1)Detailed account on tradition and social function of science.

Ans) One aspect of scientific endeavor that makes it different from all other aspects of social
achievement. That is scientific endeavor, at any at any point of time depends on the existence of
previous knowledge. Without the stock of previous knowledge, the methods of the scientist
would not be able to achieve much.Further, to be called scientists, scientific workers have to add
to previous knowledge, Scientists constantly strive to change the accepted truth. In this sense,
they uniquely differ from other professionals such as lawyers, priests and administrators who
mainly interpret and use previous knowledge.

Science is cumulative, that is, science at any time is the total result of all that science has been up
to date.Further an individual scientist's contribution, howsoever great, is absorbed into the body
of scientific knowledge. The individual character of a scientist's work is lost in the general
history of science and knowledge.In art and music, the works of past masters are always
appreciated and sought after.In science, it is the only current state of knowledge that is which is
of utmost importance as the past is fused into the present. Art and religion appeal to personal fate
and sentiment. In contrast, scientific and sentiment. In contrast, scientific activity always strives
to reduce personal or subjective component and build as objective a basis as possible. Results of
science can always be checked, verified and repeated by anybody anywhere. This gives science a
"universal" character.

The truth of science lies in its application. The final test of validity lies in testing scientific
knowledge in real life, in controlling nature towards some chosen ends.

Now we will see the major functions of science, the influence of science in on society and the
social factors that impede the growth of science.Science has always played a crucial role in
production.Generally science thrived whenever a society had organized itself to increase
production of goods and create a degree of satisfaction among its members. The growth of
science not only increases production but also leads to improvement in the methods of
production. And when methods of production evolve and develop to new stage societies
transform. For example when agriculture was the main means of production human habitations
were scattered over large rural areas with their own lifestyle. But when factory based production
became common industrial towns grew up because a large number of people were working in
one place with a life very different form a rural life.The practical application of science leads to
its growth. But the advance of science depends upon something more than just the practical
aspect. An equally important part of science is theory and concepts, which have played an
important role in its advance. The theoretical framework links together the practical
achievements in science and gives them an intellectual unity. Major advances in science occurred
when a particular theory was proved or disproved. Theory is ultimately linked with practice. It
has often happened that an important theory became very formal and came to be used
mechanically, without any fresh ideas or new approaches. Then a new contact with practical
experience bought forth its limitations. And it had to be modified or rejected, leading to another
major advance in science.The theories of science are also influenced by the general intellectual
atmosphere in which the scientists work. It often happens that a theory that fits into the general
intellectual atmosphere and so is accepted universally, impedes further scientific advance. New
theories based on newly discovered facts may be radically different form the existing ones.
Therefore they come into conflict with the prevailing ideas and social thought. This conflict has
in the past lead to persecution of scientists.

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2)Detailed account on the method of science

Ans)There are various physical and mental operations that make up the method of science

Observations

Observations are our everyday experiences arising from what we see, hear, touch, hear, taste and
smell, form a part of common knowledge. For example, we observe that the sun rises in the east
and sets in the west; a ball when thrown up, comes down. A farmer usually separates the good
seeds from the bad ones by putting all of them in water.This is based on the observation that the
good seeds sink and the bad ones float. Similarly, you can know whether an egg is rotten or good
by putting it in a bowl of water. A rotten egg will always float. Artists are also very keen
observers of the world around. Their creative art is an expression of these observations,
transformed in the light of their own experiences and feelings. These, however, cannot be called
scientific observations.

In science, we go beyond just the common observation and experience and try to understand how
a phenomenon occurs and why it occurs. Therefore, a scientist has to be clear about 'what' to
observe and how to observe it. Further the observations made by scientists have to be correct,
and independent of their sentiments and wishes. In science, subjective response must be
subordinated to fact. It is in these respects that a scientist differs from an artist or a lay person.

Scientific observations may be about natural events. For example rainfall may be measured for
each month for many years, to determine its pattern in a given place. Observations could be
about processes created by man. For example in order to increase the efficiency of existing
machines, or to develop new machines, observations would have to be made about their design
and working. Similarly, new materials like synthetic fibers, or rubber would have to be observed
for their wear and tear, or any desired property like fire resistance etc. Observations are also
necessary about social phenomena. In order to analyze the socio-economic status of people in a
given area or society, observations have to be made regarding the land holdings, incomes
educational level, standard of living etc. All these observations are carried out systematically,
through carefully designed experiments or surveys, in order to explain natural or social
phenomena.

