Athens 2003 Inventario

Inventory of Earthen Mound Sites,
Northern Highland Ecuador
by
J. Stephen Athens
INTERNATIONAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC.

OCTOBER 2003
INVENTORY OF EARTHEN MOUND SITES,
NORTHERN HIGHLAND ECUADOR
by
J. Stephen Athens, Ph.D.
Final project report prepared for:
H. John Heinz III Fund Grant Program for

Latin American Archaeology
3200 CNG Tower
Pittsburgh, PA 15222
U.S.A.
and the
Instituto Nacional de Patrimonio Cultural del Ecuador

Casilla No. 17-01-551
Av. Colon Oe1-93 y 10 de Agosto
Quito, Ecuador
International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc.

2081 Young St.
Honolulu, Hawaii 96826
October 2003
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... iv

LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS ........................................................................................... v
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1
THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF NORTHERN HIGHLAND ECUADOR ......................... 2
INKA PERIOD: AD 1505/1525-1534 .................................................................... 2
LATE PERIOD: AD 1250-1505/1525 ................................................................... 5
LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD: CA. AD 1250-700 ............................................... 13
EARLY INTERMEDIATE PERIOD: CA. AD 1-700 .................................................. 15
LA CHIMBA PERIOD: 700 BC - AD 1 .................................................................. 17
THE PRECERAMIC PERIOD: PRE-1550 BC ........................................................... 19
Archaeological Evidence ......................................................................... 19
Pollen Evidence ....................................................................................... 20
VOLCANIC ASH .................................................................................................... 20
SUMMARY ................................................................................................................... 22
BACKGROUND TO THE PRESENT PROJECT ........................................................ 22
FIELD INVESTIGATIONS: 2001 ................................................................................ 23
OUTLINE OF ACTIVITIES ...................................................................................... 23
ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS 2001: SUMMARY ...................................... 25
WOOD REFERENCES FOR CHARCOAL IDENTIFICATION ....................................... 28
CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................. 28
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE FUTURE ............................................................. 29
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... 30
TABLES ......................................................................................................................... 31
FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... 69
PHOTO GALLERY ...................................................................................................... 75
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 139
iii
LIST OF TABLES
1. Inventory of earthen mound sites in the northern highlands of Ecuador ................ 33

2. Observations and comments concerning earthen mounds and other sites
in northern highland Ecuador ............................................................................. 39
3. Observations recorded for individual mounds at the Atuntaqui site (Im-4) ........... 63
4. Radiocarbon determinations, Atuntaqui Im-4) and
La Libertad (P-038) mounds ............................................................................... 67
5. Wood samples collected from native Andean trees,
northern highland Ecuador ................................................................................. 68
LIST OF FIGURES
1a. Distribution map of mound sites in northern highland Ecuador ............................. 71

