q blades
Experimental
Vm 2 = (7) structure 637.13 1.20
D2 b 2 2 v result
Theoretical
6 straight 777.83 1.66
The equation(6) figures up the excretion coefficient 2 of the blades
design value
Experimental
blade exit, where z is the number of blades and Su 2 is the structure 611.53 1.86
results
circumferential direction thickness. And equation(7) gives the tangential blades and 6 straight blades, as well as the comparison
radial velocity of fluid around impeller outlet Vm 2 , where v
between theoretical values and test results. The results were
shown in Table 1. It can be found that pumps with 6 straight
is the volumetric efficiency of pump. Through the calculation blades had higher pressure head but small flow rate, which was
formulas, we could know that the Vm 2 monotonously increases consistent with the principle that more blade means stronger
with the increasing of the number of blades Z, which means less capacity for doing work but less flow area. The deviation
kinetic energy loss. We could conclude that larger number of between the theoretical results and experimental results were all
blades was good for the pump performance as for straight blades below 20%. So, we can use the abovementioned design
structure design. This explains the trend shown in Figure 6. methodology to design the present micropump.
Conclusions
In this paper, a kind of micro-mechanical pumps with relatively
large flow rate was developed to meet the requirements for active
cooling systems. On the basis of classical centrifugal pump
theory, a complete theoretic design process was achieved through
integrating a variety of structural design methods specific to
micro size features. A series of micro-mechanical pumps were
manufactured according to this design process and the test results
show the agreement with the design values. The test results also
prove that both the tangential blade structure and larger number
of blades have positive effects on the performance of the present
micro-mechanical pumps.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support in
part from 973 Project of The Ministry of Science and Technology
of China (2009CB320203).
Figure 5. Flow rate with the power input under different blade .
structures
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Cunningham , C. C., Kraft, T.G., Tavernelli, P. F. and Fraser,
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on INTERNAL Flow of High Speed Mini Centrifugal Pump
(In Chinese), A Dissertation Submitted to ZHEJIANG
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Suitable for Mini Trubo-Pump, Journal of Fluids
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[17] Yuan, S.Q., Cao,W.L., Chen, C.C. and Gao, L.R., Design
Methods for Low Specific Speed Centrifugal Pumps (In
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[18] Jin, S.D. and Chen, C.C., Modern Water Pump Design
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Emission Pump (In Chinese), 1975.
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012
Effect of inclination angle on the performance of a kind of vapor chamber
J.L. Ma, X. Fu, R. Hu and X.B. Luo*
School of Energy and Power Engineering,
Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
*
Corresponding author: X.B. Luo Email: luoxb@mail.hust.edu.cn
Abstract
Vapor chamber is an effective heat spreader, and there are many
parameters influencing its performance. In this paper, a vapor
chamber designed and fabricated by our group was experimentally
investigated. Both the thermal resistance and the temperature
uniformity of the condensing surface under different inclination
angles were tested. As the inclination angle changed from 0o to
50o with 10 as an interval, the maximum relative change rate of
thermal resistance and temperature uniformity were 9.0797% and
4.5149%, respectively. And the relative standard deviations of
them were 5.5275% and 3.7291%.
1. Introduction
As electronic products become faster and incorporate more
functions, they are simultaneously shrinking in size and weight.
This results in a significant increase in heat generation. For such a
case, when very small size heat sources exist, usually there was a
large spreading thermal resistance from heat source to substrate or
metal heat sink. It is necessary to find some substrates or heat
sinks which can effectively decrease hotspot phenomena. The
vapor chamber is such an effective solution to decrease the
spreading thermal resistance because of its characteristics such as
good temperature uniformity.
Many investigations were conducted to study the performance of
the vapor chamber. Wu et al. [1] made a fundamental thermal
analysis of the vapor chamber, and put forward the factors that
would impact the performance of heat sink. Koito et al. [2-3]
described the effect of heat source size on the temperature
distribution of the vapor chamber in their experiments and
simulations. They also measured the thermal resistances of vapor
chamber under different heat flux densities of heat source,
different cooling air temperatures and different inclination angles.
Yusli et al. [4] experimentally investigated three vapor chambers
with different groove types inside, and gave a conclusion that the
thermal performance of the vapor chamber strongly relied on the
geometry of the wick structure. Zhang et al. [5] designed a novel
grooved vapor chamber. The influence of heat flux, filling amount
and gravity on the thermal performance was investigated by
experiments. Go [6] evaluated the thermal performance of a vapor
chamber heat sink containing new microwick structures and found
that it had a heat removal capacity of 80 (W/cm2) at the junction
temperature of 85( C ) and an ambient temperature of 24( C ).
Huang et al. [7] experimentally investigated the thermal
performance of the vapor chamber module applied to high power
light-emitting diodes in natural convection. The results showed
that the spreading resistance and the corresponding temperature
difference of the flat-plate vapor chamber at 30W were lower than
those of the copper plate by 34% and 4 ( C ) respectively and the
flat-plate vapor chamber could effectively lower the spreading
resistance and diminish the hotspot effect.
The present authors have already done some researches on a vapor
chamber which was applied to the thermal management of high
power LED light source [8]. Experimental tests, numerical
simulation were conducted and the results showed that the vapor
chamber coupled fin heat sink could make the temperature of the
fin base plate uniform and the thermal resistances of vapor
chamber was 0.654(K/W) at the ambient temperature of 27( C ).
However, the vapor chamber in that study was fabricated by
conventional machining methods, the vapor chamber was large
and heavy. Then we continued this part of work. The vapor
chamber was fabricated by copper powder sintering and diffusion
bonding processes. Its size sharply decreased. These samples will
be used for the experimental investigation in this paper.
Based on the literature review on the existing vapor chamber
work, it is found that most of the papers do not investigate the
temperature uniformity under inclination condition, actually, this
is very important in many application cases. For example, when
we use vapor chamber to solve the hotspot phenomena and
decrease the spreading thermal resistance in lighting emitting
diodes packaging or other high heat flux chip packaging, the
application situations often require the vapor chamber operation in
inclination condition. In this case, if the temperature uniformity
greatly changes or loses, thermal resistance is different with that in
normal horizontal case, the cooling performance will sharply
decrease, some of the chips will fail because of high temperature
gradient.
In this paper, we will test the temperature characteristics of our
small size vapor chamber under inclination conditions. The
experimental setup was built, and the experimental results proved
that our new version vapor chamber could achieve good thermal
performance even under great inclination conditions.
2. Vapor chamber and its principle
Figure 1. Operation schematic of vapor chamber.
Figure 1 shows the working mechanism of vapor chamber. A
vapor chamber is a vacuum vessel with a wick structure
distributing on the inside walls and the chamber is partly filled
with working liquids. As heat is applied, the liquid at the
evaporator region absorbs the heat from the heat resource and
evaporates, then the resulting vapor flows to fill the empty part of
the cavity. Whenever the vapor comes into contact with a cooler
wall surface, it will condense and release the latent heat to the heat
sink, finally the condensed liquids return to the evaporator region
via the capillary force of the wick. The area of the heat sink is
usually several fold or several tenfold of that of the heat source.
The net effect of vapor chamber makes the heat transported from
the evaporator to the condenser region and in this way the heat
generated by heat resource could be diffused to the heat sink
where the heat flux density decrease remarkably. Because of the
flowing vapor inside the chamber, the temperature of the top thermocouple distribution points in copper rod and on vapor
surface of the chamber is uniform theoretically and the chamber surfaces.
temperature of the heat sink can be uniform.
The vapor chamber designed and fabricated by our group mainly
contained chamber body, wick sheet, wick columns and support
column, as shown in Figure 2. The chamber was made of copper.
The wick sheet was bonded on all six inner walls. There were four
wick columns in the inner to increase the cycle efficiency of
working liquid. Both the wick sheet and wick column were based
on copper powder sintering, and they were made of small copper
powders. Center support column was copper column, it was used
for increasing the stiffness and decreasing the deformation. In
order to ensure both the heat dissipation and the start
performances of vapor chamber, the acetone was chosen as
working liquid. Table 1 gives the size specifications of the vapor
chamber.
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of experimental system.

Figure 4. Temperature test points, (a) in copper rod, (b) on bottom

surface of vapor chamber, (c) on top surface of vapor chamber.
Figure 2. Picture of the vapor chamber.

Subject size B. Test

3
Exterior bulk 70806 mm In the experiments, the heat flux and the temperature distribution
of vapor chamber were needed for evaluation. In order to obtain
Interior chamber 60604 mm3 the heat flux of the vapor chamber, four thermocouples were
Top and bottom plate thickness 1 mm inserted in the four holes of the copper rod with a depth of 0.5cm
and a same distance from each other. As shown in Figure 4(a).
Wick sheet thickness 0.5 mm Thus, four temperatures in the central axis of copper rod could be
Wick(support) column radius 5 mm obtained.