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a statement,put forward on the basis of reasoning, about the things that are being
studied.It is an attempt to answer the questions that are posed. A hypothesis is formulated by
taking into account all the observations that are known about the phenomenon under
investigation. It tries to explain the known or predict the unknown but possible features of the
phenomenon.We may describe the hypothesis as an inspired guests, based on reason and
experience.We may use inductive and deductive logic to frame a hypothesis.

Inductive Logic

If we have direct evidence about only a part of the phenomenon, or some objects or
situations and if on that basis we infer about the properties, behavior and other features of the
whole phenomenon, or the entire group of objects and situations then we are using inductive
logic.For example, if we know that the population of a country has doubled in a given period of
time, we may use induction to hypothesis that it will double in a given period of time. Again if
we study about the shadows of simple objects like triangles, rectangles and circles cast on a wall
due to light form a small bulb, we might conclude that light travels in a straight line. The
conclusion is a big jump in thinking and it is a sweeping general based on induction.Inductive
logic can mislead also: for example to infer that all roses are red,if you see only red roses in a
garden is illogical.

Deductive logic

Deductive logic maybe considered as the opposite of induction. Here the reasoning is more
direct. If we know the statement about the whole class of objects, phenomena or situations then
we can logically deduce the same statement about one particular object, phenomenon or situation
belonging to that class. Examples of deduction are: roses can be of any color, hence some roses
can be red. All birds have wings; therefore; a sparrow which is a bird will have wings. Deductive
logic is extensively useful in chemistry. For example a group of chemical salts exhibit some
properties or behavior we can safely say that a group of salts belonging to this group will exhibit
the same behavior. You could say that deduction may also mislead, because in examples how do
we know that a sparrow is a bird or a salt belongs to a group of salts.these facts would have to be
established before such deductions can be accepted.

Experiments

Experiment is an essential feature of modern science. Experiments are artificially creates or

contrived situations designed to make certain observations under strictly controlled conditions.
The objective sometimes is to mimic nature.This allows the complexity of natural phenomena to
be simplified step by step for study.For example, many of us might have used a bicycle tube.By
pressing the piston the volume decreases, thereby increasing the pressure and forcing the air into
the Tyre.Similarly if we fill a balloon partially with air and leave it in sunlight, the inside
becomes warm and expands, thus inflating the balloon. These instances show that the volume of
a gas depends upon its both pressure and temperature.If now we want to determine exactly how
much change in volume is with a certain rise or fall in pressure or temperature, we will have to
conduct an experiment in two steps.In the first step we can keep the temperature constant and
observe the changes in volume with pressure. In the second step we will have to keep the gas at
constant pressure and record the change in its volume with changing temperature.These
experiments were carried out by Robert Boyle and J.AC. Charles.They derived precise
mathematical relationships for the change of volume with pressure and temperature, respectively.
These experiments are known after them called Boyle's law and Charles' law.

The objective of an experiment may be to observe formula more minutely by the use of sensitive
instruments. For example in order to study minute details of cell structure , biologists now use
the electron microscope. Sometimes experiments are carried out with a sinister purpose.For
example, atom bombs dropped on two cities of Japan in 1945 not only to cause destruction but
also study how the buildings collapsed, the extent to which the fires raged, and how radiations
killed or injured people.

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3)Detailed account on the formation of the solar system

Ans)The theory of the formation of the solar system is based on the on the assumption that the
Sun and all the planets were formed from a huge rotating cloud of interstellar gas and dust.For
some reasons, the could started contracting. The contracting was hassled by its gravitational pull.
The cloud contract. It also stated rotating faster and disc became disc shaped.More and more
contracted towards the center of the disc and forming the star to be-the new Sun. The
temperature of this star rose due to contraction until it started generating its own
energy.Revolving around the Sun was a disc of gas and dust from which the planet condensed.In
this revolving disc, the lighter elements were thrown towards the periphery and heavier elements
concentrated inwards. As the Sun's energy increased, the gas shells around the inner planets were
driven off and only cores of heavier elements in the cloud remained.The outer planets were less
effected. Finally, the bright star's radiation removed the last of the system's free gases and a
mixed array of planets remained. The smaller, solid ones were near the star and the much larger
gaseous ones farther away. the earth was the third planet.
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4)Detailed account on the evidences of human evolution.

