Mental Skills Training for
Tennis Players: An Added
Skill Set for the Strength
and Conditioning Coach
Jeff H. Greenwald, MA
Mental Edge International, Corte Madera, California
SUMMARY
WITH THE PERFORMANCE
DEMANDS PLACED ON YOUNG
TENNIS PLAYERS, THERE APPEARS
TO BE NOTABLE PARENTAL PRES-
SURE PLACED ON JUNIOR PLAY-
ERS AS PARENTS POUR
SIGNIFICANT RESOURCES INTO
THEIR CHILDRENS GAMES. THIS
ARTICLE IS WRITTEN TO ENHANCE
STRENGTH COACHES UNDER-
STANDING OF THE PARENT-
ATHLETE CULTURE AND TO OFFER
THEM TOOLS AND STRATEGIES TO
ENHANCE PERFORMANCE AND
REDUCE PARENTAL CONTROL.
INTRODUCTION
iven the individual nature of
G competitive tennis, helping
junior tennis players develop
a sense of autonomy, personal mastery
and intrinsic motivation critical to their
long-term success in the game. In one
study conducted by the Institute for the
Study of Youth Sports, coaches repor-
ted that an excess focus on winning
was the number one parental factor
impacting the players they work with
(9). As parents and players appear to be
more focused on outcome than ever,
strength coaches are in a difficult yet
opportunistic position to help their
tennis players shift focus from outcome
to mastery. Applying the following
strategies may enhance strength
94 VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2009
coaches understanding of the parent-
athlete culture and offer them tools to
enhance performance and reduce pa-
rental control.
Increasing a players sense of auton-
omy, enhancing task focus, and im-
proving the emotional connection
between the strength coach and the
player may increase the likelihood of
success and enjoyment among tennis
players and their families. Given the
limited research on the relationship
between strength coaches and tennis
players and the application of mental
skills in this milieu, this article draws on
studies done among coaches, players,
and parents. Tennis coaches and
strength coaches have similar objectives
developing positive relationships and
training protocols that facilitate
performance.
SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
Self-determination theory (SDT) has
become a popular motivational frame-
work for studying sport-related issues.
SDT is built on the presumption that
human behavior is motivated by 3
primary psychological needs: auton-
omy, competency, and relatedness (7).
For example, when players feel they are
choosing to engage in specific activities
on their own, without the presence of
external pressures, they are satisfying
the need for autonomy. As players train
their mind and body in this way, they
will improve and will see an increase in
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association
their level of confidence. The increased
perception of competence and self-
determination that comes from a sense
of autonomy will, in turn, raise their
intrinsic motivation (8). Managing in-
trinsic motivation is relevant to
strength coaches because they have
the ability to influence players to spend
the countless hours they need to
become physically fit or to practice
their skills for many hours a week,
sometimes without immediate reward.
Most importantly, players intrinsic
motivation levels can be directly af-
fected by their support team, such as
feedback received after performance or
during training, or by specific mental
skills interventions discussed at the end
of this article.
PARENTAL IMPACT AND
RELEVANCE TO THE STRENGTH
AND CONDITIONING COACH
Researchers consistently identify pa-
rents as having the most influence on
the psychological development of chil-
dren. As a result, children develop
beliefs in their abilities, maintain cer-
tain standards, and acquire sport-
related value systems based largely on
the influence of their parents (14).
Parental support and praise have
consistently been found to enhance
KEY WORDS:
parental pressure; intrinsic motivation;
autonomy; self-regulation; mastery; junior
tennis; communication; self-efficacy
childrens perceptions of their athletic
ability, enjoyment, and positively in-
fluence their interest and involvement
in sport (3). Alternatively, unrealistic
high parental expectations, pressure,
and criticism have been linked to
decreased enjoyment, interest, and
beliefs in athletic ability, less intrinsic
motivation, and more stress among
youth athletes (12). In fact, one study
found that interpersonal relationships
have an impact on adolescents fear
of failure (6). The parents of these
adolescents described themselves as
demanding high levels of performance
from their children at a young age.
In another study, 61% of junior tennis
players revealed that their parents have
caused them embarrassment during
tennis matches while 88% of parents
reported that they became at least
moderately upset with the athletes
(15). The same parents indicated that
they did not realize the impact that
winning had on the young players
emotions. A child who views winning
a tennis match as the most important
goal due to his/her parents expect-
ations and negative behaviors is at risk
for a loss of intrinsic motivation and
diminished sense of autonomy.