Wick(support) column height 4.5 mm(based on bottom As the thermal insulation prevented heat loss from radial
surface) direction, the heat transfer in the copper rod could be simplified to
be one-dimensional situation. According to Fouriers Law, one-
Table 1. Size specifications of the vapor chamber.
dimensional heat flux can be calculated as
3. Experimental setup and test t
= A (1)
x
A. Experimental setup
where is the thermal conductivity of copper. A is the
The experimental system contained five parts: heating part,
thermal insulation part, vapor chamber, cooling part and data sectional area of the copper rod. t x is the temperature
acquisition part. Its schematic diagram is shown in Figure 3. The gradient in the copper rod at stable situation. Figure 5 shows the
heating part included aluminum bulk and copper rod. There were linear fitting data of the present experiments. Based on the method
two heaters inserted in the aluminum bulk for heating supply. of linear fitting shown in Figure 5, according to equation (1), the
Cotton was wrapped around the aluminum bulk and copper rod for heat flux can be obtained.
thermal insulation. The test vapor chamber was located on the
copper rod. A fan was utilized to cool the condensing surface of
the vapor chamber. In the system, the heat generated by the heater
was conducted to the slender copper rod. Then the heat
constrained in small area copper rod spreads to the bottom surface
of the vapor chamber and finally to the top surface and the
ambient.
In this system, all the temperatures were measured by T-type
thermocouples, and the data were transmitted to the computer
through the digital data acquisition instrument. Figure 4 shows the
Figure 5. Linear fitting of the temperatures in the heating copper
rod.
The temperature distribution of both bottom surface and top
surface of the vapor chamber was also tested. Figures 4(b) and (c)
show the test points on them. When all the temperatures were
obtained, the thermal resistance including spreading thermal
resistance and bulk thermal resistance could be calculated. Also,
the temperature uniformity of condensing surface could be
evaluated. The concrete principle was as follows.
The spreading thermal resistance and bulk thermal resistance are
given by
tb max tb
Rs = (2)
tb t t
Rb = (3)
where Rs is the spreading thermal resistance, RB is the bulk
thermal resistance, tb max is the maximum temperature on bottom
surface, tb , tt are the average temperature of the bottom and top
surface respectively , is the heat flux.
Thus, the total thermal resistance of vapor chamber RVC in this
experiment could be calculated as below,
= RS + RB
RVC (4)
After all the thermal resistances and temperature distribution on
condensing surface under different inclination angles were
obtained, the effect of inclination angle on the performance of the
vapor chamber could be evaluated effectively.
4. Evaluation Method
To evaluate the effect of inclination angle on thermal performance
of the vapor chamber, only the magnitudes of thermal resistance
and temperature were not enough. The variation trend of them
with the change of inclination angle was more important. Thus,
the maximum relative change rate and the relative standard
deviation were adopted to evaluate the degree of the change. They
were given by
mmax
RCR = (5)
m inclination angles, its maximum relative change rate was 9.0797%
n and the relative standard deviation was 5.5275%. For standard
( m m)
i deviation of top surface temperature, which can indicate the
SD = i =1 (6)
n 1
SD
RSD = (7)
m
where, RCR is the maximum relative change rate, SD is the
standard deviation, RSD is the relative standard deviation, mi
is the i th value in a group of data, m is their mean value, n
is the total number of the data group, mmax is the maximum
difference relative to average value.
5. Accuracy analysis
Based on the thermal resistance equation, the heat flux and
temperature differences influence its calculation accuracy. In other
words, the measurement accuracy of the heat flux and temperature
is the key.
According to Figure 5, because of good thermal insulation, the
accuracy of the linear fitting is about 99.72%. This shows that the
heat flux measurement has very high accuracy. In addition,
according to the present evaluation method, we compared the
thermal resistance and the temperature under different inclination
angles, in all tests, the heating and thermal insulation are exactly
the same. The variations of the heat fluxes under different
inclination cases nearly do not exist. Therefore, the measurement
error of the heat flux nearly can be ignored for making
conclusions in this paper.
In respect to the measurement accuracy of temperature, the errors
mainly lay in the measurement error of the thermocouples and the
reading error of the digital data acquisition system. When the
temperature was in the range from -30 C to 150 C , the
measurement error of T-type thermocouple was about 0.2 C . The
data acquisition system had a reading error of 1 C since the cold
junctions of the thermocouples used the default setup supplied by
the system, and not the ice bath with constant 0 C . Therefore, the
total error of the temperature measurement was about 1.2 C .
6. Results and discussion
Figure 6 shows the thermal resistance of vapor chamber in
different inclination angles. The x-coordinate is the inclination
angle, and the y-coordinate is the thermal resistance. As shown in
Figure 6, both the spreading thermal resistance and bulk thermal
resistance were considerably small, and the former was about four
times as large as the latter. Thus, for the thin plate heat spreader,
the decreasing of the spreading thermal resistance could have
greater contribution to increase heat dissipation. From Figure 6, it
is also found that as the inclination angle varied, both two kinds of
thermal resistances fluctuated little. They were close to those
without inclination.
Because the total thermal resistance of the vapor chamber was the
sum of spreading thermal resistance and bulk thermal resistance,
the total thermal resistance was also given for overall assessment.
In Figure 6, it could be seen that the total thermal resistance of the
vapor chamber was only about 0.5(K/W). As the inclination angle
varied, the total thermal resistance had little change as well.
Table 2 listed the detailed data of thermal resistance and standard
deviation of the temperature on the top surface of vapor chamber.
Here the calculations of maximum relative change rate and
relative standard deviation are based on equations 5-7. It can be
found that for the total thermal resistance under different
temperature uniformity of vapor chamber, its relative standard
deviation was about 3.729%, and the maximum relative change
rate was 4.51%.
Figure 6. Thermal resistance of vapor chamber under different
inclination angles
 Inclination angle SD of top surface 7. Conclusions
RVC (K/W)
(o ) temperature ( C ) In this paper, experiments were conducted to analyze the effect of
0 0.480411 0.644751 inclination angle on the performance of a kind of vapor chamber.
The thermal resistance and temperature uniformity under different
10 0.467195 0.695540 inclination angles were evaluated. The test results showed that the
20 0.484085 0.683014 temperatures at all test points for various angles were very close,
30 0.515408 0.649438 the largest difference was less than 2 C . It demonstrated that the
present vapor chamber has ability to effectively decrease hotspot
40 0.543062 0.653916 phenomena in high heat flux electronic packaging.
50 0.496988 0.701707
Acknowledgments
RCR (%) 9.0797 4.5149
The authors would like to express their great thanks to the support
RSD (%) 5.5275 3.7291 from 973 Project of The Ministry of Science and Technology of
China (2009CB320203 and 2011CB013105).
Table 2. Thermal resistance and temperature uniformity under
different inclination angles
References

[1] Wu, X.P., Mochizuki, M., Nguyen, T., Satio, Y.,

Figure 7. Temperature distribution on top surface of vapor
chamber
Figure 7 shows the absolute temperatures on the top surface of
vapor chamber under different inclination angles. The x-
coordinate is the test point, and the y-coordinate is temperature.
Because all the data closely gathered together, just the
temperatures under four inclination angles were plotted in Figure
7.
As shown in Figure 7, the temperature at all test points for various
angles were nearly the same, the largest difference was less than
2 C . This confirmed that the vapor chamber could achieve good
temperature uniformity on the condensing surface. It is also noted
that the temperature of test point 1 (T1) was higher than that at
other test points under four inclination angles. It can be explained
as following. The test point 1 (T1) was located at the center of
support copper column and heat source, as shown in Figure 4(C)
and Figure 2. Thus, the heat could be transported to the point 1
more effectively compared to other test points. In Figure 7, we
also noted that the temperature data at various test points under
different inclination angles were close to each other, this proved
that the thermal performance of the vapor chamber was stable
under different inclination angles.
Wuttijumnong, V., Ghisoiu, H., Kumthonkittikul, V.,
Sukkasaem, P., Nimitkiateklai, P. and Kiyooka, F., Low
profile-high performance vapour chamber heat sinks for
cooling high-density blade servers, in 23rd IEEE SEMI-
THERM Symposium, 2007, 174-178.
[2] Koito, Y., Imura, H., Mochizuki, M., Saito, Y. and Torii, S.,
Fundamental experiments and numerical analyses on heat
transfer characteristcs of a vapor chamber (effect of heat
source size), JSME International Journal, series B, 49(4),
2006,1233-1240.
[3] Koito, Y., Motomatsu, K., Imura, H., Mochizuki, M. and Saito,
Y., Fundamental investigations on heat transfer characteristics
of heat sinks with a vapor chamber, the 7th of International
Heat Pipe Symposium Proceedings ,2003, 247-251.
[4] Yusli, Y., Muhammad, A.R., Azli, A.R. and Mohd, Z.A.
Experimental analysis of heat transfer phenomenon in vapor
chamber, World renewable energy congress: WRECX, 2008.
[5] Zhang, M., Liu, Z.L. and Ma, G.Y., The experimental and
numerical investigation of a grooved vapor chamber, Appl.
Therm. Eng., 29, 2009, 422-430.
[6] Huang, H.S., Chiang, Y.C., Huang, C.K. and Chen, S.L.,
Experimental investigation of vapor chamber module applied
to high-power lighting-emitting diodes, Experimental Heat
Transfer, 22, 2009, 26-38.
[7] Go, J.S., Quantitative Thermal Performance Evaluation of a
Cost-Effective Vapor Chamber Heat Sink Containing a Metal-
Etched Microwick Structure for Advanced Microprocessor
Cooling, Sens. and Actuators A, 121, 2005, 549-556.
[8] Luo, X.B., Hu, R., Guo, T.H., Zhu, X.L., Chen, W., Mao, Z.M.
and Liu, S., Low Thermal Resistance LED Light Source with
Vapor Chamber Coupled Fin Heat Sink, in Electronic
Components and Technology Conference: ECTC60, Las
Vegas, NV, USA, June 1-June 4, 2010,1347-1352
23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

A Method to Extend One-Dimensional Thermal Resistance Concept to

Arbitrary Dimension

R. Hu, C.Y. Xie and X.B. Luo*

School of Energy and Power Engineering
Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
*
Corresponding author: luoxb@mail.hust.edu.cn

