3.

RESIDENCETIMEDISTRIBUTIONANDREACTORPERFORMANCE

Letusassumeforthemomentthatwecancalculatefromtheknowledgeoftheflow
patterntheRTDofthesystemorthatwecanreadilyobtainitexperimentallyonareactor
prototype.IsthereactorperformanceuniquelydeterminedbyitsRTD?Thisseemstobe
apertinentquestiontoask.

WealreadyknowthateveryflowpatternhasauniqueRTD. Unfortunately agiven

RTDdoesnotdeterminetheflowpatternuniquely.Twoexamplestoillustratethisare
shownbelow.

EXAMPLE1:

1a.
Q Q Q
PFR xA1 xA2
V/2 CSTR
V/2

1b.
Q Q Q
PFR
CSTR xA1' xA2'
V/2
V/2

FIGURE1:SchematicoftwosystemswiththesameRTD.

TheEfunctionforbothsystem1aand1bis:

1
2
3
4
5
6
where

7
8
9
t
10
istheHeaviside'sunitstepfunction.

2
_
t

exponentialdecay
E(t)

t
_t
2

FIGURE2:Impulseresponseofbothsystems1aand1b.

EXAMPLE2:

2a.
Q Q

2b.
Q aQ
a
(1)Q

aV
Q

a
(1)V

FIGURE3:SchematicoftwoflowsystemswiththeexponentialEcurve.

11
TheEcurveforbothsystems2aand2bis:

12
13
14
15
 1_
t

E(t) exponential

FIGURE4:Impulseresponseforsystems2a)and2b).

IftheRTDofthereactordeterminesitsperformanceuniquely,thensystems1aand1b
shouldyieldthesameconversionforallreactionorders.Systems2aand2bshouldalso
behavealike.Wesuspectthatthiswillnotbethecasebecausewerecallthatreaction
ordershigherthanonewillgivehigherconversionsifmixingisdelayed,andhencewe
suspectthatsystem1awillperformbetterthan1bandsystem2bbetterthan2a.Fora
first order process conversion is entirely determined by the residence time of the
individualreactantelementsinthereactor,notbytheirsurroundingsinthereactor,and
hencewesuspectthatsystems1aand1bwillperformthesame,andsystems2aand2b
willperformalike.Forreactionorderslessthanonewesuspectthatthebehaviorwillbe
theoppositetothatfororderslargerthanone.

Let us consider first a 1st order irreversible reaction at constant temperature and of
constantdensityinsystems1aand1b.

SYSTEM1a:

16
17
18
SecondreactorCSTR:

19
20
21
Hence,

22
23
SYSTEM1b:

24
FirstreactorCSTR:

25
26
27
SecondreactorPFR:

28
29
30
31
32
33
JustasweexpectedtheperformanceofthesystemisentirelydeterminedbyitsRTDfora
firstorderreaction.Thiscanreadilybegeneralizedtoanarbitrarynetworkoffirstorder
processes.

Nowconsidera2ndorderirreversiblereactiontakingplaceinsystem1.

SYSTEM1a:

34
35
36
SecondreactorCSTR:

37
38
39
40
SYSTEM1b:

41
FirstreactorCSTR:

42
43
44
SecondreactorPFR:

45
46
47
48
49
50
NotethatbothexpressionsforconversionareafunctionoftheDamkohlernumberforthe

51
system,where .

52
53
54
55
56
57
58
ThetablebelowcomparestheresultsforvariousvaluesoftheDamkohlernumber.

59
60
61
62
You should plot now You will find that

63
 .

64
When is this difference larger, at low or high values of

65
D
66
?

67
For a reaction of half order

68
69
weget

70
71
72
forsystem1a

73
74
75
forsystem1b

76
77
78
79
Youshouldchecktheaboveexpressionsanddrawyourownconclusions byplotting

80
81
and

82
83
.

Letusnowconsidersystem2andalstorderirreversiblereaction.

SYSTEM2a:

84
85
86
SYSTEM2b:

87
88
89
istheexitreactantconcentrationfromthe1stCSTR.

90
91
92
istheexitreactantconcentrationfromthe 2ndCSTR.

93
Thebalancearoundthemixingpointwherethetwostreamsjoinyields:

94
C
95
C
96
Hence,

97
98
99
Foranexercise considerSystem 2anda2ndorderreaction andthenazerothorder
reaction.Aretheconversionsnowdifferent?Why?

