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Columns with End Restraint and Bending in

Load and Resistance Design Factor


W. F. CHEN and E. M. LUI

1. INTRODUCTION This formula gives a good prediction of the behavior


of long columns so far as the axial stresses in the mem-
Elastic StabilityMathematical ber remain below the proportional limit, i.e., if the
member remains fully elastic. For short or intermediate
The problem of structural stability has long been the sub-
columns, the assumption of fully elastic behavior will be
ject of research for a number of researchers. Early in the
questionable. Under the action of the applied force, some
18th century, Euler^ investigated the elastic stability of
fibers of the cross section will yield. Consequently, only
a centrally loaded isolated strut using the bifurcation ap-
the elastic core of the cross section will be effective in
proach. The bifurcation or eigenvalue approach is ba-
resisting the additional applied force. Thus, the Euler
sically a mathematical approach. Under the assumptions
load will overestimate the strength of the column.
that (1) the member is perfectly straight, (2) the material
remains fully elastic and obeys Hooke's Law and (3) the
deflection is small, a linear differential equation can be Plastic BucklingPhysical
written based on a slightly deformed geometry of the To account for the effect of inelasticity, two theories were
member. proposed:^'^ the double modulus theory and the tangent
The eigenvalue solution to the characteristic equation modulus theory. In the double modulus theory (also known
of this differential equation will give the buckling load as the reduced modulus theory), the axial load is as-
of the strut. This load corresponds to the state at which sumed constant during buckling. Consequently, at buck-
bifurcation of equilibrium takes place. At this load, the ling, the bending deformation of the column will pro-
original straight position of the member ceases to be sta- duce strain reversal on the convex side of the member
ble. Under this load, a small lateral disturbance will pro- with the result that the elastic modulus E will govern the
duce a large lateral displacement which will not disap- stress-strain behavior of the fibers. The concave side of
pear when the disturbance is removed. This buckling load the column, on the other hand, will continue to load and
is referred to as the critical load or Euler load given by so the tangent modulus E^ will govern the stress-strain
behavior of the fibers (Fig. 1). The critical load obtained
(1) based on this concept is referred to as the reduced mod-
ulus load given by
where
/ = moment of inertia of the cross section 1T%I E,
L = unbraced length of the column Pr = h = -Pe (2)
K = effective length factor to account for the end {KLf E
conditions of the column
where E^ is the reduced modulus.
The reduced modulus is a function of the tangent mod-
1/1/. F. Chen is Professor and Head, Structural Engineering Depart-
ment, School of Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette,
ulus and the geometry of the cross section. Hence the
Indiana. reduced modulus load depends on both the material
E. M. Lui is a Graduate Assistant in that same department. property and the geometry of the cross section. The re-
duced modulus load is lower than the Euler load because
the ratio E^/E in Eq. 2 is always less than unity. It should
This paper, the T. R. Higgins Lectureship Award winner for 1985, be pointed out that the reduced modulus load can only
was first presented at the Structural Stability Research Council
Annual Technical Session and Meeting on April 16, 1985 in
be reached if the column is artificially held in a straight
Cleveland, Ohio. position when the tangent modulus load (to be discussed
later) has been exceeded. The reduced modulus load can

THIRD QUARTER / 1985 105


SECTION A - A

A A
STR/^IN DIAGRAM
L IJ N.A.

(unloading) Aa, =EtA,


(loading)

p STRESi S DIAGRAM
r
Fig. 1. Double (reduced) modulus theory

SECTION A-A

Ae
A STRAIN DIAGRAM
L IJ

^t

Acr = Et A
1
S T R E S S DIAGRAM
Fig. 2. Tangent modulus theory

106 ENGINEERING JOURNAL/AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION


never be reached even if the slightest geometrical im- bers that have compressive residual stresses will yield
perfection is present in the column. first. The fibers that have tensile residual stresses will
In the tangent modulus theory, the axial load is as- yield later. As a result, yielding over the cross section
sumed to increase during buckling. The amount of in- of the column is a gradual process, as shown in Fig. 3.
crease is such that strain reversal will not take place and The slope of the stub column stress-strain curve is the
so the tangent modulus E^ will govern the stress-strain tangent modulus E^ of the member. Also shown in the
behavior of the entire cross section (Fig. 2). The critical figure is the stress-strain behavior of a coupon. A cou-
load obtained is known as the tangent modulus load given pon, unlike a stub column, is free of residual stress.
by Therefore, its stress-strain relationship exhibits an elas-
tic-perfectly plastic behavior.
i;%l E, The tangent modulus load marks the point of bifur-
(3) cation of a perfectly straight inelastic column. The tan-
(KLf E
gent modulus load is lower than the Euler and the re-
The tangent modulus load, unlike the reduced mod- duced modulus loads and so it also represents the lowest
ulus load, is independent of the geometry of the cross load at which bifurcation of equilibrium can take place
section. It depends only on the material property. For a (Fig. 4).
steel column, the nonlinearity of the average stress-strain Experiments on columns have demonstrated the fail-
behavior of the cross-section is due to the presence of ure loads of columns fall nearer to the tangent modulus
residual stress. Residual stresses arise as a result of the loads than the reduced modulus loads. The theoretical
manufacturing process. When a compressive axial force justification for this observation was given by Shanley,"^
is applied to a stub column (very short column), the fi- who, in 1947, investigated the buckling behavior of col-

Coupon Test

CO
CO
<1>

03

Strain e
Fig. 3. Stress-strain relationship for steel

THIRD QUARTER / 1985 107


p.

(I) Perfectly Straight Elastic Pin-ended Column


(ii) Perfectly Straight Inelastic Pin-ended Column
(iii) Initially-Crooked Inelastic Pin-ended Column
(iv) Initially-Crooked Inelastic End-Restrained Column

Fig. 4. Load-deflection behavior of columns

umns above the tangent modulus load. Using a simpli- For any finite increase of axial load above the tangent
fied physical model, Shanley showed that bifurcation of modulus load, the column assumes equilibrium positions
equilibrium will take place when the applied load reaches with increasing deflection accompanied by a strain re-
the tangent modulus load. After bifurcation, increase in versal on the convex side of the column. Nevertheless,
lateral deflection is accompanied by a slight increase in the amount of strain reversal is less than that of the re-
load above the tangent modulus load. Thus the maxi- duced modulus theory. The readers are referred to a pa-
mum load is really slightly larger than the tangent mod- per by Johnston^ for a more thorough discussion of the
ulus load, provided the column is perfectly straight. Ex- historic highlights of the column buckling theory.
tensions of Shanley's model to describe the buckling The discussion so far pertains to columns which are
behavior of columns above the tangent modulus load were perfectly straight. Columns in reality are rarely perfectly
reported by Duberg and Wilder^ and Johnston.^ straight. Geometrical imperfection in a column tends to
In Ref. 5, it was shown that if a column were artifi- lower the maximum load of the member. As a result,
cially held in a straight position up to a load somewhere the Structural Stability Research Council (formerly the
in between the tangent modulus and reduced modulus Column Research Council) recommended the tangent
loads, then released, it would start to bend with an in- modulus load be the representative failure load of a cen-
crease in axial load. The magnitude of the increase, trally loaded column.
however, was less than that of the tangent modulus load. The reduced modulus theory and the tangent modulus
If the column was held in a straight configuration up to theory, as well as the Shanley's concept of inelastic col-
the reduced modulus load, then released, it would bend umn, are all based on physical reasoning. They provide
with no increase in axial load. Reference 6 demonstrates solutions and explanations to the behavior of perfectly
that when a column buckles at the tangent modulus load straight inelastic columns. The mathematical theory of
there is no strain reversal only for an infinitesimal in- elastic stability and the concepts of inelastic buckling are
crement of axial load. well explained in Refs. 8 and 9.

