Overview of the Nervous System

One of the bodys homeostatic control systems

Contains sensors, integrating centers, and output
pathways
More interneurons in a pathways greater ability to
integrate information

Figure 8.1
With a mass of only 2 kg (4.5 lb), about 3% of total body
weight, the nervous system is one of the smallest and
yet the most complex of the 11 body systems.
The nervous system is an intricate, highly organized network
of billions of neurons and even more neuroglia.
The structures that make up the nervous system include the
brain, cranial nerves and their branches,
the spinal cord,
spinal nerves and their branches,
ganglia, enteric plexuses,
and sensory receptors (Figure 12.1).
 The skull encloses the brain, which contains
about 100 billion (1011) neurons.
A nerve is a bundle of hundreds to thousands
of axons plus associated connective tissue and
blood vessels that lies outside the brain and spinal
cord.
Each nerve follows a defined path and serves a
specific region of the body.
For example, cranial nerve I carries signals for the
sense of smell from the nose to the brain.
Functions of nervous system
The nervous system carries out a complex array of tasks.
It allows us to sense various smells, produce speech, and
remember past events; in addition, it provides signals
that control body movements, and regulates the
operation of internal organs.
These diverse activities can be grouped into three basic
functions:
1. sensory,
2. integrative,
3. and motor
Sensory function.
Sensory receptors detect internal stimuli,
such as
an increase in blood acidity,
and external stimuli,
such as a raindrop landing on your arm.

This sensory information is then carried into the brain and

spinal cord through cranial and spinal nerves.
Integrative function.
The nervous system integrates (processes) sensory
information by analyzing and storing some of it
and by making decisions for appropriate responses.

An important integrative function is perception, the

conscious awareness of sensory stimuli.
Perception occurs in the brain
Motor function.
Once sensory information is integrated,
the nervous system may elicit an appropriate motor
response by activating effectors (muscles and glands)
through cranial and spinal nerves.

Stimulation of the effectors causes muscles to contract and

glands to secrete
The nervous system consists of two main
subdivisions (Figure 12.1):
the central nervous system (CNS), which
consists of the brain and spinal cord,

and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

which includes all nervous tissue outside the
CNS
Nervous System Terms
Bilaterally symmetrical anterior and posterior end and a
right and left side
Cephalization - sense organs are concentrated at the
anterior end
Brain a complex integrating center made up of clusters
of ganglia
Ganglia groupings of neuronal cell bodies
Nuclei groupings or neuronal cell bodies within the
brain
Tracts groupings of axons within the brain
Nerves axons of afferent and efferent neurons
Structure of a Nerve
Parallel bundles of myelinated and
unmyelinated axons enclosed in
several layers of connective
tissue
Endoneurium
Perineurium
Epineurium
Fasicles bundle of axons
Mixed nerves contain both
afferent and efferent neurons

Figure 8.3
Nervous tissue consists of two types of cells:
neurons and neuroglia.
Neurons provide most of the unique functions of the
nervous system, such as
sensing,
thinking,
remembering,
controlling muscle activity,
and regulating glandular secretions.
Neuroglia
support, nourish, and protect the neurons and maintain
homeostasis in the interstitial fluid that bathes them.
, Neurons

Like muscle cells, neurons (nerve cells)

possess electrical excitability,
the ability to respond to a stimulus and
convert it into an action potential.
Parts of a Neuron
Most neurons have three parts:
(1)a cell body,
(2)(2) dendrites, and (3) an axon (Figure 12.2).
(1)The cell body, also known as the
perikaryon or soma,
contains a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm
that includes typical cellular organelles
such as lysosomes, mitochondria, and a Golgi
complex.
Neuronal cell bodies also contain free
ribosomes and prominent clusters of rough
endoplasmic reticulum, termed Nissl bodies
A nerve fiber is a general term for any neuronal
process (extension) that emerges from the cell body
of a neuron.
Most neurons have two kinds of processes: multiple
dendrites and a single axon.
Dendrites ( little trees) are the receiving or input
portions of a neuron.
They usually are short, tapering, and highly branched.
In many neurons the dendrites form a tree-shaped array
of processes extending from the cell body.
Their cytoplasm contains Nissl bodies, mitochondria, and
other organelles
The single axon ( axis) of a neuron
propagates nerve impulses toward another neuron, a
muscle fiber, or a gland cell.
An axon is a long, thin, cylindrical projection that often joins
the cell body at a cone-shaped elevation called the axon
hillock
Structural Diversity in Neurons
Neurons display great diversity in size and shape.
For example,
their cell bodies range in diameter from 5 micrometers (m)
(slightly smaller than a red blood cell) up to 135 m (barely
large enough to see with the unaided eye).

