MAHATMA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF TECNOLOGY

GANDIPET, HYDERABAD -500075(INDIA)

(Accredited by NBA-AICTE, New Delhi)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project report FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS is a bonafied

record of work done by team members through internship training at RMN
Constructions, Submitted for a mini project to the department of civil engineering
Mahatma Gandhi institute of technology, Hyderabad.

Mrs. D.KIRANMAYE, Dr .K.V.RAMANA REDDY,

Assistant professor, Professor & HOD of
civil department. Civil department.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are highly indebted to Dr .K.V.RAMANA REDDY, Head of the deportment,
civil engineering, MGIT, for his constant supervision and support extended to us in
successfully completing the project.
We thank , Mr.V.Venkat Ramayya, Assistant Professer, Department of civil
engineering, MGIT for providing necessary information regarding the project and
also for his support in completing the project.
We take this opportunity to express our gratitude to Mrs.D.kiranmaye, assistant
professor, deportment of civil engineering, MGIT, for his inputs in preparing the
project report.
We express our heartiest gratitude to all the dignitaries at RMN Constructions
who helped us a lot while undergoing the training.
We would like to thank the teaching and non teaching staff of civil department for
sharing their knowledge with us.
Finally, we would like to express our deep gratitude to all people who have given
their time and input during the project titled FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
CONTENTS:

1. PAVEMENT

2. ELEMENTS OF PAVEMET

3. TYPES OF PAVEMETS

a) Flexible pavement

Composition& structure

Materials used in flexible pavement

Preparation of layers

Failures of pavement

Testing of materials

b) Rigid pavements.
 PAVEMENT:

A highway pavement is a structure consisting of layers of processed

materials above the natural soil sub-grade or above the fill, whose primary
function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade.

The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to

wheel load are reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the
sub-grade.

ELEMENTS OF PAVEMENT:

1. Camber or cant: it is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road
surface in the transverse direction to drain off rain water from road surface.
The objectives of providing camber are:

Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads

Sub-grade protection by proper drainage

Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety

2. Shoulders: Shoulders are provided along the road edge and is intended
for accommodation of stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for
vehicles and provide lateral support for base and surface courses. The
shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded truck
even in wet conditions. The shoulder width should be adequate for giving
 working space around a stopped vehicle. It is desirable to have a width of
4.6 m for the shoulders. A minimum width of 2.5 m is recommended for 2-
lane rural highways in India.

3. Width of formation: Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of

the widths of pavements or carriage way including separators and
shoulders. This does not include the extra land in formation/cutting.

4. Right of way: Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land
acquired for the road, along its alignment. It should be adequate to
accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the highway and may
reasonably provide for future development.

5. Width of carriage way: Width of carriage way or the width of the

pavement depends on the width of the traffic lane and number of lanes.
Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle and the
clearance. Side clearance improves operating speed and safety.

TYPES OF PAVEMENTS:

There are two types of pavements based on design considerations

1.Flexible pavements
2.Rigid pavements

1. Flexible Pavements:

Flexible pavement can be defined as the one consisting of a mixture of

asphaltic or bituminous material and aggregates placed on a bed of
compacted granular material of appropriate quality in layers over the sub-
grade. Water bound macadam roads and stabilized soil roads with or without
asphaltic toppings are examples of flexible pavements.

The design of flexible pavements is based on the principle that for a load
of any magnitude, the intensity of a load diminishes as the load is
transmitted downwards from the surface by virtue of spreading over an
increasingly larger area, by carrying it deep enough into the ground through
successive layers of granular material.

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT CROSS-SECTION

Thus for flexible pavement, there can be grading in the quality of

materials used, the materials with high degree of strength is used at or near
the surface. Thus the strength of sub-grade primarily influences the
thickness of the flexible pavement.

COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS:

Flexible pavements support loads through bearing rather than flexural
action. They comprise several layers of carefully selected materials designed
to gradually distribute loads from the pavement surface to the layers
underneath.