108 ENGINEERING JOURNAL/AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION


Plastic StabilityNumerical structures loaded into the inelastic range can also be per-
As pointed out earlier, real steel columns not only ex- formed for certain types of structures.
hibit inelasticity due to the presence of residual stresses, The continued development in computer hardware and
but also they possess initial crookedness. The analysis software has made it possible for engineers and design-
of columns with residual stresses and initial crookedness ers to predict structural behavior rather accurately. The
is rather complicated. The eigenvalue approach, which advancement in structural analysis techniques coupled
is valid only for perfectly straight columns, can not be with the increased understanding of structural behavior
used here. Instead, a different approach known as the has made it possible for engineers to adopt the limit state
stability approach must be utilized. In the stability ap- design philosophy. A limit state is defined as a condition
proach, the load-deflection behavior of the column is at which a structural member or its component ceases to
traced from the start of loading to failure. The procedure perform its intended function under normal condition
is often carried out numerically using the computer be- (serviceability limit state) or failure under severe con-
cause the differential equation governing the behavior of dition (ultimate limit state). Load and Resistance Factor
inelastic-crooked columns are often intractable, so closed Design is based on the limit state philosophy and thus it
form solutions are very difficult, if not impossible, to represents a more rational approach to the design of
obtain. Various methods to obtain numerical solutions structures.
are presented in Refs. 10 and 11. This paper attempts to summarize the state-of-the-art
In addition to inelasticity and initial crookedness, the methods in the analysis and design of columns as indi-
end conditions of a column also play an important role vidual members and as members of a structure. A sec-
in affecting its behavior. The analyses of columns taking ond objective is to introduce to engineers the stability
into consideration inelasticity, initial crookedness and end design criteria of members and frames in LRFD. High-
restraint were reported by a number of researchers in the lights of recent research as well as directions of further
past few years. The results are summarized in Ref. 12. research will be discussed.

Structural StabilityEngineering 2. PIN-ENDED COLUMN


Columns in real structures seldom exist alone. The be- A pin-ended column is the most fundamental case of a
havior of a column as an integral part of a structure is column. The behavior of a pin-ended column represents
affected by the behavior of other structural members. In an anchorpoint for the study of all other columns. For
particular, in addition to carrying axial force, the column columns with long slendemess ratio, the Euler formula
must be able to resist bending moments induced by the (Eq. 1) will provide a good estimate of their behavior.
beam, so the column in reality behaves as a beam-col- For intermediate or short columns, the Euler formula has
umn resisting both axial load and bending moments. The to be modified according to the reduced modulus con-
moment transfer mechanism between beams and col- cept or the tangent modulus concept (Eqs. 2 and 3) to
umns is different depending on whether the connection account for yielding (or plastification) over the cross sec-
is rigid or flexible. In other words, the behavior of the tion due to the presence of residual stresses. As men-
frame and its structural members is dependent on the ri- tioned earlier, the tangent modulus theory gives a better
gidity of the connections. The stability analysis of prediction of inelastic column behavior and hence it is
frameworks with flexible connections has been a popular adopted for design purposes.
research topic in recent years. In particular, the recently
published Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) CRC Curve
Specification^^ designates two types of construction in its
Based on the study of idealized columns with linear and
provision: Type FR (fully restrained) and Type PR (par-
parabolic residual stress distribution, as well as the test
tially restrained) constructions. Type PR construction re-
results of a number of small and medium-size, hot-rolled,
quires explicit consideration of connection flexibility in
wide-flange shapes of mild structural steel, the Column
proportioning structural members.
Research Council recommended in the first edition of the
The stability analysis of flexibly connected frames re- Guide^"^ a parabola of the form
quires connection modeling. Since connection moment-
rotation behavior is usually nonlinear, the inclusion of a
connection as a structural element in a limit state anal- Fy (4)
- ' - )
ysis requires the use of nonlinear structural theory. With
the advent of computer technology, great advancement to represent column strength in the inelastic range. This
has been made in computer-aided analysis and design of parabola was chosen because it represented an approx-
structures. At the present time, first- and second-order imate median between the tangent modulus strength of
elastic analyses of structures can conveniently be per- a W column buckled in the strong and weak directions.
formed for nearly all types of structures. Analysis of The column strength in the elastic range, however, is

THIRD QUARTER / 1985 109


represented by the Euler formula. The point of demar- For comparison purposes, Eq. 6 is rewritten in its load
cation between inelastic and elastic behavior was chosen form in terms of the nondimensional quantities P/Py and
to be F^^ = 0.5 Fy. The number 0.5 was chosen as a X^ in which Py is the yield load given by Py = AFy and
conservative measure of the maximum value of com- kc is the slenderness parameter given by X^ = (KL/r)
pressive residual stress present in hot-rolled wide-flange
VFTJTT^
shapes which is about 0.3 Fy. To obtain a smooth tran-
sition from the parabola to the Euler curve, the constant
B in Eq. 4 was chosen to be Fy/4 ir^E. The slenderness p 1 - 0.25X? X, < \ / 2 (7)
ratio that corresponds to F^^. = 0.5 Fy is designated as
Cr in which
t x;' X, > V 2
ITT^E The CRC curve is plotted in Fig. 5 in its nondimen-
C = (5) sional form (Eq. 7).

Thus, for columns with slenderness ratios less than or AISC/ASD Curve
equal to Q , the CRC curve assumes the shape of a pa- The CRC curve divided by a variable factor of safety of
rabola and for slenderness ratio exceeding C^, the CRC
curve takes the shape of a hyperbola, i.e. 5 3 [KL/r\ 1 (KL/r\^
3 8\C, / 8\C,/
(KL/rf KL _ 5 3 / \, \ 1
F. 1 sC
r ~ 3 ^ 8 VV^j " 8 VV^.
Fcr = (6)
IT^E KL in tiie inelastic range and a constant factor of safety of
\(K L/r? r >c. 23/12 in the elastic range gives the AISC Allowable Stress

1.0 Elastic
regime

0.8

J 0.6

0.4
AISC
Allowable Stress
Design Curve
0.2h

0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00


K
Fig. 5. Column design curves

110 ENGINEERING JOURNAL/AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION


Design (ASD) curve. The factors of safety are employed rimental effects of residual stresses and initial crooked-
to account for geometrical imperfections and load ec- ness are not always synergistic, so the SSRC curves which
centricities which are unavoidable in real columns. The belly down in the intermediate slenderness range will be
AISC/ASD curve is also plotted in Fig. 5. The ASD too conservative for most columns in building frames.
column curve is used in conjunction with the ASD for-
mat given by AISC/LRFD Curve
To provide a compromise between the CRC curve (de-
J^Qni (8) veloped based on the tangent modulus concept) and the
F.S.
SSRC curves (developed based on the stability concept),
where the 1985 AISC/LRFD Specification'^ adopted a curve of
Rn = nominal resistance the form
(for column design, RJF.S. is represented by the ASD
column curve) P_ _ J exp < -0.419X?) X, < 1.5
Qn = service loads (10)
0.877X: K> 1.5

AISC/PD Curve to represent basic column strength.