The pattern of dendritic branching is varied and distinctive for

neurons in different parts of the nervous system.
A few small neurons lack an axon, and many others have very short
axons.
the longest axons are almost as long as a person is tall, extending
from the toes to the lowest part of the brain.
Classification of Neurons
Both structural and functional features are used to classify
the various neurons in the body.
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION Structurally, neurons are
classified according to the number of processes extending from the
cell body (Figure 12.3).

1. Multipolar neurons usually have several dendrites and one

axon (Figure 12.3a).
Most neurons in the brain and spinal cord are of this type.
2. Bipolar neurons have one main dendrite and one axon
(Figure 12.3b).
They are found in the retina of the eye, in the inner ear, and in the
olfactory (olfact to smell) area of the brain
3 Unipolar neurons have dendrites and one axon
that are fused together to form a continuous process that
emerges from the cell body (Figure 12.3c).
These neurons are more appropriately called
pseudounipolar neurons because they begin in the
embryo as bipolar neurons.
During development, the dendrites and axon fuse together
and become a single process.
The dendrites of most unipolar neurons function as sensory
receptors that detect a sensory stimulus such as touch,
pressure, pain, or thermal stimuli
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
Functionally, neurons are classified according to the
direction in which the nerve impulse (action potential) is
conveyed with respect to the CNS.

1. Sensory or afferent neurons either contain sensory receptors at their

distal ends (dendrites) (see Figure 12.11) or are located just
after sensory receptors that are separate cells.

Once an appropriate stimulus activates a sensory receptor,

the sensory neuron forms an action potential in its axon and the
action potential is conveyed into the CNS through cranial or spinal
nerves.

Most sensory neurons are unipolar in structure

2. Motor or efferent neurons (EF-e-rent; ef- away from) convey action
potentials away from the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands)

in the periphery (PNS) through cranial or spinal nerves (see Figure 12.11).
Most motor neurons are multipolar in structure.

3. Interneurons or association neurons are mainly located within the

CNS between sensory and motor neurons (see Figure 12.11).

Interneurons integrate (process) incoming sensory information from

sensory neurons and then elicit a motor response by activating the
appropriate motor neurons.

Most interneurons are multipolar in structure.

 Ion channels
Ion channels in the plasma membrane.
(a) Leakage channels randomly open and close.
(b) A chemical stimulus
here, the neurotransmitter acetylcholineopens a
ligand-gated channel.
(c) A mechanical stimulus opens a mechanically
gated channel.
(d) A change in membrane potential opens voltage-
gated K channels during an action potential.
 The resting membrane potential is
determined by three major factors:
(1) unequal distribution of ions in the ECF and cytosol;
(2) inability of most anions to leave the cell; and
(3) electrogenic nature of the Na/K ATPases.
 A major factor that contributes to the inside-negative resting membrane potential
of a cell is the unequal distribution of ions in the ECF and cytosol.
The ECF is rich in Na and Cl ions and the cytosol is rich in K ions and anions
such as phosphates in ATP and amino acids in proteins.
Because the plasma membrane has more K leakage channels than Na leakage
channels, the number of K ions that leave the cell is greater than the number of Na
ions that enter the cell.
 As more and more K ions leave the cell, the inside of the
membrane becomes increasingly negative and the outside of
the membrane becomes increasingly positive.
The inability of most anions to leave the cell also contributes
to the negativity of the resting membrane potential.
These trapped anions cannot follow K out of the cell because
they are attached to non diffusible molecules such as ATP and
large proteins.
The activity of the NaK ATPases is another factor that
contributes to the resting membrane potential.
The Na/K ATPase expels 3 Na ions for every 2 K ions
imported.
Since the Na/K ATPase removes more positive charges from
the cell than it brings into the cell, it is electrogenic and helps
establish the inside-negative resting membrane potential
Membrane Potentials -

All living cells have membrane potentials (Vm) = a

voltage difference between the intracellular and
extracellular fluids;
they are always negative inside relative to outside
(convention in neurophysiology);
Vm ranges from -40 to -200 mV(olts) depending on the
type of cell;
mammalian neurons have a range of resting Vms from
-40 to -75 mV
and electrical signaling involves a change away from the
resting value
 The resting membrane potential exists because of a
small buildup of negative ions in the cytosol along the
inside of the membrane,
and an equal buildup of positive ions in the
extracellular fluid along the outside surface of the
membrane.
Such a separation of positive and negative
electrical charges is a form of potential energy, which is
measured in volts or millivolts (1 mV=0.001 V).
The greater the difference in charge across the
membrane, the larger the membrane potential
(voltage).
 Measuring the Resting Membrane Potential

It is measured with glass

micropipets filled with solutions
which conduct charge. The
micropipet is inserted through
the membrane into the cell.
The voltmeter measures the
difference in electrical charge
between two points, in other
words, the potential difference; it
is measured in millivolts (mV).
The resting membrane potential is measured on a relative scale.
The reference electrode is placed in the extracellular fluid. The
extracellular fluid is designated as the ground and assigned a charge of
0 mV. In reality, the extracellular fluid is not neutral and has an excess
of +ve charge that balances the excess of -ve charge in the cell.
The resting membrane potential is between -40 to -90 mV in nerve and
muscle. F5-
32
The resting membrane potential of a cell can be measured in the
following way:

The tip of a recording microelectrode is inserted inside the cell,

and a reference electrode is placed outside the cell in the extracellular

fluid.