100
3.1 SEGREGATEDFLOWMODEL

TheaboveexamplesdemonstratethattheRTDofthereactordeterminesitsperformance
uniquelyincaseoffirstorderprocesses.Inafirstorderprocessconversionisdetermined
by the time spent by individual fluid reactant elements in the reactor, not by their
environmentinthereactor. Letusgeneralizethisconceptuallyinthefollowingway.
Assumethatalltheelementsoftheinflowcanbepackagedintolittleparcelsseparated
byinvisiblemembranesofnovolume.Mixingamongvariousparcelsisnotpermitted,
i.e noelementscancrossthemembranes(parcelwalls)exceptattheveryreactorexit
wherethemembranesvanishandthefluidismixedinstantaneouslyonmolecularlevel.

101
Consider the life expectation density function of the inflow

102
103
anddefineitas

104
105
106
=(fractionoftheelementsoftheinflowwithlifeexpectancybetween

107
108
) (54)

109
Clearly, due to steady state, if we look at the inflow at time

110
111
andifwecouldsubstituteamongwhitefluidaparcelofredfluidfortheelementsofthe
inflow of life expectancy,

112
113
, then

114
115
secondslatertheredparcelwouldappearattheoutletandwouldrepresenttheelements

116
117
. Hence, at steady

118
119
120
(55)

121
Hopefully,itiscleartoeveryonethatsincetheflowrateisconstant,andtherecanbeno
accumulation, the fraction of the fluid entering with life expectancy of

122
123
must equal the fraction of the fluid exiting with residence time

124
125
. Thismeansthatwecanconsiderthateachofourhypotheticalparcelsformedatthe
nletengulfsthefluidofthesamelifeexpectancy.Whenparcelsreachtheexit,eachparcel
illcontainfluidofthesameresidencetimespecifictothatparcel.Since,thereis
noexchangebetweenparcelsduringtheirstayinthereactor,eachcanbeconsideredab
tchreactor.Thereactantconcentrationattheoutflowisthenobtainedbymixingallthe
arcels of all residence times in

126
127
128
129
130
C
131
132
133
134
(56)

135
where

136
137
is obtained from the reactant mass

138
139
140
 (57)

Nowfora1storderirreversiblereaction:

141
142
143
 (58)

sothat

144
145


146
The above expression is nothing else but the Laplace transform of the

147
E
148
function evaluated at

149
150
,i.e,Laplacetransformvariabletakesthenumericalvalueoftherateconstant.
Conversioncanthenbecalculatedas:

151
152
Usingtheaboveformulaweget:

153
Forsystem1:

154
155
(59a)

156
Forsystem2:

157
158
(59b)

159
In terms of dimensionless quantities,

160
161
,andforafirstorderreactionwecanwrite:

162
163
Themodelthatwehavejustdevelopediscalledthe segregatedflow modelbecauseit
assumes that the fluid elements that enter together always stay together and are
surroundedatalltimesbythefluidelementsofthesameage,exceptattheoutletwhere
they finally mix intimately with elements of all ages in proportion dictated by the

164
residence time density function

165
166
.Afluidforwhichthismodelisapplicablebehavesasamacrofluidandhastheten
encyoftravellinginclumps.Aswehaveseenthesegregatedflowmodelgivestheexact
prediction of performance for 1st order reactions, but formula (56) is general and
redicts exit concentration for any reaction order for a macro fluid. However, for

167
nonlinear rate forms,

168
169
,aswehaveseenfromourexamples,reactorperformancedoesnotonlydependonthe

170
171
the exact performance but perhaps predicts a bound on the performanc

172
173
174
 (60)

Wherefornthorderirreversiblekinetics

175
176
d
177
(61)

178
Forannthorderreactioneq.(60)giveseithertheupperorlowerboundonconversion
depending on the concavity (convexity) of the x A vs

179
180
curve.Wealwaysexpecttoobtainhigherconversioninasystemwherethereactionrate
ontheaverageishigher.Eq.(60)requiresthatmixingbetweenfluidelementsofvarious
agesoccursonlyattheexit.Letusconsideronlytwofluidelementsofequalvolumebut
differentage,andhencedifferentreactantconcentration,andletusexaminehowmixing
orlackofitaffectsthereactionrateforthesystemcomprisedofthesetwoelements.We