The design of flexible pavements ensures the load transmitted to each

successive layer does not exceed the layers load-bearing capacity. The
distribution of the imposed load to the sub-grade

1) Bituminous Surface (Wearing Course):

The bituminous surface, or wearing course, is made up of a mixture of
various selected aggregates bound together with asphalt cement or other
bituminous binders.
This surface prevents the penetration of surface water to the base
course; provides a smooth, well-bonded surface free from loose particles,
which might endanger aircraft or people; resists the stresses caused by
aircraft loads; and supplies a skid-resistant surface without causing undue
wear on tires.

Functions:

To protect resistance against wear and tear due to traffic movements

TO provide smooth ad dense riding surface to resist the pressure

exerted by vehicle and to resist surface water infiltration.

2) Base Course:
The base course serves as the principal structural component of the
flexible pavement. It distributes the imposed wheel load to the pavement
foundation, the sub-base, and/or the sub-grade.
The base course must have sufficient quality and thickness to prevent
failure in the sub-grade and/or sub-base, withstand the stresses produced in
the base itself, resist vertical pressures that tend to produce consolidation
and result in distortion of the surface course, and resist volume changes
caused by fluctuations in its moisture content.

The materials composing the base course are select hard and durable
aggregates, which generally fall into two main classes: stabilized and
granular. The stabilized bases normally consist of crushed or uncrushed
aggregate bound with a stabilizer, such as Portland cement or bitumen.

Functions:

To prevent horizontal shear stresses and vertical pressure produced by

moving are standing wheel load

To provide density and resistance to weathering

Distribution of higher wheel load pressure.

3) Sub base:
This layer is used in areas where frost action is severe or the sub-grade soil
is extremely weak. The sub-base course functions like the base course.

The material requirements for the sub-base are not as strict as those
for the base course since the sub-base is subjected to lower load stresses .
The sub-base consists of stabilized or properly compacted granular material.
Functions:

Act as a support for base and wearing course

To improve drainage condition

TO remove heave
To project above layers from bad qualities from underlaying soils.

4) Sub-grade:
The sub-grade is the compacted soil layer that forms the foundation of the
pavement system. Sub-grade soils are subjected to lower stresses than the
surface, base, and sub-base courses. Since load stresses decrease with
depth, the controlling sub-grade stress usually lies at the top of the sub-
grade.
The combined thickness of sub-base, base, and wearing surface must be
great enough to reduce the stresses occurring in the sub-grade to values
that will not cause excessive distortion or displacement of the sub-grade soil
Functions:

To receive the stress generation from the above layers

To receive the materials & it act as a bedding layer.

MATERIALS USED IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT:

Bitumen Surface:
The bituminous surface, or wearing course, is made up of a mixture
of various selected (graded smaller) aggregates bound together with
asphalt or bituminous binders. Thickness is about 25 -50 mm. This
surface prevents the penetration of surface water to the base course;
provides a smooth, well-bonded surface free from loose particles.

Base Course:
The base course serves as the principal structural component of the
flexible pavement. It distributes the imposed wheel load to the
pavement foundation, the sub-base, and/or the sub-grade .The
materials composing the base course are select hard and durable
aggregates, which generally fall into two main classes: stabilized and
granular. The stabilized bases normally consist of crushed or uncrushed
aggregate bound with a stabilizer, such as bitumen. Thickness is 5-
10cm.

Sub Base:
The sub-grade is the compacted soil layer that forms the foundation
of the pavement system. Sub-grade soils are subjected to lower stresses
than the surface, base, and sub-base courses. Since load stresses
decrease with depth, the controlling sub-grade stress usually lies at the
top of the sub-grade, Material used is natural sand, gravels, crushed
stone, and thickness is 100300mm
Compacted soil
The natural soil is compacted to so that it can firmly hold the above
layers.

