Application of Derivatives 13.08.07

LOCUS 1
Applications of
Derivatives
CONCEPT NOTES
01. Tangents and Normals
02. Monotonicity
03. Maxima and Minima
04. Mean Value Theorems And Other Applications
05. Graphs - II
Maths / Applications of Derivatives

LOCUS 2
Applications of Derivatives
This chapter deals with the applications of the concept of differentiation and derivatives. Using this concept, we
are able to solve a wide variety of problems, many of them of significant practical use. For example, as we’ll learn
in this chapter, using the concept of derivatives we can write down the equations of tangents and normals to
arbitrary curves at arbitrary points, check whether a function is increasing or decreasing in arbitrary intervals, find
the maximum and minimum values of a given function, and so on.
Section - 1 TANGENTS AND NORMALS
This section deals with the procedure to determine the equations of the tangent and the normal to an arbitrary
curve at a given point.
The procedure is extremely simple and is an obvious extension of the concept of derivatives. Consider a function
y = f ( x ) for which a tangent and a normal need to be drawn at x = x0 .
dy
The slope of the tangent at x = x0 would be the value of evaluated at x0:
dx
dy
Slope of tangent ( at x = x0 ) mT =
dx x = x0
Therefore the slope of the normal at x0 is:
−1 − dx
Slope of normal ( at x = x0 ) mN = =
dy / dx x = x0
dy x = x0
Now, since the tangent and normal will pass through the point ( x0 , y0 ) and their slopes are known, their equations
can be written in a straight forward manner (using the equation of a line passing through a given point with a given
slope):
Tangent : y − y0 = mT ( x − x0 )
−1
Normal : y − y0 = mN ( x − x0 ) = ( x − x0 )
mT

LOCUS 3
For example, suppose that we have to write down the equations of the tangent and normal to y = x2 at x = 1:
y
y = x2
1
Normal
x
1
Tangent
Fig - 2
dy
mT = = 2 x x =1 = 2
dx x =1
−1 −1
mN = =
mT 2
Equation of tangent: y − 1 = 2 ( x − 1)
⇒ 2x − y −1 = 0
−1
Equation of normal: ( x − 1)
y −1 =
2
⇒ x + 2y − 3 = 0
As another example, consider the tangent and normal to xy = 1 at x = 2:

y
Normal
Tangent
y=½
x
x=2
Fig - 3
dy −1 −1
mT = = 2
=
dx x=2 x x=2 4
−1
mN = =4
mT
LOCUS 4
1 −1
Equation of tangent: y− = ( x − 2)
2 4
⇒ x + 4y − 4 = 0
1
Equation of normal: y− = 4 ( x − 2)
2
15
⇒ 4x − y − =0
2
1
As a final example, we are now required to find the angle of intersection between the curves y = x 2 and y = :
x
y
T1
T2
Fig - 4
By the angle of intersection between two curves we mean the angle of intersection between the respective tangents
to the two curves at their point of intersection, as depicted in Fig.- 4. This angle can be easily evaluated by first
finding out the point of intersection of the two curves and then finding out the slopes of the tangents T1 and T2 at this
point; for the curves given here, the point of intersection is (1, 1) (verify):
dy
mT1 = = 2 x x =1 = 2
dx x =1
dy −1
mT2 = = = −1
dx x =1 x 2 x =1
 mT − mT2   3 
⇒ θ = tan −1  1  = tan −1   = tan −1 3
 1 + mT mT 2   −1 
 1 

LOCUS 5
Example – 1
Prove that the segment of the tangent to xy = c2 intercepted between the axes is bisected at the point of contact.
 c2 
Solution: Let us take an arbitrary point on this curve,  t ,  . An approximate figure showing the tangent at this
 t 
point is sketched below:
y
xy = c2
We need to show that P

2 is the mid-point of AB.
A t, c
t
P
x
B
Fig - 5
The procedure that we need to follow is first determine the equation of the tangent at the point P, find
the intercepts this tangent makes with the axes (we will then get the co-ordinates of the
points A and B), and show that P is the mid-point of AB.
dy −c 2 −c 2
mT (at P ) = = =
dx x =t x2 x =t
t2
c 2 −c 2
Equation of tangent: y − = 2 (x − t )
t t
Point A: Put x = 0
c 2 c 2 2c 2
⇒y= + =
t t t
⇒ The point A is  0, 2c 
2
 t 
Point B: Put y = 0
⇒ x = t + t = 2t
⇒ The point B is (2t, 0)

LOCUS 6
Mid-point of AB: The mid-point of AB is
 2c 2 
 0 + 2t +0
 , t 
 2 2 
 
 
 c2 
=  t, 
 t 
which is the same as the point P.
⇒ P is the mid-point of AB
Example – 2
Find the equations of tangents to the curve y = x4 which are drawn from the point (2, 0).
Solution: We write the equation of the tangent to y = x4 at a general point (t, t4) and then make (2, 0) satisfy that
equation.
dy
mT = = 4 x3 = 4t 3
dx x =t
x =t
Equation of tangent: y − t 4 = 4t 3 ( x − t )
⇒ 4t 3 x − y − 3t 4 = 0 ... (i)
Since the tangent we require passes from (2, 0), the co-ordinates of (2, 0) must satisfy (i)
⇒ 4t 3 ( 2 ) − ( 0 ) − 3t 4 = 0
⇒ 8t 3 − 3t 4 = 0
⇒ t 3 (8 − 3t ) = 0
8
⇒ t = 0,
3
From(i), the two possible tangents are (corresponding to the two values of t):
4 3
8 8  8
y = 0; y −   = 4   x − 
 3  3  3

LOCUS 7
Example – 3
Find the point(s) on the curve y 3 + 3 x 2 = 12 y where the tangent is vertical.
Solution: A vertical tangent means that the slope of the tangent is ∞ .

Differentiating the equation of the given curve w.r.t x, we get:
dy dy
3 y2 + 6 x = 12
dx dx
dy 6x
⇒ =
dx 12 − 3 y 2
Hence, for vertical tangent:
3 y 2 = 12
⇒ y = ±2
⇒ 3 x 2 = y (12 − y 2 )
= ± 16
4
⇒x=± (for y = 2 ) {For y = –2, x has imaginary values}
3
Therefore, the required points are  ± 4 , 2 

 3 
Example – 4
Tangents are drawn to the ellipse x 2 + 2 y 2 = 2. Find the locus of the mid-point of the intercept made by the
tangent between the co-ordinate axes.
Solution: To determine the required locus, we first write down the equation of an arbitrary tangent to the given
ellipse:
x2
+ y2 = 1
2
( )
A general point on this ellipse can be taken as 2 cos θ , sin θ . Now we write the equation of the
tangent at this point by first differentiating the equation of the ellipse:
dy
x + 2y=0
dx
dy − x
⇒ =
dx 2 y
⇒ mT at ( ( 2 cos θ ,sin θ )) = − 2sin

2 cos θ − cot θ
θ
=
2
LOCUS 8
− cot θ
Equation of tangent: y − sin θ =
2
( x − 2 cos θ )
⇒ x cos θ + 2 y sin θ = 2
x-intercept: Put y = 0 ⇒ x = 2 sec θ
⇒ The tangent intersects the x-axis at P ( 2 sec θ , 0 )

y-intercept: Put x = 0 ⇒ y = cosec θ
⇒ The tangent intersects the y-axis at Q (0, cosec θ )
We require the locus of R, the mid-point of PQ. Let its co–ordinates be (h, k). Therefore,
2 sec θ 1
h= ⇒ cos θ = ... (i)
2 2h
cos ecθ 1
k= ⇒ sin θ = ... (ii)
2 2k
Squaring and adding (i) and (ii), we get:
1 1
2
+ 2 =1
2h 4k
Therefore, the locus of R is:
1 1
2
+ 2 =1
2x 4 y
Example – 5
Find the point on the ellipse 4 x 2 + 9 y 2 = 1 at which the tangent is parallel to the line 8x = 9y.
Solution: The ellipse can be rewritten as:
x2 y2
+ =1
1 1
4 9
1 1 
Let a general point on this ellipse be  cos θ , sin θ  .
2 3 
Differentiating the equation of the given ellipse, we get:
dy
8 x + 18 y =0
dx
dy −4 x
⇒ =
dx 9 y
1
−4 × cos θ
1 1  2 −2 cot θ
At  cos θ , sin θ  , mT = =
2 3  1
9 × sin θ 3
3
LOCUS 9
For the tangent to be parallel to 8 x = 9 y, mT must be equal to the slope of this line. Hence:
−2 cot θ 8
=
3 9
−4
⇒ cot θ =
3
3 −4 −3 4
⇒ sin θ = , cos θ = or sin θ = , cos θ =
5 5 5 5
1 1 
Hence, the required point is  cos θ , sin θ  or:
2 3 
 −2 1   2 −1 
 ,  and  , 
 5 5 5 5 
Example – 6
Find all the tangents to the curve y = cos ( x + y ) , − 2π ≤ x ≤ 2π , that are parallel to the line x + 2 y = 0 .
−1
Solution: We require the slope of the tangents to be .
2
Differentiating the given equation of the curve, we get:
dy  dy 
= − sin ( x + y ) 1 + 
dx  dx 
dy − sin ( x + y )
⇒ =
dx 1 + sin ( x + y )
dy −1
Since = , we now get:
dx 2
sin ( x + y ) 1
=
1 + sin ( x + y ) 2
⇒ sin ( x + y ) = 1 ... (i)
But if sin ( x + y ) is 1, cos ( x + y ) must be 0, so that the equation of the curve reduces to
y = cos ( x + y ) = 0 .

LOCUS 10
Therefore, sin x = 1 (from (i))

−3π π
⇒x= , (in the given range for x)
2 2
⇒ There are two points on the curve at which the tangent drawn will
−1  −3π  π 
have slope ; namely  , 0  and  , 0 
2  2  2 
−1  π π
Equations of tangent: y=  x −  ⇒ x + 2y =
2  2 2
−1  3π  −3π
and y = x+  ⇒ x + 2y =
2  2  2
Example – 7
Find the point of intersection of the tangents drawn to the curve x 2 y = 1 − y at the points where it is intersected by
the curve xy = 1– y.
Solution: We first need to find out the points of intersection of the two curves before determining the equations
of tangents at those points:
x2 y = 1 − y ... (i)
xy = 1 − y ... (ii)
⇒ x (1 − y ) = (1 − y )
⇒ (1 − x )(1 − y ) = 0
⇒ x = 1 or y = 1
 1
The two points or 1,  and ( 0,1) ( verify )
 2
Since we need the tangents to the first curve, we differentiate (i):
dy − dy
2 xy + x 2 =
dx dx
dy −2 xy
⇒ =
dx 1 + x 2
dy −1 dy
mT1 = = and mT2 = =0
dx (1, 1 ) 2 dx (0,1)
2

LOCUS 11
1 −1
Equations of tangents: y− = ( x − 1) ⇒ x + 2 y − 2 = 0 ... (iii)
2 2
y −1 = 0 ( x − 0) ⇒ y = 1 ... (iv)
The point of intersection of (iii) and (iv) is clearly (0, 1).
Example – 8
Prove that the length intercepted by the co-ordinate axes on any tangent to the curve x 2 / 3 + y 2 / 3 = c 2 / 3 is constant.
Solution: Differentiating the given curve w.r.t x, we get:

2 −1/ 3 2 −1/ 3 dy
x + y =0
3 3 dx
1/ 3
dy  y
⇒ = − 
dx  x
(
Let us take a point on this curve as t , (c 2 / 3 − t 2 / 3 )
3/ 2
)
 ( c 2 / 3 − t 2 / 3 )3/ 2
1/ 3

dy
⇒ mT = = − 
dx x =t
 t 
 
(c − t 2/3 )
2/3 1/ 2
=−
t1/ 3
y − (c 2 / 3 − t 2 / 3 ) = mT ( x − t )
3/ 2
Equation of tangent:
y – intercept: Put x = 0
⇒ y = −tmT + (c 2 / 3 − t 2 / 3 )
3/ 2
= t 2 / 3 (c 2 / 3 − t 2 / 3 ) + (c 2 / 3 − t 2 / 3 )
1/ 2 3/ 2
= (c 2 / 3 − t 2 / 3 ) {t + c 2 / 3 − t 2 / 3}
1/ 2 2/3
= c 2 / 3 (c 2 / 3 − t 2 / 3 )
1/ 2
x–intercept: Put y = 0
(c − t 2/3 )
2/3 3/ 2
⇒ x=t−
mT
= t + (c 2 / 3 − t 2 / 3 ) t1/ 3
= c 2 / 3 t1/ 3
LOCUS 12
Length intercepted between the axes = (x – intercept)2 + (y – intercept)2

= c 4 / 3t 2 / 3 + c 4 / 3 (c 2 / 3 − t 2 / 3 )
= c2
We see that the length is independent of the parameter t and is therefore a constant.
Example – 9
Find the angle of intersection between y 2 = 4 x and x 2 = 4 y .
Solution: y
x2 = 4y
y2 = 4x
Fig - 6
There are two points of intersection, which can be obtained by simultaneously solving the equations
for the two curves.
y 2 = 4 x and x 2 = 4 y
⇒ y 4 = 16 x 2 = 64 y
⇒ y ( y 3 − 64 ) = 0
⇒ y = 0, 4
⇒ The points of intersection are (0, 0) and (4, 4). Let mT1 and mT2 represent the slopes
of tangents to x 2 = 4 y and y2 = 4x respectively.
dy x
At (0, 0): mT1 = = =0
dx x =0 2
dy 2
mT2 = = =∞
dx x =0 y
⇒ The angle between these two tangents is obviously 90° which is visually clear
from Fig–6.
LOCUS 13
dy x
At (4, 4): mT1 = = =2
dx x =4 2
dy 2 1
mT2 = = =
dx x =4 y 2
The angle of intersection is:
 2− 1 
θ = tan −1  2  = tan −1  3 
 
1+ 2× 1  4
 2
3
Therefore, the two curves intersect in two points, once at 90º and once at tan −1  
4
Example – 10
Find the shortest distance between two points, one of which lies on the curve y 2 = 4ax, and the other on the
circle x 2 + y 2 − 24ay + 128a 2 = 0
Solution: Notice that the circle’s equation can be written equivalently as
( x − 0 ) + ( y − 12a ) = ( 4a )
2 2 2
so that its centre is (0, 12a) and radius is 4a.

y
Circle
O
M Parabola
Fig - 7
Let MN represent the shortest distance between the circle and the ellipse. Since the point N on the
ellipse is nearest to the circle, it will also be nearest to the centre of the circle O, from amongst all the
other points on the ellipse. Hence, to determine MN, we may equivalently find the shortest distance
between the circle’s centre and any point on the ellipse.

LOCUS 14
Now, from Fig-8’s geometry, notice a very important fact. The tangent drawn at M must be
perpendicular to ON, or equivalently, ON must be a normal to the ellipse. Only then will N be the
closest point on the ellipse from O. (Convince yourself that this should be true)
y
O
M
Fig - 8
We take an arbitrary point on the parabola as (at2, 2at). We will write the normal to the parabola at
this point and make this normal pass through the point O.
y 2 = 4ax
dy
⇒ 2y = 4a
dx
dy 2a
⇒ =
dx y
−dx
( )
mN at ( at 2 , 2at ) =
dy (at 2 ,2 at )
= −t
Equation of normal: y − 2at = −t ( x − at 2 )
⇒ tx + y = 2at + at 3 ....(i)
So that this normal passes through O, the co-ordinates of O(0, 12a) must satisfy (i)
⇒ 12a = 2at + at 3
⇒ 2t + t 3 = 12
⇒ t = 2 (verify)
We therefore get the co-ordinates of N as (4a, 4a).
ON = ( 4a − 0 ) + ( 4a − 12a ) = 80a 2 = 4 5a
2 2
Hence,
⇒ MN = 4 5a − 4a = 4 ( 5 −1 a )
LOCUS 15
TRY YOURSELF - I
Q 1. If ax + by = 1 is a normal to the parabola y 2 = 4cx, prove that

ca 3 + 2 ab 3c = b 2
Q 2. Find the points on the curve 5 x 2 + 5 y 2 − 6 xy = 4 nearest to the origin.
Q 3. Find the shortest distance between the line y − x = 1 and the curve x = y2
Q 4. Find the points on the curve ax 2 + 2bxy + ay 2 = c, c > b > a > 0 , whose distance from the origin is
minimum.
Q 5. Find the angle(s) of intersection of the following curves:

2
(i) y = 2 x ; x = 16 y (ii) x 2 + y 2 = 2a 2 ; xy = a 2
2
x3
(iii) 2 x 2 + y 2 = 4 ; y 2 = 16 x (iv) x 2 + y 2 = 8ax ; y 2 =
4a − x
Q 6. Find the equation of the straight line which is tangent at one point and normal at another point of the curve
x = 3t 2 , y = 2t 3 .
Q 7. If l1 and l2 be the lengths of perpendiculars from the origin on the tangent and normal to the curve
x 2 / 3 + y 2 / 3 = a 2 / 3 respectively, at an arbitrary point, prove that 4 l12 + l22 = a 2
n n
 x  y x y
Q 8. Show that the tangent to the curve   +   = 2 at the point (a, b) is + = 2.
a b a b
**************

LOCUS 16
Section - 2 MONOTONICITY
In this section, we turn our attention to the increasing / decreasing nature of functions and how the concept of
derivatives can help us in determining this nature.
Consider a function represented by the following graph:
y y = f(x)
y2
y1
x1 x
x2
Fig - 9
For two different input arguments x1 and x2, where x1 < x2 , y1 = f ( x1 ) will always be less than y2 = f ( x2 ) .
That is,
x1 < x2 implies f ( x1 ) < f ( x2 )
Such a function is called a strictly increasing function or a monotonically increasing function (The word
‘monotonically’ apparently has its origin in the word monotonous; for example, a monotonous routine is one in
which one follows the same routine repeatedly or continuously; similarly a monotonically increasing function is one
that increases continuously).
Now, consider f ( x ) = [ x ] . For this function
x1 < x2 does not always imply f ( x1 ) < f ( x2 )
However,
x1 < x2 does imply f ( x1 ) ≤ f ( x2 )
In other words, f ( x ) = [ x ] is not strictly (or monotonically) increasing. It will nevertheless be termed increasing.