181
consider the rate obtainable if the elements are first intimately mixed,

182
183
, and the rate if they remain unmixed,

184
185
.Thesetworatesare:

186
187
188
 (62)

r r r

r2 rm
rav
rm rav rav
r1 rm

CA1 CAm CA2 CA CA CAm CA2 CA CA CAm CA2 CA

189
FIGURE5: IllustrationoftheEffectofMixingorNomixingontherateforreaction
oforders

190
191
Rate vs reactant concentration is plotted for reaction orders of

192
193
in Figure 5. The two fluid elements have concentrations

194
195
respectively, and the corresponding rates are

196
197
Ifthefluidelementsdonotmix,butreacteachatitsownrate,theaverageratelieson
the chord connecting the points

198
199
and is

200
201
. Ifthetwofluidelementsaremixedfirst,theconcentrationinthemixedelementof
double volume is

202
203
, the rate at this new concentration is

204
205
and lies at the rate vs concentration curve evaluated at the abcissa of

206
207
. Clearly then, whenever the cord lies above the curve (the curve is concave up)

208
209
andlatemixing,orfluidsegregationbyage,leadstoincreasedrateandlargerconversion.

210
Whenthecordisalwaysbelowthecurve thenlatemixingorfluidsegregation

211
leadstoreducedratesandreducedconversion.Forfirstorderreactionsmicromixing,i.e.

Theabovediscussioncanbegeneralized(seeE.B.NaumanandB.A.Buffham,Mixingin
ContinuousFlowSystems,Wiley,1983)andaproofcanbegiventhatforallmonotonic

212
rate forms for which

213
214
thesegregatedflowmodelgivestheupperboundonconversion,whileforthemonotonic
rate forms for which

215
216
the segregated flow model gives the lower bound on conversion. For first order
processes

217
218
thesegregatedflowmodelgivestheexactprediction.

Intermsofourexamples,thesegregatedflowmodelpredictionfora2ndorderreaction
forScheme1is:

219
220
221
(63)

222
223
d
224
 (64)

Sothatuponintegrationweget

225
226
227
 (65)

Substitutingthisintotheaboveequation(63)yields:

228
229
230
(66)

Uponsubstitutioninthesecondintegralof

231
232
233
(67)

234
weget

235
236
237
(68)

238
Again it is instructive to plot

239
240
for segregated flow vs

241
D
242
andcompareittothetwomodelsbasedonidealreactorconceptsforsystem1aand1b.Y
u can find the values

Thesegregatedflowmodelrepresentsausefullimitingbehaviorofthesystemandgives
aboundonperformanceformonotonicrateforms.It'srequirementsare:i)thatthefluid
besegregatedbyage,andii)thatmixingbetweenelementsofvariousagesoccursatthe
latestpossibletime,i.e.onlyatthereactorexit.Thus,everypointinthesystemhasits

243
own age i.e. the point age density function in the system is a delta function

244
245
isthemeanageforthepointunderconsideration.

Considerthesketchbelowasarepresentationofthesegregatedflowmodel:

a a + Da
VI (a )Da VI (a + Da )Da
Q

QDa E (a)Da
Q

FIGURE6a: SchematicoftheSegregatedFlowModelforAlltheFluid.

246
An element of volume of the system occupied by fluid elements of age between

247
248
.Thus,thevolumescale,V,wherevolumeismeasuredfromthereactorentrance,and
theagescaleareproportionalandpointinthesamedirection.Wewantnowtomakea

249
balance on all fluid elements of age between

250
251
, i.e. in the differential volume,

252
253
assketchedinthefigure.

254
Wecanwrite:

255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
where

263
264
.Nowwiththehelpofagedensityfunctionstheabovecanbewrittenas

265
266
267
 (69)

Usingthemeanvaluetheoremweget:

268
269
270
Takingthelimitas

271
272
yields

V I(a + Da ) I(a )
lim = lim E(a) (69)
Q Da 0 Da D a O

dI
t = E (a ) (70)
da
a = I = 0 (70a)

273
Wehavederived,basedontheabove,thealreadywellknownrelationshipbetweentheI
and

274
E
275
function.

276
Now,basedontheabovemodelframework,wefocusonthereactantA(seeFigure6B).
Wemakeabalanceonthefluidelementsofreactantbetweenage

277
278
 a

Q VI (a )CA (a )D a VI (a + Da )C A (a + Da )Da
VI (a )DarA Da
C Ao

QDa C A (a)E(a)Da
Q
C Aout

FIGURE6b: SchematicoftheSegregatedFlowModelforReactantA.