1b. Key to mound site distribution ................................................................................ 72
2. Schematic of archaeological sequence for northern highland Ecuador .................. 73
3. Plan map of Atuntaqui mound site (Im-4) .............................................................. 74
iv
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS
1. Carved volcanic stone slab believed to have been used for human sacrifices ........ 77
2. Close-up view of sacrificial stone ........................................................................... 78
3. Mound 3, Otavalo Mounds (Im-1) .......................................................................... 79
4. View of Otavalo Mound 3 to northwest .................................................................. 79
5. View of Otavalo Mound 4 ....................................................................................... 80
6. Hearth feature on eroded house floor, Otavalo Mound 4 ....................................... 81
7. Sherds collected from street canal adjacent to Otavalo Mound 3 ........................... 82
8. The southern ramp mound at Santiaguillo, Site C-113 ........................................... 83
9. The northern ramp mound at Santiaguillo, Site C-113 ........................................... 84
10. Late Period pottery from large quadrilateral mound, Santiaguillo, Site C-113 ...... 85
11. Interior view of sherds in Photo 10 ......................................................................... 85
12. Late Period pottery from ramp mound, Santiaguillo, Site C-113;
exterior of sherds ................................................................................................ 86
14. View of three ramp mounds at the Sequambo site (Im-15) .................................... 87
15. Pottery sherds from Sequambo site (Im-15); exterior view .................................... 87
16. Pottery sherds from Sequambo site (Im-15); interior view .................................... 88
17. Mound 1, Atuntaqui group (Im-4) .......................................................................... 89
18. General view of Mound 1, Atuntaqui group (Im-4) ............................................... 89
19. Orozca Tola of the Atuntaqui (Im-4) group ............................................................ 90
20. View of southeast corner of Orozca Tola (Mound 2), Atuntaqui group (Im-4) ...... 91
21. Pupo Tola (Mound 3), Atuntaqui group (Im-4) ...................................................... 92
22. Remnant of Mound 7, Atuntaqui group (Im-4) ...................................................... 92
23. Mound 26, Atuntaqui group (Im-4) ........................................................................ 93
24. Mound 26, Atuntaqui group (Im-4), view of west side .......................................... 93
25. Exposed face of Mound 10, Atuntaqui group (Im-4) ............................................. 94
27. Mound 25, Atuntaqui group (Im-4), view to west .................................................. 95
28. Mound 25, Atuntaqui group (Im-4), view to east ................................................... 95
29. Archaeologist Jos Echeverra with diagnostic Late Period sherd ......................... 96
31. Remnant of Mound 28 at Atuntaqui group (Im-4) ................................................. 97
32. Remnant of Mound 30, Atuntaqui group (Im-4) .................................................... 98
33. View of exposed face of Mound 30, Atuntaqui group (Im-4) ................................ 99
v
LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS (cont.)
34. Close-up of midden lens showing large diagnostic Late Period sherd ................... 100
35. Canal-like molded hearth feature in exposed face of Mound 30 of the
Atuntaqui (Im-4) group ....................................................................................... 100
36. Imantag quadrilateral mound (I-034) ...................................................................... 101
37. Ramp mound at the Paridero site (I-037) ................................................................ 101
38. Fragment of a basin-shaped metate observed on the surface of the
Paridero ramp mound (I-037) ............................................................................. 102
39. Mound A of the Paridero group (I-037) .................................................................. 102
40. Mound E of the Paridero group (I-037) .................................................................. 103
41. View of ramp mound at Site Im-30, Aafito .......................................................... 103
42. The geographical setting of the Morascunga mounds (I-025) ................................ 104
43. The two western (upslope) quadrilateral mounds at Morascunga (I-025) .............. 104
44. The easternmost (downslope) quadrilateral mound at Morascunga (I-025) ........... 105
45. Quadrilateral mound at Quiroga, Site I-118 ............................................................ 105
46. Quadrilateral ramp mound at Yaguarcocha, Site Im-9 ........................................... 106
47. Quadrilateral ramp mound on west side of Cochaloma, Site Im-14 ....................... 106
48. Quadrilateral ramp mound at east side of Cochaloma, Site Im-14 ......................... 107
49. Surface sherds collected from Cochaloma, Site Im-14 ........................................... 108
50. Solid ceramic figurine fragment found on surface at Cochaloma, Site Im-14 ....... 108
51. Gonzlez Surez mounds (Im-31) .......................................................................... 109
52. Large quadrilateral mound at the Hacienda Perugache (Im-3) ............................... 109
53. Quadrilateral mound at Pisab in the upper valley at
the Hacienda Perugache (I-130) ......................................................................... 110
54. Circular mound at the Hacienda Rosaspamba on slopes of Mt. Mojanda (Im-25) . 111
55. Quadrilateral ramp mound at Hacienda Pinsaqu site (Im-2) ................................. 112
56. Quadrilateral ramp mound at Hacienda Pinsaqu site (Im-2), Mound 1 ................. 112
57. Canal-like hearth feature excavated on floor in Mound 1 of the Pinsaqu site ....... 113
58. Circular mound at Perihuela (Im-17) with house on top ........................................ 114
59. Ramp mound at Perihuela (Im-17) with power pole in the center .......................... 114
60. Quadrilateral mound at Perihuela (Im-17) .............................................................. 115
61. Circular mound Perihuela (Im-17) .......................................................................... 115
62. Large quadrilateral ramp mound at the Hacienda Zuleta, Site Im-13 ..................... 116
63. Quadrilateral platform mounds at site of Caranqui, Im-7 ....................................... 116
vi
64. Standing walls of Inca center at Caranqui, located on the property of