LOCUS 17
Now consider a function represented by the following graph:
y = f(x) y
y1
y2
x1 x2 x
Fig - 10
For two different input arguments x1 and x2, where x1 < x2 , y1 = f ( x1 ) will always be greater than y2 = f ( x2 ) .
That is,
x1 < x2 ⇒ f ( x1 ) > f ( x2 )
Such a function is called a strictly decreasing function or a monotonically decreasing function.
Now consider f ( x ) = − [ x ] . For this function
x1 < x2 does not imply f ( x1 ) > f ( x2 )
However, x1 < x2 ⇒ f ( x1 ) ≥ f ( x2 )
Therefore, f ( x ) = − [ x ] is not strictly decreasing. It would only be termed decreasing.

LOCUS 18
The following table lists down a few examples of functions and their behaviour in different intervals. You are urged
to verify all the assertions listed on your own.
Function Behaviour
f ( x) = x : Strictly increasing on
f ( x ) = x2 : Strictly decreasing on ( −∞, 0]
Strictly increasing on [0, ∞ )
f ( x) = x : Strictly increasing on [0, ∞ )
f ( x ) = x3 : Strictly increasing on »
f ( x) = x : Strictly decreasing on ( −∞, 0]

: Strictly increasing on [0, ∞ )
1
f ( x) = : Neither increasing nor decreasing on » .
x
Strictly decreasing on ( −∞, 0 )
Strictly decreasing on ( 0, ∞ )
f ( x ) = [ x] : Increasing on »
f ( x ) = {x} : Neither increasing nor decreasing on » .
However, strictly increasing on [n, n + 1) where n ∈
f ( x ) = sin x : Neither increasing nor decreasing on » .
1 1
Strictly increasing on [( 2n − )π , (2n + )π ]; n ∈
2 2
1 3
Strictly decreasing on [(2n + )π , (2 n + )π ]; n ∈
2 2
f ( x ) = cos x : Neither increasing nor decreasing on .
Strictly increasing on [(2n − 1)π , 2nπ ]; n ∈
Strictly decreasing on [2 nπ , (2 n + 1)π ]; n ∈ »
f ( x ) = tan x : Neither increasing nor decreasing on » .Strictly increasing on

 1  1 
  n − 2 π ,  n + 2 π  ; n ∈
    
f ( x) = ex : Strictly increasing on
f ( x ) = e− x : Strictly decreasing on
f ( x ) = ln x : Strictly increasing on ( 0, ∞ )

LOCUS 19
Let us now deduce the condition(s) on the derivative of a function f(x) which determines whether f(x) is
increasing/decreasing on a given interval. We are assuming that f(x) is everywhere differentiable.
The function on the left side, y = f ( x ) , is a strictly increasing function. Notice that the slope of the tangent drawn
at any point on this curve is always positive. Hence, a sufficient condition for f(x) to be strictly increasing on a given
domain D is
f ′ ( x ) > 0 ∀x ∈ D
Later on, we will see that this is not a necessary condition for a function to be strictly increasing.
In Fig-11, the function on the right side, y = g ( x ) is not strictly increasing though it is increasing. Notice that
g ′ ( x ) > 0 or g ′ ( x ) = 0 for ∀x. g ′ ( x ) is never negative. Hence, a sufficient condition for g(x) to be increasing
on a given domain D is
g′ ( x ) ≥ 0 ∀x ∈ D
* Note that for these condition on the derivatives to be applied, the function must be differentiable in the
given domain. However, these conditions will hold good even if the function is non differentiable, but
only at a finite number (or infinitely countable number) of points. For eg, f ( x ) = [ x ] + {x} is strictly
increasing on . However, f(x) is non-differentiable at all integers (a countable set).
* A function must be continuous for these conditions to be applied. Consider y = {x}. This is non-
differentiable (due to discontinuities) at all integers. At all other points, y ' = 1 > 0. However, we know
that y = {x} is not strictly increasing.
1 −1
Similarly, y = is non-differentiable (and non-continuous) at x = 0. At all other points, y ' = 2 < 0
x x
so that y should be strictly decreasing on \ {0}. However, it is not strictly decreasing on \ {0}
although it is strictly decreasing in the separate intervals ( −∞, 0 ) and (∞, 0 ) .

LOCUS 20
Therefore, we see that discontinuous functions cannot be subjected to the derivative condition even
though they may be discontinuous only at a finite (or infinitely countable) number of points.
Now consider f(x) and g(x) in Fig 12
Extending the previous case, we get the conditions for a (strictly) decreasing function :
Strictly decreasing : f ′( x) < 0 ∀x ∈ D
Decreasing : f ′( x) ≤ 0 ∀x ∈ D
The remarks made for the increasing case hold true here also.
Before concluding this section, here are some other facts worth paying attention to:
(a) If f(x) is strictly increasing, then f–1(x) is also strictly increasing. Similarly, if f(x) is strictly decreasing
then f–1(x) is also strictly decreasing.
(b) If f(x) and g(x) have the same monotonicity (both increasing or decreasing) on [a, b], then f ( g ( x ))
and g ( f ( x )) are monotonically increasing on [a, b].
(c) If f(x) and g(x) have opposite monotonicity on [a, b], then f ( g ( x )) and g ( f ( x )) are strictly
decreasing on [a, b]
(d) The inverse of a continuous function is continuous
(e) If f ' ( x ) > 0 ∀x ∈ ( a, b ) except for a finite (or an infinitely countable) number of points where
f ' ( x ) = 0, f ( x ) is still strictly increasing on (a, b). This is why we said earlier that
f '( x) > 0 ∀x ∈ D is not a necessary condition for strict increase. For example, in a later example
we will consider the graph of the function f ( x ) = x + cos x. We will see that f ' ( x ) = 1 − sin x is not
 π 
always positive  at x = 2nπ + , n ∈ , f ' ( x ) = 0  ; even then, f(x) increases strictly, because the
 2 
points at which f'(x) = 0 are countable
(f) Similarly if f ' ( x ) <, 0∀x ∈ ( a, b ) except for a finite (or an infinitely countable) number of points
where f ' ( x ) = 0, f ( x ) is still strictly decreasing on (a, b)

LOCUS 21
Example – 11
Determine the intervals in which the following functions are increasing or decreasing:
(a) f ( x ) = x3 − x
(b) f ( x ) = x3 − 6 x 2 + 11x − 6
Solution: In this and subsequent questions where we are required to find out the intervals of increase/decrease,
we first determine f '(x). f(x) increases in all intervals where f '(x) > 0 and decreases in all intervals
where f '(x) < 0.
(a) f ′ ( x ) = 3x 2 − 1
Interval(s) of strict increase: f ′ ( x ) > 0

⇒ 3x2 −1 > 0
−1 1
⇒ x< or x >
3 3
Interval(s) of strict decrease: f ′ ( x ) < 0
⇒ 3x 2 − 1 < 0
−1 1
⇒ <x<
3 3
 −1   1   −1 1 
Therefore, f (x) increases in  −∞, ∪
  , ∞  and decreases in  ,  . The graph for
 3   3   3 3
f (x) confirms this: (to plot the graph, the knowledge of roots of f (x) helps, which is easy to obtain
for this example; x3 − x = 0 ⇒ x = 0, ±1 )
y
3
y=x-x
1
-1 3
x
-1 0 1
3
Fig - 13
(b) f ′ ( x ) = 3x − 12 x + 11
2
12 ± 12 6 ± 3 1
The roots of f '(x) are = = 2±
6 3 3

LOCUS 22

⇒ 3 x 2 − 12 x + 11 > 0
1 1
⇒ x < 2− or x > 2 +
3 3
Interval(s) of strict decrease: f ′ ( x ) < 0

⇒ 3 x 2 − 12 x + 11 < 0
1 1
⇒ 2− < x < 2+
3 3
f(x) can be factorised as (x – 1)(x – 2)(x – 3) so that the roots of f(x) are x = 1, 2, 3. The graph for
f(x) is approximately sketched below:
Example – 12
Determine the values of x for which f(x) = xx, x > 0 is increasing or decreasing.
Solution: To find f '(x), we first take the logarithm of both sides of the given equation:
ln ( f ( x )) = x ln x
Differentiating both sides, we get:
1 1
⋅ f ′ ( x ) = x ⋅ + ln x ⋅1
f ( x) x
= 1 + ln x
⇒ f ′ ( x ) = x x (1 + ln x )

LOCUS 23
Interval(s) of strict increase: f ′( x) > 0
⇒ x x (1 + ln x ) > 0
⇒ 1 + ln x > 0
1
⇒ x > e −1 =
e
Interval(s) of strict decrease: f ′( x) < 0
⇒ x x (1 + ln x ) < 0
1
⇒ x<
e
To plot the graph of f(x), notice that lim f ( x ) = lim x x
x →0 x →0
lim . x ln x
= lim e x ln x = e x→0 = e0 = 1.
x →0
Also, lim ( f ( x )) = ∞.
x →∞
1 
f(x) decreases in (0, 1/e) and increases in  , ∞  .
e 
y x
y=x
(1/e)1/e
x
1/e
Fig - 15
Example – 13
Separate the interval [0, π/2] into sub-intervals in which f ( x ) = sin 4 x + cos 4 x is increasing or decreasing.
Solution: f ′ ( x ) = 4sin 3 x cos x − 4cos 3 x sin x
(
= 4sin x cos x sin 2 x − cos 2 x )
= 2sin 2 x ( − cos 2 x )
= − sin 4x
We now need to consider the sign of f '(x) in the interval [0, π/2].

LOCUS 24

⇒ − sin 4 x > 0
⇒ sin 4 x < 0
 π
⇒ π < 4 x < 2π (This range of 4x will ensure that x itself lies in 0,  )
 2
π π
⇒ <x<
4 2
Interval(s) strict decrease: f ′ ( x) < 0
⇒ − sin 4 x < 0
⇒ 0 < 4x < π
⇒ 0< x <π /4
Therefore, f(x) decreases in [0, π/4] and increases in  π , π  . The minimum value in [0, π/2] is at
4 2
1 π
x = π/4 equal to f ( x ) = and the maximum value is at x = 0 or x = equal to f(x) = 1. The graph
2 2
is approximately sketched below:
y
y = sin4x + cos4x
1
1
2
x
π π
4 2
Fig - 16
Example – 14
x2 + x + 1
Determine the intervals of monotonicity of the function f ( x ) = .
x2 − x + 1
Solution: f ′ ( x) =
(x 2
) (
− x + 1 ( 2 x + 1) − x 2 + x + 1 ( 2 x − 1) )
(x )
2
2
− x +1
=
(2x 3 2
) (
− x + x + 1 − 2x + x2 + x − 1 3
)
(x )
2
2
− x +1
=
(
−2 x 2 − 1)
( x − x + 1)
2 2

LOCUS 25
Interval(s) of strict increase: f ′ ( x) > 0

−2 ( x 2 − 1)
⇒ >0
(x − x + 1)
2 2
⇒ x2 − 1 < 0
⇒ −1 < x < 1
Interval(s) of strict decrease: f ′ ( x) < 0
⇒ x2 − 1 > 0
⇒ x < −1 or x > 1
Therefore, f(x) strictly increases in (–1, 1) and strictly decreases in ( −∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞ ) .
We will be able to sketch the graphs of such functions accurately after going through the section on
Maxima/Minima. However, you are still urged to give it a try for this example using the knowledge
you’ve gained upto this point.
Example – 15
 xe ax , x ≤ 0
Let f ( x ) =   , where a is a positive constant. Find the intervals in which f '(x) is increasing.
 x + ax − x , x > 0
2 3
Solution: Notice that we are required to find the intervals of increase of f '(x) and not f (x). Therefore, we need
to first determine f '(x) from f (x), and then check the sign of the derivative of f '(x) in different
intervals, i.e, the sign of f ''(x).
Observe that f (x) is continuous and differentiable at x = 0 so that f '(x) is defined at x = 0.
Therefore,
 (1 + ax ) e ax , x ≤ 0
f ′ ( x) =  
1 + 2ax − 3x , x > 0
2
Notice again that f '(x) is also continuous and differentiable at x = 0 so that f ''(x) is also defined at
x = 0.
( 2 + ax ) ae ax , x ≤ 0
f ′′ ( x ) =  
 2a − 6 x, x > 0
Interval(s) of strict increase for f '(x): f ′′ ( x ) > 0
⇒ 2 + ax > 0 (if x ≤ 0 ) and 2a − 6 x > 0 (if x > 0 )
−2 a
⇒ < x ≤ 0 and 0 < x <
a 3
−2 a
⇒ <x<
a 3
−2 a 
Therefore, f '(x) is strictly increasing on the interval  , .
 a 3 

LOCUS 26
Example – 16
For what values of λ does the function f ( x ) = ( λ + 2) x 3 − 3λ x 2 + 9λ x − 1 decrease for all x?
Solution: f '(x) must be negative for all x if f (x) is to decrease for all x.
f ′ ( x ) = 3 ( λ + 2) x 2 − 6λ x + 9λ
f ′(x) < 0 ∀x ∈ »
⇒ D of f ′ ( x ) < 0 and λ +2<0
⇒ 36λ 2 − 108λ ( λ + 2 ) < 0 and λ +2<0
⇒ λ 2 − 3λ ( λ + 2 ) < 0 and λ < −2
⇒ 2λ 2 + 6λ > 0 and λ < −2
⇒ λ < −3 or λ > 0 and λ < −2
⇒ λ < −3
Therefore, if λ ∈( −∞, −3) , f ( x ) will decrease for all x.
Example – 17
is strictly increasing on  0, π  .
x
Prove that the function f ( x ) =
sin x  2
 π
Solution: f '(x) must be positive for the entire interval  0,  if f (x) is to be increasing on this interval.
 2
sin x − x cos x
f ′ ( x) =
sin 2 x
 π
Therefore, sin x – x cos x must be positive ∀x ∈  0,  . Observe that it is not immediately obvious
 2
whether (sin x– x cos x) will be always positive for the required interval. How do we prove this then?
Let the expression (sin x – x cos x) be represented by the function g(x),
i.e.
g(x) = sin x – x cos x.
Notice that for x = 0, g(0) = 0.

 π
Since we have to show that g(x) > 0 ∀x ∈ 0,  , we can equivalently try to show that
 2
π
g(x) > g(0) ∀x ∈ 0,  {since g(0) = 0}, which could possibly happen if g(x) is increasing on
 2
(0, π/2).