279
280
281
(Reactantelementsinthereactorofageabout

282

283
)

284
(Reactantelementsintheoutflowofageabout

285
286

collectedduring

287
288
)

289
(Reactantelementsinthereactorofageabout

290
291
thatreactintoproductduringtime interval

292
293
).

294
295
296
(71)

297
Here

298
299
is defined as positive for the rate of disappearance of reactant

300
301
. It is multiplied by

302
303
sincethisisthetimeduringwhichthereactiontakesplace.

304
Dividingby

305
306
andtakingthelimitas

307
 weget:

308
309
310
311
312
313
314
(72)

315
316
t
317
(73)

318
Thisissatisfiedforall

319

320
onlyif

321
322
d
323
 (74)

Reorganizingthisweget:

324
325
326
 (75)
whichisthereactantmassbalanceinabatchsystem!

Theoutflowisnowrepresentedbysummingandaveragingthecompositionofallside
streamsthatformtheexitstream(seeFigure6).

327
328
329
 (76)

whichisthesegregatedflowmodel.

ItwasZwietering(Chem.Eng.Sci.11,1(1959))whorealizedthatthesegregatedflow
modelrepresentsonelimitonmicromixingwithintheconstraintsimposedbytheRTDof
thesystem, i.erepresentssegregationbyageandmixingonmolecularscaleaslateas
possible, i.e.onlyattheexit.Thenecessaryconditionsforthesegregatedflowmodel
canthenbeexpressedbytherequirement that everypointinthesystemhasadelta

330
function age density function

331
332
sothatmixingofmoleculesofvariousagesispermittedonlyattheexit.

333
3.2 MaximumMixednessModel

Besidesclassifyingthefluidelementsaccordingtotheirage,onecanalsogroupthem
according totheirlife expectation, wherelifeexpectancy isthetime thatwillelapse
betweenthetimeofobservationofthesystemandthemomentwhenthefluidelement
leaves the system. In this manner each fluid element could be characterized by its

334
residence time

335
t
336
so that

337
338
Attheentrance,i.e.intheinfloweachfluidelementhasalifeexpectancyequalto
itsresidencetime.Thelifeexpectationdensityfunctionfortheelementsoftheinflow,as

339
seen before, equals the exit age density function

340
341
Eachfluidelementoftheoutflowhaszerolifeexpectationandanageequaltoitsresi
ncetime,andtheagedensityfunctionisthedensityfunctionofresidencetimes. The

342
fluid elements in the system are distributed in their age,

343
344
, and life expectancy,

345
346
. The number of elements in the system of life expectancy about

347
348
,mustequalthenumberofelementsofage,ifsteadystateatconstantvolumeistobe
aintained.Thus,thelifeexpectationdensityfunctionoftheelementsinthesystemequals

349
the internal age density function

350
351
Wecannowviewmicromixing,i.e.mixingprocessonsmallscaledowntomolecular
level,tobeatransitionofthefluidelementsfromsegregationbyagetosegregationby
lifeexpectation.Namely,atthereactorentranceallfluidelementsaresegregatedbyage

352
and have the same age of

353
354
and are distributed in life expectation with the density function

355
356
. Atthereactorexitallfluidelementsaresegregatedbylifeexpectationandhavelife
expectation

357
358
while they are distributed by age with the density function

359
360
.Thedetailsofthistransitionfromsegregationbyagetosegregationbylifeexpe
tationcouldonlybedescribedwiththecompleteknowledgeoftheflowpatternandturbulent
fields.However,justlikeitwaspossibletodescribeonelimitonmicromixing(the
latestpossiblemixing)bythesegregatedflowmodelbymaintainingsegregationbyage
ntilzerolifeexpectancywasreachedforeachelementofthesystem,itisalsopossiblet
describetheotherlimi tonm icromixing.Thisotherlimitoftheearliestpossible
ixing,orthemaximum mixedness model,isobtained byrequiringthatallelements o
variousagesareassembled(segregated)bytheirlifeexpectancy.Zwieteringsuggestedan
proved (Chem. Eng. Sci. ll,

361
a) Allfluidelementswithinanypointofthesystemhavethesamelifeexpectancy,
i.e. the point life expectancy density function is a delta function

362
363
,andallelementsofthepointexittogether.