PREPARATION OF PAVEMENT LAYERS:

Surface Preparation:
Before a pavement is placed the surface to be paved must be prepared.
Adequate surface preparation is essential to long-term pavement
performance. Pavements constructed without adequate surface preparation
may not meet smoothness specifications, may not bond to the existing
pavement (in the case of overlays) or may fail because of inadequate sub-
base support. Surface preparation generally takes one of two forms:
Preparing the sub-grade and granular base course for new pavement.
This can involve such activities as sub-grade stabilization, over-
excavation of poor sub-grade, applying a prime coat or compacting the
sub-grade.

Preparing an existing pavement surface for overlay. This can involved

such activities as replacing localized areas of extreme damage,
applying a leveling course, milling applying a tack coat rubbed or
cracking and seating an underlying rigid pavement, and replacing
localized areas of extreme damage .Specific actions for each method
depend upon the pavement type and purpose, environmental
conditions, sub-grade conditions, local experience and specifications.

Increasing Sub-grade Support

Sub -grade support can be increased by following methods
 Compaction: Sub-grade should be compacted to adequate density
before pavement placement. If it -grade will continue to compress,
deform or erode after construction, causing pavement cracks and
deformation. Generally, adequate density is specified as a relative
density for the top 6 inches of sub-grade of not less than 95 percent of
a specified standard laboratory density. In fill areas, sub-grade below
the top 6 inches is often considered adequate if it is compacted to 90
percent relative density.

Stabilization: Lime, port land cement or emulsified asphalt can be mixed

in with the sub-grade soil to increase its strength and stiffness.
Construction geo-textiles can be used to help stabilize roadways with
early signs of sub-grade failure.
Over Excavation: Poor in situ sub-grade can be replaced with better load-
bearing fill. Typically, 1 2 ft. of poor soil may be excavated and replaced with
high quality fill. Add a sub-base course over the sub-grade. A sub-base course
offers additional load-bearing capacity. Sub-base courses are subjected to the
same compaction and elevation requirements as sub-grade soils.

Prime Coats:
The graded sub-grade or the top granular base layer can be prepared
with a prime coat. A prime coat is a sprayed application of a cut-backs (or)
asphalt emulsion applied to the surface of untreated sub-grade.
Fill the surface voids and protect the sub-base from weather.
Stabilize the fines and preserve the sub-base material.
Promote bonding to the subsequent pavement layers.

Tack Coats:
A tack coat is thin bituminous liquid asphalt, emulsion or cutback coating
applied between HMA pavement lifts to promote bonding. Adequate bonding
between contr. lifts and especially between the existing road surface and an
overlay is critical in order for the completed pavement structure to behave
as a single unit and provide adequate strength. If adjacent layers do not
bond to one another they essentially behave as multiple independent thin
layers none of which are designed to accommodate the anticipated traffic-
imposed bending stresses. Inadequate bonding between layers can result in
de-bonding followed by longitudinal wheel path cracking, fatigue cracking,
potholes, and other distresses such as rutting that greatly reduce pavement
life.
Sub base: it is the layer of aggregate material laid on the sub-grade, on which
the base course layer is located. It may be omitted when there will be only foot
traffic on the pavement, but it is necessary for surfaces used by vehicles.
Sub base is often the main load-bearing layer of the pavement. Its role is to
spread the load evenly over the sub grade. The materials used may be either
unbound granular, or cement-bound. The quality of sub base is very important for
the useful life of the road and can outlive the life of the surface, which can be
scrapped off and after checking that the sub base is still in good condition, a new
layer can be applied.
FAILURES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

TYPES OF FAILURES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Flexible pavement consist of different layers such as,

Sub-grade
Sub-base course
Base course and
Surface course

If any one of the above mentioned layers becomes unstable or weak then it
will result in failure of flexible pavement.
Therefore it is very important to design and construct each layer with utmost
care.
Different types of failure encountered in flexible pavements are as follow.