Sr. Tobias Flores, directly east of the church ...................................................... 117
65. Large quadrilateral ramp mound in Chota Valley, Site C-126b .............................. 117
66. Large quadrilateral ramp mound located at Gualimn in Intag region,
near town of Peahererra, Site Im-6 ................................................................... 118
67. Large circular mound at Socapamba site, Im-10 .................................................... 118
68. Quadrilateral ramp mound at Socapamba (Mound 21), Im-10 ............................... 119
69. Canal-like hearth feature excavated in Mound 21, Socapamba .............................. 120
70. Canal-like hearth feature excavated in Mound 14 at Socapamba,
a quadrilateral platform mound .......................................................................... 121
71. Close-up of Mound 14 hearth feature ..................................................................... 121
72. Reconstructed amphora vessel, diagnostic of the Late Period
from Socapamba site ........................................................................................... 122
73. Pottery sherds (exterior view) and other artifacts excavated from Mound 15 ........ 123
74. Diagnostic Late Period pottery sherds, exterior view, excavated from
Mound 23 at Socapamba .................................................................................... 124
75. Interior view of sherds shown in Photo 73 ............................................................. 125
76. Terrace platform along Yacu Loma Alta road in Agato Alta (I-104) ..................... 125
77. Terrace with exposed face on edge of small quebrada at Agato Alta site (I-104) .. 126
78. Quadrilateral mound with abandoned church on top and burial vaults on side,
San Pablo (I-096) ................................................................................................ 126
79. Diagnostic Late Period sherds recovered from platform surface of
Cruz Loma (Im-32) ramp mound ....................................................................... 127
80. Interior view of sherds shown in Photo 79 ............................................................. 127
81. Quadrilateral mound at Huaycupungu (on west shore of Lake San Pablo) ............ 128
82. View of Huaycupungu mound from ground surface (I-173) .................................. 128
83. Large circular mound at Ilumn, Site I-106 ............................................................ 129
84. Quadrilateral mound at Gualsaqu mound group, Site I-132 .................................. 129
85. Quadrilateral mound of Gualsaqu mound group, Site I-132 ................................. 130
86. View of town of La Merced de Buenos Aires in distance, located on the
western slopes of Cordillera Negra in northwestern Imbabura Province ........... 130
87. Ramp mound near La Merced de Buenos Aires, Site Im-34 .................................. 131
88. Mound G, a large quadrilateral ramp mound in the Cochasqu group, Site Pi-4 .... 131
89. Canal-like molded hearth feature exposed on floor of circular house excavated
in Mound E, Cochasqu group ............................................................................ 132
vii
90. Site P-004; ramp mound on ridge slope, San Vicente,

west of San Jos de Minas .................................................................................. 132
91. Ramp mound at La Libertad site (P-038) ............................................................... 133
92. View of exposed face of La Libertad ramp mound where ramp joins platform ..... 133
93. Late Period pottery sherds recovered from surface of the
La Libertad ramp mound, Site P-038 ................................................................. 134
95. Large quadrilateral mound at La Libertad (P-037) ................................................. 135
96. Traditional-style indigenous house in Otavalo area ................................................ 136
97. Indigenous house with tapia wall construction in Agato Alta ................................ 137
viii
INTRODUCTION
This report presents an account of archaeological investigations undertaken by

J. Stephen Athens in northern highland Ecuador between May 20 and June 30, 2001. The
general area of the investigations is indicated in Figure 1a, which shows the region north of
Quito. The investigations were carried out in accordance with provisions of a research permit
obtained from the Instituto Nacional de Patrimonio Cultural del Ecuador. Institutional
sponsorship was generously provided by the Instituto Otavaleo de Antropologa. The
collaboration and enthusiastic assistance of Dr. Jos Echeverra A. throughout the course of
this work is gratefully acknowledged. The research was made possible through financial
support from the H. John Heinz III Fund of the Heinz Family Foundation of Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania.
The objectives of the project were as follows:
1. Field check probable/possible prehistoric earthen mound sites identified

on aerial photographs to obtain a complete and accurate region-wide
inventory of mound sites within the inter-Andean basin of northern
Ecuador. The field check will be used to update and correct deficiencies
of previous inventories with the goal of providing a better interpretive
basis for the study of prehistoric chiefdoms in the northern highlands.
2. Provide an assessment of the preservation status of mound sites, many of

which have suffered serious damage as a result of development activities
during the past several decades.
3. Undertake detailed mapping of the Atuntaqui mound site, one of the

larger mound sites in the region.
A synopsis of the archaeology of northern highland Ecuador is provided below to