Therefore, it is increasingly important
for the entire support team working
with junior tennis players to be positive
role models and understand the stres-
sors of their athletes. Strength and
conditioning coaches have a unique
opportunity to act as a buffer when strength coaches focus on listening to
this type of pressure becomes apparent
and can help athletes develop more
resiliency through effective com-
munication and mental skills used
during training sessions (e.g., imagery,
relaxation, and positive self-talk). These
skills have been found to facilitate
performance.
CULTIVATING POSITIVE
RELATIONSHIPS AS BUFFER TO
PRESSURE
It is suggested that effective commu-
nication between strength coaches,
athletes, and parents is one of the most
critical skills in becoming a successful
coach. In some sport psychology
literature, this skill is described as
communication competence (10).
As more and more players are sub-
jected to parental pressure and extrin-
sic rewards (such as rankings, college
scholarships, and opportunities in pro-
fessional tennis), the coach must be
able to identify players perceptions
and emotional state to optimize phys-
ical training protocols and facilitate
performance. For example, strength
coaches are likely to find themselves
in situations where they must motivate
athletes following a loss, manage
differing expectations among players
and parents, and provide tennis-
specific strength and conditioning to
address key improvement areas, all
of which are enhanced with effec-
tive communication skills. Specifically,
the communication variables con-
sidered here are reflective listening,
perceived ability to self-disclose ap-
propriately, and the use of positive
reinforcement.
REFLECTIVE LISTENING
Strength coaches listening skills are
improved greatly through reflecting
and empathy, which is described as
the ability to put oneself in the shoes of
others and understand how they might
be feeling or thinking. Empathy is
regarded as a fundamental skill that
facilitates effective communication. In
one study, adolescent athletes reported
that they preferred a coach who was
empathetic and supportive (4). To
improve empathy, it is suggested that
their athletesin both content and
body languageparticularly following
a loss. During physical training ses-
sions, strength coaches can communi-
cate an understanding of the
disappointment an athlete might feel
first before offering any statement
intended to motivate him/her or
change his/her mood state. For exam-
ple, a strength coach might say, it
sounds as though you poured your
heart out. I can imagine that was
a tough one to lose after all the hard
work youve put in. Empathy can also
be useful in defusing the defensiveness
parents may feel when confronted to
change their behavior. Acknowledging
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org
parents commitment to their childs
development (empathy), while setting
appropriate boundaries (no-parent pol-
icy during training sessions), may be
the most effective approach to help
increase players autonomy while di-
minishing excess parental control.
ABILITY TO SELF-DISCLOSE
Many coaches and players report that
parents place too much emphasis on
winning (9). As a result, players
appear to be externally driven at a very
young age. This extrinsic motivation
has been positively linked to increases
in anxiety among athletes (7). Players
also receive constant instructions on
how they can perform better and
improve upon past performances. Pe-
riodic and appropriate self-disclosure
the communication of personal material
relevant to the athletes circumstance
can help normalize players negative
feelings, reduce anxiety, and create an
important bond between strength
coaches and their athletes. Coaches
who possess the ability to share
personal setbacks will likely gain more
respect from their players and
be perceived as encouraging. Male
coaches in particular who can express
themselves emotionally, both verbally
and nonverbally, may be perceived as
having more skill in balancing the
needs of their athletes and effectively
implementing their own communica-
tive agenda simultaneously (10).
COACHING WITH POSITIVE
REINFORCEMENT
Strength coaches can create interactions
that increase players self-confidence
by praising players demonstration of
autonomy. Some studies demonstrate
that how players perceive coaches
behaviors may influence their level of
enjoyment (2) goal involvement (16),
achievement motivation (6), and self-
perceptions (1). Some coach training
programs conducted in the United
States have demonstrated that coaches
who changed the quality of their
interactions with their athletes by
becoming more encouraging and sup-
portive have seen an increase in self-
esteem among the athletes (5).
95
Mental Skills Training for Tennis Players
Autonomy-supportive coaching in-
cludes such practices as giving athletes
more choice in the context of a work-
out, providing more explanation for the
purpose of particular tasks and training
guidelines, avoiding the use of criti-
cism, acknowledging the athletes feel-
ings and perspectives, providing
opportunity for athletes to act inde-
pendently, and avoiding behaviors that
promote players extrinsic motivation
(5). Strength coaches who recognize
the importance of providing athletes
with these opportunities can diminish
the potential negative impact of pa-
rents behavior.
The most influential coaching behavior
that appears to be linked to self-
confidence is praise for autonomous
behavior. In some studies, this sup-
portive style of coaching has increased
a sense of competence among athletes.