LOCUS 27
Hence, we analyse the sign of g'(x) in (0, π/2)

g'(x) = cos x – cos x + x sin x
= x sin x
⇒ g ′ ( x ) > 0 ∀x ∈ ( 0, π / 2 )
⇒ g ( x ) is increasing on (0, π/2)
⇒ g ( x ) > g ( 0 ) ∀x ∈ ( 0, π / 2 )
⇒ sin x − x cos x > 0 ∀x ∈ (0, π / 2 )
⇒ f ′( x) > 0 ∀x ∈ (0, π / 2 )
⇒ f ( x ) is strictly increasing on (0,π/2)
Example – 18
Find the bigger of the two numbers eπ and πe.
Solution: The purpose of including this example here is to demonstrate that monotonicity can be used to determine
the answers to such questions by constructing some corresponding function which could be analysed
for its interval of increase/decrease.
To determine the bigger of the two numbers eπ and πe, we can equivalently determine the bigger of the
two numbers e1/ e and π 1/ π (why ?). This latter alternative is helpful because we can now construct a
function f(x) = x 1/ x and analyse this for monotonicity. We can then find which of the two numbers f (e)
and f (π) is larger.
f ( x ) = x1/ x ; x > 0
1
⇒ ln f ( x ) = ln x
x
Differentiating both sides, we get
1 1 ln x
. f ′( x) = 2 − 2
f (x) x x
⇒ f ′ ( x ) = x1/ x
(1 − ln x )
x2
⇒ f ′( x) > 0 if 1– ln x > 0 or x<e
and f '(x) < 0 if 1– ln x < 0 or x>e
Therefore, f (x) increases on (0, e) and decreases on (e, ∞ ) .
⇒ e1/ e > π 1/ π
⇒ eπ > π e

LOCUS 28
Example – 19
Let f (x) be a real function and g(x) be a function given by

g ( x ) = f ( x ) − ( f ( x )) + ( f ( x )) for all x ∈ .
2 3
Prove that f (x) and g (x) increase or decrease together.
Solution: To prove the stated assertion, we must show that for any x, f '(x) and g'(x) have the same sign.
Differentiating the given functional relation in the question, we get:
g'(x) = f '(x) – 2f (x) f '(x) + 3(f (x))2 f '(x)

= f '(x) {1– 2 f (x) + 3(f (x))2}
= f '(x) {1 – 2y + 3y2} (f (x) has been substituted by y for convenience)
To show that f '(x) and g'(x) have the same sign, we must show that (3y2 – 2y +1) is always positive,
no matter what the value of y (or f (x)) is.
Let h(y) = 3y2 – 2y +1
Discriminant of h(y) = 4 – 12 = –8 < 0
⇒ The parabola for h (y) will not intersect the horizontal axis.
⇒ h (y) > 0 for all values of y.
⇒ 3y2 – 2y + 1 > 0 for all y values.
⇒ f '(x) and g'(x) have the same sign
⇒ f (x) and g(x) increase or decrease together.
Example – 20
 π
Prove that sin x < x < tan x ∀x ∈  0, 
 2
Solution: We first prove that sin x < x in the given interval.
Consider f (x) = x – sin x {f (0) will be 0}

⇒ f '(x) = 1– cos x
In (0, π/2), cos x < 1

⇒ f '(x) = 1 – cos x > 0 ∀x ∈ ( 0, π / 2 )
⇒ f (x) is increasing on (0, π/2)
⇒ f (x) > f (0) ∀x ∈ ( 0, π / 2 )
⇒ x – sin x > 0 ∀x ∈ ( 0, π / 2 )
⇒ x > sin x ∀x ∈ ( 0, π / 2 ) ...(i)

LOCUS 29
Following the proof above, we now construct another function to prove the second part of the inequality:
g (x) = tan x – x {g (0) will be 0}
⇒ g'(x) = sec2 x – 1
Since sec2x > 1 for x ∈ ( 0, π / 2 )
⇒ g'(x) > 0 ∀x ∈ ( 0, π / 2 )
⇒ g (x) is increasing on (0,π/2)
⇒ g (x) > g(0) ∀x ∈ ( 0, π / 2 )
⇒ tan x – x > 0 ∀x ∈ ( 0, π / 2 )
⇒ tan x > x ∀x ∈ ( 0, π / 2 ) ...(ii)

From (i) and (ii),
sin x < x < tan x ∀x ∈ ( 0, π / 2 )

LOCUS 30
TRY YOURSELF - II
Q 1. (a) Prove that
(
2 x > 3sin x − x cos x for all x ∈ 0, π 2 )
(b) Prove that
x2
1 − x < e− x < 1 − x + for all x ≥ 0
2
(c) Prove that
 π
2sin x + tan x ≥ 3x for all x ∈ 0, 
 2
(d) Prove that
tan x y π
> for all 0 < y < x <
tan y x 2
x −1
Q 2. Find the intervals of monotonicity of the function f ( x ) =
x2
Q 3. Find the intervals in which f ( x ) = 2 ln ( x − 2 ) − x 2 + 4 x + 1 is increasing or decreasing.
Q 4. Find the intervals of monotonicity of the following functions:

(a) y = ( x − 2 ) ( 2 x + 1)
5 4
(b) y = x − e x
10
(c) y = x + cos x (d) y =
4x − 9x2 + 6x
3
sin ( x + a )
Q 5. Show that the function y = varies monotonically in any interval having no points of discontinuity
sin ( x + b )
of the function.

LOCUS 31
Section - 3 MAXIMA AND MINIMA
Although the name itself is suggestive, we introduce the concept of maxima and minima here through a simple
example:
y = f(x)
b c
x
a 0
Fig - 17
Consider an arbitrary function f(x).

The concept of Maxima and Minima is a way to characterize the peaks and troughs of f(x). For example, we see
that there is a peak at x = a ; this point is therefore a local maximum; similarly, x = 0 is also a local maximum;
however, since f(0) has the largest value on the entire domain, x = 0 is also a global maximum.
Analogously, x = b and x = c are local minimum points; x = c is also a global minimum.
Having introduced the concept intuitively, we can now introduce more rigorous definitions:
(A) LOCAL MAXIMUM: A point x = a is a local maximum for f(x) if in the neighbourhood of a i.e
in ( a − δ , a + δ ) where δ can be made arbitrarily small, f ( x ) < f ( a )
for all x ∈ ( a − δ , a + δ ) \ {a} . This simply means that if we consider a
small region (interval) around x = a, f(a) should be the maximum in that
interval.
(B) GLOBAL MAXIMUM: A point x = a is a global maximum for f(x) if f ( x ) ≤ f ( a ) for all
x ∈ D (the domain of f(x)).
(C) LOCAL MINIMUM: A point x = a is a local minimum for f(x) if in the neighbourhood of a, i.e.
in ( a − δ , a + δ ) , (where δ can have arbitrarily small values),
f ( x ) > f ( a ) for all x ∈ ( a − δ , a + δ ) \ {a} . This means that if we
consider a small interval around x = a, f(a) should be the minimum in that
interval.

LOCUS 32
(D) GLOBAL MINIMUM: A point x = a is a global minimum for f(x) if f ( x ) ≥ f ( a ) for all
x ∈ D (the domain of f(x)).
As examples, f ( x ) = x has a local (and global) minimum at x = 0, f(x) = x2 has a local (and
π
global) minimum at x = 0, f(x) = sin x has local (and global) maxima at x = 2nπ + , n ∈ and local
2
π
(and also global) minima at x = 2nπ − , n ∈ . Note that, for a function f(x), a local minimum could
2
actually be larger than a local maximum elsewhere. There is no restriction to this. A local minimum
value implies a minimum only in the immediate ‘surroundings’ or ‘neighbourhood’ and not ‘globally’;
similar is the case for a local maximum point.
To proceed further, we now restrict our attention only to continuous and differentiable functions.
HOW TO EVALUATE EXTREMUM POINTS?

Consider a function f(x) that attains a local maximum at x = a as shown in the figure below:
x
x=a
Fig - 19

LOCUS 33
It is obvious that the tangent drawn to the curve at x = a must have 0 slope, i,e, f '(a) = 0.
This is therefore a necessary condition; however, it is not sufficient.
Consider f ( x ) = x3 .
y
y = x3
Fig - 20
Observe that even though f ′ ( 0 ) = 3x 2 = 0, x = 0 is not an extremum point. What is then, the difference
x=0
between this and the function discussed previously in Fig-19 ?
In the previous function, observe that f '(x) is positive for x < a and negative for x > a (we only need to focus on
the neighbourhood of x = a) i.e, f '(x) changes sign from positive to negative as x crosses a.
What would have happened had x = a been a local minimum point?
y
x
x=a
Fig - 21
We now see that f '(x) changes sign from negative to positive as x crosses a.
However, for f(x) = x3, observe that f '(x) does not change sign as x crosses 0; f '(x) > 0 whether x < 0 or x > 0.
This distinction therefore leads us to our sufficient condition.

LOCUS 34
x = a is a local maximum for f(x) if

f '(a) = 0
f '(x) changes from ( + ve ) → ( − ve ) as x crosses a (from left to right)

x = a is a local minimum for f(x) if
f '(a) = 0
f '(x) changes from ( –ve ) → ( +ve ) as x crosses a.
x = a is not an extremum point for f(x) if
f '(a) = 0
but f '(x) does not change sign as x crosses a.
These straight forward criteria constitute what is known as the First Derivative Test.
The tedious task of evaluating the sign of f '(x) in the left hand and right hand side of x = a can be done away with
by using the Second Derivative Test:
x = a is a local maximum for f(x) if

f '(a) = 0 and f ''(a) < 0
x = a is a local minimum for f(x) if

f '(a) = 0 and f ''(a) > 0
What happens if f ''(a)is also 0?
To deal with such a situation , there is finally a Higher Order Derivative Test:
If f '(a) = f ''(a) = f '''(a) = ......= f n–1 (a) = 0

and
f (a) ≠ 0
n
If n is even and
f n ( a ) > 0 ⇒ x = a is a point of local minimum
f n ( a ) < 0 ⇒ x = a is a point of local maximum

otherwise
If n is odd
⇒ x = a is neither a local maximum nor a local minimum.
(n is basically the number of times you have to differentiate f(x) so that f n (a) becomes
non-zero with all the lower derivatives being 0 at x = a).

LOCUS 35
Let us apply this test to some examples:

(a) f ( x ) = x2 : f ′ (0 ) = 0
f ′′ ( 0 ) = 2 ≠ 0
⇒ n is even and f ''(0) > 0
⇒ x = 0 is a point of local minimum.
Notice that the Higher Order Derivative Test that we have applied here is actually
nothing but the Second Order Derivative Test.
(b) f ( x ) = x3 : f ′ ( 0 ) = f ′′ (0 ) = 0
f ′′′ (0 ) ≠ 0
⇒ n is odd so that x = 0 is not an extremum point.
(c) f (x) = x :4
f ′ ( 0 ) = f ′′ ( 0 ) = f ′′′ ( 0 ) = 0
f ′′′′ ( 0 ) = 24 > 0
⇒ n is even and f n (0 ) > 0
(d) f ( x ) = x 99 : f ′ ( 0 ) = f ′′ ( 0 ) = ..... f 98 ( 0 ) = 0
f 99 ( 0 ) ≠ 0
⇒ n is odd
⇒ x = 0 is not an extremum point
(e) f ( x ) = x100 : f ′ ( 0 ) = f ′′ ( 0 ) = ..... f 99 ( 0 ) = 0
f 100 ( 0 ) > 0
⇒ n is even and f 100 ( 0 ) > 0
These examples should give you an idea on how to apply the higher order derivative test in case it is required.
However, the first and second order derivative tests will suffice for all our requirements.
CONVEXITY / CONCAVITY
Observe the two graphs sketched in the figure below. What is the difference between them? Although they are
both increasing, the first graph’s rate of increase is itself increasing whereas the rate of increase is decreasing in
case of the second graph.

LOCUS 36
On graph A, if you draw a tangent any where, the entire curve will lie above this tangent. Such a curve is called a
concave upwards curve . For graph B, the entire curve will lie below any tangent drawn to itself. Such a curve is
called a concave downwards curve.
The concavity’s nature can of course be restricted to particular intervals. For example, a graph might be concave
upwards in some interval while concave downwards in another.
Concave
downwards
Concave
upwards
Fig - 23
How would concavity be related to the derivative(s) of the function?

We can determine this intuitively. Let us again consider graph A in Fig.- 22. This is a concave upwards curve. We
see that the rate of increase of the graph itself increases with increasing x, i.e. rate of increase of slope is positive:
d  dy 
 >0
dx  dx 
d2y
⇒ >0
dx 2
Similarly, for a concave downwards curve,
d2y
<0
dx 2
The nature of concavity is simply related to the sign of the second derivative. This can of course be proved more
rigorously.
We now finally come to what we mean by point of inflexion. Consider f(x) = x3 again
f ′ ( 0 ) = f ′′ (0 ) = 0
f ′′ ( x ) < 0 for x < 0

and > 0 for x > 0
⇒ f ′′ ( x ) changes sign as x crosses 0.
⇒ f ( x ) changes the nature of its concavity as x crosses 0.

LOCUS 37
Such a point is called a point of inflexion, a point at which the concavity of the graph changes.
Notice that f ′′ ( a ) = 0 alone is not sufficient to guarantee a point of inflexion at x = a. f ''(x) must also change sign
as x crosses a.
For example, in f ( x ) = x 4 , f ′′ (0 ) = 0 but x = 0 is not a point of inflexion since f ′′ ( x ) does not change its sign
as x crosses 0. From the higher order derivative test, we know that x = 0 is a local minimum for f ( x ) = x 4 .
You should view the entire discussion above in one coherent flow and should not treat the various facts presented
independent of each other; you must realise how they are interlinked. The first order derivative test follows from
the second order derivative test, which follows from the higher order derivative test. For this purpose, the entire
discussion has been summarized in the table below:
We will be using FODT and SODT interchangeably to determine extrema for a given function. The need for the
HODT will hardly arise.

LOCUS 38
Example – 21
Find the extrema points of f ( x ) = 3x 4 − 4 x3 − 36 x 2 + 28 .
Solution: f ′ ( x ) = 12 x 3 − 12 x 2 − 72 x
= 12 x ( x 2 − x + 6 )
= 12 x ( x + 2 )( x − 3)
We determine the sign of f '(x) using a number line:
–ve +ve –ve +ve
–2 0 3
From the number line, observe that (using the FODT):

x = −2 and x = 3 are local minima
x = 0 is a local maximum
Alternatively, we can use the SODT:
f ′′ ( x ) = 36 x 2 − 24 x − 72
= 12 (3 x 2 − 2 x − 6 )
f ′′ ( 0 ) < 0 ⇒ x = 0 is a local maximum
f ′′ ( −2 ) > 0 ⇒ x = −2 is a local minimum
f ′′ (3) > 0 ⇒ x = 3 is a local minimum.
Example – 22
Let f ( x ) = 2 x 3 − 3 ( a + b ) x 2 + 6abx. If a < b, determine the local maximum/minimum points of f (x). If a = b,

how will the answer change?
Solution : f ' (x) = 6x2 – 6(a + b)x + 6ab

= 6(x – a)(x – b)
To determine the sign of f '(x) in different intervals, we use a number line:

f '( x) > 0 f '( x) < 0 f '( x) > 0
| |
a b
f '(x) > 0 : x < a or x>b

f '(x) < 0 : a<x<b

LOCUS 39
Observe that f '(x) changes from positive to negative in the neighbourhood of x = a.

⇒ x = a is a point of local maximum
Similarly, f '(x) changes from negative to positive in the neighbourhood of x = b.
⇒ x = b is a point of local minimum.
If a = b, f '(x) = 6 (x – a)2
Notice that f '(x) is never negative. f '(x) is always positive except at x = a where f '(x) = 0
⇒ x = a is a point of inflexion.
Example – 23
Let (h, k) be a fixed point, where h > 0, k > 0. A straight line passing through this point cuts the positive direction
of the co-ordinate axes at the points P and Q. Find the minimum area of ∆OPQ, O being the origin.
Solution: The given point (h, k) will lie in the first quadrant.
Convince yourself that there will be a particular slope of PQ at which the area of ∆OPQ is minimum.
If the (slope ) → 0 or (slope ) → ∞ , ( area ) → ∞ . However, at some finite slope in between these
two extremes, area will assume a minimum value.
Assume m to be the slope we wish to determine so that area is minimum (Notice that m will be
negative). We first write down the equation of a straight line passing through (h, k) with slope m:
y – k = m (x – h)
 k 
This cuts the X-axis at P  h − , 0  and the Y-axis at Q (0, k – mh)
 m 
Assume A to be the area of ∆OPQ.

LOCUS 40
Therefore,
1
A = × OP × OQ
2
1  k
= ×  h −  × ( k − mh )
2  m
−1
( k − mh )
=
2
...(i)
2m
For A to be minimum,
dA −1 1
⇒ = .2 ( k − mh ). ( − h ) + ( k − mh ) . 2
2
dm 2m 2m
2 (
k 2 − m2 h2 )
1
=
2m
dA
⇒ = 0 when k 2 − m 2 h 2 = 0
dm
k
⇒ m=±
h
−k
Since m must be negative, m = .
h
Now,
d2A ( k 2 − m2 h2 )
=
1
dm 2 m = − k 2m 2
( −2 mh 2
) −
m3 −k
h m=
h
h3
= >0
k
−k
⇒ m= is a point of local minimum for A.
h
From (i), the minimum value of A is :
−1
Amin = ( k − mh ) = 2hk
2
2m −k
m=
h

LOCUS 41
Example – 24
What normal to the curve y = x2 forms the shortest chord?
Solution: As in the previous example, notice that there will exist a particular normal for which the chord intercepted
by the parabola is minimum. The maximum length of this chord is of course unbounded (infinity).
y
f(x) = x2
Q There will exist a particular

normal that forms the shortest
P chord PQ.
Fig - 25
Let us assume P to have the co-ordinates (t , t2). We will write the equation of the normal at P, find the
other intersection point (the point Q) of this normal with the parabola, and then find PQ in terms of t.
Then we will find t for which PQ is minimum.
y = x2
dy
⇒ = 2 x P = 2t
dx P
−1
⇒ mN =
2t
−1
Equation of normal: y − t2 = (x − t ) ...(i)
2t
Let the point Q be (t ', t '2). Since Q lies on the normal at P, the co-ordinates of Q must satisfy (i).
−1
⇒ t ′2 − t 2 = (t ′ − t )
2t
−1
⇒ (t ′ + t )(t ′ − t ) = (t ′ − t )
2t
−1
⇒ t′ + t =
2t
(∵ t ′ − t ≠ 0 )
1
⇒ t ′ = −t −
2t

LOCUS 42
The length PQ is given by: PQ 2 = (t ′ − t ) + (t ′2 − t 2 )

2 2
{
= (t ′ − t ) 1 + (t ′ + t )
2 2
}
2
 1  1 
=  2t +  1 + 2 
 2t   4t 
3
 1 
= 4t  1 + 2 
2
 4t 
To minimize PQ, we can equivalently minimize PQ2.
d ( PQ )
2
1  −2
3 2
 1  
⇒ = 8t 1 + 2  + 4t 2 × 3 1 + 2  × 3
dt  4t   4t  4t
 1   2t 2 − 1 
= 4 1 + 2   
 4t   t 
1 1
This is 0 when t 2 = or t = ±
2 2
d 2 ( PQ 2 )
Verify that >0
dt 2 1
t =±
2
1
⇒ PQ is minimum for t = ±
2
Finding out the equations of the normals corresponding to the two values of t is left to the reader as an
exercise.
Example – 25
Find the greatest curved surface of a cylinder that can be inscribed inside a sphere of radius R.
Solution: We can assume any of the dimensions of this cylinder as a variable. The other dimension can then be
expressed in terms of this assumed variable. For example, we can assume the radius of the inscribed
cylinder to be a variable r. The height of this cylinder h (and hence the surface area A) can then be
written in terms of the radius r.