Electrodes are devices that conduct electrical charges

The recording microelectrode and the reference electrode are
connected to an instrument known as a voltmeter,

which detects the electrical difference (voltage) across the plasma

membrane (Figure.

In neurons, the resting membrane potential ranges from 40 to 90 mV.

A typical value is 70 mV.
Action potential
An action potential (AP) or impulse is a sequence of rapidly
occurring events that decrease and reverse the membrane potential
and then eventually restore it to the resting state.

An action potential has two main phases:

1 depolarizing phase and
2 repolarizing phase (Figure 12.19).

During the depolarizing phase, the negative membrane potential

becomes less negative, reaches zero, and then becomes positive.
During the repolarizing phase, the membrane potential is restored to
the resting state ofn 70 mV.
Following the repolarizing phase there may be an after-
hyperpolarizing phase, during which the membrane potential
temporarily becomes more negative than the resting level.
 Action potential (AP) or impulse. When a stimulus
depolarizes the membrane to threshold (-55 mV),an AP is
generated.
The action potential arises at the trigger zone and then
propagates along the axon to the axon terminals.
Mechanism of synaptic transmission
Synapses are essential for homeostasis because
they allow information to be filtered and integrated
At a synapse between neurons, the neuron sending the
signal is called the presynaptic neuron,
and the neuron receiving the message is called the
postsynaptic neuron.
Most synapses are either axodendritic (from axon to
dendrite),
axosomatic (from axon to cell body),
or axoaxonic (from axon to axon).
The two types of synapseselectrical and chemical
differ both structurally and functionally
 At an electrical synapse, action potentials
(impulses) conduct directly between
adjacent cells through structures called gap
junctions.
Each gap junction contains a hundred or
so tubular connexons, which act like
tunnels to connect the cytosol of the two
cells directly (see Figure ).
As ions flow from one cell to the next
through the connexons, the action
potential spreads from cell to cell.
Gap junctions are common in visceral
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and the
developing embryo.
They also occur in the CNS.
 Chemical synapse
Although the plasma membranes of presynaptic and postsynaptic
neurons in a chemical synapse are close, they do not touch.
They are separated by the synaptic cleft, a space of 2050 nm* that is
filled with interstitial fluid.
Nerve impulses cannot conduct across the synaptic cleft, so an
alternative, indirect form of communication occurs.
In response to a nerve impulse, the presynaptic neuron releases a
neurotransmitter that diffuses through the fluid in the synaptic cleft and
binds to receptors in the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic
neuron.
The postsynaptic neuron receives the chemical signal and in turn
produces a postsynaptic potential, a type of graded potential.
Thus, the presynaptic neuron converts an electrical signal (nerve
impulse) into a chemical signal (released neurotransmitter).
The postsynaptic neuron receives the chemical signal and in turn
generates an electrical signal (postsynaptic potential).
 1 A nerve impulse arrives at a synaptic end bulb (or at a
varicosity) of a presynaptic axon.
2 The depolarizing phase of the nerve impulse opens voltage
gated
Ca2 channels, which are present in the membrane of synaptic end
bulbs. Because calcium ions are more concentrated in the extracellular
fluid, Ca2 flows inward through the opened channels.
3 An increase in the concentration of Ca2 inside the presynaptic
neuron serves as a signal that triggers exocytosis of the synaptic
vesicles.
As vesicle membranes merge with the plasma membrane,
neurotransmitter molecules within the vesicles are released into the
synaptic cleft.
Each synaptic vesicle contains several thousand molecules of
neurotransmitter
 4 The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic
cleft and bind to neurotransmitter receptors in the postsynaptic
neurons plasma membrane.
The receptor shown in Figure 12.23 is part of a ligand-gated channel
(see Figure 12.12b); you will soon learn that this type of neurotrans
5 Binding of neurotransmitter molecules to their receptors on ligand-
gated channels opens the channels and allows particular ions to flow
across the membrane.
o 6 As ions flow through the opened channels, the voltage across
the membrane changes.
o This change in membrane voltage is a postsynaptic potential.
For example, opening of Na channels allows inflow of Na, which causes
depolarization.
However, opening of Cl or K channels causes hyperpolarization
7 When a depolarizing postsynaptic potential reaches threshold,
it triggers an action potential in the axon of the postsynaptic neuron