establish the research context of the present earthen mound investigations. The emphasis is on
the Late Period, between AD 1250 and 1505/1525. This was the time when the large earthen
mounds were constructed. The earlier prehistoric periods are also discussed, though fewer
details are available because less work has been conducted on sites pertaining to these periods.
Lastly, there is a discussion of volcanic ash and its importance for understanding the regional
archaeology. In this respect, geological and lake coring studies have demonstrated that a
number of volcanos in the highlands of central and northern Ecuador have been very active
throughout the Holocene. These volcanos constitute a significant environmental context for
both human adaptation and the conduct of archaeology.
Except for the work of the Ecuadorian archaeologist, Jijn y Caamao, summarized in
his posthumous 1952 [1945] volume, there has been no synopsis of the regional archaeology
(with the exception of Meggers 1966, who based her review on Jijn y Caamaos work).
Given the considerable amount of new research (in a relative sense) that has been conducted
since that time, this synopsis provides an opportunity to formulate an updated regional
chronology and overview of the prehistory an important northern Andean region.
The synopsis is followed by a presentation of specific background information for the
present project, which in turn is followed by a summary of findings, the project conclusions,
and recommendations for future work. Most of the detailed field data have been placed in
tables after the narrative discussion. Maps follow the tables. Finally, an extensive Photo
Gallery is provided to illustrate the archaeology of the Late Period. References are provided at
the end of the report.
THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF NORTHERN HIGHLAND ECUADOR
The northern Andean Intermediate area is often regarded as classic chiefdom

territory (see especially Oyuela-Caycedo and Raymond 1998, Drennan and Uribe 1987,
Langebaek and Cardenas-Arroyo 1996, Steward and Faron 1959, Reichel-Dolmatoff 1961,
Feldman and Moseley 1983). The Ecuadorian highlands are very much a part of this culture
area, and the northern highlands of Imbabura and northern Pichincha Provinces provide an
impressive archaeological record documenting the vestiges of late prehistoric chiefdoms
(Athens 1978a, 1980, 1992). This culmination of the indigenous prehistoric culture sequence,
however, was the result of a long history of social and cultural development within the inter-
Andean highland valleys, apparently with few outside influences. Understanding the
florescence of chiefdoms, therefore, at least in part hinges on a knowledge of their cultural
antecedants. The following discussion provides an overview of what is known for all of the
time periods, though unfortunately there are still major information gaps concerning the earlier
periods. This synopsis will begin with the latest prehistoric period and proceed back in time,
period by period. Figure 2 provides a quick reference time line summarizing this information.
More than anything, it is hoped that this synopsis will contribute to a clarification of the
research problems that remain to be addressed, and perhaps generate interest in working on
them. If nothing else, however, it documents what is known of the rich cultural heritage of the
modern indigenous inhabitants.
INKA PERIOD: AD 1505/1525-1534
Before considering the indigenous culture history of the northern highland region, it is
necessary to note the brief Inka incursion into the region at the end of the prehistoric sequence.
The Inka presence was a result of military conquest of the indigenous people as the
Tawantinsuyu empire expanded northward. The Inka military campaign north of Quito is
notable for its singular difficulty due to the determined and mostly effective resistence of the
indigenous population. Although an initial advance north of Quito was made by the Inka ruler,
Tupac Inka Yupanqui, he does not seem to have penetrated much beyond the Ro
Guayllabamba (barely reaching the southern boundary of the indigenous territory of the
northern regionsee Espinosa Soriano 1988:219-220). On Tupac Inka Yupanquis death,
Huayna Capac took over Inka leadership and proceeded with the northward expansion of
empire. According to Espinosa Soriano, it was only with Huayna Capacs advance that the
indigenous population became fully engaged in their struggle with the Inka. Espinosa Soriana
(1988:236), therefore, believes that the start and end dates of the conflict can be constrained by
the known dates of Huayna Capacs reign, which was between 1493 and 1526. Although it is
2
impossible to fix specific dates to the military campaign, Espinosa Soriano believes the
conquest took 10 years to achieve. He further suggests start and end dates between about 1495
and 1505. This means that the terminal date for the period of autonomous indigenous culture
and the start date for the Inka Period could be as early as 1505. However, since this date is only
an approximation and the actual date could be significantly later in Huayna Capacs reign, the
onset of the Inka period is best regarded as uncertain and, at least for now, noted as AD
1505/1525 (Caillavet 1985:404 is also skeptical about more precisely fixing the date). The
terminal date of the Inka period, of course, is well known, occurring in 1534 with the arrival of
Spanish conquistadors.
Indigenous political organization would have changed dramatically as a result of Inka