Ans)There are many evidences of human evolution

Paleontological Evidence:

Paleontology is a branch of earth sciences, which is essentially a study of plant and animal life in
the past goelogical periods, millions of years ago.It deals with the successive plants and animals
which have inhabited the earth since the earliest times. Evidence is left in the form of skeletons
and bones buried in the rocks. These are known as fossils.Crucial evidence of human evidence of
human evolution is provided by the study of these fossils.

Sometimes the buried body and the skeleton of and animal disintegrate entirely, If the
surrounding material is sufficiently firm,a cavity may remain, having the exact outlines of the
structures that disappeared. Such a cavity is called mold. Similar to molds are the impressions.
These are left by extinct objects or parts of the body upon the surrounding material.The
impression is made while the surrounding material is soft. like foot prints in clay or lava.
Footprints of extinct animals are also impressions affording valuable information about the
animals who made them.

It is important to mention here, that early human fossils that have been found are generally
fragmentary and incomplete. This is because only during the last 50,000 years or so man started
burying his dead. These later fossils are better preserved and, therefore give us more information.
for the earlier period, parts of bones are often the basis of imagining the re-construction of the
whole skeleton. The finding of fossils deposits is both a matter of chance and of deliberate
excavation in certain regions of the earth.

Archoelogical Evidence:

The study of antiquities, especially of pre historic periods is known as archeology. The biological
and cultural evolution of man preceded side by side and the two influenced each other. Like the
physical remains of man, his cultural deposits also lie buried in the ancient deposits. Often, the
two categories of evidence are found together in the same categories of rock. With the passage of
time, and the increasing capacity of his brain and development in other bodily organs, man's
culture became more and more varied and complex.He learned the use of new materials for
making tools and developed new techniques for improving them. The use of tools had a
tremendous impact on increased access to food and therefore on cooperative living in colonies.
In many areas archaeological remains show reindeer to be the principal source of meat they ate.

Anthropological evidence:

Modern humans arose at a time when the earth was going through a very cold and icy period
called the Ice Age, which began about 75,000 years ago and ended about 10,000 years ago. The
ice age was at its most severe about 18,000 years ago, a point which coincides with the
development of pre historic art, represented by colorful images painted on cave walls and rock
shelters.Many thousands of carved and engraved pieces of bone and ivory have been discovered
from the same period.A great majority of images are, indeed, of animals we can recognize,
especially images of reindeer and bisons are plentiful; while paintings of people are strangely
absent.

The general view about agriculture is that, at the end of the last ice age, i.e. about 10,000 years
ago there was a dramatic global pattern in the human pattern of living form nodmatic hunting
and food gathering to settlements producing food. The discovery that sprinkling of grain could
lead to crops and hence to lot of food, must have had a very big impact on social living. Settled
living probably led to the increase of population, as also to development of music and dance to
occupy the leisure. Language and communication must have developed, as also a capacity to
wander and to reflect about nature.

Biochemical Evidence:

Darwin had recognized that humans and the great apes shared many physical characteristics.This
led him to conclude that human and apes descended from a common stock. Darwin's conclusions
were based on the study of fossils and the physical similarities that he had observed. Now, a
century later biochemical studies of proteins and the genetic material-DNA showed how good
his guess was.
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5)Detailed account on the management of water and forest resources.

Ans)Management of Forest Resources:

Considering the ever growing demand of wood and realizing the importance of conserving our
forest resources, it has become necessary to find alternate fuels as well as raw materials to
manufacture paper, sports, goods, packing cases, furniture and beams used in buildings.
Research is going on to discuss alternate resources; in some cases, plastics and composite
materials have been developed though they are not widely used as yet. The other way to cultivate
quick growing trees berbages in large numbers in selected farms of degraded or wastelands. This
well provide us fodder, fuelwood, timber, fruits and seeds. If deforestation has to be stopped and
some necessary steps have to be taken:

adoption of a scientific method of harvesting forest stocks,

developing a mechanism of monitoring forest growth rate and depletion

establishing an effective system of fighting forest fires

strictly enforcing laws to deal with unauthorized cutting of tree

Tree Plantation

Plantation, on a mass scale, of fast growing trees such as poplar, casuarina etc should be
undertaken. The productivity of tree plantation is found to be greater than that of natural forests.
In a well irrigated tree farm, the productivity may be as high as 45 tonnes per hectare per year.

