Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Articles
Received for publication, October 10, 2007, and in revised form, January 31, 2008
Thomas Eberlein, Jack Kampmeier, Vicky Minderhout, Richard S. Moog||, Terry Platt,
Pratibha Varma-Nelson, and Harold B. White||||
From the School of Science, Engineering, and Technology, Pennsylvania State University-Harrisburg,
Middletown, Pennsylvania 17057-4898, Department of Chemistry, University of Rochester, Rochester,
New York 14627-0216, Department of Chemistry, Seattle University, Seattle, Washington 98122,
||Department of Chemistry, Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Pennsylvania 17604, Department
of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York 14627-0211, Department of Chemistry,
Northeastern Illinois University, Chicago, Illinois 60625-4699, and Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716-2522
Problem-based learning, process-oriented guided inquiry learning, and peer-led team learning are stu-
dent-centered, active-learning pedagogies commonly used in science education. The characteristic fea-
tures of each are compared and contrasted to enable new practitioners to decide which approach or
combination of approaches will suit their particular situation.
Keywords: PBL, POGIL, PLTL, active-learning, student-centered, pedagogy.
Pedagogy
Points of comparison PBL POGIL PLTL
A. Fundamental aspects 1. Purpose To promote higher-order thinking skills; to help students learn to reason though problems, instead of using
algorithmic approaches; to build conceptual understanding through active engagement with the material; to
foster growth in teamwork and collaborative problem-solving skills
2. Theoretical basis (why it works) Constructivist ideas of Dewey Constructivism and the learning cycle Constructivism and zone of
and Piaget proximal development
3. Particular emphases Need-to-know learning Learning cycle format Peer-led learning team
B. Classroom characteristics: 1. Are lectures retained? Sometimes No Yes
Set-up; Roles and 2. Course format or supplemental Course format Course format Supplemental, but integral to course
responsibilities;
Materials and methods 3. Group problem solving sessions During normal class hours; usually, all groups in the same room Extra sessions usually held outside
normal class hours; each group in
a separate room
4. Is the course grader present? Yes Yes No
5. Group work a. By whom? Instructor (6peer facilitators) Instructor Peer leaders
facilitation: b. What do they do? Instructor circulates, peer Instructor circulates among groups Peer leader stays with one group,
tutors promote interaction intervening only if necessary promotes group interaction
within a group
c. Training? Facilitator training course, or Attend POGIL workshops; nd Orientation, weekly faculty/leader
pre-semester training materials at POGIL website meetings; leader training course
sessions
6. Nature of the a. Problem types Complex, open-ended, real Structured by learning cycle: Similar to most challenging
problems/in-class world, deliberately vague exploration, invention, application examination problems; structured
student work (sometimes) for group work
sessions: b. Duration Varies; can range from a One activity lasts one period; One session lasts for 12 hr, with
single class to an entire unnished portions are homework many problems per session
semester
c. Problem sources Primary literature; reworked Published workbooks; problem sets adapted from workbooks by the
stories of case-based instructor; problem sets of the instructors own creation; websites
issues
7. How are concepts treated? Problems drive concept Develop concepts through group work, Probe and apply concepts
discovery on a need-to- reinforce w/ application introduced in text, lecture, and
know basis homework
8. In-class textbook use? Textbook, if any, used as one Textbook not used in class; reading Textbook is resource for problem
of many resources done after group work except in solving work sessions
upper division courses
9. Groups a. Ideal group size 45 (some use 810) 35 68
b. Permanent groups Yes No Yes
10. Students a. Responsibility of Students must do individual Students must each play their assigned Students must each prepare
responsibilities individuals to the group research to bring back to roles to ensure effective group work adequately to make worthwhile
group contributions to the group effort
b. Groups responsibility Individuals have a responsibility to the group, but the group also has a responsibility to each individual to
to its members ensure a shared understanding of the concepts developed and/or reinforced in the group work session
11. Class size limits (scalability) Ideal class size <30 Ideal class size <30 students. Many No restrictions on class size.