Abstract simplification is widely used in the engineering applications but

In this study, we develop a method to extend the one-dimensional
thermal resistance concept to arbitrary dimensions based on heat
flow lines. Using the present method, the total thermal resistance
can be calculated by paralleled thermal resistances of heat flow
lines. Several typical examples, including the one-dimensional
plane wall, spherical system and cylinder system, were calculated
and compared with the formulas in heat transfer textbooks to
validate the present calculation method. The comparison
demonstrates that the present calculation method is able to be
used in thermal resistance calculation with arbitrary dimension
since the heat flow lines exist at any heat conduction processes.
1 Introduction
Thermal resistance is a measure of material's ability to resist heat
transfer [1-3]. It is such an important concept in thermal science
and engineering that it is widely used in many areas, for instance,
the building industry, the electronic packaging industry, the
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems [4-7].
Since the Fourier's law for heat conduction is analogous to Ohm's
law for electrical circuits, analogy between heat and electrical
conduction is an effective way to solve complex steady-state or
transient heat conduction problems. In the analogy, the
temperature T corresponds to the voltage V, the heat flow Q
corresponds to the current I and the thermal resistance Rt
corresponds to the electrical resistance Re. As shown in Figure 1,
like the definition of the electrical resistance, the thermal
resistance is usually defined as [8]
it may lead to much error especially when the system dimensions
are large [1,4,7].
In this study, we developed a method to calculate the thermal
resistance from the view of heat flow line. The total thermal
resistance formula was obtained for arbitrary dimensions and it is
validated in some simple cases such as plane wall, spherical
system and cylindrical system.
2 Re-examination of the Temperature Field
When a temperature gradient exists in a body, there is an energy
transfer from the high-temperature region to the low-temperature
region. The line or surface where the points share the same
temperature at a certain moment is called as isothermal line or
surface. As shown in Figure 2, the dash lines are the isotherms
and the solid lines are the heat flow lines. The direction vector
n of the heat flow line is the normal vector of the isotherm at P
point. According to the second principle of thermodynamics, the
heat-transfer rate q is opposite to n . The heat will transfer along
the heat flow lines along the direction of q, which are
perpendicular to the isotherms in the whole temperature field [8].

T T1 T2
=
Rt = (1)
Q Q
where Rt is the thermal resistance, T is the temperature
difference of the two ends, and Q is the heat flow.

Figure 2 Heat flow lines (solid line) and isotherms (dash line) in
Figure 1 Analogy between heat and electrical conduction. the temperature field.

From the definition of the thermal resistance, we may notice that
the thermal resistance is just onedimensional and it is well used
in one-dimensional systems. However, the systems in the real
world are usually multi-dimensions, and if we still want to use
equation (1) to gain the thermal resistance of the multi-
dimensional systems, we have to assume an average temperature
difference to represent the real temperature difference. The above
For a real body, there are millions of heat flow lines. Heat is
transferred along the heat flow lines and there is no heat transfer
between the flow lines since the neighborhoods of the heat flow
lines are isothermal. The heat flow lines may be neither straight
lines nor parallel, but they will not intersect each other because
the arbitrary point can't have two temperatures at a certain
moment. Therefore, the heat transfer along the heat flow line
could be assumed as one dimensional and each heat flow line has 1 l 1

a thermal resistance. For a real body, the thermal resistances of R = dx (6)
x
( )
0
the heat flow lines are paralleled and the total thermal resistance n 1 + 1 dA
1
could be calculated as the summation of the paralleled thermal l
resistances. When the area dA1 and dA2 are different, i.e. n1, equation (6)
can be simplified as
3 Thermal Resistance Calculation
1 l 1 l ln n
=R =
x
dx
(n 1) dA1
(7)

( n 1) l + 1 dA1
0

Figure 3 Elemental volume for a heat flow line.

In order to calculate the summation of the paralleled thermal

resistances, firstly, we need to solve the thermal resistance of one Figure 4 Model of a heat flow line in Case I.
heat flow line. Considering an elemental volume in a heat flow
line shown in Figure 3 to conduct the analysis, we establish the
custom coordinate system where x axis is along the heat flow
line. The heat is transferred from the infinitesimal area dA1 to
dA2, and the temperatures at the two ends are t1 and t2,
respectively. According to Fourier's law, the total heat transferred
along the heat flow line could be written as

t dt
= dA( x) = dA( x) (2)
x dx
where is heat-transfer rate, the thermal conductivity is a
function of temperature and dA(x) is the cross area along the x
axis. The thermal resistance of the heat transfer with variable
cross-section is [8]
Figure 5 Model of a heat flow line in Case II.
(t1 t2 ) 1 l dx
0 dA( x)
R =
= (3)
(ii) Case II
where R and l are the thermal resistance and length of the As shown in Figure 5, when the cross area of the infinitesimal
elemental volume of a heat flow line, respectively. To calculate element of the heat flow line dA(x) is proportional to the
R, we need to identify the dA(x). As shown in Figure 4, we equivalent radius' square r2, i.e. dA( x) r , then
2

straighten the curved heat flow line. r1 and r2 are the equivalent dA2/dA1=(r2/r1)2=n2. We assume that the infinitesimal element of
radius of the two infinitesimal areas dA1 and dA2, respectively. x the heat flow line is a thin truncated cone. Therefore, we can find
is the distance between the cross area dA(x) and dA1, l is the the relationship between the dA(x) and dA1.
distance between the dA1 and dA2. According to Figure 3, we can
obtain 2
x
dA( x) = ( n 1) + 1 dA1 (8)
x l
r ( x) = ( n 1) + 1 r1 (4)
l Similarly, the thermal resistance R can be calculated by
substituting equation (8) into equation (3) as
where n equals to the ratio of r2 and r1, i.e. n=r2/r1.
1 l 1 l
(i) Case I =R =

0
x
2
dx
ndA1
(9)

( n 1) l + 1 dA1
When the cross area of the infinitesimal element of the heat flow
line dA(x) is proportional to the equivalent radius r(x), i.e.
dA( x) r ( x) , then dA2/dA1=r2/r1=n. At this situation, we can After obtaining the thermal resistance R of one heat flow line,
obtain the relationship between the dA(x) and dA1 as we can obtain the total thermal resistance by considering that all
the thermal resistances are parallel to each other. Assuming that
x
dA( x) = ( n 1) + 1 dA1
the two end infinitesimal areas and the length of each heat flow
(5) line are dA1i, dA2i, and li, respectively. There are N heat flow
l lines, and the total thermal resistance Rtotal could be calculated by
Substituting equation (6) into equation (3) giving following formulas according to two cases.
 1
N n -1)dA , Case I
i 1i

1 i =1 l ln n
= R 1i
Rtotal 1/=
i
(10)
, Case II
N ni dA1i

i =1 li
Since the above total thermal resistance is derived from the
paralleled heat flow lines, no matter what the geometry of the
real body, the total thermal resistance can be solved precisely
once we know the distribution of the heat flow lines. In this way,
the one-dimensional thermal resistance concept can be extended
to arbitrary dimensions.

4 Application Examples of the Thermal Resistance

Calculation Method
Now we examine the applications of the present thermal
Figure 6 One-dimensional heat transfer through a plane wall.
resistance calculation method. In order to validate the present
method, we calculate and compare the thermal resistances with
those of some well-known examples.
4.2 Spherical System
4.1 Plane Wall
When the temperature is a function of the radial distance and is
As shown in Figure 6, we consider the plane wall with an area of independent of azimuth angle, the spherical system also falls into
A and a thickness of t. The temperature difference between the the category of one-dimensional systems. As shown in Figure 7,
two surfaces is t=|t1-t2|. The thermal conductivity is . If each the radii of the inner and outer surfaces of the sphere are r1 and
flow line is the same, the two end infinitesimal areas and length r2, respectively. A1 and A2 are the areas of the inner and outer
should be all the same. Since the areas of the two surfaces are surfaces of the sphere. The temperature difference between the
exactly the same, and the equivalent radii are also the same, as two surfaces is t=|t1-t2|. is the thermal conductivity. If each
shown in equation (11), the plane wall falls into both the two heat flow line is the same, the two end infinitesimal areas and
cases and the thermal resistance can be calculated by equation length of each heat flow line should be all the same. Since the
(10). inner and outer surfaces are both spherical surface, we have
A2 r r
= 1= 2 = ( 2 ) 2 A2 4 r22 r
(11) = = ( 2 )2 (15)
A1 r1 r1 A1 4 r12 r1
When plane wall falls into Case I, the thermal resistance of the
Therefore, the spherical system falls into Case II, and the total
infinitesimal element can't be calculated by equation (7) since the
thermal resistance can be solved by equation (10) as follows
ratio n equals 1. Therefore with equation (6), we obtain
1 r2 r1 1 1 1
1 l 1 l = = = ( )
0 dA1
=R = Rtotal (16)
dx (12) N
ni dA1i r2 4 r1 r2
dA1
i =1 li

r1
4 r1
2

And the total thermal resistance is

The result of equation (16) agrees with the thermal resistance
1 N
dA1i t
R
formula of a sphere in the heat transfer textbook [8].
=
Rtotal 1/= 1/ = (13)
i =1 li A
When the plane wall falls into Case II, with equation (10) we can
obtain

1 t
=Rtotal = (14)
N
ni dA1i A

i =1 li

The results of equations (13) and (14) agree with the thermal
resistance formula of plane wall in the heat transfer textbook [8].

Figure 7 One-dimensional heat transfer through a spherical

system.
4.3 Cylindrical System
 When the temperature is a function only for the radial distance 1 l ln( A2 / A1 )
and independent of the axial distance, the cylindrical system can Rtotal N
ni -1)dA1i
= max
( A2 A1 A1 )
= Rmax
also considered as one-dimensional system. As shown in Figure
8, consider a long cylinder with inside radius r1, outside radius r2,


1 l ln n
max i
and its length is L. A1, t1, and A2, t2 are the areas and temperatures (19)
R 1 l ln( A2 / A1 )
of the inner and outer surfaces of the cylinder. The thermal = min = Rmin
conductivity is . If each heat flow line is the same, the two end total N
ni -1)dA1i ( A2 A1 A1 )
infinitesimal areas and length of each heat flow line should be all 1 l ln n
the same. According to the relationship between the area and the min i

radius, we have Case II:

A2 2 r2 L r2 1 1 l
= = (17) Rtotal =N n dA N
= max =
ni dA1i A1 A2
Rmax
A1 2 r1 L r1

1
i
l
1i
1 l
Thus the cylinder system falls into Case I, and the total thermal i max

resistance can be calculated by equation (10) as

(20)
R = 1 1 l
= min = Rmin
total N
ni dA1i N
ni dA1i A1 A2
r r
(r2 r1 ) ln( 2 ) ln( 2 ) 1 l 1 l
1 r1 r1 i min
=Rtotal = = (18)
ni -1)dA1i
( 2 1)2 r1 L 2 L
N
r And the average thermal resistance can be calculated as

i =1 li ln ni r1 1
=
Rave ( Rmax + Rmin ) (21)
The result of equation (18) agrees with the thermal resistance 2
formula of a cylinder system in the heat transfer textbook [8]. With equations (19), (20) and (21), we can calculate the thermal
resistance of a real body. To precisely calculate the thermal
resistance, we have to obtain the accurate distribution of the heat
flow lines first. The solution of the precise thermal resistance
must be combined with the search of the temperature field. This
part of work is left for our future work.