The LRFD curve is plotted on Fig. 5, together with
The ASD curve multiplied by a factor of 1.7 forms the the other curves described above. Note the LRFD curve
AISC Plastic Design (PD) curve (Fig. 5). In plastic de- lies between the CRC curve and the SSRC curve 2.
sign only the inelastic regime of the curve is utilized be- The LRFD format is
cause of the slenderness requirement. The design format
for plastic design of columns is thus
^Rn ^ S ^^ Qn (11)
I.IR
-^l^Qn (9)
F.S. where
where 7 is the load factor used in the present AISC/PD Rn = nominal resistance
Specification. The values for 7 are: 7 = 1.7 for live and Qn = nominal load effects
dead loads only and 7 = 1.3 for live and dead loads (j) = resistance factor
acting in conjunction with wind or earthquake loads. 7 = load factor

Note the LRFD format has the features of both the


SSRC Curves ASD and PD formats in that factors of safety are applied
Before proceeding any further, it should be stated that to both the load and resistance terms to account for the
both the ASD curve and PD curve are originated from variabilities and uncertainties in predicting these values.
the CRC curve which was developed based on the bi- Furthermore, these load and resistance factors ((|), 7) are
furcation concept which postulates that the column is evaluated based on first order probabilistic approach. Since
perfectly straight. Although residual stress is explicitly different types of loads have different degrees of uncer-
accounted for, the effect of geometrical imperfections is tainties, different load factors are used for different types
only accounted for implicitly by applying a variable fac- of loads (e.g. 1.6 for live load, 1.2 for dead load, etc.).
tor of safety to the basic curve. Analysis of columns which Therefore, the LRFD format represents a more rational
explicitly take into consideration the effects of both re- design approach.
sidual stresses and initial crookedness was reported.^^ The The expressions for various column curves described
stability approach was used in the analysis and a set of above and the three state-of-the-art design formats (ASD,
three curves referred to as the SSRC multiple column PD, LRFD) are summarized in Tables 1 and 2.
curves^^ was developed. Detailed expressions for these
curves are given in Ref. 16. Approximate formulas for
these curves based on physical reasoning which are use- 3. COLUMNS WITH END RESTRAINT
ful for design are also reported.^"^'^^
For comparison purposes, the three SSRC curves are Eigenvalue Analysis
plotted with the CRC, ASD and PD curves in Fig. 5. In addition to residual stresses and initial crookedness,
These curves belly down in the intermediate slenderness the end conditions of a column have a significant influ-
range (0.75 <\< 1.25) due to the combined maximum ence on column behavior. For perfectly straight elastic
detrimental effects of both residual stresses and initial columns with idealized end conditions (ideally pinned or
crookedness on column strength in the numerical anal- fully rigid), an eigenvalue analysis can be carried out to
ysis. Tests of real columns have demonstrated the det- determine the critical load P^r- The effective length fac-

THIRD QUARTER / 1985 111


Table 1. Summary of Column Curves
Column Curves Column Equations
P _ K
CRC Curve K ^ V2
Py ~ 4
P _ 1
X, > V 2

X;
1
AISC X, <V2
1 / X,
3 8 VV2/ 8 \V2
Allowable Stress Design
P 12 1
Curve X, > V2
P, 23 X;
AISC
Plastic Design

1.7I1--
Curve < 1.0 X, < V 2
P. 5^^/K
3 8 Vy2/ 8 VV2,

AISC = exp (-0.419X:) X, < 1.5


P,
LRFD Curve
P 0.877
(1985 Version) X, > 1.5
X;

Table 2. Summary of Design Formats Table 3. Theoretical and Recommended K Values


for Idealized Columns
Allowable Stress Design
Pn 0 (I (c) (cI) (e) (f)
(ASD) \
(1 1111
1

Plastic Design
(PD)
F.S.

P n ^ l l Qn, Buckled shape of column


XL

//
I
JU

t
1
1
r JL

1
r
\ 1
1
1

1
is shown by dashed line 1
Load and Resistance 1
\ 1
1
1
Factor Design \ 1 1
\\
(LRFD) (^R,, > 1 7, Q. \ 1'
m m n- mw V rr
^\ 1
Tfim
\ \ 1
'Hieoretica] K value 0 5 0 7 1 0 1 0 2 0 2.0
Recommended design
tor K for the column with the particular set of end con- value when ideal ccmdi- 0 65 0 80 1 2 1 0 2 10 2.0
1 tioDS are approximated
ditions can be obtained by
"T Rotation fixed and translation fixed
Rotation free and translation fixed
K = (12) End condition code
Rotation fixed and translation free

where P^ is the Euler load given by P^ = TT^EI/L^ in


T Rotation free and translation free

which L is the length of the column.


The effective length factor multiplied by the true length various types of idealized end conditions. Since fully rigid
L of the column gives the effective length of the column supports are seldomly realized in real life, the recom-
which can be used for design. Table 3^^ gives the the- mended K values for cases with fixed support idealiza-
oretical and recommended K values for columns with tion are slightly higher than their theoretical values.

112 ENGINEERING JOURNAL/AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION


Numerical Analysis fect of end restraint is highly dependent on the slen-
derness of the column.
It should be remembered that eigenvalue analysis can
only be carried out for perfectly straight columns. For Practical Design of Initially Crooked Column with
columns with initial crookedness, the stability or load- End Restraints
deflection approach must be used. In the load-deflection For design purposes, it is convenient to use the effective
approach, the load-deflection behavior of the column is length factor approach in which the actual column with
traced from the start of loading to collapse. The maxi- end restraints is converted to an equivalent pin-ended
mum load the column can carry is the peak point of the column by multiplying the actual unbraced length of the
load-deflection curve. The analyses of non-sway col- column by the effective length factor K, so the pin-ended
umns with residual stresses, initial crookedness and small column curves described in the preceding section can be
end restraint using the load-deflection approach have been utilized directly. The procedure to determine the effec-
reported by a number of researchers. The important re- tive length factor for initially crooked end-restrained col-
sults are summarized by the authors.^^ Some of the im- umns with residual stresses is more involved than that
portant findings are: of perfectly straight elastic columns with idealized end
conditions. Equation 12 is not applicable anymore for
1. Comparing with pin-ended columns, the maximum the determination of the effective length factor K. In-
load-carrying capacity of end-restrained columns in- stead, a number of load-deflection curves, each corre-
creases as the degree of end restraint (as measured sponding to a specific slenderness ratio L/r (or slender-
by the rotational stiffness of the connections con- ness parameter X), are generated numerically. The peak
necting beams and columns) increases. points of these load-deflection curves are then plotted
with the associated slenderness ratios (or slenderness pa-
2. The increase in load-carrying capacity of end-re-
rameters) to form a column curve (see Fig. 6). Each col-
strained columns is more pronounced for slender col-
umn curve is unique for a specific value of initial crook-
umns when stability is the limit state than for short
edness, a specific distribution of residual stress and a
columns when yielding is the limit state.
specific end restraint characteristic. To get the effective
3. The end-restraining effect on column strength is more
length factor, the end-restrained column curve (Fig. 6b)
noticeable for columns bent about their weak axes
is compared with the corresponding pin-ended column
than for columns bent about their strong axes.
curve and the K factor at any load level is given (Fig. 7),
4. While residual stresses and initial crookedness have
a destabilizing effect on columns strength, end re-
straint will provide a stabilizing effect which coun- K = (13)
teracts the detrimental effects of residual stresses and
initial crookedness. However, the strengthening ef- where X^^,, X^c ^i*^ depicted in the figure.

Curve Fitting
Through D a t a Points

a.

100
Deflection ( 8 ) Slenderness Ratio ()

(a) L o a d - D e f l e c t i o n Curve (b) Column Curve


Fig. 6. Determination of column-strength curve from load-deflection
curves for an initially crooked end-restrained column

THIRD QUARTER / 1985 113


1,00 I "^ ^^

0.80H

0.60 Restrained End

0.40H

0.20H

0.00- T" T" I 1


0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25
X
Fig. 7. Determination of ejfective length factor, K

Upon investigations of 83 end-restrained columns,^^ analysis assuming perfectly straight columns with end
the values of K for each curve do not vary significantly restraints provided by linear elastic rotational springs
over the load levels. Thus, a relationship between the K- having spring stiffness Rkj at the ends. Such comparison
factor and the magnitude of end restraint can be estab- is shown in Fig. 9. The dotted line is a plot of K versus
lished. In particular, the expression d whereas the solid lines are plots of K^i versus d. As
can be seen, K^i gives a conservative estimate of column
/ ^ - 1.0 - 0 . 0 1 7 d > 0 . 6 (14) strength provided that X is relatively low and d is rela-
where tively high.