Social forestry

A farmer can partly meet his needs of wood from the fast growing trees planted within the limits
of his village, alongside railway tracks, side roads or canals and streams, boundaries of fields and
empty spaces, The aim of social forestry is to meet the needs of fuel, fodder, fruits, timber and
other requirements.
Management of water resources:

Management of water resources means a program to provide and adequate supply of good
quality of water for various used without endangering the life of source or the reserve of water.In
other words efforts should be made to see that

water of the right quality is available for all kinds of uses, and

there is no misuse or wastage of this precious resource

Water management includes recharges of reserves of groundwater and diverting supply from the
area of surplus to the region of scarcity.

Recharging of groundwater is the most important aspect of the water management. In the
mountains and hills the watersheds are covered with vegetation.The litter-covered soil of the
watershed allows infilteration of rain water, which finds its way to the aquifers.

In urban and rural areas, storm water, used water or domestic drains can be fed into pits, trenches
or any depression, where it can filter underground. Flood water can be injected into aquifers
through a series of deep pits or it can be spread on the fields through a network of ditches

The excess flow of normal as well as flood water can be diverted to areas where there is scarcity
of water, This will not only remove the danger of damage caused by floods but will also benefit
the regions of scarcity.

By proper treatment of the domestic and municipal waste water, one can supply fit for many
industrial and agricultural purposes. The treatment of waste water involves removal of pollutants,
germs, and toxic elements as you have already studied in the previous section.

Desalination of sea water

By use of solar energy,sea water can be distilled, thus fresh water of good quality can be
obtained. This method of desalination of sea water is being used in our country at places like
Bhavanagar in Gujrat and Churu in Rajasthan.
 Reducing over consumption

Using more water than necessary is an unpardonable waste of the precious and scarce resource.
In our country, a lot of water is wasted due to leaking taps and bad plumbing. There is also need
for a check on excessive irrigation.

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6)Detailed account on the challenges for the agricultural sector in India.

Ans)Modern agriculture aims at producing the maximum amount of food in the minimum
amount of time, space and energy so that our increasing population may have ample food and
other agricultural products.The agricultural production of the industrialized nations relies so
heavily on non-renewable resources, that there is a clear danger of the oil and coal resources of
the earth running out, bringing mankind to ruin. If we modernized agriculture to the same level
in the west, we could produce all we need, with perhaps the tenth of the manpower engaged in
agriculture. The question is, what would the rest do?Would they be unemployed, if so how will
they buy what agriculture would produce?Yes, low input agriculture of the developing countries
keeps nations precariously at the subsistence level, with development retarded , and malnutrition
rampant, but moving to the extreme of copying the industrialized countries could also be
disastrous.Some enthusiasts contend that we should curtail the use of chemical fertilizers. But
actually in our country the consumption of chemical fertilizers is one of the lowest in the world,
a fraction of what it is in Japan or Europe. Excessive use of fertilizers leads to a good deal of it
being washed away by irrigation or rain water, which then pollutes rivers and ponds.As in the
case of fertilizers, the average consumption of pesticides in our country is so small that there
does not exist a situation similar to that prevailing in developed countries. The high-yielding
varieties recently introduced put up such a luxuriant growth that pests are attracted to them as we
are attracted to tasty food. Plant-protection chemicals are safe when used strictly according
according to scientific recommendation. Indiscriminate and excessive use may, however, leave
harmful residues, which may again pollute the environment particularly our water
resources.Research on biological control of pests is urgently needed.The other dilemma is that
such agriculture, with chemical inputs and strict regimes for watering of crops, can be managed
much better by farmers with large fields.Much of the land in our country belongs to small
holders who cannot benefit from the recent developments in equal measure.Hence, this
agriculture has, among st other things previously mentioned led to rich in rural ares becoming
richer, and poor becoming relatively poor.There is also a view that there was no alternative to
increasing of total agricultural production. And that the modern technology is neutral to the scale
of farming, provided proper practices are adopted by the small farmers too.This seems to be a
rather difficult thing in practice, with the prevailing poverty and ignorance among the poor.In a
vast country like ours, a 10% decrease in population creates a scare of starvation deaths, and a
similar increase in output brings in its wake problems of storage, grain routing, glut in the market
and distress selling by farmers. The problems are more acute in the production of perishable
commodities like vegetables, fruits, eggs , fish, milk and other products.Once again if processing
and packaging can be done with our own technology developed by our research institutions, it
would be excellent. Furthermore, if some of the food stuffs processed by foreign companies are
shared, we would deprive our own people of the much needed food stuffs like dried vegetables,
fruit pulps and juices and fish protein etc. Prices in the Indian market of these products would
also go up.