students. Managing larger techniques available for adapting to Limited only by peer leaders and
groups is doable, and large classes meeting rooms availability
BAMBED, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 262273, 2008
similar to PLTL
TABLE 1
(Continued)
Pedagogy
Points of comparison PBL POGIL PLTL
C. Out-of-class: 1. Preparation a. By instructor Prepare appropriate problems; prepare Prepare group activity and quiz; Prepare workshop materials;
Preparation; for class tutors for facilitation anticipate problems prepare peer leaders for
Follow-up; Grading facilitation
b. By students Students individually gather information Complete previous activity and related Students complete all related
for addressing reading; prepare for quiz, or reading and homework relevant
learning issues, and prepare to complete assignments in upper to upcoming workshop
share their ndings with group division
c. By facilitators Weekly tutor meeting with instructor; Instructor is the facilitator Weekly peer leader meeting; leaders
plus separate course complete workshop as though
they were students
2. Homework a. Types of problems Students conduct research for Exercises and problems related to (Homework from lecture class)
addressing learning issues group work; textbook problems
b. Use of textbook Multiple resources are necessary, and Textbook reading in intro courses done Textbook is for reading and
usually include the text, after the group work has led to the homework problems, as in any
internet, primary literature, review formation of an important concept, lecture course; completed before
articles, and seeking variable in upper courses the workshop
out experts
3. Grading a. In-class group work Major effect on course grade from Some credit usually assigned for group Workshop attendance and
attendance, participation, work, attendance, and participation participation usually does not
preparation, and attitude have direct effect on grade
b. Tests Tests can include group effort Tests usually involve only individual work
D. Miscellaneous 1. Proven outcomes PBL has most often been used in Decreased DFW rates, increased proportion of quality (ABC) grades; increase
medical schools; data on persistence to higher-level classes; no reduction in standardized test scores;
outcomes are harder to come by other benets
2. Benets for peer facilitators Authentic teaching experience helps N/A Authentic teaching experience helps
leaders with their own leaders with their own learning;
learning; develops leadership skills develops leadership skills
3. Required resources Recruitment, training, and Same resources required as for Recruitment, training, and
compensation for (peer) tutors ordinary lecture courses compensation for peer leaders;
need rooms for group work
265
266 BAMBED, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 262273, 2008
used most extensively in small classes, it has been 6) Institutional and departmental support of innova-
adapted for classes as large as several hundred with tive teaching methods is essential, including logis-
much success [26, 27]. tical and nancial support.
The essential elements for POGIL implementation are
the use of small, self-managed groups of students; the
role of the instructor as facilitator; the use of specially THEORETICAL BASES FOR THE PXNL PEDAGOGIES
designed activities that generally follow the learning cycle Being the oldest of the PXnL pedagogies, PBL has
paradigm; and the emphasis on development of process evolved and diversied the most in its practice [30, 31].
skills in addition to mastering course content. Although hybridization with other approaches has
occurred, it demands more student independence than
PLTL or POGIL. The originators of PBL in medical
schools in the 1960s certainly had a sense of what did or
Peer-Led Team Learning [28] did not promote learning [6, 32]; however, they were not
motivated by educational theory. Only more recently has
Unlike PBL and POGIL, PLTL supplements, but gen-
learning theory been applied to the practice of PBL [33].
erally does not replace, lecture time with group work
The constructivist ideas of Dewey [34] and Piaget [35]
sessions called workshops. There are no inherent
underlie much of todays PBL practice. From that per-
restrictions on the size of the class. Under the PLTL
spective, instructors engage students with new challeng-
model, undergraduate students who have done well in
ing experiences and guide them to use those experien-
the class previously are recruited and trained as work-
ces to build and construct their own meaning and
shop leaderspeer leaderswho guide the efforts
understanding.