2EL
(15)
(MXL, 2EL
MOMENT
M

in which
Ig = moment of inertia of the girder connected to
the column
Lg = length of the girder
(Mp)^ = plastic moment capacity of the column
Rki = initial connection stiffness of the connection
joining the beam to the column (Fig. 8)
was proposed^^ for non-sway columns with initial crook-
edness, residual stresses and small end restraints, taking
into account the effect of beam flexibility. Procedures
for the design of such columns have been reported in
Refs. 12, 21 and discussed in Ref. 22.
At this point, it is interesting to compare the effective ROTATION 9^
length factor K as described by Eq. 14 with the elastic
effective length factor K^i determined by an eigenvalue Fig. 8. Determination of R,,i

114 ENGINEERING JOURNAL/AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION


X

LU

O
LJ
U.
U.
bJ

OC
Fig. 9. Comparison of K^i and K

4. COLUMNS IN FRAMES
As mentioned earlier, columns in real structures usually
exist as part of a frame. A column in a frame is usually
subjected to the combined action of bending moments M.
and axial thrust. As a result, part of the strength of the
member is required to resist the bending moment and t I \ \ \^
only the remaining part of the strength is available to 15 ^^---J7
resist the axial force. Thus, most columns in frames must
be treated as beam-columns.

Columns in Braced FramesB^ Factor


A phenomenon associated with a beam-column is the
secondary effect. When a braced member is subjected to
both bending moments and axial force, the axial force
acts through the deflection caused by the primary mo- M,
ments (moments arised from transverse loads and end
moments acting on the member) to produce additional
moment referred to as secondary or P-8 moment. Figure Mj=f(M,,M2,Q,q,x)
10 shows schematically these two types of moments. The
moment acting along the member is thus the algebraic
sum of the primary and secondary moments. To obtain
the exact value of this moment, a second-order analysis
of the member is necessary. However, in lieu of such
analysis, a simplified approach to obtain the total mo-
ment can be used.
Using the assumptions that Mjj=Py
1. The deflection is small Fig. 10 P-8 effect

THIRD QUARTER / 1985 115


2. The secondary moment Mu is in the form of a half Equation 22 shows the maximum moment in the mem-
sine wave ber can be obtained by multiplying the maximum pri-
3. The maximum deflection 8 occurs at midspan mary moment M/^^ by an amplification factor Bi (the
4. The maximum primary moment M/^^ occurs at or factor in parenthesis). Note this amplification factor must
near midspan be greater than unity if it is of any importance. This is
because if this factor is less than unity, then from Eq.
an approximate expression for the maximum moment can 22 it is clear that Mj^a.x ^ ^max and the designer will use
be derived. Mj,^ rather than M^^ in proportioning the members. The
Because of assumptions 1 to 3, we can relate the cur- condition that Bi must be greater than unity is adopted
vature caused by the secondary moment to the maximum in the present AISC/LRFD Specification which was not
deflection as the case for the AISC/ASD Specification.
Mu P8 7T;C Figure 11 shows the value of \\f and C^ for several
y'li = = sin (16) different load cases. It is important to point out that be-
EI EI L cause of assumption 4, Eq. 24, which is derived from
Integrating Eq. 16 twice and enforcing the boundary Eq. 21, is only applicable to the two simply supported
conditions y{0) = 0 and y(L) = 0 it can easily be shown cases (Cases 1 and 4). For the other cases in which the
that the secondary deflection (deflection caused by the maximum primary moment Mj^^x occurs at the end(s)
P-8 effect) can be written as (Cases 2, 3, 5) or occurs at midspan as well as at the
2 ends (Case 6), the exact values of the maximum mo-
Pb L' ments are first evaluated; the values for ij; are then ob-
yii sm (17)
EI U / L tained from calibration.^^
from which the secondary deflection at midspan is

8// = yii k (18)

Case ^' Cm 1
Since the total deflection at midspan is the sum of the
primary and secondary deflections, i.e. 1

8 = 8;+ 8;; (19) 0 1 .O'-


we can eliminate 8// by substituting Eq. 18 into Eq. 19.
The result is 2.
8/
8 = (20)
P
-0.4 l-0.4P/Pg
1
P. 3
From assumption 4, we can write
^ fTTTrTTTnTiiiniiml
-0.4 I-0.4P/P.
(21)
If we substitute Eq. 20 into Eq. 21 and rearrange, we 4
can write
1 -0.2 I-0.2P/P
C
(22)
f t
M^ M B^M
1 - P/P.
5
where
C -0.3 |-0.3P/Pg
B^ -- >1
1- P/P, (23) (o

in which
C = 1 + it;P/P,
-i^\- -0.2 l-0.2P/Pg

ili = ^ ^ - 1 (24) Fig. 11. Values of if/for beam-columns under


transverse loadings

116 ENGINEERING JOURNAL/AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION


For the cases in which end-restraint(s) is (are) present Columns in Unbraced FramesB2 Factor
(Cases 2, 3, 5, 6), the value of C^ for usual P/P^ ratios The above discussion on moment amplification pertains
is only slightly less than unity and a conservative value to members in braced frames in which sidesway is pre-
of 0.85 is thus suggested for C^. For the two simply vented. For members in an unbraced frame, in addition
supported cases (Cases 1, 4), a value of 1 is suggested to P-8 effect there is another effect known as the P-A
for Cm in the AISC/LRFD Specification.^^ effect. The P-A effect arises when the gravity loads of a
A special case arises when in-span transverse loads are frame act through the drift of the frame thus producing
absent in the member. For this case, the primary mo- additional overturning moment and additional drift
ment in the member is caused by end moments acting (Fig. 12). Since this is a destabilizing effect, it should
on the member ends. Since the maximum primary mo- be considered in design. Both the P-8 and P-A effects
ment in members subjected to axial load and end mo- can be taken into account by using second-order analy-
ments seldom exists at midspan, C^ defined in Eq. 23 sis. The AISC/LRFD Specification^^ recommends the use
is invalid since it was developed based on assumption 4 of P-A moment amplification factor B2 to account for the
postulating that M/^^ occurs at or near midspan. Instead, P-A effect in lieu of a second-order analysis.
Cm is redefined as Two expressions for 82 are given in the specification
Cm = 0.6 - 0.4 (M1/M2) > 0.4 (25) 1
B,= (26)
where M1/M2 is the ratio of the smaller to larger end
moments of the unbraced length of the member and it is 1 -
positive when the member is bent in reverse curvature
and negative when the member is bent in single curva- and
ture. 1
Equation 25 was developed based on the equivalent B,= (27)
moment concept. In the equivalent moment model, a pair
of equal and opposite end moments are applied to the SP.
member which, when amplified by the amplification Bi, where
will give the same maximum moment as will the actual
unequal end moments. It is obvious the location of max- design axial forces on all columns of a story,
imum moment will be distorted, but this is ignored for in kips
simplicity. Cm expressed in Eq. 25 was proposed by translation deflection on the story under con-
Austin^"^ based on a more accurate expression derived by sideration based on a first-order analysis, in
Massonnet.^^ inches

dH H

Mo = HL

(a) (b) (C)