Figure 8 One-dimensional heat transfer through a cylinder system
5 Conclusions
In this study, we presented the calculation method for multi
dimensional thermal resistance based on the heat flow line. The
total thermal resistance can be calculated by the paralleled
thermal resistances of the heat flow lines. The calculation method
was validated by some typical examples, including the plane
wall, spherical system and cylinder system. No matter what the
geometry of the body is, the present total thermal resistance
concept is applicative since it is based on the heat flow line. The
heat flow line is suitable for any dimensions, thus the present
thermal resistance calculation method can be extended to
arbitrary dimension applications.

4.4 Multi-dimensional System Acknowledgments

When it comes to the multi-dimensional systems, the thermal
resistance is more difficult to be obtained since the temperature
field become complex at this situation. In the engineering
applications, people usually assume an average temperature
difference to calculate the thermal resistance, which will cause
error. With the present thermal resistance concept, the precise
thermal resistance can be solved once the distribution of the heat
flow lines are known.
However, the accurate distribution of the heat flow lines are still
unknown unless the temperature field is solved. To calculate the
thermal resistance without the solution of the temperature field,
we have to assume the maximum length lmax and minimum length
lmin of the heat flow line to make the equation (10) applicable. We
also assume that the two end areas of the body are divided
uniformly, thus the ratio n is the same. Therefore, according to
the category of the two cases, the equation (10) can be rewritten
as
Case I:
The authors would like to express their great thanks to the
support from 973 Project of The Ministry of Science and
Technology of China (2009CB320203 and 2011CB013105).
References
[1] Cheng, T., Luo, X.B., Huang, S.Y., Thermal analysis and
optimization of multiple LED packaging based on a general
analytical solution. Int. J. Therm. Sci., 49, 2010, 196-201.
[2] Chen, K.M., Houng, K.H., Chiang, K.N., Thermal resistance
analysis and validation of flip chip PBGA packages,
Microelectron. Reliab., 46, 2006, 440-448.
[3] Luo, X.B., Zheng, H., Liu, M., Experimental study on
substrate with hierarchical nested channels for thermal
interface resistance control, J. Appl. Phys., 109, 2011,
103503.
[4] Luo, X.B., Xiong, W., Cheng, T., Temperature estimation of
high-power light emitting diode street lamp by a multi-chip
analytical solution, IET Optoelectron., 3(5), 2009, 225-232.
[5] Lenz, M., Striedl, G., Frohler, U., Thermal resistance, thoery
and practice, Infineon Technologies AG, Munich Germany.
[6] Hsieh, S.S., Lee, R.Y., Shyu, J.C., Analytical solution of typical BGA packaging, Thermochimica Acta, 512, 2011,
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without pillar, Energ. Convers. Manage., 48, 2007, 2708-
2717 [8] Holman, J.P., Heat Transfer, 9th ed. Beijing: China Machine
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[7] Luo, X.B., Mao, Z.M., Liu, J., An analytical thermal
resistance model for calculating mean die temperature of a
 23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena
Auckland, New Zealand
1922 November 2012

Marangoni Condensation on a Horizontal Tube

Microscopic and Macroscopic Effects

J. Deans, S. Norris, P.J. Martin1.

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, University of Auckland, New Zealand.

1
Lateral Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.

Abstract Greek symbols

This report describes the condensation of steam, on a
film thickness, depth (m).
horizontal tube, when the steam contains low concentrations viscosity (N s/m2).
of ammonia or trimethylamine. The surface tensions of both l kinematic viscosity of condensate (m2/s)
additives are less than those of water and each will generate density (kg/m3).
Marangoni instabilities in the condensate film that form on surface tension (N/m).
the tube surface. The altered morphology of these films shear stress on condensate film (N/m2).
significantly increases their rates of condensation.
Subscripts
The focus of this report is an examination of the Bubble bubble point.
hydrodynamic mechanisms that create the modified films cw cooling water.
found when ammonia or trimethylamine are added to steam. Dew dew point.
All of the steam condensation tests were conducted at similar Equil equilibrium condensation.
or identical operating conditions and hence the effects of the i interface.
different additives can be readily compared. l condensate film.
Nomenclature o external surface of the tube.
sat saturation condition.
A area, constant. v vapour.
Aw tube wall area (m2). w tube wall.
B constant. bulk vapour condition.
D diameter (m). T constant temperature.
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2). Total total condensation.
h heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K). x constant mass fraction.
hfg latent heat (J/kg).
hNu, const flux heat transfer coefficient from Nusselts theory Introduction
with constant heat flux (W/m2K).
k thermal conductivity (W/m K). The studies by Goto [1], Morrison and Deans [2], Murase,
L axial distance along the tube (m). Wang and Rose [3], along with those of Deans and Kucuka
L half of the distance between the points where [4] have established that the condensation rates of steam on
drops detach from the tube base (m). horizontal tubes can be enhanced by the use of additives that
l distance in the circumferential direction near modify the surface morphology of the condensate film. The
the initial incision (m). modified films have a reduced thermal resistance that over-
m condensate mass flow rate (kg/s). compensates for the additional thermal resistance of the
P pressure (Pa). diffusion layer created by the more volatile additive. The
Q total heat transfer (W). additives commonly used in these studies are ammonia or
q heat flux (W/m2). ethanol, and the vapour mass fractions, which promote this
R thermal resistance of tube wall (K/W). enhancement, tend to be less than 0.005. When the additive
r radius of outer surface (m). mass fraction in the vapour is increased; the thermal
Re Reynolds number (dimensionless). resistance of the diffusion layer will also increase and this
T temperature (K). resistance will eventually become the dominant thermal
V axial surface velocity of the condensate film resistance between the tube surface and the vapour. In this
away from the incision (m/s). condition the enhanced rates of condensation start to reduce.
x mass fraction. The enhanced rates of condensation are generally calculated
using the method developed by Tamir [5]. In this method the
 experimentally derived value of the condensate film heat Properties of aqueous ammonia and trimethylamine
transfer coefficient is compared with that predicted using the mixtures
Nusselt equation for steam condensing under identical test
conditions. This calculation method isolates the effects that Equation (2) demonstrates that that the rate of change of
the additive has in the formation of the new condensate film surface tension with mass fraction is an important parameter
morphology. Typical enhancement values for the in determining the stability of the film. This rate of change
condensation rate of steam range from approximately 20% can be observed in Figure 2 which shows the change in
for the addition of ammonia [2] to more than 400% for the surface tension values, at 20oC, for the binary aqueous
addition of trimethylamine [4]. mixtures when the mass fraction of the ammonia and
trimethylamine are increased from 0 to 0.04. These results
The heat transfer enhancement found in these studies is not
are based on the test measurement reported by Korte [7],
unique to condensation of steam-additive mixtures on a
Rice [8] and Donaldson [9] for the ammonia-water mixtures.
horizontal tube; the most frequently studied condenser
The results for trimethylamine were obtained from Mmereki,
geometry is a vertical plate and the condensation rates for a
Hicks and Donaldson [10]. The later values were augmented
wide range of the binary vapour mixtures have been
by the experimental values measured by Korte [7]. Some of
examined. Ford and Missen [6] have demonstrated that a
these test measurements were obtained at 25oC and all have
criteria which can be used to determine the surface instability
been reduced to a common value of 20 oC by assuming that
of a condensate film is given by the inequality shown in
the temperature dependence of the mixture was similar to
Equation (1).
that of pure water. The curves shown in Figure 2 were
d (1) obtained from the models or correlations recommended by
0 for unstable condensate films.
Deans et al [4] for ammonia and Tamura, Kurata and Odani
d
[11] for trimethylamine. The estimated errors in this data
The surface tension () at the film interface is generally range from 2% for ammonia to 4% for trimethylamine.
considered to be a function of both the local temperature and It should also be noted that the mass fractions of most of the
the additive mass fraction (x); the influence of both additives described in this report have values that are lower
properties on instability criteria is given by Equation (2). than 0.01 and that there are very few test measurements in
this region.
d dT dx
0 (2)
d T x d x T d
For condensation the values of the dT/d derivative are
always positive and those for the dx/d derivative are
generally negative for binary condensation. The stability of
the film is therefore dependent on the partial derivatives,
both of which relate to the properties of the vapour/liquid
mixture. If the more volatile component has the lower
surface tension and if the mixture does not exhibit some
minimum or maximum at an intermediate concentration then
the condensate film will be unstable. A limitation in this
approach is that while it specifies the conditions required for
an unstable film to develop, it does not confirm that such a
film will develop nor does it indicate the form of the
condensate film that may develop.
Figure 1 shows a pictorial representation of the more
commonly found film morphologies observed during the
condensation of steam on a horizontal tube when the vapour
contains either an ammonia, or ethanol additive. Figure 2 Change in surface tension of water with increasing
o
mass fraction of ammonia and trimethylamine (at 20 C).