1. Alligator cracking or Map cracking (Fatigue)

2. Consolidation of pavement layers (Rutting)
3. Shear failure cracking
4. Longitudinal cracking
5. Frost heaving
6. Lack of binding to the lower course
7. Reflection cracking
8. Formation of waves and corrugation
9. Bleeding
10. Pumping
1. Alligator or map cracking (fatigue cracking)
This is a common type of failure of flexible pavements. This is also known as
fatigue failure.
Causes:

Relative movement of pavement layer material

Repeated application of heavy wheel loads
Swelling or shrinkage of sub-grade or other layers due to moisture
variation

2. Consolidation of pavement layers (rutting)

Formation of ruts falls in this type of failure. A rut is a depression or groove
worn into a road by the travel of wheels.
Causes:

Repeated application of load along the same wheel path

resulting longitudinal ruts.
Wearing of the surface course along the wheel path resulting shallow
ruts.
3. Shear failure cracking
Shear failure causes upheaval of pavement material by forming a fracture or
cracking.
Causes:

Excessive wheel loading

Low shearing resistance of pavement mixture

4. Longitudinal cracking
This types of cracks extents to the full thickness of pavement.
Causes:

Differential volume changes in sub-grade soil

Settlement of fill materials
Sliding of side slopes
5. Frost heaving
Frost heaving causes upheaval of localized portion of a pavement. The
extent of frost heaving depends upon the ground water table and climatic
condition.

6. Lack of binding with lower layer (potholes & slippage)

When there is lack of binding between surface course and underlying layer,
some portion of surface course looses up materials creating patches and
potholes. Slippage cracking is one form of this type of failure.
Lack of prime coat or tack coat in between two layers is the primary reason
behind this type of failure.
7. Reflection cracking
This type of failure occurs, when bituminous surface course is laid over the
existing cement concrete pavement with some cracks. This crack is reflected
in the same pattern on bituminous surface.

8. Formation of waves & corrugation

Transverse undulations appear at regular intervals due to the unstable
surface course caused by stop-and-go traffic.
9. Bleeding
Excess bituminous binder occurring on the pavement surface causes
bleeding. Bleeding causes a shiny, glass-like, reflective surface that may be
tacky to the touch. Usually found in the wheel paths.

10. Pumping
Seeping or ejection of water and fines from beneath the pavement through
cracks is called pumping.

Pumping effect
 TESTING OF MATERIALS :

DETERMINATION OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGH OF COCRETE

(IS: 516-1959)
OBJECT: Determination of compressive strength of concrete

APPARATUS: Testing machine: The testing machine may be of reliable type of

sufficient capacity for the test and capable of applying the load at the
specified rate. The permissible error shall not be greater than 2% the
maximum load. The testing machine shall be equipped with two steel
bearing platens with hardened faces. One of the platens shall be fitted with a
ball seating in the portion of a sphere. The centre of which coincides with the
central point of the face of the platens. The other compression platen shall
be plain rigid bearing block. The bearing faces of both platens shall be least
as larger as, and preferably larger than the nominal size of the specimen to
which the load is applied. The bearing surface of the platens, when new shall
not depart from a plane by more than 0.01mm at any point, and they shall
be maintained with a permissible variation limit of 0.02mm. The movable
portion of the spherical seated compression platen shall be held on the
spherical seat, but the design shall be such that the bearing face can be
rotated freely and tilled through small angle sin any direction.

AGE AT TEST: tests shall be made at recognize ages of the test specimens,
the most usual being 7 & 25 days. The ages shall be calculated from the
time of the addition of water of the dry ingredients.

NUMBER OF SPECIMENS: At least specimen, preferably from different batch,

shall be testing at each selected age.