Fig. 12. Cantilever column

THIRD QUARTER / 1985 117


2// = sum of all story horizontal forces producing The P-A moment amplification factor B2 described
A^;,, in kips above and recommended in the AISC/LRFD Specifica-
L = story height, in inches tion represents an improvement over that recommended
P, = Euler load (Eq. 1) in the AISC/ASD Specification^^ in which the P-A mo-
ment amplification factor is expressed as 0.85/(1 - fJP'e)-
Equation 26 was developed based on the story stiff-
The reason is that the B2 factor in the LRFD Specifi-
ness concept.^^'^^'^^ By assuming that
cation magnifies only the sway moment M/^, whereas the
1. each story behaves independently of other stories, moment amplification factor in the ASD Specification
and magnifies the total moment. If the bulk of the column
2. the additional moments in the columns caused by moment does not produce sidesway, the approach rec-
the P-A effect is equivalent to that caused by a ommended in the ASD Specification will be unduly con-
lateral force of l^PJ^/h where SP is the sum of servative.
all vertical forces on the story, A is the total frame
drift including the P-A effect and h is the height
of the story, Column Design in LRFD for Type FR Construction
As mentioned earlier, for an unbraced frame, both the
the sway stiffness of the story can be defined as:
P-8 and P-A effects are important, so both effects have
horizontal force to be accounted for in design. The AISC/LRFD Speci-
lateral displacement (28) fication recommends a superposition technique in which
the P-8 (sometimes called the member instability) effect
and the P-A (sometimes called the frame instability) ef-
^oh A
fect are summed together algebraically to obtain the
maximum design moment, i.e.
Solving the above equation for A gives
M. B^ M,, + B, Mu (32)
(29) where B^ and Bo are the P-8 and P-A moment amplifi-
SPA,,
1 cation factors respectively and M^t is the moment in the
member assuming there is no lateral translation in the
If rigid connections and elastic behavior are assumed, frame and M/^ is the moment in the member as a result
the magnified moment induced in the member as a result of lateral translation of the frame.
of sway Mif will be proportional to the lateral deflec- In the actual design, M,,, is determined from a first-
tions. Therefore, we can write order analysis of the frame braced against lateral trans-
lation under the applied loads. Mj, is determined from a
first-order analysis of the frame acted on by the reverse
(A^/r)max , Ml, - B.Mu (30) of the bracing forces (Fig. 13). It is important to note
1 Eq. 32 is a conservative approach, since the maximum
P-8 moment and the maximum P-A moment may not
where necessarily coincide at the same location. Furthermore,
Mij = moment due to lateral translation determined it should be remembered the expressions for B^ and B2
from a first-order analysis are only valid if the joints are rigid. In other words, Eq.
32 is only applicable to Type FR (fully restrained) con-
The alternative expression for the moment amplifi-
struction in the LRFD Specification. Finally, it should
cation factor B2 is obtained as a direct extension of Eq.
also be mentioned that, depending on how the frame is
20. Under the assumption that when sidesway instability
braced against sway, the moments M, and M^ calculated
is to occur in a story, all columns in that story will be-
will be different for different arrangements of fictitious
come unstable simultaneously, the P/P^ term in Eq. 20
supports. However, for regular rectangular frames used
is replaced by XPJXP^ in which the summation is
in most building construction, the difference is insignif-
carried through all columns in a story."^ Using the same
icant for design purpose.
argument as before that if elastic behavior and rigid con-
nections are assumed, the story sway moment will be The validity of Eq. 32 has been checked by comparing
proportional to the lateral deflection. As a result, the the maximum moment calculated using Eq. 32 with the
maximum end moment accounting for the P-A effect can exact maximum moment calculated using a second-order
be written as elastic analysis."^^ It is concluded that for rectangular
frames in which the P-A effect is not too significant,
(MiXna. = I ^TTT Wlr = B,M, (31) good correlation between the two calculated moments is
observed.
Furthermore, if the P-A effect is not too significant.

118 ENGINEERING JOURNAL/AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION


the two different expressions for B2 (Eqs. 26 and 27) the start of loading, the analysis of structures including
give comparable results provided that all the beams and the effect of connection flexibility is an inherent non-
columns in the story are rigidly connected. linear problem. To simplify the analysis technique, a
If the P-A effect is significant, viz, if B2 > 1.5, the number of simplified models have been proposed.
approach suggested by LeMessurier^^ provides more ac-
curate results. In his approach, the moment magnifica- Connection Modeling
tion factor is expressed as
Figure 14 shows two simple linear models. The first
1 modeP^ uses the initial stiffness R^t of the connection to
B,= (33) represent the behavior of the connection for the entire
^Pu
range of loading. As can be seen, the validity of this
SP^ - 2 Q P
where

^PL (34)

Ci is a factor accounting for the decrease in stiffness of


the column due to the presence of the axial force. MOMENT
Note that if Ci is insignificant, Eq. 33 reduces to Eq. M
26.

5. CONNECTION RESTRAINT CHARACTERISTICS


The analyses and design of Type PR (fully restrained)
and Type PR (partially restrained) frames differ in that
for Type PR construction, the effect of connection flex-
ibility must be taken into account. Since a connection is
a highly statical indeterminate element, a rigorous ana-
lytical study of its behavior is quite a formidable task.
In view of this, a special Task Group (TG25) of the
Structural Stability Research Council was set up to in-
vestigate theoretically and experimentally connection be-
havior.
The behavior of a connection is best described by its ROTATION B
moment-rotation relationship. Since most connection r
moment-rotational relationships are nonlinear almost from Fig. 14. Linear M-O^ models

H,=-H,

H2 ~ ~ ' ' 2

-H
Hj = - H j

TW 77/T

ORIGINAL FRAME NONSWAY FRAME SWAY FRAME


for M.
'It
Fig. 13. Two fictional frames for M, and MIt

THIRD QUARTER / 1985 119


linear model deteriorates as the moment increases. To
get a better representation of the connection stiffness, a
bilinear modeP^ was used. In the bilinear model, the ini-
tial slope of the moment-rotational line was replaced by
a shallower line at a certain transition moment Mj. A
direct extension of the bilinear model is the piecewise
hnear modeP"^ in which the nonlinear M-9^ curve of the MOMENT
connection is represented by a series of straight line seg- M
ments. Although the linear, bilinear or piecewise linear
models are easy to implement, the inaccuracies and sud- //
den jump in stiffness which are inherent in these models o Experimental data
make them undesirable to be used in a limit state anal-
B-spline fit
ysis routine. //
To this end, Frye and Morris^^ proposed a polynomial Polynomial fit
model in which a polynomial is used to represent the /
connection M-0^ behavior (Fig. 15). However, there is
a major drawback in this model. Since the nature of a
polynomial is to peak and trough within a certain range,
the stiffness of the connection (as represented by the first
derivative of the polynomial) may be negative, which is
physically unjustifiable. To overcome this, Jones et aP^ ROTATION e^
uses a cubic 5-spline curve fitting technique to improve Fig. 15. B-spline and polynomial curve fit models
the polynomial model (Fig. 15). In the cubic 5-spline

Br
Fig. 16. Connection moment-rotation idealization used in the power model

120 ENGINEERING JOURNAL/AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION


model, a cubic polynomial is used to curve-fit segments
of a curve. Continuity between the first and second de- ^ = E ^i (1 - ^""^"''") + ^- + ^^f\^r\ (36)
rivatives of each segment of curve are enforced. Al- 7=1

though the cubic B-spline model gives a good represen-


tation of the connection behavior and circumvents the where
problem of negative stiffness, a large number of data are Mo = initial moment
necessary for the curve-fitting process. To overcome this, Rkf = final or strain-hardening connection stiff-
the power model proposed by Colson^'^ and the expo- ness
nential model proposed by Lui^^ can be used. a = scaling factor
In the power model,^^ a power function is used to rep- Cj = connection model parameters
resent the connection M-0^ behavior. It has the form
\M\ 1 The connection model parameters are merely curve-
(35) fitting constants which can be obtained by using an op-
^ki M
1 timization technique.
M. To demonstrate the validity of the exponential model,
two experimentally obtained moment-rotation curves are
where (refer to Fig. 16)
curve-fitted with Eq. 36 using four curve-fitting con-
Rki = initial connection stiffness
stants and 10 sets of data from each curve. The results
Mcu = ultimate moment capacity of the connection
are shown in Figs. 17 and 18 respectively. The connec-
a = a parameter to account for the curvature of the
tion used in Fig. 17 was a double web angle connection
M-0 relationships
tested by Lewitt, Chesson and Munse.^^ The connection
In the exponential model,^^ the connection M-9^ be- used in Fig. 18 was a T-stub connection tested by Rath-
havior is represented by an exponential function of the bun. ^^ As can be seen, the exponential model gives an
form excellent representation of the test curves.