conquest, though other aspects of indigenous culture presumably changed either slowly or
perhaps not at all. For example, the Chibcha Barbacoa language of the indigenous population
was still widely spoken by 1582 when reports were being compiled for the Relaciones
Geogrficas, though Quechua, introduced by the Inka, was already assuming priority. It is
doubtful that there was any significant change in settlement patterns with the Inka presence.
The indigenous agrarian people would have continued to live on their farmsteads where they
had customary rights by birth and kinship. Farmsteads within defined geographical areas
would have been organized into parcialidades, and each parcialidad would have been headed
by a hereditary lord, called a principal (these early Colonial Spanish terms probably do not
reflect the nuances of traditional social organization, but they are all that have survived in the
literature). The bulk of tribute payments, however, instead of going to local cacique (a
paramount chief usually controlling multiple and presumably contiguous parcialidades),
would now go to the Inka. Although the Inka conquest was clearly a disruption for some
indigenous communities that were forced to resettle to other territories, especially the
Cayambe (becoming mitmaj [also spelled mitmaq or mitmas]), most of the indigenous
population seems to have remained in place. Newson (1995:33), for example, states, the
region contained relatively few mitmaq colonies, which were common in the Quito region, and
there is little evidence for the creation of new political and economic structures (see Caillavet
1985 for a detailed discussion).
The material manisfestation of Inka culture in the northern highland region is limited
as a result of the brief period of Inka rule. An Inka administrative center was located at
Caranqui (just south of the city of Ibarra), where the poorly preserved remains of one building
may still be seen (Photo 64; see also Almeida Reyes 1997:43-46; Athens 1980:204). Pirca-
style construction and trapezoidal wall niches are signature Inka architectural traits. Another
Inka center was located near the town of Quinche, but Jijn y Caamao (1914:74) reports that
all vestiges of the structure had disappeared by the time of his fieldwork.
Hilltop fortresses, called pucar, are the most ubiquitious ruins in the region that may
be ascribed to the Inka. These sites, consisting of multiple concentric earthen embankments
around a hilltop, almost always at high elevations in the pramo zone, have been little studied.
Plaza Schuller (1976, 1977) produced a catalog of 37 pucar sites, of which 14 are tightly
clustered in the Pambamarca area (south of Cayambe). His plan maps, all derived from aerial
photograph studies, indicate that most pucar vary from oval to circular in shape and most
have diameters (or a long axis) of between roughly 100 and 200 meters (pucar shape more or
3
less conforms to the topography of the hill top on which it was built). Many have 4 or 5
concentric sets of embankments, though there is considerable variation and several sites (e.g.,
Quitolomasee Oberem 1969) are very complex. Studies of several pucar indicate definite
Inka affiliation (e.g., Jijn y Caamao 1914:23-24 at Urcuqu, and Oberem 1969a at
Quitoloma), and the authors of these studies both assert that all such structures in the region
are of Inka origin. This certainly may be true of the northern and eastern pucar, which are
seemingly aligned in such a way as to give the appearance of strategic military planning for
control of the region. However, recent investigations by Connell et al. (2003) indicate that at
least one fortress in the Pambamarca group (Pucar Guachala or Pinguilmi) is almost certainly
of indigenous origin. Perhaps others will prove likewise as more studies are undertaken.
A possible artifact of the Inka perioda megalithwas observed during the present
project. This is a large, finely carved, and smoothed basalt stone slab (Photos 1 and 2). It was
situated out of context in a field north of Atuntaqui, obviously removed from its original
location and perhaps abandoned when it became too difficult to carry. Local lore holds that it
was used for human sacrifices. Such stone work is unknown for the indigenous periods but is
easily compatible with Inka stone working traditions.
Finally, it is of interest that Inka pottery was documented on house floors uncovered
in several of the large platform mounds with ramps at the Cochasqu site (see discussion below
for more information about this site). The excavator, Udo Oberem (1975:78-79), observes,
En los estratos superiores, sobre todo de las pirmides, se encontraron