PROCEDURE: Specimen stored in water shall be tested immediately on

removal from water and while they are still in the wet condition surface
Water and grit shall be wiped off the specimens and any projecting find
removed specimens when received dry shall be kept in water for 24h before
they are taking for testing the dimensions of the specimens to the nearest
0.2mm and their weight shall be noted before testing

Placing the specimen in the testing machine the bearing surface of the
testing machine shall be wiped clean and loose sand or other material
removed from the surface of the specimen, which are to be contact with the
compression platen in the case of cubes the specimen shall be placed in the
machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to opposite sides of
the cubes as cast, that is not to the top and bottom. The access of the
specimen shall be carefully aligned with the centre of thrust of the
spherically seated platens. No packing shall be used between the faces of
the test specimen and the steel platen of the testing machine. As the
spherically seated block is brought to bear on the specimen the movable
portion shall be rotated gently by hand so that uniform seating may be
obtained the shall be applied without shock and increased continuously at a
rate of approximately 140kg/cm.cm minimum. Until the resistance of the
specimen to the increasing load breaks down and no greater load can be
sustained. The maximum load applied to the specimen shall thebe recorded
and the appearance of the concrete and any unusual features in the type of
failure shall be noted.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE AT VARIOUS AGES:

The strength 0f concrete after casting 28days

Age Strength per cent

1 day 16%

3 days 40%

7 days 65%

14 days 90%

28 days 99%
Compressive strength of different grades of concrete at 7 and 28
days:

Minimum compressive Specified characteristic

Grade of
strength N/mm2 at 7 compressive strength
Concrete
days (N/mm2) at 28 days

M15 10 15

M20 13.5 20

M25 17 25

M30 20 30

M35 23.5 35

M40 27 40

M45 30 45

FORMULAE:

COMPRESSIVE STRENTH =Applied load/surface area of cube

RESULT:

The compressive strength of

M25 grade of concrete after 28days =24.5 N/mm2

 FREE SWELL INDEX TEST
IS: 2720 (part 40)

OBJECT:

To determine the free swell index of soils

APPARATUS:
1) 425micron IS Sieve

2) Graduated cylinders-2nos 100ml capacity

3) Distilled water and kerosene.

PROCEDURE:
Take two 10grams of soil specimen passing through the 425microns sieve.
Two specimens are poured in a each separate cylinders of 100ml capacity.
One cylinder filled with kerosene and other with water up 100ml mark. After
removal of entrapped water each soil I cylinder shall be allowed to settle
.sufficient time (not less than 24h) shall be allowed for the soil sample to
attain equilibrium state of volume without any feature change I the value of
the soil. The final volume of the soils in each of the cylinders shall be read
out

FORMULAE:
The level of the soil in the kerosene graduated cylinder shall be read as the
original volume the soil sample, kerosene being a non polar liquid not cause
swelling (water) only causes the swelling

Free swell index = [V d V k] / V k x 100%

V d = volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder

containing distilled water.

V k = volume of soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder

containing kerosene.
 Free Swell Degree of LL PL SL
Index Expansivene
ss

<20 Low 0.50 0- >17%

35%

20-35 Moderate 40- 25- 8-18%

60% 50%

35-50 High 50- 35- 6-12%

75% 65%

>50 Very high >60 >45 <10%

% %

RESULT: FREE SWELL INDEX OF THE SOIL SAMPLE 45%

 DRY DENSITY OF SOIL BY CORE CUTTER METHOD
AIM:

Unit weight is the weight of soil per unit volume is called unit weight or
density. It includes the whole soil mass, the solid particles plus all voids with
or without moisture. It depends upon saturation S. Since the dry unit
weight of solids per unit of total volume of a soil mass is called dry unit
weight.

Volume = Ws/v gm/c.c.

APPLICATION:

Therefore density of soil deflects most of the properties of soil. Density of

soil in place is compacted soil and used as quality control measured of earth
work in embankment in place soil density of natural soil helps to determine
bearing capacity, calculation of settlement as well as for stability analysis of
natural slops.