Praise may be a particularly effective
coach behavior as it indicates a very
clear and direct communication be-
tween a coach and player that may
signal the closeness of the relationship
(relatedness) and the coachs accep-
tance of an athletes performance or
ability (competence). Process-focused
praise that highlights behaviors (e.g.,
great job finishing that last exercise)
instead of the person as a whole (e.g.,
youre a fit player) is now believed to
cultivate a sense of mastery in adoles-
cent athletes. In contrast, praise that
tends to compare young players with
one another, focuses too much on
outcome or makes players question
their ability, can undermine intrinsic
motivation and self-confidence (5).
RELEVANCE OF GOAL
ORIENTATIONS OF PARENTS AND
PLAYERS
Goal orientation has also received a
tremendous amount of attention in
the past decade. Many athletes have
reported that thoughts not connected
to the task at hand interfere with what
should be their only focuspersonal
performance. Known as cognitive in-
terference, a task irrelevant, self-
preoccupied style of thinking appears
to include components of worry over
performance (11). To help strength
96 VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 2009
coaches better understand the motiva-
tions of their players, goal orientation
will be explored to determine whether
intervention strategies may be useful in
the context of the strength coach-
player relationship.
According to this theory, people define
success differently. Some concentrate
on learning, mastery, and self-improve-
ment, where the task is the major focus
(task orientation). Others emphasize
accomplishment and social compari-
son, where the presentation of the self
is the point of reference (ego orienta-
tion) (11). In general, task orientation
in comparison with ego orientation,
especially when players lack some
confidence, has been shown to be
a more productive developmental
path. It is proposed that an ego
orientation can hurt performance
when players spend too much time
judging their ability because they drain
their mental resources that could be
better applied to the task at hand.
It is common to see a decrease in
motivation for players following a loss.
While some brief disappointment is
normal in the competitive arena, it is
important to pay attention to the degree
of players reactions and how well
brain that can help players sustain
they are able to sustain effort during
physical training sessions. Negative
body language, poor effort, or deroga-
tory self-talk may be indicators of an
ego orientation that is developing in
the context of their competitive tennis
experience. Addressing these reactions
during training sessions through effec-
tive communication and mental train-
ing can help young players focus on
what is relevant during performance so
that they can ultimately succeed.
IMPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH: A
PRACTICAL APPLICATION
To accomplish these developmental
tasks, it is suggested that coaches con-
sider integrating the following strate-
gies to impact players motivation.
TEACH SELF-REGULATION
DURING TRAINING SESSIONS
Teach players to improve their self-
regulation skills with the use of a heart
rate monitor during training sessions.
Athletes should monitor their heart
rate between exercises and use di-
aphragmatic breathing when there is
sufficient down time. To accomplish
this, strength coaches can teach ath-
letes to master diaphragmatic breath-
ing, which is a task focus that
effectively shifts their attention to an
activity within their control. By teach-
ing players to lower their heart rate in
the gym, they will be better trained to
use this strategy on the court between
points. Diaphragmatic breathing re-
quires players to breathe in through
their nose on the count of 4, holding
for 1 second, and releasing out through
their mouth for a total of 6 seconds. To
use a shortened version, a 4-second
inhale and 4-second exhale will also be
beneficial. It is recommended that
players use this technique regularly be-
tween sets or specific cardiorespiratory
exercises or after the workout while
stretching. Strength coaches may also
have their players use diaphragmatic
breathing for a few minutes prior to the
workout to promote mindfulness, re-
duce tension, and improve the quality of
sessions. Meditation practice through
breathing practice has been shown to
enhance neurobiological activity in the
focus over a longer period (13).
REFRAME NEGATIVE SELF-TALK
Use teachable moments through pos-
itive reframing or self-talk during
training sessions when players express
negative self-defeating thoughts to
promote autonomy. Reframing is a pro-
cess whereby the coach would offer
alternative viewpoints of the same
situation that expands perspective.
For example, when pressed during
physical training sessions, it is common
for players to tell coaches that they
cannot perform a particular task due to
fatigue or lack of confidence in their
ability or fitness level. It is suggested
that strength coaches reframe this
negative belief by stating something
like, You can do it and then asking
the player to repeat this statement.
When the player is successful, there is a
golden opportunity to then use praise,
You can accomplish more than you
think, to increase players sense of
autonomy through an experience of
mastery. In addition, it is suggested that
strength coaches consider filtering out
and reframing all ego-based communi-
cation from athletes and parents (re-
sults, comparisons, etc) and reinforcing
only task-related information that pro-
motes intrinsic motivation and mastery.