LOCUS 43
Refer to the following figure which shows how to write the height h in terms of r.
R2 - r 2 R
Notice that
h h=2 R2 - r 2
Fig - 26
From the figure, h = 2 R 2 − r 2

⇒ A = 2π rh
= 4π r R 2 − r 2
For minimum A,
dA  r2 
= 4π  R 2 − r 2 − 
dr  R2 − r 2 
4π ( R 2 − 2r 2 )
=
R2 − r 2
This is 0 when:
R2 = 2r2
R
⇒ r=
2
d2A
Verify that will be negative.
dr 2 R
2
R
⇒ r= is a local maximum for A.
2
⇒ Amax = 4π r R 2 − r 2 R
r=
2
= 2πr

LOCUS 44
Example – 26
Find the shortest distance between the curves y2 = x3 and 9x2 + 9y2 –30y +16 = 0.
Solution: Note that the equation of the second curve can be rearranged as :
2
 5
9x + 9  y −  − 9 = 0
2
 3
2
 5
⇒ x +  y −  =1
2
 3
 5
This is a circle of radius 1 centred at  0,  . As in Example -10, we can now equivalently find the
 3
shortest distance between the curve y2 = x3 and the centre of this circle, i.e, (0,5/3).
y2 = x3
or
0, 5
3/2
y=x
3
2 3
(t , t )
Fig - 27
A general point on the curve y2 = x3 can be taken as (t2, t3). Its distance from the circle’s centre is
given by:
2
 5
l = (t − 0 ) +  t 3 − 
2 2 2
 3
10t 3 25
= t +t − 4
+ 6
3 9
2
Now, we minimize l w.r.t t:
d (l 2 )
= 4t 3 + 6t 5 − 10t 2
dt
= 2t 2 (3t 3 + 2t − 5 )
= 2t 2 (t − 1) (3t 2 + 5t + 5 )

LOCUS 45
This is 0 when t = 0, 1 {3t2 + 5t + 5 > ∀t ∈ }
d 2 (l 2 )
Verify that > 0 so that t = 1 is a point of local minimum (What about t = 0?)
dt 2
t =1
10 25
⇒ lmin
2
= 1+1− +
3 9
13
=
9
13
⇒ lmin =
3
Example – 27
Find the area of the greatest isosceles triangle that can be inscribed in a given ellipse having its vertex coincident
with one end of the major axis.
x2 y 2
Solution: Assuming the equation of the ellipse to be + = 1, let one vertex of the isosceles triangle be
a 2 b2
coincident with (–a, 0). The other two vertices are variable (though related to each other as mirror
reflections).
(a cos θ, b sin θ)
(-a, 0) S
x
P
(a cos θ, -b sin θ)
Fig - 28
The area of ∆PQR is

1
A = × QR × PS
2
1
= × 2b sin θ × ( a + a cos θ )
2
= ab sin θ (1 + cos θ )

LOCUS 46
For maximum area,

dA d2A
= 0 and <0
dθ dθ 2
= ab {cos θ (1 + cos θ ) − sin θ ⋅ sin θ }

dA
⇒
dθ
= ab {cos θ + cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ }
= ab {cos θ + cos 2 θ − 1 + cos 2 θ }
= ab {2 cos 2 θ + cos θ − 1}
= ab ( 2 cos θ − 1)( cos θ + 1)

1 π
This is 0 when cos θ = ⇒ θ=
2 3
or cos θ = −1 ⇒ θ =π (obviously a non-valid solution)
d2A
Verify that < 0 so that θ = π is a point of local maximum for A.
dθ 2 θ =π / 3 3
Amax = ab sin θ (1 + cos θ ) θ =π / 3
3 3
= ab × ×
2 2
3 3ab
=
4
Example – 28
Find the points on the curve ax2 + 2bxy + ay2 = c, 0 < a < b < c, whose distance from the origin is minimum.
Solution: In some cases, the form of a variable point on a given curve is obvious from the equation of the curve.
x2 y 2
For example, we can take a variable point on + = 1 as ( a cos θ, b sin θ) and on y = x2 as
a 2 b2
(t, t2) and so on.
However, if this form is not obvious from the curve, we can take it to be (r cos θ, r sin θ) and make this
point (which could represent any point on the plane) satisfy the equation of the given curve. We will
do this for the current example.

LOCUS 47
Let (r cos θ, r sin θ) be a point on the given curve. The co-ordinates therefore must satisfy the
equation of the curve:
a(r cos θ)2 + 2b (r cos θ)(r sin θ) + a(r sin θ)2 = c
⇒ ar 2 + br 2 sin 2θ = c
c
⇒ r2 = ...(i)
a + b sin 2θ
Any point on the curve must satisfy (i). From (i), it is immediately obvious that r2 has a minimum value
c
of (when sin 2θ =1). We were able to obtain the answer without differentiation.
a+b
sin 2θ =1
π 5π
⇒ 2θ = ,
2 2
π 5π
⇒ θ= , (θ must lie in [0, 2π] so we obtain only two possible values)
4 4
c
rmin =
a+b
 
π c c
For θ = , the required point is (r cos θ, r sin θ) or  2 a + b , 
4  ( ) 2 ( a + b ) 
 c c 
5π  − , − 
For θ = , the required point is (r cos θ, r sin θ) or  2 ( a + b ) 2 ( a + b ) 
4 
Example – 29
A point P is given on the circumference of a circle of radius r. The chord QR is parallel to the tangent line at P. Find
the maximum area of ∆PQR.
Solution: Observe that since QR is parallel to the tangent at P, the triangle PQR must be isosceles. This will
become more clear upon carefully observing the following figure :
P
O
r
θ
Q S R
Fig - 29

LOCUS 48
We can assume either ∠OQS or the length OS as the variable on which the area A will be
dependent. We let the variable be ∠OQS = θ .
⇒ OS = r sin θ
⇒ PS = r + r sin θ
and QR = 2r cos θ
1
⇒ A = × QR × PS
2
= r 2 cos θ (1 + sin θ )
dA d2A
For maximum area, = 0 and <0
dθ dθ 2
= r 2 {− sin θ (1 + sin θ ) + cos θ .cos θ }

dA
dθ
= r 2 {cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ − sin θ }
= r 2 {1 − sin θ − 2sin 2 θ }
= r 2 (1 + sin θ )(1 − 2sin θ )

1 π
This is 0 when sin θ = ⇒ θ=
2 6
or sin θ = –1 (not a possible case)
d2A π
Verify that < 0 for θ =
dθ 2
6
π
Therefore, area is maximum for θ = .
6
Amax = r 2 cos θ (1 + sin θ )
θ =π / 6
3 3 r2
=
4
Example – 30
Find the point on the curve 4x2 + a2y2 = 4a2, 4 < a2 < 8, that is farthest from the point (0, –2).
x2 y 2
Solution: Upon rearrangement, the equation of the curve gives + = 1 which is the equation of an ellipse.
a2 4
A general variable point P on this ellipse can be taken as (a cosθ, 2 sinθ).

LOCUS 49
Let r represent the distance of P from (0, –2).

r2 = (a cos θ – 0)2 + (2 sin θ + 2)2
= a2 cos2θ + 4 (1 + sin θ)2
d (r 2 ) d 2 (r 2 )
2
For r to be maximum, = 0 and <0
dθ dθ 2
d (r 2 )
= −2a 2 sin θ cos θ + 8 (1 + sin θ ) cos θ
dθ
{
= cos θ (8 − 2a 2 ) sin θ + 8 }
This is 0 when :
π
cos θ = 0 ⇒θ =
2
or
4
(8 – 2a2) sin θ = – 8 ⇒ sin θ =
a −4
2
4
But > 1 (verify) and sinθ cannot be greater than 1. Hence, this case does not given any valid
a −4
2
value of θ.
π
⇒ θ=
2
d 2 (r 2 )
Verify that <0
dθ 2
θ =π / 2
π
⇒ θ= is a local maximum for r2
2
The required point is ( a cos θ , 2sin θ ) θ =π / 2 or (0, 2).

LOCUS 50
TRY YOURSELF - III
a 2 b2
Q 1. Prove that the minimum radius vector of the curve + = 1 is a + b.
x2 y 2
Q 2. Find the maximum area of a rectangle that has two of its corners on the latus rectum and the other two on
the portion of the curve cut off by the latus rectum of the parabola y 2 = 4ax .
Q 3. For a given curved surface area of a right circular cone, show that the volume is maximum when the
−  1 
semi-vertical angle of the cone is sin 1  .
 3
Q 4. Find the maxima and minima of the following functions:

3x 2 + 4 x + 4 1 + 3x
(a) y = 2 (b) y =
x + x +1 4 + 5x2
1  −π π 
(c) y = 2 x 3 − 6 x 2 − 18 x + 7 (d) y = x sin x + cos x − x 2 in  ,
4  2 2 
Q 5. Determine the altitude of a cylinder of the greatest possible volume which can be inscribed in a sphere of
radius R.
*************

LOCUS 51
Section - 4 MEAN VALUE THEOREMS AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
In this section we will deal with some straight forward but quite useful applications of derivatives. We start with the
Rolle’s theorem, a simple but powerful theorem having a lot of practical importance.
(A) ROLLE’S THEOREM

Let f ( x ) be a function defined on [a, b] such that
(i) it is continuous on [a, b]
(ii) it is differentiable on (a, b)
(iii) f (a) = f (b)
Then there exists a real number c ∈ ( a, b ) such that f '(c) = 0.
The geometrical interpretation of this theorem is quite straightforward. Consider an arbitrary curve
y = f (x) and two points x = a and x = b such that f (a) = f (b).
A B
x
a c b
Fig - 30
Since A and B are joined by a continuous and differentiable curve, at least one point x = c will always
exist in (a, b) where the tangent drawn is horizontal, or equivalently, f '(c) = 0. Convince yourself that
no matter what curve joins A and B, as long as it is continuous and differentiable one such c will always
exist.
From Rolle’s theorem, it follows that between any two roots of a polynomial f (x) will lie a root of the
polynomial f '(x).
The (straightforward) proof of Rolle’s theorem is left as an exercise to the reader.
(B) LAGRANGE’S MEAN VALUE THEOREM

Let f (x) be a function defined on [a, b] such that
(i) it is continuous on [a, b]
(ii) it is differentiable on (a, b).
Then there exists a real number c ∈ ( a, b ) such that
f (b ) − f ( a )
f ' (c ) =
b−a

LOCUS 52
To interpret this theorem geometrically, we take an arbitrary function y = f (x) and two arbitrary points
x = a and x = b on it
f (b) P
f(b) - f(a) PQ
=
b-a QR
θ = tan θ
f (a) Q
R
x
a c b
Fig - 31
We see that no matter what the curve between R and P is like, as long as it is continuous and
differentiable, there will exist a c ∈ ( a, b ) such that the tangent drawn at x = c will have a slope equal
to tan θ i.e, the average slope from x = a to x = b.
For a rigorous proof of LMVT, consider the function

 f (b ) − f ( a ) 
g ( x) = f ( x) −  x
 b−a 
Verify that g(x) satisfies all the three criteria of Rolle’s theorem on [a, b] so that
g ' ( c ) = 0 for at least one c ∈ ( a, b )
f (b ) − f ( a )
or f ' ( c ) = for at least one c ∈ ( a, b )
b−a
Notice that LMVT is an extension of the Rolle’s theorem. In fact, for f (a) = f (b), LMVT reduces to
the Rolle’s theorem.
Example – 31
Apply Rolle’s theorem on the following functions in the indicated intervals:

(a) f ( x ) = sin x , x ∈ [0, 2π ] (b) f ( x ) = x3 − x, x ∈ [−1, 1]
Solution: (a) We know that f ( x ) = sin x is everywhere continuous and differentiable. Also,
f (0 ) = f ( 2π ) = 0
⇒ From Rolle’s theorem: there exists at least one c ∈ ( 0, 2π ) such that f '(c) = 0.

LOCUS 53
In fact, from the graph we see that two such c’s exist
y
3π
2 2π
π x
0 π
2
Fig - 32
(b) f ( x ) = x3 − x being a polynomial function is everywhere continuous and differentiable. Also,

f ( −1) = f (1) = 0.
⇒ From Rolle’s theorem, these exists at least one c such that f '(c) = 0.
Again, we see that there are two such c’s given by f ' ( c ) = 0
⇒ 3c 2 − 1 = 0
1
⇒c=±
3
y
y = x3- x
1
-1 3
x
-1 0 1
3
Fig - 33
Example – 32
 1 
 x sin , x > 0   1
Prove that the derivative of f ( x ) =  x  vanishes at an infinite number of points in  0, 
 0 , x = 0   π
Solution: The roots of f(x) are given by
1
= nπ ; n ∈
x
1
⇒x= ; n∈ ... (i)
nπ
f(x) is continuous and differentiable for all x > 0.
By Rolle’s theorem, between any two successive zeroes of f(x) will lie a zero f '(x). Since f (x) has
 1
infinite zeroes in 0,  given by (i), f '(x) will also have an infinite number of zeroes.
 π

LOCUS 54
Example – 33
If the function f : [0, 4] → is differentiable, then show that ( f ( 4 )) − ( f ( 0 )) = 8 f ' ( a ) f (b ) for some
2 2
a, b ∈ [0, 4].
Solution: Applying LMVT on f (x) in the given interval:
There exists a ∈ ( 0, 4 ) such that
f (4 ) − f (0 )
f ' (a ) =
4−0
⇒ f ( 4 ) − f ( 0 ) = 4 f ' ( a ) for some a ∈ ( 0, 4 ) ... (i)
Also, since f (x) is continuous and differentiable, the mean of f (0) and f (4) must be attained by f (x)
at some value of x in [0, 4] (This obvious theorem is sometimes referred to as the intermediate value
theorem).
That is, there exists b ∈ [0, 4] such that
f ( 4 ) + f (0 )
f (b ) =
2
⇒ f ( 4 ) + f ( 0 ) = 2 f (b ) for some b ∈ [0 , 4] ... (ii)
Multiplying (i) and (ii), we get the desired result.
Example – 34
Using LMVT, prove that e x ≥ 1 + x for x ∈ .