APPARATUS:

1. Cylindrical core cutter of steel 127.4 mm long and 100 mm in width a

metal thickness of 3 mm at one end.

2. Steel trolley 2.5 cm high and 10 cm internal diameter with wall thickness
7.5 mm.

3. Steel hammer.

4. Steel rule.

5. Straight edge.

6. Balance.

7. Container.

Field Density of soil =weight of soil take/ volume soil in sampler

 PROCEDURE:

1. The inside dimension of core cutter was measured accurately to 0.25 mm

and calculated its volume.

2. The mass of the core cutter without trolley was measured accurately.

3. Exposed the small area about 30 sq.cm for test level that surface put the
trolley on the top of the core cutter and driven the assembly into the soil
with the help of hammer with the top of the dolly about 1 cm above
surface.

4. Dry weight the container from the surrounding soil and allowed some soil
to project from the lower and of the cutter with the help of straight edge.

5. The mass of cutter face of soil was measured.

6. Kept some sample of soil for water content determination in the oven.

7. Repeat the test of the 3samples neat by end get the average density.

APPLICATION:
Core cutter method is commonly used for to know the amount of compaction
achieved, in the pavement layers and its value compared, to the design
density values.

OBSERVATIONS:

OBS. DETERMINATION NO. DETERMINATION

NO.
1ST READING 2ND READING

01 Mass of core cutter wet soil 2645 gm 2580 gm

(gm)

02 Mass of core cutter (gm) 930 gm 970 gm

03 Mass of wet soil 1715 gm 1670 gm

04 Volume of core cutter (MR) 1021.0 cm3 1021.0 cm3

05 Bulk density P = g/cm3 1.68 kg/m3 1.58 g/cm2

06 Bulk unit weight Y = 9.81 P 16.48 kg/m3 15.5 kg/m3

07 Container no. A B

08 Mass of contain + wet soil 66 gm 37.3 gm

09 Mass of contain + dry soil 58 gm 34.5 gm

10 Mass of container 23 gm 23 gm

11 Mass of dry soil 35 gm 11.5 gm

12 Mass of water 2.89 gm 2.89 gm

13 Water contain 22.66 % 24.35 %

14 Dry density Pd 1.37 gm/m3 1.28 gm/m3

=p/1+w gm/cm3

15 Dry unit wt. Yd = Y/1+w 13.41 kg/m3 12.46 kg/m3

kg/m3

RESULT: 1. Percentage of water content = 23.505 %

 2. Dry density of soil sample = 1.325 gm/cm3

3. Dry weight of soil sample = 12.935 kg/m3

FLAKINESS AND ELONGATION INDEX TEST

AIM: Determination of flakiness and elongation of the given aggregate

sample.

SCOPE & SIGNIFICANCE:

This test is used to determine the particle shape of the aggregate and each
particle shape being preferred under specific conditions.

The significance of flakiness & elongation index:-

The degree of packing of the particles of one size depends upon their shape.

Due to high surface area to volume ratio, the flaky and elongated
particles lower the workability of concrete mixes.
Flaky and elongated particles are considered undesirable for base coarse
construction as they may cause weakness with possibilities of braking
down under heavy loads.
BS-1241 specifies a Flakiness index not exceeding 30% irrespective of
the aggregate size.
Maximum permitted Elongated index is 35, 40 or 45% for aggregate
sizes 2 2, 1 & 3/8.
Both Flakiness and Elongation tests are not applicable to sizes smaller
then 6.3mm i.e. sieve.

SHAPES OF PARTICLE: The usual shapes of the particles are:

1. Rounded (river gravel) Flakiness and Elongation Index

2. Flaky (laminated rock) Flakiness and Elongation Index
3. Elongated Flakiness and Elongation Index
4. Angular( crushed rock) Flakiness and Elongation Index

PREFERRED USE OF EACH SHAPE: Rounded aggregates are preferred in

concrete roads (rigid pavements) as the workability of concrete increases
due to the less friction between the surfaces.
Angular shape of the particles is desirable in granular base-coarse (flexible-
pavement) due to better interlocking and increased stability.