of a group of six to eight students. These peer-led
Although PLTL and POGIL also have constructivist
groups meet weekly (separate from the lecture and the
underpinnings, they were motivated more by specic
instructor) to work together on problems that are care-
concepts in learning than PBL. PLTL emphasizes the
fully structured to help the students build conceptual
social aspects of learning developed by Vygotsky [36,
understanding and problem-solving skills. There are no
37], in which the peers are often better catalysts for
answer keys for either the students or the peer-lead-
learning than the superiors [29]. Vygotsky argued that
ers; the emphasis is on learning to nd, evaluate, and
learning is essentially social and that there is a gap (the
build condence in answers. Simultaneously, the work-
zone of proximal development or the ZPD) between
shops and the peer leaders provide a supportive envi-
learning outcomes produced in isolation and the level of
ronment that helps each student participate actively in
potential development that can be achieved through col-
the process of learning science. Thus, PLTL offers a
laboration with capable peers. PLTL situates students in
mix of active-learning opportunities for students and a
their ZPD, as does PBL, by presenting challenging prob-
new role for undergraduate peer leaders that is appro-
lems that they cannot solve easily on their own, but can
priate for their stage of development. PLTL has been
accomplish by interaction with the members of the work-
used successfully in courses in chemistry, biology,
shop team [38]. Thus, PLTL draws students into their
physics, math, computer science, and engineering. In
ZPDan area of learning gains they can achieve, but
practice, the weekly workshop replaces traditional reci-
only with helpby having them work together on prob-
tation sections led by graduate teaching assistants or
lems in groups in the instructors absence, but with facili-
faculty. Although most peer leaders are undergradu-
tation by a near peer who has successfully completed
ates, many graduate students with appropriate training
the course previously [39].
have also worked effectively and enthusiastically in
POGIL, like PLTL and PBL, uses students working to-
that role.
gether in groups, and therefore emphasizes the social
Through many years of workshop evaluations, the
aspects of learning. However, the POGIL groups have
developers of PLTL identied six critical components
greater structure due to the assigned roles. This pro-
[29] vital to ensuring the success of a PLTL program.
motes the positive interdependence and accountability
1) It is essential that the workshops are closely inte- cited by Johnson et al. [40] and also provides opportu-
grated with the course and all its elements. nities for development of specic process skills
2) Faculty teaching these courses must be actively through the student roles and the interactions between
involved with the workshops and with the peer them.
leaders. The learning cycle that guides the structure of POGIL
3) Peer leaders are students who have taken the activities is derived from the mental functioning model
course, who have good people skills, and who proposed by Piaget [41]. Piaget identied several factors
are well trained and supervised in facilitating in the development of cognitive reasoning and suggested
small-group collaborative-learning sessions. that two factors were essential for cognitive growth. Spe-
4) Workshop problems must be appropriately chal- cically, students must connect to their prior knowledge
lenging and designed for use in collaborative or past experience and they must experience a cogni-
group learning settings. tively challenging situation. These ideas were incorpo-
5) Organizational arrangements must ensure ade- rated into the learning cycle devised by Karplus and
quate and appropriate rooms for conducting others, who developed materials for the Science Curricu-
workshop sessions. lum Improvement Study [42]. Later, these ideas were
267
brought to the attention of the higher education commu- expert tutor facilitators.) Because PBL problems are con-
nity by, among others, Lawson [14] and Abraham and ceptually complex with few and rather open-ended
Renner [43]. prompting questions, students must generate the ques-
tions that guide learning. They must pursue these ques-
tions outside of class and bring back information to the
CLASSROOM CHARACTERISTICS group. As a consequence and in contrast to POGIL, the
The PXnL pedagogies all focus on students discussing issues being discussed at one time in different PBL
course content in small groups. Thus, the ideal physical groups can be quite different. It is expected that different
setup of a classroom with chairs around circular or hex- students will be learning different things in association
agonal tables and lots of blackboard space contrasts with the core content objectives. Because groups can
with a typical lecture classroom where seats or desks get off track, peer facilitators are especially helpful in
are often bolted to the oor facing forward, with writing classes with students having their rst PBL experience
boards or a slide projection screen at the front of the [45]. The classroom role of the instructor is much the
room. Despite the similarity in physical appearance asso- same as for POGIL except that he or she often joins
ciated with working groups in PXnL classrooms, the groups for short times to facilitate discussions. Originally,
structure of the group activities differ with respect to the PBL was intended to replace lectures in the medical
student tasks and role of the instructor. school setting; however, many PBL courses now include
For POGIL, group work takes the place of lecture time, lectures. The ideal PBL classroom has resource books
but the instructor is still present to administer quizzes, and wireless laptop computers for students to look up in-
distribute and collect materials, monitor progress, and formation during class time. In many cases, instructors
intervene with groups that need guidance [16, 19]. Occa- write or adapt the PBL problems they use.