Solution: Consider f ( x ) = e x − x − 1
⇒ f '( x) = ex −1
Now we apply LMVT on f (x) for the interval [0, x], assuming x ≥ 0 :
There exists c ∈ [0, x ] such that
f ( x ) − f (0 )
f ' (c ) =
x−0
=
(e − x − 1) − (0 )
x
x
e − x −1
x
=
x
Since f ' ( x ) is strictly increasing,
f ' (0 ) ≤ f ' (c ) ≤ f ' ( x )
ex − x −1 x
⇒0≤ ≤ e −1
x
⇒ ex ≥ x +1 ; x ≥ 0
LOCUS 55
Similarly, for x < 0, we apply LMVT on [x, 0] to get:

ex − x −1
e −1 ≤
x
≤0
x
⇒ ex ≥ x + 1 ; x < 0
We see that e x ≥ x + 1 for x ∈
(C) ERRORS AND APPROXIMATIONS

We can use differentials to calculate small changes in the dependent variable of a function corresponding
to small changes in the independent variable. The theory behind it is quite simple: From the chapter on
differentiation, we know that
∆y dy
lim = = f '( x)
∆x → 0 ∆ x dx
For small ∆x, we can therefore approximate ∆y as f ' ( x ) ∆x. This is all there is to it!
Suppose we have to calculate (4.016)2.
We let y = x 2 ⋅ x0 = 4 and y0 = 16
y ' = 2 x, ∆x = 0.016
⇒ ∆y = f ' ( x ) ⋅ ∆x
= 2 x x = 4 × 0.016
0
= 8 × 0.016
= 0.128
⇒ y = y0 + ∆y = 16.128
Example – 35
Find the value of (8.01) + (8.01)

4/3 2
Solution: Let y = f ( x ) = x 4/ 3 + x 2
Let x0 = 8 so that y0 = 16 + 64 = 80
∆x = 0.01
⇒ ∆y = f ' ( x ) x = x × ∆x
0
4 
=  x1/ 3 + 2 x  × ∆x
3  x0 =8
8 
=  + 16  × 0.01
3 
0.56
=
3
= 0.1867
⇒ y0 = y0 + ∆y
= 80.1867
LOCUS 56
TRY YOURSELF - IV
1
Q 1. Show that the square roots of two successive natural numbers greater than N 2 differ by less than .
2N
Q 2. If 2a + 3b + 6c = 0 , prove that the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has at least one real root in (0, 1).
Q 3. Prove that
b−a b b − a where
< ln < , 0<a<b
b a a
Q 4. Prove that
tan −1 x2 − tan −1 x1 < x2 − x1 , where x2 > x1
*************

LOCUS 57
Section - 5 GRAPHS - II
In the unit on functions, we discussed graphs in great detail but most of the discussion was based on obtaining the
given graph by some transformation of one of the standard functions that we encountered previously in the same
2
 1 3
chapter. As an example , f ( x ) = x + x + 1 =  x +  + was plotted by shifting the y = x2 parabola left by
2
1
 2 4 2
3
units and up by units.
4
Our purpose in this section is to discuss more advanced graphs by analyzing their nature using the knowledge of
derivatives that we now possess.
Example – 36
Draw the graphs of the following functions:
x
(a) f ( x ) = (b) f ( x ) = x + cos x
1 + x2
ln x
(c) f ( x ) = x3 − 6 x 2 + 11x − 6 (d) f ( x ) =
x
1 x2 − x + 1
(e) f ( x ) = (f) f ( x ) =
x − 3x + 2
2
x2 + x + 1
Solution: In all the questions above, we will evaluate the limits of the functions at various important points within
their respective domains which will give us a good idea of the overall behaviour of the particular
function being analysed.
x
(a) f ( x ) =
1 + x2
lim f ( x ) = 0 ; f ( 0 ) = 0
x →±∞
Also, notice that f(x) is an odd function.
Now, f ' ( x ) = 1 + x − 22x = 1 − x 2

2 2 2
(1 + x2 ) (1 + x2 )
This is 0 when 1 − x 2 = 0 or x = ±1 .
f ' ( x ) > 0 for x ∈ ( −1, 1) and
f ' ( x ) < 0 for x ∈ ( −∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞ )
⇒ f ( x ) increases on (–1, 1) and decreases on ( −∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞ )

LOCUS 58
−1
⇒ x = −1 is a point of local minimum; f ( −1) = 2
1
x = 1 is a point of local maximum; f (1) = 2
{This can also be validated by evaluating the sign of f ''(x). Verify that f ''(–1) > 0 and f '' (1) < 0}
This information is sufficient to accurately plot the graph
(b) f(x) = x + cos x

f (0 ) = 1; lim f ( x ) = ∞ ; lim f ( x ) = −∞.
x →∞ x →−∞
Now, f ' ( x ) = 1 − sin x
Notice that f ' ( x ) ≥ 0 ∀ x ∈
⇒ f ( x ) is always increasing; since f'(x) also become 0, it might appear that f(x) is not strictly
increasing. However, notice that the set of points where f'(x) becomes 0 will be countable so,
according to the reason stated earlier f(x) will be strictly increasing. We now proceed to evaluate
the set of points where f'(x) = 0
π
At x = 2nπ + ( where n ∈ ) , sin x = 1
2
 π
⇒ f ' ( x ) = 0 for x ∈ 2nπ +  n ∈
 2
f " ( x ) = − cos x
 π
= 0 for x ∈  2nπ +  n ∈
 2
 π
⇒ The set of points 2nπ +  ; n ∈ are points of inflexion for f (x). (This should be easy to
 2
understand since f '(x) is always non-negative i.e, it does not change sign at these points so that
f ''(x) can neither be positive or negative; in other words these points can neither be local maxima
nor local minimum; they are inflexion points)

LOCUS 59
This should be clear from the graph:
(c) f ( x ) = x3 − 6 x 2 + 11x − 6
lim f ( x ) = +∞; lim f ( x ) = −∞; f ( 0 ) = −6 .

x →+∞ x →−∞
Also, f(x) can be factorized as
f ( x ) = ( x − 1)( x − 2 )( x − 3)

LOCUS 60
so that f(x) has three roots, namely

x = 1, 2, 3.
Now, f ' ( x ) = 3 x 2 − 12 x + 11
This is 0 when 3 x 2 − 12 x + 11 = 0
12 ± 144 − 132
⇒x=
6
12 ± 12
=
6
1
= 2±
3
Also, f ' ( x ) < 0 for any x between the roots and f ' ( x ) > 0 for any x not between the roots.
1
⇒ x = 2− is a local maximum for f (x) and x = 2 +
1
is a local minimum for f(x).
3 3
For more accuracy in graph plotting, f  2 ±

1 
 can also be numerically evaluated.
 3
Based on all this information, the graph has been plotted below.
y
x
1 2 3
Fig - 36
ln x
(d) f ( x ) =
x
This is defined only if x > 0.
lim f ( x ) = 0 (by the L.H rule)
x →+∞
lim f ( x ) = −∞
x →0
f ( x ) = 0 for x = 1 .
1 − ln x
Now, f '( x) =
x2
This is 0 when ln x = 1

LOCUS 61
⇒ x=e
f ' ( x ) < 0 for x ∈ ( e, ∞ ) and
f ' ( x ) > 0 for x ∈ (0, e )
⇒ f ( x ) increases on (0, e), attains a maximum value at x = e, and then decreases on (e, ∞ ) .
1
f (e ) = .
e
1
e
x
e k
There is some x = k at which the
concavity of the graph changes.
You are urged to find that point
by evaluating the sign of f"(x) for
different values in (0, ∞)
Fig - 37
1 1
(e) f ( x ) = =
x − 3x + 2 ( x − 1)( x − 2 )
2
The domain for f(x) is \ {1, 2} .
Keeping in mind that ( x − 1)( x − 2 ) > 0 for x ∈ ( −∞,1) ∪ ( 2, ∞ ) and
( x − 1)( x − 2 ) < 0 for x ∈ (1, 2) , observe the following assertions carefully:

lim f ( x ) = +∞ lim f ( x ) = −∞
x →1− x →1+
lim f ( x ) = −∞ lim f ( x ) = +∞
x → 2− x → 2+
Therefore, near x = 1 and x = 2, f (x) will have an unbounded increase in magnitude. (We will
soon see that the lines x = 1 and x = 2 would be called asymptotes to the given curve.)
1
Also, lim f ( x ) = 0 ; f ( 0 ) =
x →±∞ 2
− ( 2 x − 3)
Now, f '( x) =
(x − 3x + 2 )
2 2
3
This is 0 when x =
2

LOCUS 62
 3
f ' ( x ) > 0 ∀x ∈  −∞,  \ {1}
 2
3 
and f ' ( x ) < 0 ∀x ∈  , ∞  \ {2}
2 
⇒ In ( −∞,1) , f ( x ) increases from 0 to ∞ .
 3 3
In 1,  , f ( x ) increases from −∞ to f  .
 2 2
3 3
At x = , f ( x ) attains a local maximum given by f   = −4
2 2
3 
In  , 2  , f ( x ) decreases from –4 to −∞.
2 
In ( 2, ∞ ) , f ( x ) decreases from ∞ to 0 .
3/2
x
1 2
-4
Fig - 38
x2 − x + 1 2x
(f) f ( x ) = = 1− 2
x + x +1
2
x + x +1
lim f ( x ) = 1 ; f ( 0 ) = 1
x →±∞

LOCUS 63
2 ( x 2 + x + 1) − 2 x ( 2 x + 1)
Now, f '( x) = −
(x + x + 1)
2 2
2 x2 − 2 2 ( x 2 − 1)
= 2 =
x + x + 1 x2 + x + 1
⇒ f ' ( x ) = 0 for x = ±1
f ' ( x ) < 0 for x ∈ ( −1,1)
f ' ( x ) > 0 for x ∈ ( −∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞ )
⇒ f (x) increases on ( −∞, −1) , attains a local maximum at x = – 1 (equal to f (–1) = 3),
 1
decreases on (–1, 1), attains a local minimum on x = 1  equal to f (1) =  and then
 3
again increases on (1, ∞ ) (tending to 1 as x → ∞ )
ASYMPTOTES
A straight line is called an asymptote to the curve y = f (x) if , in layman’s term, the curve touches the line at infinity
(this is not technically correct; we should say that the curve tends to touch the line as infinity is approached or as
x → ∞)
More accurately, an asymptote to a curve is a line such that the distance from a variable point M on the curve to
the straight line approaches zero as the point M recedes to infinity along some branch of the curve.
x
Referring to the previous example, we see that y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote to f ( x ) = ; x = 1 and
1 + x2
1 x2 − x +1
x = 2 are vertical asymptotes to f ( x ) = 2 and y = 1 is a horizontal asymptote to f ( x ) = 2 .
x − 3x + 2 x + x +1
Of course, there can be inclined asymptotes also. We now formally distinguish between the three kinds of asymptotes
and outline the approach to determine them.
LOCUS 64
(a) Horizontal asymptotes : If lim f ( x ) = k then y = k is a horizontal asymptote to f (x).

x →±∞
(b) Vertical asymptotes : If LHL or RHL (or both) at x = a are infinity for f (x), then
x = a is a vertical asymptote to f (x).
f (x)
(c) Inclined asymptotes : If lim
x →∞
= a1 and lim
x →∞
( f ( x ) − a1 x ) = b1 ,
x
then y = a1x + b1 is an inclined right asymptote to f (x).
f (x)
Similarly, if lim
x →−∞
= a2 and xlim
→−∞
( f ( x ) − a2 x ) = b2 ,
x
then y = a2 x + b2 is an inclined left asymptote to f(x).
This discussion will become more clear with an example.
1
Let f ( x ) = x +
x
Now, lim f ( x ) = ∞ and lim− f ( x ) = −∞
x → 0+ x →0
⇒ x = 0 is a vertical asymptote to f ( x ) .
f (x) f (x)
lim = 1; lim =1
x →∞ x x →−∞ x
lim ( f ( x ) − x ) = 0. (∴ a = 1, b = 0 )
x →±∞
⇒ y = x is an inclined asymptote to f(x).
The graph is sketched below. The extremum points are x = ±1:
y
-1 x
1
-2
Fig - 40
LOCUS 65
Before closing this section with a few more examples, have are a few general steps* to be followed
whenever one is encountered with the task of sketching the graph of an arbitrary function f (x):
(i) Find the domain of the given function.

(ii) Determine more of its characteristics; for example, is the function even or odd or neither? Is it
periodic? If yes, what is the period? And so on.
(iii) Test the function for continuity and differentiability.
(iv) Find the asymptotes of the graph, if any.
(v) Find the extremum/ inflexion points and the intervals of monotonicity.
(vi) To improve accuracy of the plot, one can always evaluate f (x) at additional points.
This is a very general sequence and mostly the graph would be able to be plotted without necessarily
following all the steps. For all our current purposes, these steps are more than sufficient.
Example – 37
Plot the graph of f ( x ) = xe1/ x
Solution: As far as possible, we will try to stick to the general sequence mentioned above for analysing any
given function.
* The domain of f ( x ) is \ {0} .
* Also, f ( x ) is continuous and differentiable on » \ {0} .

* Now, lim ( f ( x )) = ∞. Hence, x = 0 is a vertical asymptote to f (x).
x → 0+
lim ( f ( x )) = 0.
x → 0−
 f (x)   1x 
lim   = lim e  =1
x →±∞
 x  x →±∞  
 1x 
Also, lim ( f ( x ) − x ) = lim x  e − 1
x →±∞ x →±∞
 
e y −1  1
= lim  where y = 
y →0 y  x
=1
⇒ y = x + 1 is an inclined asymptote to f(x).
* Quoted from I.A. Maron: Problems in Calculus

LOCUS 66
 −1 
* f ' ( x ) = xe1/ x ⋅  2  + e1/ x
x 
 1
= e1/ x  1 − 
 x
f ' ( x ) > 0 for x ∈ ( −∞, 0 ) ∪ (1, ∞ )
f ' ( x ) < 0 for x ∈ (0,1)
f ' ( x ) = 0 for x = 1; a local minimum point; f(1) = e
e
y=x+1
x
0 1
Fig - 41
Example – 38
Sketch the graph of f ( x ) = x 6 − 3x 4 + 3x 2 − 5 .
Solution: * The domain is obviously

* f(x) is an even function
* Since f(x) is a polynomial function, it is continuous and differentiable on » .
* It is obvious that there are no asymptotes to f(x)
* f ' ( x ) = 6 x 5 − 12 x3 + 6 x
= 6 x ( x 4 − 2 x 2 + 1)
= 6 x ( x 2 − 1)
2

LOCUS 67
f ' ( x ) = 0 for x = 0, ±1
f " ( x ) = 6 ( x 2 − 1) + 24 x 2 ( x 2 − 1)
2
{
= ( x 2 − 1) 6 ( x 2 − 1) + 24 x 2 }
= ( x 2 − 1)(30 x 2 − 6 ) ... (i)
= 6 (5 x 4 − 6 x 2 + 1)
f " (0 ) = 6, f " ( ±1) = 0
⇒ x = 0 is a point of local minimum and x = ±1 are points of inflexion (verify that f''(x) does not
change sign as x crosses ± 1) .
Now, f ' ( x ) > 0 if x > 0 and f ' ( x ) < 0 if x < 0 . Therefore, f ( x ) decreases on ( −∞, 0 )
and increases on (0 − ∞ )
There is one more important fact we must take into account. f " ( x ) has roots ±1 and
1
additionally, ± (from (i)).
5
Therefore, at these four points the convexity of the graph changes:
 −1 1 
⇒ f " ( x ) > 0 ∀ x ∈ ( −∞, −1) ∪  ,  ∪ (1, ∞ ) so that f ( x ) is concave upwards
 5 5
in these intervals
 −1   1 
⇒ f " ( x ) < 0 ∀ x ∈  −1, ∪ ,1 so that f(x) is concave downwards in these
 5  5 
intervals.
* f (0 ) = −5, f ( ±1) = −4, f ( ±2 ) = 23
Therefore one root each of f(x) lies in (–2, –1) and (1, 2)
This information is sufficient to accurately draw the graph of the given function.
-1 1
-1 5 5 1
x = -1, 1 are
points of
-4 inflexion
-5 Fig - 42

LOCUS 68
Example – 39
1
Plot the graph of f ( x ) = sin 2 x + cos x.
2
Solution: * The domain of f(x) is » .
* f ( x ) is periodic with period 2π and therefore we need to analyze it only in [0, 2π ]
* f ( x ) is continuous and differentiable on

* There are no asymptotes to f(x)
* f ' ( x ) = cos 2 x − sin x
= 1 − 2 sin 2 x − sin x
= (1 + sin x )(1 − 2sin x )
This is 0 in [0, 2π ] when
π 5π 3π
x= , ,
6 6 2
f " ( x ) = −2sin 2 x − cos x
π 5π 3π
Now, f "   < 0, f "   > 0 and f "   = 0
6  6   2 
π  3 3
⇒ x =π is a local maximum for f ( x ); f   =
6 6 4
5π  5π  −3 3
x= is a local minimum for f ( x ) ; f   =
6  6  4
3π  3π 
x= is a point of inflexion; f   = 0.
2  2 
We now need to analyze to sign of f " ( x ).
f " ( x ) = −2sin 2 x − cos x

= −4sin x cos x − cos x
= − cos x (1 + 4sin x )
This is 0 in [0, 2π ] when
π 1 3π 1
x= , π + sin −1 , , 2π − sin −1
2 4 2 4

LOCUS 69
We see that f(x) will change its convexity at four different points.
π 1   3π 1
⇒ f " ( x ) > 0 ∀x ∈  , π + sin −1  ∪  , 2π − sin −1 
2 4  2 4
so that f(x) is concave upwards in these intervals
so that f(x) is concave downwards in these intervals.
π 
* f ( 0 ) = 1, f   = 0, f ( 2π ) = 1 .
2
The graph has been plotted below for [0, 2π ]
Example – 40
Plot the graph of y = x + ln ( x − 1) .

2
Solution: * The Domain is given by

x2 − 1 > 0
⇒ D = » \ [ −1, 1]
* f ( x ) is continuous and differentiable on D
* lim y = −∞ ; lim− y = −∞
x →1+ x →−1
⇒ x = ±1 are vertical asymptotes to the curve.