APPARATUS:

Thickness/Flakiness Index Gauge

Length/Elongation Index Gauge

Aggregate sample to be tested flaky.

A flaky particle is the one whose least dimension (thickness) is than 0.6
times the mean size.
These are the materials of which the thickness is small as compared to
the other two dimensions.
Limit of flaky particles in the mixes is 30%. If the flaky particles are
greater than 30% then the aggregate is considered undesirable for the
intended use.

FLAKINESS INDEX Flakiness and Elongation Index

It is the percentage by weight of flaky particles in a sample. Procedure
 Perform the sieve analysis on the given aggregate sample
The aggregates are then arranged in the into a number of closely limited
particle size groups -stored on the test sieves into a number of closely
limited particle size groups 2 2, 1 & 3/8
Each group (fraction) is weighed and tested for thickness on appropriate
opening of the thickness gauge by passing each particle through slot of
specified thickness along least dimension.
The weight of particles passing the thickness gauge is recorded for each
fraction. This is the weight of flaky particles.
The flakiness index is calculated by expressing the weight of flaky
particles as a percentage of total weight of the sample.

Calculation for Flaky Particles:

Weight Individual Weighted

Weight Percentage of Flaky Flakiness Flakiness
Sieve Size Retained Retained Particles Index Index

Passing Retained (gm) (%) (gm) (%) (%)

(in.) (in.)

2 1 2007.8 22.52 80.5 4.01 0.9

1 1 2926.4 32.83 853.1 29.15 9.6

1 2177.7 24.43 585.6 26.89 6.57

1076.2 12.07 291.7 27.1 3.27

8-Mar 460.2 5.16 155.5 33.79 1.74

8-Mar 211.8 2.38 88.3 41.69 0.99

Pan 53.4 0.6

 = =
8913.5 23.07

ELONGATED PARTICLES

These are the particles having length considerably larger than the other two
dimensions and it is the particle whose greater dimension is 1.8 times its
mean size.

Limit of elongated particles in the mixes is 45%. Thus, if the elongated

particles are greater than 45%, then the aggregate is considered undesirable
for the intended use.

ELONGATION INDEX

It is the percentage by weight of elongated particles in a sample. The

Elongated index is calculated by expressing the weight of Elongated particles
as percentage of total weight of the sample.

Calculation for Elongated Particles:

Weight of
Weight Elongate Individual Weighted
Retained Percentag d Elongatio Elongatio
Sieve Size (gm) e Retained Particles n Index n Index

Passin Retaine
g d (%) (gm) (%) (%)

(in.) (in.)

2 1 2007.8 22.52 1561.5 77.77 17.52

1 1 2926.4 32.83 950 32.46 10.66

1 2177.7 24.43 1113.8 51.15 12.5

1076.2 12.07 467.5 43.44 5.24

41341 460.2 5.16 185.5 40.31 2.08

41341 211.8 2.38 80.9 38.2 0.91

Pan 53.4 0.6

=8913.
5 = 48.91

RIGID PAVEMENTS:

A rigid pavement is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced concrete

slabs. Grouted concrete roads are in the category of semi-rigid pavements.

The design of rigid pavement is based on providing a structural cement

concrete slab of sufficient strength to resists the loads from traffic. The rigid
pavement has rigidity and high modulus of elasticity to distribute the load
over a relatively wide area of soil.
 Rigid Pavement Cross-Section

Minor variations in sub-grade strength have little influence on the structural

capacity of a rigid pavement. In the design of a rigid pavement, the flexural
strength of concrete is the major factor and not the strength of sub-grade.
Due to this property of pavement, when the sub-grade deflects beneath the
rigid pavement, the concrete slab is able to bridge over the localized failures
and areas of inadequate support from sub-grade because of slab action.