The surface tension results shown in Figure 2 for each of the

aqueous mixtures can be reduced using the semi-empirical
equation attributed to von Szyszkowski [12]
Plain Banded Rippled
Turbulent Dropwise
banded x
1 B *ln 1 (3)
Figure 1 Condensate film morphologies found during o A
ammonia water condensation.
The coefficients used to predict the surface tension values for
the aqueous mixtures are given below in Table 1.
Table 1 Coefficients used in Equation 3 to calculate surface
tension of aqueous solutions.
Aqueous Solution A B
Water Trimethylamine 0.004 0.135
Water Ammonia 0.9 1
The maximum error between the predicted values using
Equation 3 and the model results given in Figure 2 is less
than 2%.
The temperatures and mass fractions of both fluids at the
condensate/vapour interface depends on the rate of mass
transfer across the interface. The interpretation of these rates
requires a phase diagram and Figure 3 shows the calculated
phase diagrams for ammonia, and trimethylamine, when their
mass fractions are less than 0.05. These results show that the
predicted Dew Point temperatures for both mixtures are
similar and effectively constant when the mass fractions are
less than 0.01. The values for ammonia-water mixtures were
calculated using the methods described by Conde [13] those
for trimethylamine-water were calculated using the
VMGSim [14] software and a Non-Random Two-Liquid
thermodynamic model. No published data for these values
has been found and these predictions should be treated with
caution.
Figure 3 The phase diagram for steam mixtures that contain
ammonia or methylamine or trimethylamine.
When a vapour condenses at the top of a horizontal tube the
mass flux across the vapour/liquid interface will be relative
high and the mass fractions of the vapour and liquid
components, at the interface are generally considered to be
equal to that in the vapour. At the bottom of the tube the
surface mass fraction of the vapour is unknown but the
vapour mass flow rate onto the condensate film will be low.
In the limiting condition the condensate interface
temperature of will be the Bubble Point temperature at zero
mass fraction. In all of the tests undertaken in this
programme the condensate interface mass fractions are
assumed to vary between the vapour mass fraction at the top
of the tube and zero at its base. It is with this background
that the ammonia and trimethylamine tests were initiated.
Experimental Method
The results presented in this study are based on the external
condensation rates found for downward flowing, steam-
additive vapours that condense on the outer surface of a
145mm long cooled horizontal tube that has an external
diameter of 25mm. The arrangement of this test section is
shown in Figure 4. An important feature not shown in this
figure are the sight glasses fixed to external wall of the test
section; these ports are used to observe and photograph the
condensing tube surface. The design, development and
commissioning of this test facility are presented in both
Morrison and Deans [2] and in Deans and Kucuka [8].
CW IN
P ro tractor
Cold W ater
In let Manif old
Con d en sin g
Tub e
Therm o co up le
CW O U T
S piral In sert H o t Ju n ction
Therm o pile
Leads S eals
G u ide
Cold J u nctio n P ackin g
S ectio n W all Rin g
Tef lon Bu sh
Figure 4. The condensing tube assembly
The vapour pressure and the vapour Reynolds Number,
based on the approach conditions in the duct above the test
section, were maintained constant in all of the tests at 70kPa
and 450 respectively. The low Reynolds number used in these
tests implied that the vapour shear forces were not significant.
The energy flow through the wall of the tube is found from
an energy balance that measures the temperature rise in the
cooling water temperature, measured using a thermopile.
The concentration of the vapour was estimated from a liquid
sample taken at inlet to the vaporiser and tested by titration
with standardised hydrochloric acid. All of the temperatures
were measured using either a thermocouple or a thermopile
and each these sensors were calibrated against a national
standard thermometer. The tube surface temperature was
determined from a buried thermocouple whose output was
corrected to produce the surface temperature, and the
circumferential temperature profile was obtained by rotating
the tube. The average surface temperature was then used to
calculate the condensing heat transfer coefficient. The
maximum error in the value of hw ,o is estimated to be less than
6%.
Q (4)
h
A T T
w ,o
w,o v, w,o
 The reference heat transfer coefficients, for the tests using the vapour mass fraction and the value of the difference
trimethylamine, are determined using Equation 5 which is between the average wall temperature and that of the vapour.
the Nusselt equation derived assuming that there is a constant The importance of the vapour mass fraction was
heat flux through the thick tube wall. demonstrated by reversing the morphological transformation
1 during a test where the ammonia concentration was slowly
g h k 3 3 reduced by the addition of distilled water into the circuit
L V fg L
hNu, const flux 0.615

before the vaporizer. In this test the banded film was
L D q (5) transformed to a smooth film when the vapour mass fraction
The determination of the heat transfer enhancement factor is was reduced below 0.004.
an important feature of these tests and all of the test results
are presented below as the ratio of h / h w, o . Nu, Constflux

Objective

Equation 1 is the only equation that can be used to ascertain
if Marangoni condensation may develop on a surface. The
objective of this study is to demonstrate two extreme
examples of the wide range of possibilities that could
develop. The description of the ammonia test series will
demonstrate the microscopic nature of Equation 1 where it is
used to demonstrate the formation of a banded condensate
film, (more detailed description of this work is given in [4]).
Where the macroscopic nature of this equation is examined
in the test where trimethylamine is used as an additive. In
this case the surface of the condensate film is subjected to a
significant shear force.
Figure 5 Variation in heat transfer coefficient with ammonia
concentration and cooling water temperature.
The Formation of Banded Films when adding Ammonia
Observations made during the tests showed that the surface
Ninety-three tests were conducted in this test series; where
of the film at the base of the tube became disturbed when the
the ammonia mass fraction ranged from 0 to 0.016. During
ammonia mass fraction was greater than 0.0025 and when
these tests the average temperature of the cooling water
the vapour to wall temperature difference was relatively
flowing through the condenser tube was limited to one of
large. These disturbances started mid-way between the
five nominal average temperatures in the range 11 oC to 25oC.
detaching condensate drops and there was no obvious
These cooling water temperatures can be translated into five
preference for these disturbances to be initiated at the cooling
approximate values for the temperature differences between
water inlet end of the tube. It is believed that the
the average wall temperature and the vapour. The values for
disturbances were formed in the wake between two reflected
this temperature difference ranged between 15.2 oC and 18oC.
surface waves. These waves are created when the
It is these temperature differences that are the thermal
condensate drops detach from the tube. The film surface in
driving force for the condensation process. During each test
this region is difficult to measure but the disturbance has the
the cooling water temperature increased by approximately
appearance of a single circumferential streak. This streak
2.5oC and this translated to an approximate axial variation of
grows circumferentially with increasing concentration and
0.5oC for the tube surface temperature. All of the test results
eventually forms a complete solitary band of disturbed fluid
are shown in Figure 5.
around the tube. This band is not rigid and can sway axially;
The morphology of the condensate film was smooth when it is at this stage that two secondary bands form on the
the ammonia mass fraction of the vapour was less than condensate surface and they are essentially parallel to the
0.002, at this level of ammonia concentration the heat original band. The secondary bands form mid-way between
transfer coefficient decreased with increased concentration the drop and the original band but they gradually migrate
but this reduction was less than that normally encountered in towards the original band. These bands continue to sway and
binary condensation. When the mass fraction was greater only become fixed when the banded regions from other parts
than 0.0045 the films had a banded morphology and there of the tube merge. In this situation the width of each band is
was an immediate 15% increase in the rate of heat transfer approximately 3.5 mm. A sequence of photographs showing
when the bands covered the tube surface. If the vapour the development of these bands is presented in Figure 6.
concentration is increased to higher values the heat transfer
The stability relationship (Equation (1)) predicts that films
coefficient decreases, but this reduction is less than that
formed during the condensation of ammonia-water vapours
normally expected for binary condensation systems with
may be unstable. This type of relationship is confirmed by
smooth films. The temperature for the transition from
smooth to banded film was found to depend on the value of
 a) Disturbance initiation. b) Disturbance growth.

Figure 7 Phase diagram at interface.

conditions. This depth can be found from: -

c) Collection of bands. d) Completely banded film.
Figure 6 Photographs showing evolution of smooth
T T
in cisio n
1
w,oBu b b le
Eq u il
(9)
Tw,o TDew
disturbed and banded films.

the experimental results presented in Figure 5 where it is A typical value for the depth of the incision at the base of the
shown that the formation of the banded film does not tube is 1.5*10-5 m or 3% of the local condensate film
develop until the ammonia mass fraction in the vapour is thickness when the ammonia vapour mass fraction is 0.004.
greater than 0.004. This delay suggests that an additional The fractional depth of the incision will increase with
trigger mechanism is responsible for the formation of the decreasing angle from the top of the tube and with increasing
banded films. vapour mass fraction. When the vapour mass fraction is
0.0126 the maximum depth of the incision will be 20% of the
It is generally assumed that Equilibrium condensation
film thickness. A similar increase will be noted as the
conditions exist at the base of the tube. In this condition the
incision moves up the tube surface into regions of higher
surface tension of the condensate surface will be similar to
mass fraction.
the value for water. The thickness of the condensate film in
this region can be estimated using Equation 7. The main features of the disturbed film geometry are shown
on Figure 8 where this cross section view is parallel to the

Equil (7) tube axis. The stability condition (Equation (1)) is satisfied
l g r since the surface tension for equilibrium condensation has
the larger value; one consequence of this is that the
A typical value for the depth (Equil) of the condensate film at condensate is drawn out of the incision. The difference in
the base of the tube before the transition to the banded flow surface tension values along the incision wall creates a
morphology was found to be 0.00051m.
surface shear stress on the liquid film and this will cause a
The equilibrium conditions on the condensate / vapour recirculation cell to form in the liquid. (Guyon, Hulin, Petit
interface at the base of the tube will rapidly change in the and Mitescu, [14]). This movement will initially enhance the
space between the two reflected surface waves. In this thermal conductivity of the condensate film.
region it is believed a surface incision forms when the
interface conditions change from one where equilibrium
condensation exists to one where locally, total condensation
develops; this transition is a direct consequence of Equation
1 and is shown in Figure 7. During the initial phase of this
transformation at the local heat transfer through both the
disturbed and undisturbed films will be similar since the tube
wall is the dominant thermal resistance. The local energy
flows in both the equilibrium and total condensate films are
connected by equation (8).
kl A Tw, o TDew kl A Tw, o TBubble
Q (8)
Equi l Tot al
A typical value for the depth of the incision at the base of the
Figure 8 Incision Geometry.
tube is 1.5*10-5 m or 3% of the local condensate film depths
associated with the equilibrium and total condensation

