Engineering Materials

CE-500
Lecture 3
Types of Bonding in Solids
Primary bonding
Ionic bond
Covalent bond
Metallic bond
Secondary bonding
Ionic Bonding
Bonding force is coulombic (positive and negative charge)
Bonding is non-directional (equal in all directions)
Brittle and hard materials, furthermore, thermally and electrically
insulating but found conducting when melted or dissolved in liquids
Found in both metallic and nonmetallic materials
Covalent Bonding
Bonding is directional (toward sharing atoms)
Many non metallic elemental molecules (H2, Cl2, F2, etc.) as well as
dissimilar molecules (CH4, H2O, HNO3) are covalently bonded
Polymeric materials contain these bonds
For N valence electrons the atom can from 8 - N covalent bonds
The degree of ionic character (%IC) depend upon the difference in
electronegativity of the constituent atoms

XA and XB are the electronegativities

of atom A and B
 Directionality of Bond

The lack of directionality of ionic bonds stems from the isotropy (spherical
symmetry) of the electrostatic forces between ions. As has already been
pointed out, the result of this isotropy is that ions stack together in the
locations necessary to achieve the lowest energy and in this way give rise to
the common packing patterns characteristic of many ionic solids. When
deviations from stacking schemes are observed that seem to indicate that
the ions are being held in certain orientations relative to their neighbours, it
is a sign that covalent bonding is beginning to influence the structure of the
solid and that the bonding is not purely ionic. (Encyclopedia Britannica)
Metallic Bonding
The schematic shows the predictive model of metallic bond
Electron cloud hold the positively charged ions (ion cores)
The bond is non directional
Found in group IA and IIA elements and all metal elements
metals are good conductors of both electricity and heat, as
a consequence of their free electrons
at room temperature, most metals and their alloys fail in a
ductile manner;
Conversely, at room temperature ionically bonded
materials are intrinsically brittle
Secondary Boning/van der Waals Bonding
An electric dipole exists whenever there is some separation of
positive and negative portions of an atom or molecule
The bonding results from the coulombic attraction between the
positive end of one dipole and the negative region of an adjacent one
Dipoles Interactions
Fluctuating induced dipole bonds (between dipoles)
Polar molecule induced dipole bonds (between dipole and polar
molecule)
Permanent dipole bonds (between polar molecules)
Fluctuating induced dipole bonds
(between dipoles)
Atomic vibration induce the distortion in the symmetry of
electron around the nucleus causing dipoles to form which in
turn render the neighbor atom to become dipole and attract
each other
The bond is very weak (induced in the liquefaction of inert gases)

Symmetric atom Induced dipole

Polar molecule induced dipole bonds
(between dipole and polar molecule)
A permanent dipole is formed when an asymmetrical (not symmetric)
distribution of electron is generated within the molecule due to
negative and positive charge, the molecule is called Polar molecule
Polar molecule can attract another non polar molecule to from the
secondary bond (e.g. HCl)
The bond is stronger than the first type of secondary bond
Permanent dipole bonds
(between polar molecules)
Secondary bond exist between polar molecules and it is the strongest
of all types of secondary bonding
Hydrogen bonding is an example of this type
When hydrogen forms a covalent bond with highly electronegative
atoms (O, F, N etc) this results in a highly positive charged end
Melting point of water is high!

Positively charged proton

Crystal Structure
Atoms may be arranged in repeating array (crystal) or in random
manner (amorphous)
All metals and some ceramics and polymers are crystalline
The spatial arrangement of the atoms of crystals is called crystal
structure (maybe simple as in metals or complex as in
polymers/ceramics)
Crystal Structure
Crystal lattice is 3D array of a repeating boxes called unit cells
A unit cell is a smallest element of the crystal lattice.
It contains all of the structural and symmetry information of the
crystal structure
Metallic Crystal Structure
Due to non directional bond atoms are tightly packed
Three types of crystal structures are found in metals
Face-centered cubic
body-centered cubic
hexagonal close-packed
Face-centered Cubic Crystal Structure
Atoms located at each of the corners and the centers of all the cube
faces
Metals like copper, aluminum, silver, and gold possess this crystal
structure
the cube edge length a and the atomic radius R are related as
= 2 2
each corner atom is shared among eight unit cells, and face-centered
atom belongs to only two
total of four whole atoms are assigned to a given unit cell
Face-centered Cubic Crystal Structure
Coordination number is the number of nearest-neighbor or touching
atoms
For face-centered cubics, the coordination number is 12
APF (atomic packing factor) is the sum of the sphere volumes of all
atoms within a unit cell divided by the unit cell volume i.e.

For the FCC structure, the atomic packing factor is 0.74

Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
Cubic unit cell with atoms located at all eight corners and a single
atom at the cube center
the cube edge length a and the atomic radius R are related as

Chromium, iron, tungsten possess this structure

Two atoms are associated with each BCC unit cell
coordination number for the BCC crystal structure is 8 while APF is
0.68
Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure
It consists of three plane top, bottom and mid plane which contain 7,
7 and 3 atoms respectively
The equivalent of six atoms is contained in each unit cell
If a and c represent the short and long unit cell dimensions then ratio
should be 1.633
coordination number and the atomic packing factor for the HCP
crystal structure are 12 and 0.74
The HCP metals include cadmium, magnesium, titanium, and zinc
Theoretical density () of metals