500

TEST (LEWITT, CHESSON AND MUNSE)

EXPONENTIAL MODEL

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Fig. 17. Comparison of exponential connection model with test by Lewitt,
Chesson and Munse

THIRD QUARTER / 1985 121


Research Need Moment TransferRigid Connection
As mentioned earlier, because of the complex geome- To study the moment transfer mechanism between the
tries and stress distributions of most connections, most beam and the column, it is advantageous to look at the
M-9^ curves are nonlinear and thus almost all existing behavior of some simple subassemblages. Figure 19"^^
M-0^ curves available today are obtained from experi- shows a T-shaped subassemblage consisting of two beams
ments. Since most of these experiments were performed and a column rigidly connected to one another. A con-
on connections which have become obsolete, it is es- centrated load Q equal to half the yield load of the beam
sential that additional analytical and experimental inves- is applied to the midspan of each beam, an axial load P
tigations on comrhonly used connections be conducted is then applied to an imperfect column with the influence
in view of the advancement made on the limit state ap- of residual stress as well as with an initial out-of-
proach to analysis and design of steel structures. straightness of 0.00IL. The moment distributions of the
joint are plotted as P increases. By assuming that the
6. BEHAVIOR OF COLUMNS WITH RIGID AND beams behave elastically for the entire range of loading
SEMI-RIGID CONNECTIONS and the joint is rigidly connected, the moment at the joint
is considered to consist of three parts:
For columns in frames, another important phenomenon
which the engineers should be aware of is the moment
transfer mechanism between the beams and columns. One 1. Bending moment Mi due to lateral load Q with joint
commonly posed question is: how can a beam restrain a fixed.
column if at the same time it is inducing moment to the 2. Bending moment M2 due to joint translation as col-
column? Whether a beam restrains or induces moment umn buckles.
to the column depends on a number of factors. Some of
3. Bending moment M3 due to joint rotation.
the important ones are (1) the rigidity of the connections,
(2) the relative stiffness of the beams and columns and These three components of bending moments are shown
(3) the load patterns and load sequences on the frame. schematically in Fig. 20.

TEST (RATHBUN)

EXPONENTIAL MODEL

I 3
c
O
O
o


0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008
ROTATION (radians)
Fig. 18. Comparison of exponential connection model with
test by Rathburi

122 ENGINEERING JOURNAL/AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION


Q Q Q, Q

60
Mc\
M
'I
40 +

20 ^T^ :r^ (2)


I
-C-^)-
M-
40
Axial Load, P(Kips)

-20
A '-A (3)

-40
''RL'
^ 6 5 . 5 4 K- in
0 M
-60
A- '--i\ Total
Fig. 19. Moment distributions at joint of subassemblage
; M,
r?)

The bending moments in the left beam MRI and in the


right beam Mj^^ can be expressed as follows:
A
Fig. 20. Components of bending moments at
MRL = - M l + M2 - M3 (37) joint of subassemblage

MRR = Ml - M2 - M3 (38)
Moment TransferFlexible Connection
The bending moment in the column Mc can be ob-
tained by considering joint equilibrium. If the connections are not rigid, the moment transfer
mechanism between the beam and the column are more
Mr -(Mj,, + M^j,) - 2M3 (39) complicated because of the loading/unloading charac-
teristic of the connections. To demonstrate this charac-
The variation of these bending moments with the axial teristic schematically, the readers are referred to Fig. 21.
load P is plotted in Fig. 19. It can be seen from the For this subassemblage (Fig. 21a), the beams are con-
figure that the moment due to the buckling of the column nected to the column by semi-rigid connections. Beam
is not negligible. Not only does it reduce the moment of loads W, WR are first applied to simulate the dead load
the left beam, but, together with the moment arising from of the structure. Figure 21b shows the directions of mo-
joint rotation, restrains the column during the final stage ments acting on the left- and right-hand side of the joint
of loading. The moment of the right beam M^^, at first of the subassemblage. The corresponding M-6^ curves
inducing moment to the column, decreases gradually and for the left and right connections are also shown. The
at P = 26 kips reverses sign and becomes a restraining left connection will follow curve OA' and the right con-
moment to the column. On the other hand, the moment nections will follow curve OA". The moment acting on
of the left beam M^^ is always negative and thus always the column will be M^ on the left side of the joint and
restrains the column. MiR on the right side of the joint.

THIRD QUARTER / 1985 123


w. Wc Beam Loads (W,^,WR)

JTIX SPi Applied First Followed by


Column Axial Load (P)

(a)

M2L(Zr: )

(c)

M3R

(d)

F/g. 21. Schematic representation of moment transfer mechanism of a


flexibly connected subassemblage

124 ENGINEERING JOURNAL/AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION


Now, a column axial load P is applied to the subas- 8' 1^ 8'
semblage to simulate the live load. Under the action of 1*
P, the column will shorten and bend as shown by the 5K C
5k
dashed line in Fig. 21a. The moment induced due to
shortening of the column is shown in Fig. 21c. Note that '' '' ''
the directions of moments on both sides of the column tifti V ^ f
are opposite to that of Fig. 21b. Therefore, unloading of
the connections will result. As a result, the M-0,. curve
W 14x30
of the left connection will follow path A'B' and that of
the right connection will follow path A"B". The slopes
of A'B' and A'B" are parallel to the initial slopes to the -W8x31 15'
corresponding M-9^ curves.
In addition to column shortening, there is bending de-
formation in the column. As a result of bending, the joint
will rotate. If rotation is in the direction as shown in Fig.
21a, the direction of moment induced will be that as shown
in Fig. 21d. The induced moment to the left of the joint
has the same direction as that of Fig. 21b but the direc- (a) Load Sequence 1
tion of the induced moment to the right of the joint has
opposite direction to that of Fig. 21b. In other words,
the connection to the left of the columns will load while
the connection to the right of the column will unload as
a result of joint rotation.
Since the two column deformations, shortening and
bending, occur simultaneously as P applies, the phe-
nomenon depicted in Figs. 21c and 2Id are concurrent ////) mrt
events. Consequently, the connection on the left-hand
side of the column may follow path A'B' or A'C (i.e. 0.01 P
unload or load) depending on whether M2L is greater or
smaller than M-^. On the other hand, the connection on
the right-hand side of the column will always unload and 0.01 P
so it will always exhibit a restraining effect to the col-
umn. 0.01 P
To study the behavior of flexibly connected frames,
recourse to numerical methods is inevitable because of
the inherent nonlinear nature of the problem. To give the TnTf

reader an insight into the restraint characteristic between


members of flexibly-connected frames, the behavior of (b) Load Sequence 2
the following subassemblage will be discussed.
To study the behavior of flexibly connected frames, Fig. 22. Rigidly connected T-shaped subassemblage
the subassemblages shown in Figs. 22 and 23 are ana-
lyzed with the two load sequences applied as shown. The
difference between the subassemblage of Fig. 22 and Fig. in Figs. 25a and b respectively. The following obser-
23 is that rigid connections are assumed in the subas- vations can be made from the plots:
semblage of Fig. 22 and flexible connections with a mo-
1. The column is restrained against buckling even though
ment-rotation behavior of Fig. 24 are used in the subas-
the beams are preloaded. For the rigidly connected
semblage of Fig. 2 3 . The loadings for the two
subassemblage, restraint is offered by the left beam
subassemblages are identical. The two beams are first
until at P = 38 kips the right beam starts to provide
loaded at midspan with a 5-kip concentrated load in load
the restraint. At P = 54 kips, restraint is offered solely
sequence 1. The column is also loaded with a 5-kip con-
by the right beam. For the flexibly connected subas-
centrated load in load sequence 1. The column loads
semblage both beams provide the restraint to the col-
(vertical at the joint and horizontal at quarter-points of
umn.
the columns) are then applied monotonically in load se-
2. The restraining effect is more pronounced for rigid
quence 2 until a plastic hinge formed in the column.
connections than for flexible connections.
The distribution of joint moments for the rigidly con-
nected and flexibly connected subassemblages are shown The difference in moment distribution around the joint