CULTIVATE EMPATHY
Practice using empathy and listening
skills with players and their parents to
improve rapport. This skill does not
preclude you from establishing impor-
tant boundaries (i.e., specific guidelines
for the degree of parental involvement
you will accept or player behavior
during training sessions); rather, it is an
overarching communication style that
you use to optimize impact with your
players. To be effective with this
approach, strength coaches will want
to use open-ended questions to help
them better understand their players
and follow-up with statements that
demonstrate what they heard. Given
that some studies are highlighting a
gap between coaches perception of
how clear they communicate and what
athletes report as being the case, an
interpersonal approach that engages
clients more should increase satisfaction
and quite possibly performance itself.
CONCLUSION
As only a small percentage of compet-
itive junior tennis players progress to
the professional level, it is important
that strength coaches while training
the athletes to reach their maximum
potential also cultivate a healthy envi-
ronment in the context of competition.
While it is true that top-ranked tennis
players have climbed the rankings with
significant external pressure from pa-
rents and coaches, it is believed that the
majority of players would benefit from
positive relationships with their
coaches, enhanced intrinsic motiva-
tion, and a style of coaching that
teaches mastery and task focus.
Strength coaches who communicate
clearly with a supportive style while
integrating mental skills into their
training protocols should make a sig-
nificant difference in players motiva-
tion, performance, and ability to
effectively manage adversity on and
off the court.
Jeff H.
Greenwald is
a psychotherapist
and sport psychol-
ogy consultant
with Mental Edge
International,
Corte Madera,
California.
REFERENCES
1. Allen JB and Howe BL. Player ability, coach
feedback, and female adolescent athletes
perceived competence and satisfaction.
J Sport Exerc Psychol 20: 280299, 1998.
2. Baker J, Yardley J, and Cote J. Coach
behaviors and athlete satisfaction in team
and individual sports. Int J Sport Psychol
34: 226239, 2003.
3. Bois JE, Sarrazin PG, Brustad RJ, Chanal JP,
and Trouilloud DO. Parents appraisals,
reflected appraisals, and childrens self-
appraisals of sport competence. J Appl
Sport Psychol 17: 273289, 2005.
4. Chelladurai P. Discrepancy between
preferences and perceptions of leadership
behavior and satisfaction of athletes in
varying sports. J Sport Psychol 6: 2741,
1984.
5. Coatsworth J and Conroy D. Assessing
autonomy supportive coaching strategies
in youth sport. Psychol Sport Exerc 8:
671614, 2007.
6. Conroy DE. Representational models
associated with fear of failure in
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org
adolescents and young adults. J Pers 71:
757783, 2003.
7. Deci EL and Ryan M. Self-determination
theory and the facilitation of intrinsic
motivation, social development, and well-
being. Am Psychol 55: 6678, 2000.
8. Frederick-Recascino C and Schuster-
Smith H. Competition and intrinsic
motivation in physical activity: A
comparison of two groups. J Sport Behav
26: 240252, 2003.
9. Gould D, Lauer L, Rolo C, Jannes C, and
Pennisi N. USTA Research Grant
Executive Summary. Michigan State
University, Michigan Institute for the
Study of Youth Sports, 2005.
10. Haselwood DM, Joyner AB, Burke KL,
Geyerman CB, Czech DR, Munkasy BA,
and Zwald AD. Female athletes
perceptions of head coaches
communication competence. J Sport
Behav 28: 216, 2005.
11. Hatzigeorgiadis A and Biddle S. The
effects of goal orientation and perceived
competence on cognitive interference
during tennis and snooker performance.
J Sport Behav 22: 479501, 1999.
12. LaVoi NM and Stellino MB. The relation
between perceived parent-created sport
climate and competitive male youth hockey
players good and poor sport behaviors.
J Psychol 142: 471495, 2008.
13. Marks DR. The Buddhas extra scoop:
Neural correlates of mindfulness and
clinical sport psychology. J Clin Sport
Psychol 2: 42, 2008.
14. Partridge JA, Brustad RJ, and Babkes
Stellino M. Social influence in sport: The
role of parents, peers, and siblings. In:
Advances in Sport Psychology (3rd ed).
T.S. Horn, ed. Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics, 2008. pp. 269291.
15. Payne VG and Isaacs LD. A life-span
approach. In: Human Motor Development
(2nd ed). Mountainview, CA: Mayfield,
1991.
16. Treasure DC and Roberts GC. Students
perceptions of the motivational climate,
achievement beliefs, and satisfaction in
physical education. Res Q Exerc Sport 72:
165175, 2001.
97