sionally, if many groups are struggling, the instructor may By contrast to PBL and POGIL, PLTL retains lectures
nd it benecial to insert a mini-lecture to clarify con- and has groups meet at separate times in different pla-
tent and re-engage the students. Using assigned roles ces. The instructors do not attend the workshop sessions
for students enables the groups to take much of the because their presence perturbs the group interactions.
responsibility for learning the material. The role of the in- Typically, PLTL groups have six to eight members and
structor-as-facilitator is to help students understand that thus are larger than PBL or POGIL groups. Peer leaders
they already possess the background and the reasoning manage the group dynamics and facilitate the collabora-
skills necessary to develop new concepts and solve tive problem-solving activities of the PLTL groups. Facili-
unfamiliar problems [44]. Often, instructors will respond tating group discussion is an acquired skill for most
to student questions by asking further questions. They workshop leaders and thus they need to be instructed in
monitor student progress toward meeting learning goals, the art of questioning, the power of discussion and
andif that progress is unsatisfactorythey make deci- debate, and the principles and practice of collaborative
sions about what form an intervention should take in and cooperative learning. Usually this is accomplished in
order to ensure that the learning goals are met. Instruc- a course taught by a teaching/learning expert in cooper-
tors help students to perform at a higher level than they ation with the content instructor. When peer facilitators
could without the facilitation, but do not do the work for are used in PBL classes, similar preparation is needed
the students. They share responsibility with the group [46].
manager and reector for maintaining constructive group Workshop leaders for PLTL and the peer facilitators
dynamics. Instructors must also make decisions about sometimes used in PBL are recruited from the pool of
the timing of students oral reports of their results, which students who have taken the course before, done well,
brings closure to any given portion of the activity, allows and like the instructional format; but this is not enough.
students to validate their answers, and maintains the Good workshop leaders also have good interpersonal
pace of the class at an acceptable rate. skills. Workshop leaders usually get paid for their service,
The structure of the classroom experience in advanced and so nancial resources are normally needed to imple-
courses may be different. For example, in an upper-level ment the PLTL model. If funding is a problem, schools
biochemistry course, many of the fundamental concepts can offer course credit in place of a stipend. Alternatively,
have already been developed in previous coursework. being a workshop leader may satisfy a service-learning
Students are held accountable for these concepts and requirement for graduation at some schools and at
may be asked to complete an assignment prior to class others both stipend and credit may be offered [45, 46].
that serves to remind them of the prerequisite knowl- Typically, the instructor assigns students to PBL or
edge. In this way more class time is devoted to the con- PLTL groups at the beginning of the semester and group
cept formation phase and application phase of the learn- membership does not change during the course. In con-
ing cycle. Assigned homework is used for additional trast, the composition of POGIL groups can change and
application experience. One example of this approach the assigned roles rotate among group members.
has recently been published [18].