Verify that the graph has no other asymptotes

LOCUS 70
2x
* y ' = 1+
x −1
2
y ' = 0 when x 2 + 2 x − 1 = 0
⇒ x = −1 ± 2
x = −1 + 2 does not belong to D;
x = −1 − 2 is an extremum point
2 ( x 2 + 1)
⇒ y" = − < 0 ∀x
(x − 1)
2 2
⇒ The curve is always concave downwards so that x = −1 − 2 is a point of local maximum.
* lim y = ∞ ; lim y = −∞
x →+∞ x →−∞
Based on this data, the graph can be plotted as shown below:

y
-1- 2
x
-1 0 1
Fig - 44

LOCUS 71
TRY YOURSELF - V
Q 1. Draw the following graphs

1
(a) y = x2 +
x2
x3
(b) y=
x −1
( x − 1)
2
(c) y=
( x + 1)
3
x
(d) y =
ex
(e) y = x2e− x

LOCUS 72
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example – 1
If g ( x ) = f ( x ) + f (1 − x ) and f " ( x ) < 0 for all x ∈ [0,1], prove that g(x) is increasing in [0, ½) and decreasing
in (½, 1].
Solution: Our requirement is to somehow show that g ' ( x ) > 0 ∀x ∈ [0,½) and g ' ( x ) < 0∀x ∈ (½,1] .
From the given functional relation between f(x) and g(x):
g ' ( x ) = f ' ( x ) − f ' (1 − x )
Therefore, we must show that:
f ' ( x ) > f ' (1 − x ) ∀x ∈ [0,½) ... (i)
and f ' ( x ) < f ' (1 − x ) ∀x ∈ (½,1] ... (ii)
Since f " ( x ) < 0 ∀x ∈ [0,1], f ' ( x ) is decreasing on [0, 1]. This means that if we take any x value in
[0, ½), (1– x) will be greater than x so that f ' (1 − x ) will be less than f ' ( x ) . In other words, (i) is
satisfied by virtue of the fact that f'(x) is decreasing.
On similar lines, when we assume any x value in (½, 1], we will see that (ii) is also satisfied for the
same reason (that f'(x) is decreasing).
⇒ g(x) satisfies the stated assertion
Example – 2
ln (π + x )
Let f ( x ) = . Prove that f(x) is decreasing on [0, ∞ )
ln (e + x )
ln ( e + x ) ln (π + x )
−
Solution: f '( x) = π + x e+ x
(ln (e + x ))
2
=
(e + x ) ln (e + x ) − (π + x ) ln (π + x )
(e + x )(π + x ) (ln (e + x ))
2
g (x)
=
h ( x) {This substitution was done for convenience}

LOCUS 73
To determine the sign of f ' ( x ) in [0, ∞ ) , we first note that h ( x ) > 0 ∀ x ∈ [0, ∞ ) , so that we need
to only worry about the sign of g(x). The form of g(x) suggests that we can construct a new function
G ( x ) = x ln x to determine the sign of g(x) as follows:
G ( x ) = x ln x
⇒ G ' ( x ) = 1 + ln x
1 
⇒ G ' ( x ) > 0 ∀x ∈  , ∞ 
e 
and G ' ( x ) < 0 ∀ x ∈  0, 

1
 e
1 
⇒ G ( x ) is increasing on  , ∞ 
e 
1 
⇒ x ln x increases on  , ∞ 
e 
since (π + x ) > ( e + x )
∀x ∈ [0, ∞ )  
⇒ (π + x ) ln (π + x ) > ( e + x ) ln ( e + x )  1 
> ∀x ∈ [0, ∞ ) 
 e 
⇒ g ( x) < 0 ∀ x ∈ [0, ∞ )
⇒ f '( x) < 0 ∀ x ∈ [0, ∞ )
⇒ f ( x ) is decreasing on [0, ∞ )
Example – 3
 3 b3 − b 2 + b − 1 
− x + 2 , 0 ≤ x < 1
Let f ( x ) =  b + 3b + 2  Find all possible real values of b such that f(x) has the smallest
 2 x − 3, 1 ≤ x ≤ 3 

value at x = 1.
Solution: Notice that f (1) = −1 (from the lower definition f(x))

Also, f(x) is monotonically decreasing on [0, 1) and monotonically increasing on [1, 3).

LOCUS 74
Therefore, all we require for f(x) to have its minimum at x = 1 is:

lim f ( x ) ≥ f (1) {i.e., the minimum of the left side function must not be less than f(1)}
x →1−
b3 − b 2 + b − 1
⇒ −1 + 2 ≥ −1
b + 3b + 2
b3 − b 2 + b − 1
⇒ ≥0
b2 + 3b + 2
(b − 1) (b 2 + 1)
⇒ ≥0
(b + 1)(b + 2 )
Upon solving, this yields:
b ∈ ( −2, −1) ∪ [1, ∞ )
Example – 4
Using the relation 2 (1 − cos x ) < x 2 , x ≠ 0 or otherwise, prove that sin ( tan x ) ≥ x for all x ∈ 0, π 4 
Solution: Notice that 'sin ( tan x ) ' and 'x' have equal values at x = 0. If we consider the function
f ( x ) = sin ( tan x ) − x
and try to show that it is increasing, we would obtain
f ( x ) > f (0 )
or sin ( tan x ) − x ≥ 0
Hence, our task could be accomplished by showing that f(x) is increasing.
f ' ( x ) = cos ( tan x ) sec2 x − 1
= cos ( tan x ) (1 + tan 2 x ) − 1
= tan 2 x cos ( tan x ) − (1 − cos ( tan x ))
tan 2 x ( 2 cos ( tan x ) − 1)

1
=
2
=
1
2
{
tan 2 x 2 (cos ( tan x ) − 1) + 1}
tan 2 x (1 − tan 2 x )
1
> (Again using the given inequality)
2

LOCUS 75
For x ∈ 0, π  , tan x ∈ [0,1] so that (1 − tan 2 x ) ≥ 0

 4
tan 2 x (1 − tan 2 x ) ≥ 0
1
⇒ f '(x) >
2
⇒ f '( x) > 0
⇒ f ( x ) is increasing on 0, π 4 
⇒ sin ( tan x ) ≥ x ∀x ∈ 0, π 

 4
Example – 5
(
Show that cos (sin x ) > sin ( cos x ) ∀ x ∈ 0, π 2 )
Solution: The approach we have followed in the previous questions could be applied here to prove that
f ( x ) = cos (sin x ) − sin ( cos x ) is increasing. However, f ' ( x ) becomes complicated and proving
that it is positive is not straightforward like in the previous cases (you are urged to try this out).
Instead of considering the expressions cos (sin x ) and sin ( cos x ) , we can consider
π 
sin  − sin x  and sin ( cos x ). This is because ‘sin’ is a monotonically increasing function in
2 
 π
 0,  , so that to determine the larger of the two values above, we just need to compare their
 2
π 
arguments, i.e,  − sin x  and cos x
2 
 π
For  0, 
 2
π
sin x + cos x <
2
because the maximum value of LHS is 2 while the RHS 1.57
π  π
⇒ cos x < − sin x ∀ x ∈  0, 
2  2
π   π
⇒ sin ( cos x ) < sin  − sin x  ∀ x ∈  0, 
2   2
⇒ sin ( cos x ) < cos (sin x )  π

∀ x ∈  0, 
 2

LOCUS 76
Example – 6
1
Find the values of a for which the function f ( x ) = sin x − a sin 2 x − sin 3 x + 2ax increases on .
3
Solution: We want f ' ( x ) ≥ 0 ∀x ∈ .
f ' ( x ) = cos x − 2a cos 2 x − cos 3x + 2a
= cos x − 2a ( 2 cos 2 x − 1) − ( 4 cos3 x − 3cos x ) + 2a
= 4 a + 4 cos x − 4 a cos 2 x − 4 cos 3 x

= 4 a sin 2 x + 4 cos x sin 2 x
= 4sin 2 x ( a + cos x )
This is always non-negative if a ≥ 1 (since the minimum value of cos x is –1).
Therefore, the required values of a are:
a ∈ [1, ∞ )
Example – 7
1
Determine the points of maxima and minima of the function f(x) = ln x − bx + x 2 , x > 0 where b ≥ 0 is a constant.
8
Solution: We need to evaluate the sign of f ' ( x ) in different intervals of x:

1
f '( x) = − b + 2x
8x
16 x 2 − 8bx + 1 g ( x )
= =
8x 8x
The denominator of f ' ( x ) is always positive since x > 0 . Hence, the sign of f ' ( x ) will depend on
the sign of the numerator g(x) in various intervals, which will in turn depend on b.
g ( x ) = 16 x 2 − 8bx + 1 ...(i)
D of g (x) = 64b2 – 64
= 64 (b2 – 1)
0 ≤ b <1 ⇒ D < 0
⇒ g ( x) > 0 ∀ x ∈
⇒ f '( x) > 0 ∀ x ∈
⇒ f ( x ) is strictly increasing ∀x ∈

LOCUS 77
b =1 ⇒ g ( x ) = 16 x 2 − 8 x + 1 (from (i))
= ( 4 x − 1)
2
( 4 x − 1)
2
⇒ f '( x) = ≥0
8x
1
⇒ f ' ( x ) = 0 for x =
4
⇒ f " ( x ) x = 1 = 0 and f "' ( x ) x = 1 = 16 ≠ 0 (verify)
4 4
1
⇒x= is point of inflexion
4
⇒ f ( x ) has no local maxima or minima
b >1 ⇒ D>0
b ± b2 − 1
⇒ g ( x ) (and f ' ( x )) has roots
4
b − b2 −1 b + b2 −
⇒ f ' ( x ) > 0 if x < or x >
4 4
b − b2 − 1 b + b2 − 1
and f ' ( x ) < 0 if < x<
4 4
b − b2 − 1
⇒ f ' ( x ) changes sign from +ve to –ve in the neighbourhood of x = and
4
b + b2 − 1
from –ve to +ve in the neighbourhood of x =
4
b − b2 − 1
⇒x= is a local maximum for f(x) and
4
b + b2 − 1
x= is a local minimum for f(x)
4

LOCUS 78
Example – 8
For what values of the parameter a does the function f ( x ) = x 3 + 3 ( a − 7 ) x 2 + 3 ( a 2 − 9 ) x − 1 have a positive
point of maximum?
Solution: f ' ( x ) = 3x 2 + 6 ( a − 7 ) x + 3 ( a 2 − 9 )
For f ( x ) to have a maximum at some point,
f ' ( x ) = 0 and f " ( x ) < 0 for that point
Now, f '( x) = 0
⇒ 3x 2 + 6 (a − 7 ) x + 3 (a 2 − 9 ) = 0
⇒ x2 + 2 (a − 7 ) x + (a2 − 9) = 0
⇒ x = − ( a − 7 ) ± 58 − 14a ... (i)
For f'(x) to have real roots,

58 – 14a > 0
29
⇒a< ... (ii)
7
Now we determine which of the roots of f ' ( x ) in (i) will give a local maximum and which will give a
local minimum.
f "( x ) = 6 x + 6 (a − 7 )
= 6 ( x + a − 7)
At x1 = − ( a − 7 ) + 58 − 14a ⇒ f " ( x ) = 6 58 − 14a > 0
At x2 = − ( a − 7 ) − 58 − 14a ⇒ f " ( x ) = −6 58 − 14a < 0
Therefore, x = x2 is a point of local maximum. Since we want this to be positive.

− ( a − 7 ) − 58 − 14a > 0
⇒ 7 − a > 58 − 14a
Upon squaring, we get
a2 − 9 > 0
⇒ a < −3 or a > 3 ... (iii)
From (ii) and (iii),
29
a < −3 or 3 < a <
7
LOCUS 79
Example – 9
x2 y2
Prove that the minimum intercept made by the axes on any tangent to the ellipse + = 1 is (a + b). Also, find
a2 b2
the ratio in which the point of contact divides the intercept.
Solution: We can assume a variable point on the ellipse as P ( a cos θ , b sin θ ) . We will first write down the
equation of the tangent to the ellipse at this point and then find the length of the intercept of tangent
between the axes in terms of θ . The length can then be minimized with respect to θ .
y
l
A
(a cos θ, b sin θ)
P
x
0 B
Fig - 45
Differentiating the equation of the ellipse, we get:

2 x 2 y dy
+ =0
a 2 b 2 dx
dy x b2
⇒ =− ⋅ 2
dx y a
dy −b
⇒ = cot θ
dx (a cosθ ,b sin θ ) a
−b
Equation of tangent: y − b sin θ = cot θ ( x − a cos θ )
a
⇒ bx cos θ + ay sin θ = ab
x–intercept: Put y = 0
⇒ x = a sec θ
y-intercept: Put x = 0
⇒ y = b cosec θ

LOCUS 80
Length of tangent
intercepted by the axes: l 2 = a 2 sec 2 θ + b 2 cosec2 θ
d (l 2 ) d 2 (l 2 )
For minimum l , = 0 and >0
dθ dθ 2
d (l 2 )
= 2a 2 sec2 θ tan θ − 2b 2 cosec2 θ cot θ
dθ
This is 0 when:
2 a 2 sec 2 θ tan θ = 2b 2 cosec2 θ cot θ
b2
⇒ tan 4 θ = 2
a
b
⇒ tan θ = ±
a
d 2 (l 2 ) d 2 (l 2 )
Verify that > 0 (In fact, is always positive)
dθ 2  b
dθ 2
θ = tan −1  ± 
 a 
2
For minimum intercept: lmin = a 2 sec 2 θ + b 2 cosec2 θ b
tan θ =±
a
{
= a 2 (1 + tan 2 θ ) + b 2 (1 + cot 2 θ ) } tan θ =±
b
a
= a 2 + b 2 + 2ab
= ( a + b) 2
⇒ lmin = (a + b )
Referring to Fig - 45 for minimum intercept:

PQ 2 = ( a cos θ − a secθ ) + (b sin θ )
2 2
sin 4 θ
= a2 + b 2 sin 2 θ
cos 2 θ
= sin 2 θ ( a 2 tan 2 θ + b 2 )
b  2 b 2
 b
=
a × +b  ∵ tan θ = ± 
a+b a   a 
= b2
⇒ PQ = b
⇒ PR = a (since QR = a + b)
PQ b
⇒ =
PR a
The minimum length intercept is divided in the ratio b : a at the point of contact.
LOCUS 81
Example – 10
The circle x 2 + y 2 = 1 cuts the x-axis at P and Q. Another circle with centre at Q and variable radius intersects the
first circle at R above the x-axis and the line segment PQ at S. Find the maximum area of ∆QSR.
Solution: The situation described in the question has been translated into the diagram below; observe it carefully:
y
x
P S X Q
Fig - 46
The variable here is the radius of the circle centred at Q; let it be r. We need to express the area A of
∆ QSR. in terms of r. Observe ∆ QSR carefully in the diagram. QR and QS are known (both are
equal to r). We need to find RX (the height) in terms of R. We can do this by finding the co-ordinates
of R:
x2 + y2 = 1
( x − 1) + y2 = r 2
2
{circle centred at Q}
Solving these two equations, the co-ordinates of R turn out to be:
 r2 r 4 − r2 
1 − , 
 2 2 
 
Therefore,
r 4 − r2
RX =
2
1
⇒ A = × QS × RX
2
1 2
= r 4 − r2
4

LOCUS 82
For maximum area,

dA d2A
= 0 and <0
dr dr 2
dA 1  r3 
=  2r 4 − r 2 − 
dr 4  4 − r2 
8r − 3r 3
=
4 4 − r2
This is 0 when
8r − 3r 3 = 0
8
⇒r =
3
d2A
Verify that <0
dr 2 r = 8
3
8
Therefore, rmax = is a local maximum for A.
3
1 2
Amax = r 4 − r2
4 r = rmax
4 3
=
9
Example – 11
x2 y 2
P is a point on the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 whose centre is O and N is the foot of the perpendicular from O upon
a b
the tangent at P. Find the maximum area of ∆OPN .
Solution: Let P have the co-ordinates ( a cos θ , b sin θ )
dy −b
= cot θ (refer to Ex - 9)
dx P a

LOCUS 83
Equation of tangent: bx cos θ + ay sin θ = ab (Ex – 9 again)
N
P
x
0
Fig - 47
The distance of this tangent from the origin 0 is:

ab
ON =
a sin θ + b 2 cos 2 θ
2 2
To evaluate the area A of ∆OPN , we need PN apart from ON:

PN 2 = OP 2 − ON 2
= ( a 2 cos 2 θ + b 2 sin 2 θ ) −
a 2b 2
a 2 sin 2 θ + b 2 cos 2 θ
=
(a 4
+ b 4 ) sin 2 θ cos 2 θ + a 2b 2 (sin 4 θ + cos 4 θ ) − a 2b 2
=
(a 4
+ b 4 − 2a 2b 2 ) sin 2 θ cos 2 θ
⇒ PN =
(a 2
− b 2 ) sin θ cos θ
1
⇒ A = × PN × ON
2
ab ( a 2 − b 2 ) sin θ cos θ
=
2 ( a 2 sin 2 θ + b 2 cos 2 θ )
ab ( a 2 − b 2 )
=
2 ( a 2 tan θ + b 2 cot θ )
... (i)
For A to be maximum, the denominator in (i) should be minimum i.e. we can minize:
D (θ ) = a 2 tan θ + b 2 cot θ