364
b) All points with equal life expectation

365
366
 areeithermixedoratleasthaveidenticalinternalagedistribution.

These conditions express the requirement that all the elements, which will leave the
systematthesametimeandhencewillbemixedattheoutflow,aremixedalreadyduring
allthetimethattheystayinthesystem. Thismeansthattheelementsofthelongest
residencetimearemetandmixedconstantlywithelementsoflesserresidencetimes,but
which have the same life expectancy and with which they will form the outflow.
Schematicallytheconceptualmaximummixednessmodelcanbedescribedassketched
below.

v l

l + Dl
l
VI (l + Dl )C A (l + Dl )Dl VI (l )C A (l )Dl
()
VI l Dl rA Dl
Q
C A (l = 0)

Q
()
QDl C Ao E l Dl

CAo

FIGURE7: SchematicoftheMaximumMixidnessModelforReactantA.

367
The life expectation scale runs opposite to the volume scale of the system which is

368
countedfromtheinlet. Thus representstheelementofreactorvolume

369
occupied by the fluid of life expectancy between

370
371
and

372
373
because at

374
375
and at

376
377
Themodelschematicallyshowsthatwehavedistributedtheinletflowaccordingtoits
lifeexpectationandaremixingitwiththefluidofotheragesbutwiththesamelife
expectation.

378
We can now write a balance on all fluid elements between life expectation

379
380
381
(Elementsofthesystemwithlifeexpectancyabout

382
383
)=

384
(Elementsofthesystemwithlifeexpectancyabout

385
386
+

387
388
)

389
(Elementsoftheinflowoflifeexpectancyabout

390
391

addedtothesystemduringtime

392
393
)

394
where

395
396
.

397
Then

398
399
 (77)

400
Takingthelimitas

401
402
yields:

403
404
405
406
407
408
(78)

l I = 0 (78a)

409
Again we have derived the known relationship between the

410
I
411
and

412
E
413
function.

414
Letusmakenowa balanceonallfluidreactantelementsbetweenlifeexpectancy

415
416
(RefertoFigure7).

417
(Reactantelementsinthesystemoflifeexpectancyabout

418
419
)=

420
(Reactantelementsinthesystemoflifeexpectancyabout

421
422
+

423
424
)

425
(Reactantelementsoflifeexpectancyabout

426
427

addedtothesystemduringtime

428
429
)

430
(Reactantelementsoflifeexpectancyabout

431
432

thathavereactedduringtime

433
434
 (79)

435
Takingthelimitas

436


437
438
439
440
441
d
442
(80)

or

443
444
445
 (80a)

This is the governing differential equation for the maximum mixedness model. For
elementsofextremelylargelifeexpectationthechangeinreactantconcentrationissmall.
Therefore,theproperboundaryconditionis

446
447
448
(80b)

449
In practical applications of the maximum mixedness model one evaluates

450
451
byimplementingcondition(80b)intoeq.(80a)andsolving

452
453
454
(81)

455
Once

456
457
is obtained from eq (81), eq (80a) can be integrated backwards from

458
459
where the desired exit reactant concentration

460
461
isobtained.Fornumericalintegrationonecannotuseaninfiniteintegrationrange.Then

462
463
isoftenchosentorepresentinfinity bycheckingthatatsuchhigh

464
values of

465
466
is almost zero. Anothe

467
(a)

468
 (82a
or

469
(b)

470
471
472
473
This still introduces a singularity at

474
475
andspecialprecautionhastobetakentointegrateeq(80a)properly.

476
ThemaximummixednessmodelofZwieteringgivenbyeqs.(80a)and(81)givesusthe
lower bound on conversion for monotonic rate forms with

477
478
and upper bound on conversion for monotonic rates with

479
480
.

Now the segregated flow and maximum mixedness model boundtheperformance of

reactorsforallmonotonicrateexpressionsprovidedthereactorRTDisknown. These
modelsareextremelyimportantconceptually. Inpractice,theiruseislimitedbyour
inabilitytoknowreactorRTDsapriori.