THIRD QUARTER / 1985 125


8' 1 1 1 1 1
K

120

fhf)
^ j MB. V _L 1 ^- f
YW 1 4 x 3 0
W8x31 15' 'en
100
X^^
a /
2c 80
/

0)
f/f/i E 60
o
(a) Load Sequence 1 1

7
40

20
mu'
^ nm
^

0.01 P f 1 1 1 1
10 15 20 25
(xlO"^)
0.01 P
Rotation (radians)

0.01 P Fig. 24. Connection moment-rotation behavior


used for the T-shaped subassemblage

(b) Load Sequence 2 In Fig. 27, the magnitude of joint translation and joint
rotation as a function of the applied force P are plotted.
Fig. 23. Flexibly connected T-shaped subassemblage Although the magnitude of joint translation for both the
rigidly connected and flexibly connected subassem-
blages are comparable, the joint rotation of the flexibly
is apparent in Fig. 25. Of particular interest is the di- connected subassemblage is significantly larger than that
rection of MBL. For the flexibly connected subassem- of the rigidly connected subassemblage. As a result, the
blage, MQI is always negative whereas for the rigidly moment induced as a result of joint rotation will out-
connected subassemblage MBL is only negative at low weigh that of joint translation, hence the final value of
values of P but becomes positive at high values of P. MBL for the flexibly connected frame is negative.
The reason for this can be explained by reference to Fig. As for the right beam, regardless of whether joint
26 in which the beam end moments at the joint are de- translation or joint rotation dominates, the induced MBR
composed. At the end of load Sequence 1, M^L is neg- is almost always negative. As a result, this beam, except
ative (i.e. counterclockwise, Fig. 26a). However, as load at the initial loading stage for the rigidly connected sub-
sequence 2 commences, the induced moment MBL may assemblage, will always provide restraint to the column
be positive (i.e. clockwise. Fig. 26b) as a result of joint regardless of whether the connection is rigid or flexible.
translation or negative (i.e. counterclockwise. Fig. 26c) It should be mentioned that unloading occurs at the con-
as a result of joint rotation. Whether the final value of nection which connects the right beam to the column as
MBL is positive or negative depends on whether joint load sequence 2 commences because the direction of
translation or joint rotation dominates. moment at this location is opposite for load sequence 1

126 ENGINEERING JOURNAL/AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION


Applied Force, P(kips) 300
300 T
Rigid
Mc Mp Connections^ ^^X^
O 200 r />^
/>%.^Flexible
^^
y^^ Connection
"O ^^
^BLC - p ) I^BR a> //^
- V^^
^
"5. 100
Q. r <dr
<^
< KdT

^^
^r'^

0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25

-400 -200 200 400 600 Vertical Joint Displacement (inches)


Joint Moment (a)
(in-kips) 300 r
(a) Rigid Connection

Applied Force, P (kips)


300 T

'^BL'**^BR

Mc
2.0 2.5
(xlO"^)
Joint Rotation (radians)
(b)
Fig. 27. Joint displacement and rotation of
-400 -200 0 200 400 600
the T-shaped subassemblage
Joint Moment
. (in-kips)
(b) Flexible Connection
Fig. 25. Applied force vs. joint moment relationships and load sequence 2 (see Fig. 26). Consequently, the left
connection is offering tangent stiffness restraint to the
column whereas the right connection is offering initial
stiffness restraint.

c^; (a)
A more detailed analysis and discussion of the behav-
ior of subassemblages with flexible connections are given
elsewhere. ^^
Joint moment at the end of lood sequence 1
7. DESIGN OF COLUMNS WITH SEMI-RIGID
CONNECTIONS

( y^J\ For design purposes, if the connections are rigid, one


can just perform a first-order analysis on a trial frame.
With the end moments and axial force known for each
Translation Rotation member, an interaction formula (to be discussed in the
(b) (c) next section) can be used to check the trial sizes of the
members. However, if the connections are not rigid, then
Joint moment induced as a result of load sequence 2 care must be exercised in using the interaction equations
Fig. 26. Decomposition of joint moments in the proposed LRFD Specifications,^^ because the

THIRD QUARTER / 1985 127


maximum moment in the member as determined by Eq.
32 will not be valid anymore, since the moment ampli- / < 1.0 (40)
P' MJ M
fication factors Bi and B2 are only defined for rigidly
connected frames. where P^,, M^^, M^,^. are the design axial load and bending
One plausible solution is to use computer-aided anal- moments (required strength) about the principal axes re-
ysis and design in which a second-order analysis is per- spectively and P, Mnx and M,, are the corresponding
formed on the flexibly connected frame to determine the ultimate axial force and moment capacities of the sec-
maximum moment including the P-8 and P-A effects di- tion. Interaction equations can be linear or nonlinear. A
rectly. However, in lieu of such analysis, simplified de- linear interaction equation is an equation in which the
sign methods based on idealized connection behavior have terms P^ /P, M^ /M^, M^,y /M^y are combined together
been proposed.'^^'''"^''' linearly. A nonlinear interaction equation is one in which
these terms are combined together nonlinearly.
Additional Studies
Linear Interaction Equations
Additional studies on the role of connections in effecting
the strength and stiffness of frames have been reported The AISC/LRFD Specification, based on the exact in-
by Ackroyd,"^^ Moncarz and Gerstle"^"^ and Simitses et elastic solution of 82 beam-columns,^"^ proposed the fol-
^j 45,46,47 jj^ ^^^ ^2^ it was shown an increase in con- lowing interaction equations for sway and nonsway beam-
nection stiffness does not always result in an increase in columns
frame strength. For long-span frames only a few stories
high where the lateral loads effects are small compared for- 0.2
with gravity loads, an increase in connection stiffness
may cause a decrease in frame strength. A parameter
was defined which can be used as an index to determine < 1.0 (41)
(f),P, 9 V(j),M,, (f),M,
whether providing overstiff connections will be benefi-
cial or detrimental.
In addition to connection flexibility, another important for- <0.2
^cPn
factor that affects the limit state behavior of a frame is
panel zone deformation. The study of panel zone defor- M.
mation on frame behavior has been reported by Fielding 1.0 (42)
2(!),F, ^^M^ (f)^M,,
et al,'''^' Becker,'^ Kato'^ and Krawinkler.'' In these
studies, attention was given to the modeling of the shear The above interaction formulas are a simplification and
deformation of the panel zone. The important results of clarification of interaction Formulas 1.6.1a and 1.6.1b
these studies were summarized by the authors.^^ Re- used in the present AISC/ASD Specification.^^ Equation
cently, a finite element model of the panel zone which 1.6.1a is a check for stability and Eq. 1.6.1b is a check
can represent all modes (extension, shear, bending) of for strength. Since the amplification factor ^j can be less
deformation of the panel zone has been reported.^^ Gen- than unity in the AISC/ASD Specification, both equa-
erally speaking, the strength and stiffness of frames will tions are required to be checked in the design. However,
be reduced if the effect of panel zone deformation is taken in the AISC/LRFD Specification, since the B^ factor must
into account in the analysis procedures. be greater than unity, only one equation needs to be
It should be mentioned that since both connection checked. The applicable equation is governed by the value
flexibility and panel zone deformation have detrimental PJi;)cPn, where F is the axial force in the member, P
effects on frame strength and stiffness, particular atten- is the axial strength capacity of the member and 4)^ is
tion must be given by the designers to ensure that the the column resistance factor and has a value of 0.85.
strength of the frame is adequate and that the stability M^ and M^,,, are the maximum moment (including the
and drift will not be a problem for Type PR frames. P-8 and P-A effects) in the member which may be de-
termined from a second-order elastic analysis. However,
in lieu of such analysis, their values may be determined
8. BEAM-COLUMN INTERACTION FORMULAS from the simplified approach described in the section on
Columns in Frames.
With the end moments and axial force of a member
known, the member can be proportioned so that it can
resist these applied forces without premature failure. For Nonlinear Interaction Equations
design purposes, the proportion of the member is facil- Equations 41 and 42 are applicable to members in both
itated by the use of interaction formulas. The general braced and unbraced frames. For members in braced
form of an interaction formula is frames, the new specification also recommended a non-