LOCUS 84
For D (θ ) to be minimum:
d ( D (θ )) d 2 ( D (θ ))
= 0 and >0
dθ dθ 2
d ( D (θ ))
⇒ = a 2 sec 2 θ − b 2 cosec2 θ = 0
dθ
b
⇒ tan θ = ±
a
d 2 ( D (θ ))
Verify that >0
dθ 2 b
tan θ =
a
b
⇒ D (θ ) has a local minimum at tan θ =
a
⇒ Dmin (θ ) = a 2 tan θ + b 2 cot θ b = 2ab
tan θ =
a
ab ( a 2 − b 2 ) a 2 − b2
⇒ Amax = =
2 Dmin 4
Example – 12
−π π
< x < . Find the interval in which λ should lie in order that f ( x ) has
Let f ( x ) = sin 3 x + λ sin 2 x for
2 2
exactly one minimum and one maximum.
Solution: We have to equivalently find those values of λ for which f ' ( x ) has two roots; f " ( x ) should be
positive for one root and negative for the other.
f ' ( x ) = 3sin 2 x cos x + 2λ sin x cos x
 3 
= sin 2 x  λ + sin x 
 2 
 −π π 
For x ∈  ,  , f ' ( x ) is 0 when:
 2 2
 − 2λ 
x = 0, sin −1  
 3 
 −2λ 
Note that if λ = 0, sin −1   = 0 so that the two roots of f ' ( x ) will no longer remain distinct
 3 

LOCUS 85
and f ( x ) will not have two extremum points as required. Hence, λ should not be 0.
 −2π 
For sin −1   to be defined:
 3 
−2λ
−1 < <1
3
−3 3
<λ <
2 2
 −3 3 
Therefore, λ ∈  ,  \ {0}
 2 2
To verify that f ( x ) will satisfy the required condition for these values of λ , let us evaluate f " ( x ) :
3
f "( x ) = cos x sin 2 x + (3sin x + 2λ ) cos 2 x
2
  − 2λ   3
⇒ f " ( 0 ) = 2λ and f "  sin −1    = cos x sin 2 x
  3  2  −2 λ 
sin −1  
 3 
The second term in f " 
 
becomes 0 at this poin 
 −3 
Now, if λ ∈  , 0 
 2 
⇒ f " (0 ) < 0
  −3  −2λ 
  −2λ    This is because forλ ∈  2 , 0  , 3 ∈ (0,1) 
f "  sin −1     
and  > 0  
  3  −1  −2λ   π
 so that sin   ∈  0,  
  3   2 
On the other hand, if λ ∈ 0, 3 ( 2 )

⇒ f " (0 ) > 0
  −2λ  
(
 As above, this is because for λ ∈ 0, 3
 2
and f "  sin −1    < 0  −2λ −1  −2λ   −π
 3 ∈ ( −1, 0 ) so that sin  3  ∈  2
  3 
   
 2λ 
We see that for the specified values of λ , either of 0 or sin −1   is a local maximum and the other
 3 
is a local minimum
The required values of λ are therefore:
 −3 3 
λ ∈  ,  \ {0}
 2 2

LOCUS 86
Example – 13
The lower corner of a page in a book is folded over so as to reach the inner edge of the page. Find the fraction
of the width folded over so that the area of the folded part is minimum.
Solution: The crucial part of this question is how to analytically express the area of the folded part from the
geometry of the folded page that we have drawn below:
B
The width of the page has
been assumed to be d units.
Observe carefully how the
C
angles were written in terms
of ∠ BAD = θ
x
θ
θ π-2θ
D A E
x d-x
d
Fig - 48
From the figure,
In ∆CAE :
d−x d
cos (π − 2θ ) = = −1
x x
d
⇒ = 1 + cos (π − 2θ ) = 1 − cos 2θ = 2sin 2 θ
x
d
⇒x= cosec2 θ
2
Also, in ∆BAD :
d
BD = x tan θ = tan θ cosec2 θ
2
Now, the area of the folded part A is:
A = area ( ∆BAC ) = area (∆BAD)
1
= × AD × BD
2
d2
= cosec4 θ tan θ
8
d2
= cosec3 θ secθ
8
LOCUS 87
dA d2A
For, minimum area, = 0 and >0
dθ dθ 2
dA d 2
= {cosec3 θ secθ tan θ – 3cosec3 θ cot θ sec θ }
dθ 8
d2
= cosec3 θ sec θ (tan θ –3cot θ )
8
This is 0 when tan θ = 3cot θ
⇒ tan 2 θ = 3
⇒ tan θ = 3 (the physically possible case)
⇒θ =π
3
d2A
Verify that >0
dθ 2 θ =π / 3
⇒θ =π is a point of local minimum for A

3
d d 4 2d
⇒ xmin = cosec2 θ θ =π = × =
2 3 2 3 3
⇒ Fraction of the width folded over for minimum area is
x 2
f min = min =
d 3
Example – 14
For the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 , find the value of r for which the area a enclosed by the tangents drawn from the point
P(6, 8) to the circle and the chord of contact is maximum.
Solution: From the figure drawn corresponding to the situation described in the question, observe that there will
be a particular value of r for which the required area is maximum, this is because as r → 0 or as
r → 10 (the distance of P from the origin), the required area → 0 . Hence, for some value of r
between 0 and 10, the area will attain its maximum value.
y
P (6, 8)
θ
R
r T
x
0 θ
Q
Fig - 49

LOCUS 88
We need to express area of ∆PQR in terms of some variable. As shown in the figure, assume
∆OPQ = θ . Therefore. ∠OQR = ∠OPQ = θ . From the geometry of the figure, observe how the
area is obtained in the following manner
OP = 10
OT = OQ sin θ = r sin θ
⇒ PT = (10 – r sin θ )
QT = r cos θ
⇒ RQ = 2 r cos θ
Also, in ∆OPQ,
OQ = r = 10 sin θ
The required area of ∆PQR,
1
A= × RQ × PT
2
1
= × 2r cos θ × (10 − r sin θ )
2
= 10sin θ cos θ × (10 − 10sin θ )
2
= 100sin θ cos3 θ
We have been able to express the area A in terms of θ .
dA d2A
For maximum area, = 0 and <0
dθ dθ 2
= 100 {−3cos 2 θ sin 2 θ + cos 4 θ }
dA
dθ
= 100 cos θ {cos θ − 3sin θ }
2 2 2
This is 0 when cos 2 θ − 3sin 2 θ = 0

1
⇒ tan 2 θ =
3
1
⇒ tan θ =
3
π
⇒θ =
6
d2A
Verify that <0
dθ 2 θ =π / 6
⇒ θ = π / 6 is a point of local maximum for A.
⇒ rmax = 10sin θmax
= 10sin π / 6
=5
LOCUS 89
Example – 15
 c2   c2 
Show that the normal to xy = c at A  t1 ,  meets the curve again at the point B  t2 ,  if t13t2 = −c 4
2
 t1   t2 
Solution: What we are required to do here is write the equation of the normal to the curve at A, find the other
intersection point B of this normal with the curve, and show that the co-ordinates of A and B satisfy the
given condition.
Differentiating the equation of the given curve, we get
dy
x +y=0
dx
dy − y
⇒ =
dx x
dy −c 2
⇒ =
dx  t1 , c12  t12
 t1 

Equation of normal at A:
c 2 t12
y− = ( x − t1 )
t1 c 2
Since this normal meets the curve again at B, the assumed co-ordinates of B must satisfy the equation
of this normal.
c 2 c 2 t12
⇒ − = (t2 − t1 )
t2 t1 c 2
(t1 − t2 ) = t12
⇒ c2 (t2 − t1 )
t1t2 c2
⇒ t13t2 = −c 4
Example – 16
x2 y 2
Find the condition that the line x cos α + y sin α = p may touch the curve + =1
a 2 b2
Solution: The approach we can follow for our purpose here is to first write down the equation of a general
tangent to the ellipse at a general variable point ( a cos θ , b sin θ ) and then make the equation of this
tangent identical to the equation of the given line. We can then eliminate θ to get some condition on p
and α .

LOCUS 90
We wrote the equation of the required general tangent on an ellipse in example 9.

bx cos θ + ay sin θ = ab
This is identical to x cos α + y sin α = p for some θ . Therefore:
b cos θ a sin θ ab
= =
cos α sin α p
a cos α b sin α
⇒ cos θ = and sin θ =
p p
a 2 cos 2 α b2 sin 2 α
⇒ cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = + =1
p2 p2
Therefore, the required condition is:
a 2 cos 2 α + b 2 sin 2 α = p 2
Example – 17
If f ' (sin x ) < 0 and f " (sin x ) > 0 ∀x ∈ , then find the intervals of monotonicity of the function
g ( x ) = f (sin x ) + f ( cos x ) , x ∈ [0, π / 2].
Solution: To obtain the intervals of monotonicity of g(x), we need to analyse g'(x).

g ' ( x ) = f ' (sin x ) cos x − f ' (cos x ) sin x
This is 0 when
f ' (sin x ) cos x = f ' ( cos x ) sin x
 π  π 
⇒ f ' (sin x ) cos x = f '  sin  − x   cos  − x 
 2  2 
One of the possible roots of this equation is given by:
π
x= −x
2
π
⇒x=
4
Now, we analyze g''(x):
g " ( x ) = f " (sin x ) cos 2 x + f " ( cos x ) sin 2 x − { f ' (sin x ) sin x + f ' ( cos x ) cos x} ...(i)
It is given that f ' (sin x ) < 0 ∀x ∈

 π 
⇒ f ' ( cos x ) < 0 ∀x ∈ ∵ cos x = sin  − x  
 2 
Similarly,
f " (sin x ) > 0 ∀x ∈
⇒ f " ( cos x ) > 0 ∀x ∈ {same reason as above}

LOCUS 91
From (i), observe carefully that these two conditions above imply:
g " ( x ) > 0 ∀x ∈
Since g''(x) is always positive, the graph for g(x) is a concave upwards curve, so that g(x) has only
one extremum point (a minimum) which we deduced as x = π 4 .
Therefore:
( )
g(x) decreases on 0, π 4
g(x) increases on (π 4 , π 2 )
x =π
4 is a minimum for g(x).
Example – 18
If f(x) and g(x) are differentiable functions for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 such that f (0 ) = 2, g (0 ) = 0, f (1) = 6 and g (1) = 2,
then show that there exists c ∈ ( 0,1) such that f ' ( c ) = 2 g ' (c ) .
Solution: The nature of the proof required hints that we have to use one of the Mean Value Theorems. We
construct a new function for this purpose:
h ( x ) = f ( x ) − 2g ( x )
Now,
h ( 0 ) = f ( 0 ) − 2 g (0 ) = 2
and h (1) = f (1) − 2 g (1) = 2
Also, since f(x) and g(x) are differentiable on [0, 1], h (x) must also be differentiable on [0, 1].
Therefore, Rolle’s theorem can be applied on h(x) for the interval [0, 1]:
There exists c ∈ [0,1] such that
h ' (c ) = 0
⇒ f ' ( c ) − 2 g ' ( c ) = 0 for some c ∈ [0, 1]
⇒ f ' ( c ) = 2 g ' ( c ) for some c ∈ [0, 1]

LOCUS 92
Example – 19
If f(x) is a twice differentiable function such that f(a) = 0, f (b ) = 2, f ( c ) = −1, f ( d ) = 2 , f ( e ) = 0 where
a < b < c < d < e, then find the minimum number of zeroes of g ( x ) = { f ' ( x )} + f ' ( x ) f " ( x ) in the interval
2
[a, e]
Solution: Notice that g(x) can be written simply as:
{ f ' ( x ) f ( x )}
d
g (x) =
dx
We let f ( x ) f ' ( x ) be represented by h(x).
Therefore,
{h ( x )}
d
g (x) =
dx
Suppose that h(x) has n roots. Let rk and rk+1 represented two successive roots of h(x). For the
interval [rk , rk +1 ] , we can apply Rolle’s theorem on h(x) so that:
There exists c ∈ [rk , rk +1 ] for which h ' ( c ) = 0

⇒ A zero of h'(x) will lie in [rk , rk +1 ]
⇒ A zero of h'(x) will lie between successive zeroes of h(x) {This is intuitively obvious}
⇒ h ' ( x ) has n–1 zeroes
Now we first find the number of roots of h ( x ) = 0 or f ( x ) f ' ( x ) = 0
i.e f ( x ) = 0 or f ' ( x ) = 0
From the given data on f(x), it must have at least 4 zeroes (at a, between b and c, between c and d
and at e)
⇒ f ' ( x ) must have at least 3 zeroes (one between every pair of successive zeroes of
f(x))
⇒ f ( x ) f ' ( x ) or h (x) must have minimum 7 zeroes
⇒ h ' ( x ) must have minimum 6 zeroes
Example – 20
If a, b, c ∈ » and a + b + c = 0, show that the equation 3ax 2 + 2bx + c = 0 has at least one root in [0, 1]

LOCUS 93
Solution: Notice that the expression 3ax 2 + 2bx + c can be obtained from the differentiation of
f ( x ) = ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d where d is an arbitrary constant.
We will now try to use f(x) to prove the stated assertion. Since the question mentions the interval
[0, 1], we should first find out f(0) and f(1):
f (0 ) = d
f (1) = a + b + c + d = d (since a + b + c = 0)
Also, since f(x) is a polynomial function, it is differentiable and hence Rolle’s theorem can be applied
to it for the interval [0, 1]:
There exists at least one p ∈ [0, 1] such that f ' ( p ) = 0
i.e 3ax 2 + 2bx + c = 0 for at least one p ∈ [0,1]
⇒ 3ax 2 + 2bx + c = 0 has at least one root in [0, 1]
Example – 21
A pole l feet long is to be carried horizontally from one corridor to another corridor perpendicular to each other.
If the first corridor is ‘d’ meters wide, find the minimum required width of the other corridor.
Solution: The situation described in the question is depicted in the sequence figure below, as the pole is being
moved from one corridor to the other.
d l
d l
(a) (b)
d
d
l l
(c) d (d)
(e) Fig - 50
LOCUS 94
Let the width of the second corridor be w. Convince yourself that if w is below a particular value (if the
second corridor is too narrow), the pole will never be able to be moved into the second corridor.
Now, consider the case when w has a value such that the pole is just able to move into the second
corridor. This situation is depicted in the figure above. Observe (and visualise in your mind) carefully
that an instant will come when the ends of the pole touch the walls of both the corridors and the pole
touches the corner (turning). This is depicted in Fig - 50 part (c) and reproduced below in more detail:
Q
d
l θ
R T
θ P & Q denote the end

S points of the pole
P
w
Fig - 51
For the entire movement of the rod from one corridor to the other (while all the time touching the point
R), the instant depicted above will be the one when the horizontal component of PR, i.e PS, will be
maximum. Before and after this instant, PS will have a lower value. Therefore, the width w must be at
least greater than the maximum value of PS; only then will the pole pass:
wmin = PSmax
Therefore, our aim is to find PSmax.
From the geometry of the figure, we can write:

d cosecθ + ( PS ) sec θ = l
− d cosec θ
⇒ PS = = cos θ − d cot θ
sec θ
d ( PS ) d 2 ( PS )
For maximum PS, = 0 and <0
dθ dθ 2
d ( PS )
= − sin θ + d cosec 2θ
dθ
This is 0 when
sin θ = d cosec 2θ
1/ 3
d 
⇒ sin θ =  

d 2 ( PS )
Verify that <0
dθ 2 θ =sin −1  d 1/ 3
 


LOCUS 95
1/ 3
a
⇒ sin θ =   is a point of maximum for PS

⇒ PS max = cos θ − d cot θ θ =sin −1  d 1/ 3
 

= ( 2 / 3 − d 2 / 3 )
3/ 2
⇒ wmin = ( 2 / 3 − d 2 / 3 )
3/ 2
Example – 22
If α , β and γ are the roots of x3 + x 2 − 5 x − 1 = 0, find the value of [α ] + [β ] + [γ ].
Solution: It is obvious that the required value can be found out if for each root we can find out the two (successive)
integers between which that root lies. For example, if α lies between I and I +1, then [ α ] = I and so
on.
Let f ( x ) = x3 + x 2 − 5 x − 1
⇒ f ' ( x ) = 3x2 + 2 x − 5
= ( x − 1)(3x + 5)
(
⇒ f ' ( x ) > 0 for x ∈ −∞, − 5
3 ) ∪ (1, ∞ ) and f ' ( x ) < 0 for x ∈ (− 5 3 ,1)
 −5   −5 
⇒ f ( x ) increases in  −∞,  , decreases in  ,1 and again increases in (1, ∞ ) .
 3   3 
 −5  128
Also f   ≡ and f (1) = −4. Additionally, f(0) = – 1
 3  27
y
128
127
1
x
-5 -1
3
-4
Fig - 52
The approximate graph for f(x) is drawn above.