 When the incision forms on the lower condensate film
surface, the local flow characteristics along this surface will
change since the incision will limit the movement of the
surface waves. The flow direction of the condensate surface
waves draining from either side of the incision will have a
unidirectional flow towards the region where the drop
detaches. The reaction force to this flow will be supported
by surface tension at the incision wall. The evolution of this
force can be used to explain why the incision forms mid-way
between detaching drops, why the single band sways when
adjacent drops do not detach simultaneously and why of the
secondary bands migrate towards the original band. The
measured spacing had an average value of approximately
0.035m.
The hydrodynamic forces acting on the walls of the incision
are also shown in Figure 8. These forces are the hydrostatic
pressure force due to the depth of the film and the surface
reaction force caused by a movement of the condensate. An
axial force balance on unit depth (l) of the incision wall in
the circumferential direction shows that the incision will only
exist if: -
Equil Total * l
> Pressure Force+Reaction Force
g Equil ( l ) m V
The expansion of Equation (10) produces the condition
required for the incision to be stable: -
Equil
Total
* k Lh T
g Equil Incision
g Equil
Equil fg
The results generated when the experimentally derived
values for all of the tests are substituted into Equation (11)
are shown in Figure 10. The results show that the difference
in surface tension values across the depth of the incision will
not be able to resist the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic forces
Figure 10 Calculated forces on the incision wall.
on the incision walls when the vapour mass fraction is less
than 0.004. When the vapour mass fraction is greater than
0.005 the incision is sustainable for all of the experimental
conditions. The results produced in Figure 10 show that
increasing the cooling water temperature will delay the onset
of banded -condensate films this effect was apparent in the
experimental results shown in Figure 3. This model can also
be extended to show that a stable incision would develop at
0.003 vapour mass fraction if the local vapour concentration
in the cylinder wake was 50% greater than the free stream
value. This trend supports a general observation that banded
flows develop at lower concentrations when the Reynolds
number is higher if it is assumed that the vapour
concentration in the wake of the cylinder will be greater at
larger Reynolds Number.
Tests using Trimethylamine as an Additive
In this test series the main test variables were the vapour mass
fraction of the trimethylamine and the cooling water
temperature. The mass fractions in these tests ranged from
0.0001 to 0.0587 and the cooling water had temperatures of
either 11.2oC or 21.1oC. The condensate film resistance
accounted for less than 10% of the total thermal resistance
between the cooling water and steam and the effect of this
change in cooling water temperature created a maximum
(10) change of 0.2oC on the outer tube wall temperatures.
The rates of heat transfer found during these tests are shown
in Figure 14, as an enhanced heat transfer rate relative to that
expected for steam condensing at the same conditions. The
(11) maximum rate of heat transfer found during these tests was
more than 4 times that expected for steam, when the
w ,o
T
Dew trimethylamine mass fraction was 0.0003 and the average
cooling water temperature within the tube was 11.2 oC. This
maximum rate of heat transfer reduces to 3.8 times that for
steam when the water temperature was increased to 21.1 oC.
Figure 11 Heat transfer enhancement when trimethylamine
is added to the condensing steam.
For most of the tests in this series the film surface could be
readily characterised as moving-drop wise. When the vapour
mass fraction is 0.0001 the condensate film is continuous and
appears to move down and over the tube with considerable
velocity. A frame-by-frame analysis of the videos taken
during each test show that this film has ripples that move
both down and laterally along the tube.
In tests where the trimethylamine mass fraction was 0.0003
the surface of the film contains small drops with a maximum
diameter of 0.002m and these drops float on a continuous
liquid sub-layer. During condensation the complete film,
including both the drops and sub-layer, moved down and over
the tube surface. Figure 12 shows the typical drop wise
texture of the surface when the trimethylamine vapour
mass fraction was 0.0008. Measurements taken from still
photographs transcribed from video recordings, suggest
that the circumferential velocity of distinctive droplet
clusters at the mid-point of the tube was in the range 0.08-
0.1m/s for all trimethylamine mass fractions. This velocity
would be constant over the tube surface since it was driven
by surface tension differences at the top and bottom of the
tube. No evidence was observed of any amalgamation or
movement of the drops relative to each other nor was any
significant growth in the drop diameter measured in any
test.
Figure 12 Condensation film when the trimethylamine mass
fraction is 0.0008. Note the drops on the upper and lower
parts of the tube.
When the trimethylamine mass fraction was increased the
distribution of the drop diameters on the film surface
became more uniform. In all tests the drops were nucleated
at the very top of the tube and all of the bubble growth
apparently took place in this region. At the base of the
tube the condensate film appeared to be much thinner than
that observed during the ammonia tests and it was
noticeable that the surface droplets did not readily merge
into the liquid sub-layer. Figure 12 shows the fully formed
drops at the top of the tube and the un-absorbed drops at
the base. These surface drops frequently formed the
nucleus of the condensate drops that departed from the
bottom surface of the tube.
When the mass fraction was increased to values greater than
0.001 the ripples on the sub-layer surface reappeared and there
was a tendency of the drops to form circumferential bands.
Observations from video photographs show that the banded
drops and ripples were firmly established when vapour mass
fraction reached 0.0043.
The overall impression developed during these tests was that
it is the liquid sub-layer that controls the film morphology and
the rates of heat transfer to the film. The drops floating on
the film do not appear to participate in the heat transfer
process since their diameters did not change nor did they
agglomerate. All of the observations support the conclusion
that there is a strong circumferential surface tension gradient
on this film that drives both the film and the drops. Many of
the features found in the trimethylamine tests are similar to
those found by Ford and McAleer [16] in their studies of non-
filmwise condensation of aqueous solutions.
Guyon, Hurlin, Petit and Mitescu [15] has demonstrated that
the shear stress on a film that contains a surface tension
gradient is given by Equation (12).
d
element
rd (12)
Equation (12) can be expanded to show the influence of mass
fraction and the surface tension gradient (d/dx ) found from
equation (3) to determine the shear stress that develops on the
surface of a continuous condensate film (Equation 13). This
analysis assumes that the condensate surface tension at the top
of the tube is determined by the vapour mass fraction and that
the surface tension at the base is effectively that of water.
o B A
*ln
r A x (13)
Figure 13 demonstrates the rapid increase in the
circumferential shear stress and the relative values that the
two additives generate. The increasing shear force on the
trimethylamine film with increasing vapour mass suggests that
the film velocity should increase with increasing mass
fraction; there was no evidence of this increase. The rapidly
moving film observed in the trimethylamine tests was not
noted in the ammonia tests. The predicted results show that
the shear stress levels measured at the minimum mass fraction
tested with trimethylamine would appear in the ammonia tests
when other film morphologies had developed. It is also
apparent from Figure 13 that the maximum heat transfer rate
for each additive developed at similar values of the calculated
shear stress on the condensate film.