Supercially, a PBL classroom might look like a POGIL
classroom in that both have groups of four or ve stu- NATURE OF THE PROBLEMS AND ACTIVITIES
dents and the instructor is present. (This is different than Although learning goals of the PXnL pedagogies have
the original PBL model in medical schools where larger much in common, the nature of the classroom activities
groups of eight to ten met separately with assigned differ considerably among them. PBL uses complex
268 BAMBED, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 262273, 2008
problems, often presented as multistage, progressive- book. Workshop problems are usually multistep, providing
disclosure cases or stories, which may represent real- opportunities for discussion, visualization, and building
world dilemmas or controversies. They are distinctly understanding piece-by-piece. The leaders role is to facili-
interdisciplinary or at least integrate several topics, tate the studentstudent discussion of the problems and
whereas PLTL and POGIL problems have a more specic the related concepts that will simultaneously lead to better
disciplinary and conceptual focus. Resolution of PBL understanding of the ideas and their application to nding
problems requires students to dene the problem, iden- answers to the problems. Although peer leaders will have
tify information they need to acquire, and apply it in order worked through the problems in advance of the work-
to resolve the problem. The problem itself can take a sin- shop, they are not given answer keys [29]. Prentice-Hall
gle class period or span an entire semester [47]. Typically has published PLTL workshop books for various chemistry
the rst stage of a PBL problem is open-ended and courses and workshop problems are now available in sev-
intentionally vague so that students review what they al- eral other areas [5052]. A broad array of workshop mate-
ready know and consider a variety of possibilities. Sub- rials can be obtained from the PLTL website [28].
sequent stages provide more information that serves to POGIL materials for introductory courses assume no
narrow the options and introduce additional things to prior knowledge of the topic of the day (other than the
consider. Ideally, resolution requires a decision based on concepts already developed in the course) and thus are
careful analysis and reasoned assumptions. A PBL prob- distinctly in contrast with PLTL problems. Many POGIL
lem usually involves the integration of concepts, rather classes will begin with a short quiz reviewing material
than focusing on a particular concept. It encourages from the previous class; in an advanced class, this quiz
problem-solving strategies and relies heavily on student may be replaced with an out-of-class assignment on ma-
initiative to locate resources and use the information they terial from the previous class or on prerequisite material
nd. Because group progress in each successive class from previous courses. Student groups then progress
depends on every group member bringing new informa- through the activity and write down a common set of
tion to the discussion, PBL encourages students to be answers to a series of questions crafted to elicit infer-
responsibly prepared and to attend class regularly. PBL ences and conclusions. Application questions may be of
problems that engage students interest and clearly the end-of-chapter type, or they may be more concep-
relate to the discipline help reinforce these behaviors. tual than computational. The recorder may turn in a copy
The nature of PBL makes it difcult to publish PBL activ- of the activity with the groups answers at the end of the
ities because students searching for information would period, or may record the important concepts that have
access and thereby short circuit the desired learning pro- been developed that day. A general chemistry text for
cess. Although there are some books [48] and a pass- POGIL has been published [53], as have many activity
word-protected PBL Clearinghouse for problems [49] that books geared toward various branches of chemistry [54
can be used as is or serve as models for writing new 60]. Sample activities on a wide variety of topics may be
problems, PBL instructors often write their own. downloaded free of charge from the POGIL website [13].
In contrast to PBL, PLTL and POGIL activities are POGIL materials for some advanced courses may be
designed to be completed during class time. A PLTL ses- different. Many of the concepts for an advanced course
sion involves students working on a coherent set of (such as biochemistry) have been introduced in prior
problems designed by the course instructor to help stu- courses and concept invention is not needed. Still, stu-
dents develop and internalize their understanding of key dents must make connections that include the prior
concepts and build problem-solving skills. They need to knowledge and extend that knowledge by examining
be suitable for group work and more challenging than new relationships involving these previously encountered
typical end-of-chapter drill problems. For example, con- concepts. Thus, the questions that comprise the explora-
sider a case in which we are trying to help students tion phase and concept invention phase of the learning
understand how concentrations change with time and cycle may be somewhat different in advanced courses
the concept of equilibrium for a reversible chemical reac- compared with those in an introductory course, even
tion, A B. Students in a PLTL workshop will have read though their purposes remain consistent with the learning
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