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7)Detailed account on the prevention of disease in ancient and modern times

Ans)Washing of hands before and after meals, daily bathing, not carrying footwear into living
rooms, denial of permission to enter place where food is cooked, especially for persons who have
not had a bath. These practices must have evolved through observations over a long period, that
certain practices helped in preventing diseases. Isolation of mother and the new born, soon after
delivery was a a common custom which also helped in preventing infection of the mother and the
baby. Excavation of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa have revealed the existence of a covered
drainage system and water supply. House drains emptied all waste water into the street drains.
They also had arrangements for proper sanitation. Similarly, ancient civilizations of Egypt
Greece and China had medical systems. Egyptians had arrangements for public baths and
underground drainage.The use of mosquito nets and association of plague with rats were known
to them. Hippocrates, the most illustrious Greek physician of the 5th century b.c. examined
significance of climate water clothing eating and drinking to health. He was truly a man
concerned with hygiene. The ancient Indian and Chinese system of medical care knew about
immunization also.Inoculation with live small pox germs to prevent small pox was known to
them.In 1848, England promulgated its public health act, which defined the role of the state in
people's health and led to a great awareness about sanitary matters. In 1875 the Public Health Act
defined the steps for a clean environment and clean water, surroundings houses and for control of
offensive trades such as carrying of garbage or excreta. In this way, the spread of many diseases
were controlled to a great extent. Clearing away decaying matter and dirt, removing breeding
grounds for microbes which foul the air were taken up. However, these measures could not bring
effective control of epidemics in urban areas. While these environmental measures were
promoting health of people, specific measures to prevent disease in an individual or in the
community were also being attempted.

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8)Detailed account on media for open and distance mode of education.

Ans)The role of media in distance education needs specific mention. It is implied that teaching is
done from a distance. It is also understood that education is imparted through correspondence,
audio-visuals aids, like radio, television and telephone, besides personal contacts. As against a
university which enrolls students of a similar age has definite time and is schedule, and is
confined to a geographical area or a campus, and 'open university' can cater to all kinds of
students-of various ages, living in different and even far paces, who wish to combine education
with employment or work at home. It can provide a great variety of courses. Even the pace of
learning would be different for the students enrolled in the same course. IGNOU is envisaged as
an institution for the entire country. One of the principal objectives of this university is to
provide education to those who have been denied opportunity for higher education, wither
because they live in remote and rural areas or because of any other handicap, including financial
constraints and family obligations.The study centres with audio visual and library facilities form
an important part of the university. Here students can meet their academic counselor and discuss
their difficuties. Support form radio and television is also important in distance learning.

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9)Detailed account on ways of technology transfer

Ans)Let us see what the features of the import of technology are

Import of Technology:

This form of transfer involves transferring the external expertise associated with the capabilities
of more developed nations to the lesser developed nations, who require it for accelerated
industrialization. This can be done in several ways: through licensing, joint ventures with foreign
firms, direct foreign investment, etc. Its efficiency depends on many factors like the supplier's
ability and desire to transfer, the recipient's socio-economic and cultural environment and
communications processes

Clearly, technology import could be advantageous. A major gain is that it would help to save
considerable time, money and energy by skipping the stages which other countries had to pass to
achieve the present level of development. But in practice import of technology has a lot of
problems and disadvantages.

The buying of technology may be very expensive. Take, for example the buying of the latest
defense aircraft from France. Though we have saved money on going through the various
stages of research and development, we still have to pay large sums of money to buy these
aircraft outright.This is because the price includes the developmental expenditure that France
incurred in this connection!So we end up paying for research and development, and that too in
foreign exchange.Further, the R&d within the country also remains undeveloped.