Figure 13 Variation in calculated value of sheer stress at the
condensate film surface with mass fraction and additive.
Conclusions
The study describes two well-defined examples for steam tests
where the morphology of the film has been modified by an
additive that induces Marangoni instabilities. Both of the test
series were performed on the same test rig operating at very
similar conditions. The addition of trimethylamine as an
additive induced a greater variation in the aqueous mixture
than did the addition of ammonia. The main variables
examined in each test programme were the mass fraction of
the steam additive and the temperature of the cooling water
within the tube of the test section. The trimethylamine mass
fractions tested were smaller than those used in the ammonia
tests.
It was apparent from these tests that each additive has the
capability to generate a limited range of surface tension values
and it is that it is this range of values which determines the
type of Marangoni instabilities that will develop. There is a
distinct maximum value of enhanced heat transfer that each
additive could generate. This enhancement was greatest for
trimethylamine and least for ammonia.
During the ammonia tests the banded and rippled
morphologies were those that were most frequently observed,
though most of the morphologies shown in Figure 1 were also
noted.. It was a conclusion of the ammonia tests that most of
the film morphologies were formed as a result of a single
well-defined instability. This report describes a proposed
initiation mechanism for banded film flows and this is an
example of this approach. Drop wise condensate films did
develop at higher ammonia mass fractions; in this region
however the diffusion layer was the controlling influence and
no overall benefit of this morphology was found.
In the trimethylamine tests the surface drops appeared to be
fixed to and driven by the continuous liquid sub-layer. This
layer moved with a considerable velocity and the size and
shape of the drops did not appear to change when the film
moved. When the trimethylamine mass fraction in the steam
is increased to 0.0003 the heat transfer rate found during
condensation that was 4.1 times the value predicted using the
Nusselt equation under similar test conditions. This type of
film is similar to that described by Ford and McAleer but the
dynamic nature of the complete film has not been noted.
References
[1] M. Goto, M. Kojima, T. Kashiwagi, S. Koyama, T.
Fujii, Free-convection condensation of an
ammonia/water vapor mixture on a horizontal smooth
tube. Heat Transfer-Japanese Research, 23 (7), 1994,
627-644.
[2] J.N.A. Morrison, J. Deans, Augmentation of steam
condensation heat transfer by addition of ammonia,
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 40,
1997, 765-772.
[3] T. Murase, H.S. Wang, J.W. Rose, Marangoni
condensation of steam ethanol mixtures on a
horizontal tube, International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 50, 2007, 3774-3779.
[4] J. Deans, S. Kucuka, The Formation of Banded
Condensate Films in Weak Ammonia-Water Mixtures,
ASME Journal of Heat Transfer, 133, 2011, 101505-1
101505-10.
[5] A. Tamir, Mixed pattern condensation of multi-
component mixtures, The Chemical Engineering
Journal, 17 (2), 1979, 141-156.
[6] J.D. Ford, R.W. Missen, On the conditions for stability
of falling films subject to surface tension disturbances;
the condensation of binary vapors, The Canadian
Journal of Chemical Engineering, 46, 1968, 309-312.
[7] C. Korte, Private Communication.
[8] O.K. Rice, The Surface Tension and the Structure of the
Surface of Aqueous Ammonia Solutions, The Journal
of Physical Chemistry, 32, 1928, 528-592.
[9] D.J. Donaldson, Adsorption of Atmospheric Gases at
the Air-Water Interface. 1. NH3. The Journal of
Physical Chemistry A, 103, 1999, 62-170.
[10] B.T. Mmereki, J.M. Hicks, D.J. Donaldson, Adsorption
of Atmospheric Gases at the Air-Water Interface. 3.
Methylamines. The Journal of Physical Chemistry A,
104, 2000, 10789-10793.
[11] M. Tamura, M. Kurata, H. Odani, Practical Method for
Estimating Surface Tension of Solutions, Bulletin of the
Chemical Society of Japan, 28 (1), 1955, 83-85.
[12] A,W. Adamson, A.P. Gast, Physical Chemistry of
Surfaces, 6th Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 1997, pp.
67.
[13] M.R. Conde, Thermo-physical properties of
{NH3+H2O} mixtures for industrial design of
absorption refrigeration equipment, M. Conde
Engineering, Zurich, 2006.
[14] VMGSim, Version 6, Virtual Material Group, Calgary,
AB, Canada T3G 2A7, 2010.
[15] E. Guyon, J-P, Hulin, L. Petit, C.D. Mitescu, Physical
Hydrodynamics, Oxford University Press, Oxford,
2001, pp. 160-163.
[16] J.D. Ford, J. E. McAleer, Non-filmwise condensation
of binary vapors: mechanism and droplet sizes,
Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 49, (1971),
157-158.
 In-tube Carbon Dioxide Condensation in Stratified Flow Regime
Pei-Hua Li, S.E. Norris, J. Deans, P.K. Bansal
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
Abstract
This paper presents an experimental study of the
condensation process for carbon dioxide condensation at
the saturation temperature of -10C with a mass flux
varying from 40 to 60 ). Earlier studies have
shown that under these working conditions the carbon
dioxide condensation process develops in the stratified
flow regime. A unique characteristic of this process is
that the heat transfer coefficients are affected by the tube
wall-to-carbon dioxide temperature differences. The
experimental results found in this study confirm this
feature and demonstrate that these temperature
differences should be less than 3C.
The experimental heat transfer data was compared with
the stratified flow correlations produced by Dobson and
Chato (1998) and Cavallini et al. (2002). This
comparison demonstrates that Dobsons predictions over
predict the experimental results for carbon dioxide while
the results from Cavallinis correlation show the inverse
trend of heat transfer coefficient increasing with higher
mass fluxes. A conclusion from this preliminary study
shows that there is a need to extend the test range to
develop more accurate correlations for carbon dioxide
under stratified flow regime.
Nomenclature
Tm The logarithm mean temperature(C)
Ai Internal area of horizontal tube(m2)
Ao Outside area of horizontal tube(m2)
Cp Specific heat(kJkg-1K-1)
d Tube diameter(m)
Frso Solimans modified Froude number Eqs.(1a,1b)
h Heat transfer coefficient(Wm-2K-1)
JG Dimensionless vapour mass velocity
k Thermal conductivity (Wm-1K-1)
mg Mass flow rate of glycol water(kgs-1)
Q The amount of transferred heat rate(W)
Rel Superficial liquid Reynolds number
Ts Saturation temperature(C)
Tw Tube wall temperature(C)
x Vapour quality
Laminar-turbulent Lockhart Martinelli
Xtt
parameter
Introduction
The use of carbon dioxide as a natural refrigerant has
gradually developed during the past few decades. This is
due to its environmental-friendly characteristics, low
viscosity and high conductivity heat transfer properties.
One adverse characteristic is its low critical temperature
and it has been necessary to develop system components
1
that can operate at high working pressures within the
trans-critical cycle. In this cycle there is only a vapour
cooling process and no condensation phase change
process for carbon dioxide. A more acceptable solution
which can promote the refrigeration performance of
carbon dioxide can be obtained by utilizing it as a
secondary refrigerant in cascade systems. In such a
design the carbon dioxide undergoes the phase change
process within the tubes of an evaporative condenser.
However, in the implementation of this design is the
shortage of readily available information about carbon
dioxide condensation under low temperatures in the open
literature.
For in tube horizontal condensation, prevailing two-
phase flow patterns create various heat transfer models.
One unique heat transfer characteristic of two-phase in-
tube condensation compared with the non-phase change
convection heat transfer is that temperature differences of
refrigerant-to-tube wall can affect the heat transfer
process. Many researchers achieved similar conclusions
that the temperature differences between refrigerant and
tube wall can affect heat transfer processes during some
flow regimes which involve vapour condensation on tube
wall. Based on their heat transfer data, Dobson and Chato
(1998) found the refrigerant-to-wall temperature
difference has an impact on the heat transfer process in
the wavy flow regime. Cavallini et al. (2002) limited this
influence to the stratified flow regimes. Also, from
Nusselts analysis of pure component gravity-driven
condensation on a vertical plate, it is seen that
temperature difference affects the heat transfer
coefficient of this type of condensation. Therefore, many
correlations that involve vapour condensation on tube
wall were developed from Nusselts analysis.
Consequently, the influence of the temperature difference
on heat transfer has to be taken into account when in-tube
condensation is investigated. Commonly, this
relationship is determined by showing the effect of
several temperature values on each individual vapour
point. One drawback of this expressive method is
determination of the temperature difference values. Since
most stratified correlations are the modified Nusselts
correlations, the relationship of temperature differences
and heat transfer coefficients is power function relation.
By using the power function graph, it can be seen that
before an inflection point, it is difficult to find the
variation of heat transfer coefficients with temperature
differences. Hence, it was assumed that this inflection
point could be found by changing the tube wall
temperature continuously so that refrigerant side heat
transfer coefficients are varying correspondingly.
The comprehensive heat transfer data of carbon dioxide
condensation at low temperatures will be the main
research direction in the near future of the current authors
studies. In this study, the carbon dioxide mass flow flux
of ), ), ) under
saturation temperatures of -10C are tested. Heat transfer
data under working conditions that the refrigerant to tube
wall temperature difference varied from 5C to 2 C was
recorded. An open carbon dioxide condensation loop,
which is based on the original design of Ossama (2010),
was built in Thermodynamics laboratory of University of
Auckland to investigate the carbon dioxide heat transfer
characteristics under above stratified flow regimes. Its
maximum design test range of refrigerant mass flow rate
is to ).
Literature Review
Dobson and Chato concluded that annular correlations is
suitable for mass flux over 500 ) or mass flux
less than 500 ) but with Frso over 20. For a
mass flux less than 500 ) with Frso less than 20,
wavy flow correlation can be used. Therefore, Frso=20 is
nominated as a transition value from wavy flow to
annular flow by Dobson and Chato. Nellis and Klein
(2009) separated the wavy flow group to stratified and
stratified wavy, also added Frso=6 as transition value.
These modifications have been implemented in the
procedure Cond_HrizontalTube of EES software. The
Frso number is given by

Flow Regimes Classification

( )
In a refrigeration system, super-heated vapour from the
compressor then enters a condenser. The vapour forms
either a falling film over the circumference of inlet part for , (1a)
tube wall in the annular flow or a liquid layer
accumulated at the bottom part of the tube with upper
part tube wall wetted by the falling film, known as ( )
stratified flow. This has an interface separating the two
phase flow. With condensation process continuing, a for , (1b)
series of flow regimes are produced. The generally
accepted flow patterns are given by Alves (1954),
namely bubbly flow, plug flow, stratified flow, wavy Figure.1 shows these flow pattern transitions to predict
flow, slug flow and annular flow. Subsequent researchers carbon dioxide flowing in 6.52mm i.d. tube. The
categorized more specifically on the basis of these flow horizontal line of mass flux equal to 500kg/m2-s to
patterns. determine the working conditions above this line it is
recommended to use the annular correlation, even though
The sequence of flow patterns depends on void fraction the actual flow patterns here are stratified and stratified-
and the forces that control the condensate. The dominant wavy.
forces in horizontal two phase flow are mainly the
gravity of condensate and the vapour shear force in the
axial direction. The interaction of these forces on two-
phase flow with different void fractions causes different
flow patterns. The flow regimes can be divided into two
groups in terms of void fraction (Dobson and Chato,
1998); namely those that occur at high void fractions and
those occur only at low void fractions. Flow regimes
including stratified flow, wavy flow and annular flow
form the high void fraction group. By gradually
increasing vapour velocity, the gravity-dominated
stratified flow can change to wavy flow and to the vapour
shear-dominated annular flow. The second group consists
of slug, plug, and bubbly flow. As vapour shear forces
effect on these three flow regimes can be negligible, by
decreasing void fraction, the above flow patterns can be
shown orderly. Figure 1. Predicted flow patterns based on Dobson and Chatos
transition criterion for carbon dioxide in 6.52mm i.d. tube.
Flow Pattern Maps
Cavallini et al. (2002) compared several of the most
For a particular horizontal tube condenser, it is necessary frequently used heat transfer models and transition
to understand the internal flow distribution, as criteria for flow regimes. The dimensionless vapour mass
characteristic of each flow pattern heat transfer is unique. velocity was used in this transition criterion for slug,
The internal flow patterns distribution depends on the stratified and annular flows. In their conclusions, when
inlet mass velocity, vapour quality, flow channel the dimensionless vapour mass velocity JG>2.5, the flow
geometry and refrigerant properties. Therefore, different patterns are regarded as annular flow. If JG<2.5 and
pattern transition criterions were developed. Xtt1.6, the flow patterns are in stratified and the
Representative flow pattern maps predicting two-phase stratified-annular transition range. If JG<2.5 and Xtt>1.6,
condensation flow in horizontal tubes are those by the flow regimes will be slug and slug-stratified flows.
Dobson and Chato, (1998), Cavallini et al. (2002) and Also, current carbon dioxide experimental test envelope
Hajal et al. (2002). These researchers summarized is illustrated in Figure 2 with Cavallinis transition
previous accepted results and also modified the transition criterion.
values based on their own experimental results.