ThesemodelscanbequiteusefulinassessingtheperformanceofaCSTRforwhichbya
tracertestitcanbeproventhattherearenostagnanciesandnobypassingandthattheE
curve is exponential. For water and liquid hydrocarbons the power input is usually
sufficienttogeneratesmalleddies. Kolmogoroff'sisotropicturbulencetheorypredicts
thatthemicroscaleofturbulence(i.ethesmallestsizeofturbulenteddiesbelowwhich
turbulentvelocityfluctuationsarehighlydampedbymolecularviscosity)isgivenby:

(83)

481
 482
where is the
kinematicviscosityofthefluidand istheenergydissipatedperunitmass. Inwater

483
484
.Thecharacteristicdiffusiontimethenis

485
486
487
 (84)

Waterandlowerchainhydrocarbonsarelikelytobehavelikeamicrofluid,andaCSTR
atsufficientenergydissipationwilloperateatmaximummixednessconditionexceptfor
veryfastreactionsandunpremixedfeeds, i.e.forreactionswithcharacteristicreaction

488
time

489
490
.

491
However in highly viscous polymer systems or larger and

492
493
. Then

494
495
and a CSTR with a premixed feed is likely to behave as in a segregated flow mo
e. Remembe

496
ForaCSTR

497
498
andeq(5a)leadstothecondition:

499
500
501
(85)

502
503
504
, eq (80a) is satisfied by eq (85) for all

505
506
. Therefore andisgivenbysolutionofeq(81)whichrepresentstheclassicalidea
reactordesignequationforaCSTRmixedonamolecularlevel.Naturally,thereacta
tconcentrationinaperfectlymixedCSTRinallfluidelementsisthesameandindepen

Thus,foraCSTR,thesegregatedflowmodelyields:

507
508
509
 (86)

andthemaximummixednessmodelgives

510
511
512
. (87)

OntheotherhandforaPFR,thesegregatedflowmodelgives

513
514
515
(88)

516
MaximummixednessmodelforaPFR,uponreflection,showsthatcondition(81)isnot
valid, and must be replaced, due to the presence of a

517
518
ineq(80a),by

519
520
521
 (89)

Theneq(80a)becomes

522
523
d
524
 (90)

IfwesubstitutethemaximummixednessPFRequationbecomes

525
526
d
527
(91)

528
529
530
(92)

531
and the desired exit concentration is given by

532
533
whichisexactlytheexpressiongivenaboveforthesegregatedflowmodel.

BecausethePFRmodelanditsRTDprohibitmixingofelementsofdifferentages,there
isnodifferenceinthepredictionofthesegregatedfloworthe maximummixedness
model.Theybothyieldanidenticalresult.

ItremainsforthereadertoshowthatafirstorderreactioninasystemofanyRTD(not
thatofaCSTRorPFR)yieldsthesameresultaccordingtothesegregatedflowmodel

534
535
536
 (93)

andthemaximummixednessmodel

537
538
539
(94)

540
541
542
(95)

543
Oneshouldnotethatthefunctionappearingintheaboveformulationofthemaximum
mixedness model, i.e.

544
545
hasspecialsignificance,iscalledtheintensityfunctionandisveryusefulinevaluationof
stagnancyorbypassingwithinthesystemasdescribedintheprevioussection.

L Fluidpassesthroughthevesselinaregularfashion.The
longerthefluidelementhasbeeninthevessel(thelarger
itsage)themoreprobablethatitwillexitinthenexttime
interval.
t
L Bypassing.Somefluidhasincreasedprobabilityof
leavingataveryyoungage.Restofthefluidbehaves
normally.
t
L Stagnancy.Aftermainflowleavestheprobabilityofthe
fluidcaughtindeadzonestoexitdecreasesuntilvery
largeagesarereachedatwhichpointallfluidmust
ultimatelyleave.
t

ForaCSTR ForaPFR

1 L
L
t

t
t t

3.3 OtherMicromixingModels

Attemptshavebeenmadetocharacterizetheintermediatelevelsofmicromixingbetween
theextremesofsegregatedflowandmaximummixednessbyappropriatemodels.Early
onDanckwerts(1951)andlaterZwietering(1952)introducedthedegreeofsegregation
asameasureofmicromixinginthesystemandproposedwaystoevaluatethismeasure
experimentallyortocalculateitfromthemodels.

KeyClassicalReferences:

546
1. Danckwerts,P.V.,Chem.Eng.Science,2,1(1953)
2. Danckwerts,P.V.,Chem.Eng.Science,8,93(1953)
3. Zwietering,T.W.,Chem.Eng.Science,77,1(1959)

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