Imported technology often comes with restriction or "political strings" attached to it by the
supplier. For example, For example India used to import enriched uranium from the united states
to use in its fission reactors. A time came when the US government insisted that we sign the
Nuclear Non-Proliferaton treaty, otherwise they would stop the supply. India refused to do so
and argued that this was not a condition in the original agreement

The suppler often unloads obsolete technology on the recipient, sometimes at a very high cost.
Since the receiving country doesn't have the technology, it may not even know how outdated the
offered technology might be.An example of this is the example of automobile industry in which
we continue to be saddled with models that are no more in demand in the developed country or
in the parent country.Also since the end of the World War II, one of the major industries of
industrial development has been that of the domestic conveniences, such as air conditioners,
refrigerators and electronic goods like the TV,VCR etc. Once the domestic market in Europe and
USA was saturated, markets were created in the developing countries for the finished products,
and later for the sale of related technologies.Since in these areas technology change are the quick
change ones, what is transferred to the technologies are the quick change ones, what is
transferred to the developing countries is outdated.

The receiving country may have to depend on the donor country, especially in crucial areas
like defence equipment.The donor may sell a defence aircraft, but with the condition that the
receiver always buys spare and ancillaries from them, the receiver may never become self
sufficient.

When a country imports technology from more than one country for an industry, then the
spare parts may not fit into various models.As you know, the technology for Maruti, Fiat and
Ambassador cars was imported from three different countries, namely Japan Italy and Britain;
and the spare parts don't fit into the others. So the scale of production of spare products will vary,
thus increasing the cost of production.

A multi national corporation of a developed nation may give technological know how to
developing nation with the restriction that the knowledge is not to be shared with the other
developing nations. This ensures their direct hold over different countries.

Lab to field:

It has been the policy of the Government of India, from the time of Independence, to achieve
self-relaince by developing indigenous technology in as many areas of industry as possible. We,
therefore, had created a chain of laboratories in all areas. The National Research and
Development corporation(NRDC) was set up in 1953 for falicitating the transfer of technology
from the laboratories of national R&D institutes to the field. These institutes offer their processes
for commercial exploitation to NRDC.

If indigenous efforts are not considered adequate at the policy making level of the different
ministries, a new policy is formulated for updating technology and for the import of technology
from the developed countries.The department of science and technology, planning commission
Science and Engineering Research Council and various Scientific Advisory communities
attached to the ministries monitor the technological needs of India.

Export of Technology:
India had gained experience in various fields of technology. Thus we are in a position to assist a
lot of developing nations in the process of technological advancement .India exports technology
to a large number of Asain, Middle-Eastern, African and Latin American Nations.

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10)Detailed account on "How scientific development is influenced by social needs and

perceptions"

Ans)Just as science and technology provide all the "nuts and bolts", as well as many of the ideas
that hold our society together, society itself provides the environment and atmosphere for science
and technology to grow fast or stagnate or even decay!Science and Technology do not exist
independent of the society, its culture and the value system.They are a part of the socio-
economic and political framework of a given society.

Motivation for the practical application of science and, hence its growth and use comes from the
economic needs of the society. The economic planning and policy of a society determine its
social programs and the purposes and goals of a society's production activity, which in turn
provides the incentive for scientific growth. However answers to questions like what kind of
economic policy will be pursued, whether the social program-mes will be implemented, and to
what extent, depends on the political and social organizations of a society.Thus science and
technology can be effected by the general policies and social structure of a society.

For example, when economic growth is purely determined by market demands, artificial
demands for goods are created by advertising, even though there is no pressing need for them.
Ideas of people are sought to be molded by the propaganda carried on by radio or television or
even by education. The competition to produce more goods, increase profits or the desire to
provide fancy goods to and influential section of a population results in one kind of development
of science and technology.On the other hand, if a society desires and plans to improve rural life
or give priority to public health or provide a certain level of nutrition to all citizens, the tasks and
consequent development of science and technology should follow a different path.

Still another example is the question of spending money on weapon of offence or defence that
naturally affects science and technology. It is known that the world today is spending Rs. 15 lakh
crores (15,00,00,00,00,00,000) on weapons and their development.This not only takes away
money needed to feed, clothe or provide shelter to people, but it also prevents the developments
of science and technology for constructive purposes.

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