2

Figure 2. Predicted flow patterns based on Cavallini (2002)'s
transition criterion for carbon dioxide in 6.52mm i.d. tube.
Hajal et al. (2002) developed the flow boiling map of
Katan at al. (1998) for condensation of flows in a
horizontal tube. Instead of using the void fraction model
of Zivi (1964), they defined the logarithmic mean void
fraction method, by combining the homogenous void
fraction and the Steiner (1993) horizontal tube void
fraction, to predict the void fractions from low pressures
to high pressures near critical pressure. Finally, the
transition values of Zurcher and Thome for evaporation
were modified to calculate different flow patterns
transition in condensation. Figure 3 demonstrates their
predictions for carbon dioxide flowing under the
experimental conditions:
Figure 3. Predicted flow patterns based on J.EI Hajal,
J.R.Thome (2002)'s transition criterion for carbon dioxide in the
6.52mm i.d. tube.
Given above, it can be seen that the current test ranges of
carbon dioxide mass flux 40 ), 50 ) water bath minimises the formation of dry ice blockage
and 60 ) , which are already labelled on these,
are all in stratified and stratified to annular transition
range. The refrigerant to wall temperature differences
effect on heat transfer coefficient are expected when the
carbon dioxide side working conditions are maintained
stable while changing the tube wall temperatures.
Experimental Facility
Figure 4 shows an open carbon dioxide condensation
loop constructed at the University of Auckland. High
pressure bottles provide the source of carbon dioxide and
pressure. Three bottles contain around 200kg carbon
dioxide at 55 bars. The carbon dioxide pipes leaving the
bottles are immersed in a sub-cooling tank at low
temperature around -30C that contains ethyl alcohol and
dry ice. The cooled high pressure carbon dioxide flows
3
through a mass flow meter, a throttle valve and a sub-
cooler that assures that liquid carbon dioxide leaves this
tank with a measured level of sub-cooling. In order to get
the desired two phase vapour quality of carbon dioxide, a
pre-heater with accurate energy input is used to heat the
liquid carbon dioxide before it enters into the test section.
Space limitations within the laboratory required this pipe
to have a 180 bend before the test section. In order to
minimise the possibility of the bend creating disturbance
to the flow patterns, there is an adiabatic and 0.8 meter
long calming section for the flow before the test section.
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of test rig.
After the carbon dioxide comes out of test section, the
pipe work is routed into a second sub-cooled bath that
contains a glycol water mixture. The coiled pipe-work in
this bath effectively works as an accumulator of carbon
dioxide. The temperature of the bath is maintained equal
to the system temperature by the addition of dry ice. The
pressure regulator of this open loop test rig is composed
of two-step back pressure regulators housed in a water
bath. The operating range of the first regulator is between
0 and 68.9 bars and the maximum operating range is 45
bars. After leaving the back pressure regulator, the
carbon dioxide is directly discharged to the environment.
The carbon dioxide flowing through the regulators
experiences a significant pressure drop, usually from the
system working pressure (30 bars) to atmosphere
pressure (1 bar). In order to avoid dry ice blockage inside
the regulator and the consequent fluctuating of the
system pressure, these two regulators are connected in
series and form a two-step pressure drop device. The hot
within the regulators.
The glycol water circuit is specially designed for
investigation of the influence which temperature
differences have on heat transfer coefficients. In the
initial phase of each test the glycol water mixture is
cooled by the refrigeration system to the desired level.
The refrigeration loop was then isolated by the three way
valve and the glycol water mixture is adjusted to suitable
mass flow rate and routed though the test section. During
the operation, the glycol water temperature slowly
increases and the heat transfer data was recorded.
Experimental Procedure
At the start of each test, dry ice was added to both the
sub-cooler and glycol water baths. At this time the
carbon dioxide leaving the sub-cooler was below its
saturation temperature, this value was recorded and used
to determine the energy to be added in pre-heater. At this
stage, the glycol water bath temperature was controlled
and set equal to the carbon dioxide saturation
temperature.
The carbon dioxide flowing through the open loop was
discharged to the environment while the system pressure
was stabilised and any residual air was purged from the
system. When the operation conditions became steady,
dry ice was added into the sub-cooler bath to maintain
the sub-cooled status of carbon dioxide before it flowed
into pre-heater. The mass flow rate and system pressure
were then changed to the required working conditions by
adjusting the throttle valve and back pressure regulator.
The pre-heater was switched on and adjusted to provide
the required vapour quality at entry to the test section.
The refrigeration system was started at the beginning of
each test and the temperature of the glycol water mixture
was set to the required values. The brine pump was then
started and the glycol water was directed to the test
section. At this time, the carbon dioxide pressure and
mass flow rate were stabilized manually while glycol
water temperature gradually increased. In a typical test
the wall-to-refrigerant temperature differences fall from
5C to 2C in a 15 minute period.
The quasi-local heat transfer coefficient is used to
represent the heat transfer coefficient of the carbon
dioxide corresponding to initial set value of vapour
quality. During each test, the carbon dioxide quality
reduces as it flows along the test section. This change
also influences the evolving local heat transfer
coefficient. This problem is a common feature of two-
phase flow condensation studies. It is generally
considered that a reasonable vapour quality change in the
test section should be limited to 10%-30% (Jung et al.,
2003). It should also be noticed that quasi-local heat
transfer coefficients will be more accurate under high
refrigerant mass flow rate. When the refrigerant has a
low mass flow rate, it is difficult to control two phase
conditions in the carbon dioxide at low inlet qualities. If
the inlet vapour quality was 0.2, carbon dioxide could be
fully condensed before it leaves the test section.
Data Reduction
The quasi-local heat transfer coefficient should be
calculated by Equation 2
(2)
where h, , and represent the quasi-local heat
transfer coefficient of carbon dioxide ( ), the
heat transfer rate from carbon dioxide to glycol water( ),
the inner tube surface area( ), the saturation
temperature of carbon dioxide and the temperature of
inner tube wall, respectively.
The energy flow into the test section is given by equation
3,
4
( ) (3)
( ) ( )
(4)
( )
( )
where , , , , , , ,
are the overall heat transfer coefficient, the
outside tube surface area, the logarithm mean
temperature difference, the mass flow rate of glycol
water, the specific heat of glycol water, the inlet
temperature of glycol water, the outlet temperature of
glycol water, the inlet temperature of carbon dioxide and
the outlet temperature of carbon dioxide, respectively.
The overall heat transfer coefficient for the tube is given
by equation 5:
(5)
In E Equation 5, where , , are glycol water
side convection heat transfer coefficient, the conductivity
of copper tube, the length of heat exchanger and the
external and internal diameter of the tube respectively.
Due to the design constraints in the current test rig, the
inner tube wall temperature cannot be measured directly.
Consequently, the quasi-local heat transfer rate of carbon
dioxide was determined by using correlations to evaluate
the glycol water side coefficients provided by Shah and
London (1978):
The energy of pre-heater input was calculated from
Equation 6:
( ( ) ) (6)
where , , , , , are the
amount of heat needed to add to carbon dioxide , the
mass flow rate of carbon dioxide, the enthalpy difference
between saturated vapour and saturated liquid of carbon
dioxide under certain temperatures, the desired vapour
quality, the temperature of carbon dioxide coming out of
the sub-cooler and the specific heat of carbon dioxide.
Experimental Results
The trend of the test results presented in Figures 5, 6 and
7 show that the internal heat transfer coefficients increase
with higher vapour quality at different mass flux. By
comparing these results with the predictions of Dobson et
al. and Cavallini et al. it is found that the results are much
closer to Cavallinis calculations. This observation was
also confirmed by Nellis and Klein (2009) who pointed
out that Dobsons correlation tends to over predict the
heat transfer coefficients of high pressure refrigerants.
For the test results reported above with a mass flux of 40,
50 ), there are clear distinctions between low
vapour qualities(x=0.2) and those found at higher vapour
qualities. That is mainly caused by low mass flux used in
these tests, carbon dioxide was fully condensed within
the test section. Consequently, the heat transfer data
under these conditions were similar and close to the
values obtained for forced convection.
 4500 5000
x=0.8
x=0.8
4000 4500
x=0.6
x=0.6
Heat Transfer Coefficients (w/m^2-k)

4000
3500
x=0.4
x=0.4

Heat Transfer Coefficients (w/m^2-k)

3500
3000 x=0.8
x=0.6 3000 x=0.2
x=0.2 x=0.8
2500 x=0.4
x=0.2 x=0.6
2500 x=0.4
x=0.2
2000
2000

1500
1500

1000
1000

500 500
5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2
Temperature difference of tube wall-to-carbon dioxide () Temperature difference of tube wall-to-carbon dioxide ()
x=0.2 x=0.2
x=0.4 x=0.4
x=0.6 x=0.6
x=0.8 x=0.8
Dobson Chato's correlation prediction Dobson's correlation prediction
Cavallini's correlation prediction Cavallini's correlation prediction

Figure 5. Heat transfer coefficients of Carbon Dioxide