128 ENGINEERING JOURNAL/AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION


linear interaction equation based on the work in Ref. 55 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0
1.0 31 1 1 1 1I 1 1 1 1 6 (ft)
for the design of I and wide-flange shapes. The equation
has the form 0.9 h
' s- 5 t - r T - I So - 9- .. -o^ - ^ ^ - ^ ^ (ave.)
" "
X X ,p X , 0 0
0.8
M,.
+ < 1.0 (43)
^bM'py, 0.7

0.6
C M C M
^^ my ^ ^-^ uy 1.0 (44)

where 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0
c: 1.0 [ -^1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 e (ft)
0
c= ^-v
P P 1 Q
CO 0.9
C=1.6- '^ u ^ y forO.5 < V ^ - 1 - 0 (45) n
L-
< X '-'
2[\n(P,Py) Q:
-J ^-^ 0.8
_5_o_ , - _ _ - ^O U.t$U
0: X X J x - ^ ^ ^o- o
- ^o .o .o T: ^ _ (ave.)

1.0 forV^>0.3 ^ 0.7


0.4 + - + ^ a>

Py d (46) ^ 0.6 1
^=S
1 forV^<0.3

bf flange width, in. Dn +Ln+Lr =50Kip Ln/Dn=3


d = member depth, in. ^'
o Dn 4 Ln + Lr =100 Kip Lr/Dn=0.2
M;. 1.2M,,[1-(P,/P,,)]<M,, (47) X Dn + L n + L r = 2 0 0 K i p L =l5ft

M' l.2M^y[l-(PJPy)]^M^y (48) Cmx= Cmy= I.O

M'^ = M^[\- (P,/ct),P,)][l - ( P . / P J ] (49) Fig. 28. Weight ratio


M' = M, [1 - {PJ<^, P)][l - {PJPJ] (50)

Design Evaluation LRFD linear equations give a more economical sec-


tion) .
At this point, it is of interest to compare design carried
out using the ASD format and the new LRFD format. The readers are referred to Ref. 56 for a more thorough
A comprehensive comparative study was reported by Zhou discussion of the comparison.
and Chen.^^ In the study, a number of nonsway beam-
columns under a specific set of force conditions were Nonlinear Interaction Equations for Box Columns
designed using both the ASD and LRFD formats. For
the LRFD format, both the linear (LRFD-Linear) and Before leaving the subject, it is necessary to discuss re-
nonlinear (LRFD-Non) interaction equations were used. cent development of the interaction equations for rec-
The result of the comparison was expressed by the weight tangular box beam-columns under biaxial loading. Based
ratios of the sections chosen using the various design on a study by Zhou and Chen,^^ the following interac-
formats and interaction equations. tions are proposed as an extension of the expressions
proposed previously by Chen and McGraw^^ for welded
Figure 28 shows one such comparison. It can be seen
square box columns under biaxial loading to the present
that for single curvature bending ( C ^ = C^y = 1), the
more general case of rectangular box cross section.
LRFD approach is generally more liberal than the ASD
For short members
approach. Figure 29 shows the distributions of the weight
ratios for the beam-columns designed using live load to
Muy
dead load {LJD^ ratios of 1, 3 and 5 respectively. A < 1.0 (51)
constant roof live load to dead load (L./D^) ratio of 0.2 +
was used for all three cases. From the figure, it can be
where
seen that
1. The smaller the LJD^ ratio is, the more liberal is the PJPy
C=1.7- (52)
LRFD approach as compared to the ASD approach. \n {PJPy)
2. The LRFD nonlinear equations will give the lightest (53)
Ml 1.2(1-F/FJM,<M
section (except in cases when b/d ratio is small and
the ratio of moment to axial force is large when the M'= 1.2(1 -PJPy)M.. M (54)

THIRD QUARTER / 1985 129


60% Ln/Dn= 5
Lr/Dn=0.2
Ln/Dn=| Lr/Dn=0.2 o
40% 40%

A r-A Q:
\
3
CD co
cr
H
CO
Q
20%
/ V/- '^^ 20%
V.^

\
W.-^ /
/
_L _L W _L _-l_ J_ w
0.6 0.7 ^1 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
<M 1^1 cvjl .
; CX)| CO CO! C30| OJ
dl dl dl *
WEIGHT (-^)
W =
WEIGHT (ASD)
40% Ln/Dn=3 /^\^
2
O Lr/Dn=0.2 / \ / \
for LRFD-non
3
CO / / ^ ^ forLRFD-Llnear
E 20%h
co \
Q _7 \
0.6 0.7
_L _w
0.8 0.9 1.0
col oo| cd >
dl dl dl ^
Fig. 29. Distribution of weight ratio

For long members 9. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS


In this paper, the state-of-the-art design philosophies with
(55) particular emphasis on the Load and Resistance Factor
KM' \ML
where Design (LRFD) format are discussed. The background
and relevant development of the design methods relating
PJP, KL
to columns and beam-columns are presented.
1.7 ^ (PyPv) > 1.1
LRFD is a limit-state design method. A valid limit-
\n (PJP,) r
state analysis and design of structures or structural mem-
1.25
M'^^M^(l-PJP^) (56) bers requires more understanding of structural behavior
and more demand on structural analysis techniques. For
example, in the AISC/LRFD Specification, a direct sec-
Pu 1.25 ond-order analysis of the structure to determine the max-
M;. = M,,,(I -pypj 1
imum design forces in the member is recommended.
in which Furthermore, an extensive use of stability theory is em-
B = width and H = depth of the cross section ployed in the development of the specification equa-
tions.
^ fo.06ifP,/P, < 0 . 4 Although first-order theory is still extensively used by
(57)
^ |0.15ifPyP, >0.4 engineers and designers in proportioning members, the
l.OifPyP, < 0 . 4 use of second-order analysis will become more and more
Z? = (58) popular in the near future. The use of more sophisticated
2.0ifP,yp', > 0 . 4
analysis techniques is enhanced by the rapid develop-
These nonlinear interaction formulas have been shown^^ ment in computer hardware and software. In particular,
to compare favorably with computer solutions and some the great advancement in microcomputers has enabled
experimental results. engineers and designers to perform fast and more effi-

130 ENGINEERING J O U R N A L / A M E R I C A N INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION


cient analysis and design of most structural members. 14. Johnston, B. G., Ed. Guide to Design Criteria for
Consequently, computer-aided analysis and design of Metal Compression Members Column Research
structure will continue to gain popularity as time pro- Council, 1960.
ceeds. 15. Bjorhovde, R. Deterministic and Probabilistic Ap-
In addition to theoretical investigations of structural proaches to the Strength of Steel Columns Ph.D.
behavior, the continued need for experimental investi- Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, Lehigh
gations is inevitable, especially in the area of connection University, Bethlehem, Pa., 1972.
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work must go in parallel paths to ensure the continued sign Criteria for Metal Stmctures 3rd Ed., John Wiley,
development of more economical and rational design New York, N.Y., 1976.
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Column Strength Curves Technical Notes ASCE
crocomputers.
Journal of the Structural Division, Vol. 105, No. STl,
New York, N.Y., January 1979, pp. 247-250.
18. Lui, E. M. and W. F. Chen Simplified Approach to
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1,427-1,441. Conference, Raleigh, N.C., May 23-25, 1977.

132 ENGINEERING JOURNAL/AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION

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