LOCUS 96
We see that the three roots of f(x) lie not far from the origin and their approximate location can be
found out by evaluating f(x) for different integers close to 0.
f ( 0 ) = 0 + 0 − 0 − 1 = −1 < 0
f (1) = 1 + 1 − 5 − 1 = −4 < 0  One root α lies between1 and 2


f ( 2 ) = 8 + 4 − 10 − 1 = 1 > 0  ⇒ [α ] = 1
One root β lies between 0 and − 1

f ( −1) = −1 + 1 + 5 − 1 = 4 > 0}
⇒ [ β ] = −1
f ( −2 ) = −8 + 4 + 10 − 1 = 5 > 0  One root γ lies between − 2 and − 3


f ( −3) = −27 + 9 + 15 − 1 = −4 < 0  ⇒ [γ ] = −3
⇒ [α ] + [ β ] + [γ ] = −3
Example – 23
The function y = f ( x ) is represented parametrically as:
x = g (t ) = t 5 − 5t 3 − 20t + 7
( −2 < t < 2 )
y = h (t ) = 4t 3 − 3t 2 − 18t + 3
Find the extrema points of this function.
dy
Solution: We need to employ parametric differentiation here to determine the points where = 0:
dx
dx
g ' (t ) = = 5t 4 − 15t 2 − 20
dt
= 5 (t 4 − 3t 2 − 4 )
= 5 (t 2 − 4 )(t 2 + 1)
For t ∈ ( −2, 2 ) , t 2 − 4 < 0 so that g ' (t ) < 0 ∀t ∈ ( −2, 2 ) , g ' (t ) ≠ 0 for any t in ( −2, 2 )
dy
h ' (t ) = = 12t 2 − 6t − 18
dt
= 6 ( 2t 2 − t − 3)
= 6 ( 2t − 3)(t + 1)
h ' (t ) = 0 when t = −1, 3 / 2

LOCUS 97
dy h ' (t )
⇒ = = 0 when t = −1, 3 / 2
dx g ' (t )
d 2 y g ' (t ) h " ( t ) − h ' ( t ) g " (t )

Now, =
( g ' (t ))
3
dx 2
h " (t )
= (h ' (t ) = 0 for t = −1,3 / 2 )
( g ' ( t ))
2
t =−1, 3
2
h " (t ) t =−1 = 24t − 6 t =−1 = −30 < 0
h " (t ) t =3/ 2 = 24t − 6 t =3/ 2 = 30 > 0
d2y d2y
⇒ 2 < 0 and 2 >0
dx t =−1 dx t =3/ 2
⇒ t = −1 is a maximum and t = 3/2 is a minimum for y = f(x)
Example – 24
x3 x3
Prove the following inequality: x − < tan −1 x < x − ∀x ∈ ( 0, 1]
3 6
 x3 
Solution: Consider f ( x ) = tan −1 x −  x − 
 3
3
x
= tan −1 x − x +
3
1
⇒ f '(x) = −1 + x2
1+ x 2
x4
= > 0 ∀x ∈ ( 0, 1]
1 + x2
⇒ f ( x ) is increasing on (0, 1]
⇒ f ( x ) > f ( 0 ) ∀x ∈ (0, 1]
Since f(0) = 0
x3
⇒ tan −1 x > x − ∀x ∈ (0, 1]
3
The right hand side inequality can analogously be proved.

LOCUS 98
Example – 25
Plot the graphs of the following functions:

3x
(a) f ( x ) = 2sin x + cos 2 x (b) f ( x ) = 3 x +
x −1
3x  1 
(c) f ( x ) =
1
ln  e −  (d) f ( x ) = 1 + x 2 sin
2  3x  x
(e) f ( x ) =
2 x3
(f) f ( x ) =
( x + 1)
x2 − 4 ( x − 1)( x − 7 )
(h) f ( x ) = x ln x
x
(g) f ( x ) =
ln x
Solution: (a) Observe that f(x) is periodic with period 2π . Therefore, we can analyse f(x) only for the interval
[0, 2π ], and by virtue of its periodicity, this analysis will remain applicable in all intervals of the
form  2nπ , ( 2n + 1)π  , n ∈ .
Now,
f ' ( x ) = 2cos x − 2sin 2 x
= 2 cos x (1 − 2sin x )
This is 0 when
cos x = 0 or 1 − 2 sin x = 0
π 3π π 5π
⇒x= , or x = ,
2 2 6 6
Therefore, we have 4 extremum points, namely
π π 5π 3π
x= , , ,
6 2 6 2
We now evaluate f " ( x ) at each of these points.
f " ( x ) = −2sin x − 4cos 2 x
π  1 1
f "   = −2 × − 4 × = −3 < 0
6 2 2
π π  3
⇒x= is a point of local maximum; f   =
6 6 2
π 
f "   = −2 × 1 − 4 × ( −1) = 2 > 0
2
⇒ x =π π 
2 is a point of local minimum; f  2  = 1

LOCUS 99
 5π  1 1
f "  = −2 × − 4 = −3 < 0
 6  2 2
5π 5π  3
⇒x= is a point of local maximum; f  =
6  6  2
 3π 
f "  = ( −2 × −1) − 4 × ( −1) = 6 > 0
 2 
3π  3π 
⇒x= is a point of local minimum; f   = −3
2  2 
Additionally, f(0) = 1 and f ( 2π ) = 1
The graph is obtained by plotting these points and joining them by a smooth curve; and finally
replicating this graph periodically:
y
1.5
-π 1 3π
2 2 x
0 π π 5π 2π
6 2 6
-3
Fig - 53
(b) Notice that lim− f ( x ) = −∞ and lim f ( x ) = +∞

x →1 x →1+
⇒ x = 1 is an asymptote for the given curve.

3 ( x − 1) − 3 x
Now, f '( x) = 3 +
( x − 1)
2
3
= 3−
( x − 1)
2
3 ( x2 − 2 x )
=
( x − 1)
2
This is 0 when x = 0, 2
Therefore, there are two extremum points.

f ( 0 ) = 0 and f ( 2 ) = 12

LOCUS 100
We need not determine f " ( x ) here; we just observe that there is another asymptote to this
curve. This is how it can be determined:
y  3 
lim = lim  3 + =3
x →±∞ x x →±∞
 x −1 
 3x 
Also, lim ( y − 3 x ) = lim  =3
x →±∞ x − 1
x →±∞
 
Therefore, y − 3 x = 3 is another asymptote to the curve.
We now simply draw the two asymptotes (and deduce that x = 2 must be a minimum point and
x = 0 must be a maximum point)
The graph is drawn below; observe the details carefully:
y
-1 0 1 x
2
Fig - 54
(c) The domain of the this function is given by:

1
e− >0
3x
1
⇒ x < 0 or x >
3e
1
Since lim+ f ( x ) = −∞, x = is an asymptote to the given curve.
x→
1 3e
Also, lim− f ( x ) = 0
3e
x →0
y 3  1  3 3
Now, lim = lim  ln  e −   = ln e =
x →±∞ x x →±∞  2  3 x   2 2
 3x  3   1  
lim  y −  = lim x  ln  e −  − 1
x →±∞
 2  2 x →±∞   3x  
−1
= (verify)
2e
LOCUS 101
3x 1
⇒y= − is another asymptote to the curve.
2 2e
We now simply draw the two asymptotes from which the graphs easily follows.
(notice that we did not even evaluate f'(x); why?).
y
x
0 1
3e
1
- 2e
Fig - 55
(d) As we have seen previously, y = 1 + x 2 will act as an envelope for the given f(x). Around the
origin, the oscillations will be extremely fast and will “spread out” away from the origin
Now,
 1
lim f ( x ) = lim  1 + x 2 sin 
x →∞ x →∞
 x
   1  
 1 + x2  sin  x   
= lim  ⋅    
x →∞  x  1 
  x  

=1
⇒ y = 1 is an asymptote to the curve.
Similarly, lim f ( x ) = −1
x →−∞
⇒ y = −1 is also an asymptote to the curve.

The roots of f(x) = 0 are given by:
1 1
= nπ ; n ∈ ⇒ x = ; n∈
x nπ

LOCUS 102
This information is now sufficient do draw the graph of f(x)

y
1
-2 1 2
π π π
-1
Fig - 56
(e) The domain of the given function is
D = \ {−2, 2}
⇒ x = −2 and x = 2 are asymptotes to the curve.
Now we evaluate the essentials limits of f(x):
lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim f ( x ) = −∞
x →∞ x →−∞
lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim− f ( x ) = −∞

x → 2+ x →2
lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim− f ( x ) = −∞

x →−2+ x →−2
lim f ( x ) = 0 and f ( 0 ) = 0
x →0
 y  2 x2 
lim   = lim  2 =2
  x →±∞  x − 4 
x →±∞ x
 8x 
and lim ( y − 2 x ) = lim  2 =0
x →±∞ x − 4
x →±∞
 
⇒ y = 2 x is another asymptote to the curve.
2 x 2 ( x 2 − 12 )
Finally, f '( x) =
(x − 4)
2 2

LOCUS 103
This is 0 when x = 0, ±2 3
While drawing the graph, it becomes obvious that x = 2 3 is a local minimum point while
x = −2 3 is a local maximum point. The only additional observation we need to make is that
f " ( 0 ) = 0 so that x = 0 is neither a local maximum nor a local minimum but a point of inflexion:
y
y
-2 0 2
Fig - 57
(f) The domain of the given function is » \ {1, 7} .

⇒ x = 1, x = 7 will be asymptotes to the curve.
lim f ( x ) = +∞ and lim− f ( x ) = −∞
x →7 + x →7
lim f ( x ) = −∞ and lim− f ( x ) = +∞

x →1+ x →1
Also,
lim f ( x ) = 0
x →±∞
Observe that f(x) has a zero at x = –1.

Also,
f ( x ) > 0 for x ∈ ( −1, 1) ∪ ( 7, ∞ ) and f ( x ) < 0 for x ∈ ( −∞, − 1) ∪ (1, 7 )
Now, f ' ( x ) =
(x 2
− 8 x + 7 ) − ( 2 x − 8)( x + 1)
{( x − 1)( x − 7 )}
2
=−
( x + 5 )( x − 3)
( x − 1) ( x − 7 )
2 2

LOCUS 104
⇒ f ' ( x ) > 0 ∀ x ∈ ( −5, 1) ∪ (1,3)

or f(x) increases in these intervals
⇒ f ' ( x ) < 0 ∀ x ∈ ( −∞, −5 ) ∪ (3, 7 ) ∪ ( 7, ∞ )
or f ( x ) decreases in these intervals.
−1 −1 1
⇒ f ( −5 ) = , f (3 ) = , f ( 0 ) = 
18 2 7
We now have sufficient information to plot the graph accurately:
(g) The domain of the given function will be ( 0, ∞ ) \ {1 }

x x
lim+ = +∞, lim− = −∞
x →1 ln x x →1 ln x
⇒ x = 1 will be an asymptote to the given curve.

x 1
Also, lim = lim (L.H rule)
x →∞ ln x x →∞ 1/ x
x
lim =0
x →0 ln x
ln x − 1
Now, f '( x) =
(ln x )
2
This is 0 when x = e
⇒ f ' ( x ) > 0 for x > e or f ( x ) increases on ( e, ∞ )
⇒ f ' ( x ) < 0 for x < e or f ( x ) decreases on ( 0, e ) \ {1 }
f (e ) = e

LOCUS 105
The graph, based on this information, is drawn below.

y
1
x
1 e
Fig - 59
(h) The domain of the given function is (0, ∞ )

Now, lim x ln x = 0 (we evaluated this in the unit on limits)
x →0
lim x ln x = ∞
x →∞
f ' ( x ) = 1 + ln = x
1
This is 0 if x =
e
 1
⇒ f ( x ) decreases when 1 + ln x < 0 or x ∈  0, 
 e
1 
and f ( x ) increases when 1 + ln x > 0 or x ∈  , ∞ 
e 
 1  −1
f  =
e e
Also, f ( x ) = 0 at x = 1
The graph is drawn below based on these calculations:
y
1/e
x
0 1
-1/e
Fig - 60

LOCUS 106
EXERCISE
Q 1. Prove the following inequalities:

1
(i) 2 x > 3 − for x > 1 (ii) e x > 1 + x ( x ≠ 0 )
x
2 ( x − 1)
(iii) x > ln (1 + x ) (iv) ln x > for x > 1
x +1
(v) 2 x tan x ≥ ln (1 + x )
−1 2
(
(vi) 1 + x ln x + 1 + x 2 ≥ 1 + x 2)
tan −1 x x3 x5
(vii) ln (1 + x ) > for x > 0 (viii) sin x < x − + for x > 0
1+ x 6 120
Q 2. Plot the graphs of the following functions by completely analysing their corresponding equations (as done
in class; this means that you have to analyse their limits at different points as well as their first and second
derivatives in different intervals):
1 x
(i) y = (ii) y =
1 − x2 x −1
2
1 1
(iii) y = (iv) y = + 4x2
( x − 1)( x − 2 )( x − 3) x
x3 x3
(v) y = (vi) y =
3 − x2 2 ( x + 1)
2
(vii) y =
x4
(viii) y =
(x 2
− 1) ( x − 2 )
x3 − 1 x
ex
(ix) y = (x) y = x − ln ( x + 1)
x
x2 y 2
Q 3. From a variable point on an ellipse 2 + 2 = 1, a normal is drawn to the ellipse. Find the maximum
a b
distance of the normal from the centre of the ellipse.
Q 4. Let S be a square of unit area. Consider any quadrilateral which has one vertex on each side of S. If a, b,
c, d denote the lengths of the sides of the quadrilateral, prove that
2 ≤ a 2 + b2 + c 2 + d 2 ≤ 4
Q 5. Towns A and B are situated on the same side of a straight road at distances a and b respectively from it.
Perpendiculars drawn from A and B meet the road at points C and D respectively. The distance between
C and D is c. A hospital is to be built at a point P on the road such that the distance APB is minimum. Find
the position of P.

LOCUS 107
Q 6. Determine the relation between the radius R and the height H of a cylinder which has the least possible
total surface area at a given volume.
Q 7. Find the maxima and minima of the following functions:

(i) y = − x 2 x 2 + 2 (ii) y = ae px + be − px
(iii) y = x 4 − 2 x 2 + 5 in [−2, 2] (iv) y = x3 − 3 x 2 + 6 x − 2 in [−1, 1]
n n
 x  n −1  y  n −1
Q 8. Find the condition that the line x cos α + y sin α = p may touch the curve   +   = 1 .
a b
Q 9. In a printed book, the text must occupy S square centimetres of each page. The top and bottom margins
must be a cm each, and the right and left hand margins b cm each. If we are interested in saving paper, then
what must the size of the printed page be?
Q 10. A raindrop with an initial mass m0 is falling under the force of gravity. The loss in mass, due to evaporation,
is proportional to time, the proportionality constant being k. How many seconds will it take the kinetic
energy to attain its greatest value after it begins to fall? What will be this value? Air resistance can be
ignored.

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LOCUS 1

01. Tangents and Normals

03. Maxima and Minima

04. Mean Value Theorems And Other Applications

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

Section - 1 TANGENTS AND NORMALS

Therefore the slope of the normal at x0 is:

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

As another example, consider the tangent and normal to xy = 1 at x = 2:

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

We need to show that P

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

Mid-point of AB: The mid-point of AB is

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

Find the point(s) on the curve y 3 + 3 x 2 = 12 y where the tangent is vertical.

Solution: A vertical tangent means that the slope of the tangent is ∞ .

Therefore, the required points are  ± 4 , 2 

⇒ mT at ( ( 2 cos θ ,sin θ )) = − 2sin

x-intercept: Put y = 0 ⇒ x = 2 sec θ

⇒ The tangent intersects the x-axis at P ( 2 sec θ , 0 )

⇒ sin ( x + y ) = 1 ... (i)

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

Therefore, sin x = 1 (from (i))

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

Solution: Differentiating the given curve w.r.t x, we get:

Length intercepted between the axes = (x – intercept)2 + (y – intercept)2

Find the angle of intersection between y 2 = 4 x and x 2 = 4 y .

Solution: Notice that the circle’s equation can be written equivalently as

so that its centre is (0, 12a) and radius is 4a.

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

Equation of normal: y − 2at = −t ( x − at 2 )

Q 1. If ax + by = 1 is a normal to the parabola y 2 = 4cx, prove that

Q 5. Find the angle(s) of intersection of the following curves:

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

Consider a function represented by the following graph:

Now, consider f ( x ) = [ x ] . For this function

x1 < x2 does not always imply f ( x1 ) < f ( x2 )

x1 < x2 does imply f ( x1 ) ≤ f ( x2 )

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

Now consider a function represented by the following graph:

Such a function is called a strictly decreasing function or a monotonically decreasing function.

Now consider f ( x ) = − [ x ] . For this function

x1 < x2 does not imply f ( x1 ) > f ( x2 )

Therefore, f ( x ) = − [ x ] is not strictly decreasing. It would only be termed decreasing.

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

f ( x) = x : Strictly increasing on [0, ∞ )

f ( x) = x : Strictly decreasing on ( −∞, 0]

Strictly decreasing on [2 nπ , (2 n + 1)π ]; n ∈ »

f ( x ) = tan x : Neither increasing nor decreasing on » .Strictly increasing on

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

although it is strictly decreasing in the separate intervals ( −∞, 0 ) and (∞, 0 ) .

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

where f ' ( x ) = 0, f ( x ) is still strictly decreasing on (a, b)

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

Interval(s) of strict increase: f ′ ( x ) > 0

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

Interval(s) of strict increase: f ′ ( x ) > 0

Interval(s) of strict decrease: f ′ ( x ) < 0

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

Interval(s) of strict increase: f ′( x) > 0

Maths / Applications of Derivatives

Interval(s) of strict increase: f ′ ( x ) > 0

Maths / Applications of Derivatives