algunos fragmentos de cermica de estilo inka imperial e inka
provincial, as como algunas piezas importadas, en especial
provenientes de la zona norte de la regin del Carchi (Cuasmal-Tuza).
The Inka pottery presumably was brought in by trade from the south prior to Inka conquest
and so may not actually pertain to the Inka Period in the northern highlands. This is also
suggested by the presence of Cuasmal-Tuza pottery from the north, and the Panzaleo thin ware
pottery of the south (also documented by Oberem). These latter two types suggest that the
traditional cultures of the region were still functioning when the Inka pottery was introduced,
which may not have been the case following Inka conquest. The Inka pottery and the other
exotic pottery presumably would have been a luxury that enhanced the prestige of the local
chiefs. Inka pottery has not been documented at other earthen mound sites. Its presence at
Cochasqu may reflect the sites location on the southern frontier of the mound region (and
therefore closest to the Inka frontier prior to conquest).
If, on the other hand, the Inka pottery at Cochasqu can be demonstrated to pertain to
the post-Inka conquest period, this would indeed be interesting. It would indicate that the
Cochasqu chiefdom was still functioning even though it was now under Inka hegemony.
Present information suggests that this is unlikely, though the possibility cannot be entirely
dismissed.
4
LATE PERIOD: AD 1250-1505/1525
The Late Period is distinguished by large quadrilateral earthen mounds, which not
infrequently are 100 meters or more on a side and 10 to 20 meters in height, and which often
have long (over 100 m) ramp-like features on one side (see Photo Gallery for many examples).
The mounds are distributed in discrete clusters throughout the northern highland region,
including northern Pichincha Province, all of Imbabura Province, and the extreme southern
part of Carchi Province (see Figs. 1a, 1b). Some of the mound clusters are quite large both in
area and number of mounds. For example, the Zuleta site, designated Im-13, has about 148
mounds in an area encompassing roughly 170 ha. Of these mounds, 13 are of the quadrilateral
ramp type (Photo 62). Although Zuleta is indeed impressive for its large ramp mounds, it is
only one of 28 known ramp mound sites now documented (with the present investigations) in
the region (Table 1; see also Fig. 1a). At least 38 other mound sites not having the distinctive
ramp feature are also known (Table 1; see Fig. 1a), and these are often impressive in their own
right, many having large quadrilateral earthen structures.
Surveys indicate that ramp mound sites are found in a range of contrasting and closely
juxtaposed environmental zones defined by significant differences in elevation, temperature,
and rainfall. The relatively hot, very dry, and relatively low elevation Guayllabamba and Mira-
Chota River valleys, separated by about 75 km, define the southern and northern boundaries of
mound site distribution, respectively (Fig. 1a). In between is a temperate highland zone, which
is defined by two major inter-Andean valley basins between the Cordillera Occidental and
Cordillera Oriental (see Tern 1989; also Salomon 1986:29-44 for excellent overview). None
of the environmental classification schemes (e.g., Acosta-Solis 1968; Ferdon 1950), however,
really captures the diversity of the temperate basins due to great variations in elevation (and
hence temperature), rainfall, and edaphic conditions. Finally, there is the western Intag region,
a rugged humid zone of relatively high rainfall located on the western flank of Cordillera
Occidental. Mound sites are found in all of these environmental zones at a range of elevations
and in a variety of microenvironments within any one zone. Also, the physiographic landforms
on which mound sites are situated are highly variable. The majority of sites, nevertheless, are
clearly concentrated within the temperate inter-Andean valleys between 2,000 and 3,000
meters elevation (see Fig. 1a).
Although many mound sites, including sites with ramp structures have been
documented in the western Pichincha montaa region (west of Quito), these mounds are quite
distinct in a number of respects (Lippi 1998:148). It appears, therefore, that the western
Pichincha mounds pertain to a distinct cultural tradition, though this is not to deny the
possibility of contact or influence between the two regions.
The Late Period was originally defined in the 1970s as a result of chronological
information obtained from a series of radiocarbon dates at the Cochasqu site, the Otavalo site,
the Pinsaqui site, and the Socapamba site (see Athens 1980, 1992). In addition, the largest
quadrilateral mound at the Otavalo site was radiocarbon dated in 1997 (Athens 1999), and this
report provides new dates for mounds at the Atuntaqui and La Libertad sites. The dates for all
sites fall after AD 1250. The date for the end of the period is the estimated time of the Inka
5
conquest of the northern highlands, about AD 1505/1525. The Late Period, therefore,
encompasses a time frame between AD 1250 and 1505/1525.
A distinctive pottery type, sometimes referred to as amphora and often decorated with
red line crosshatch paint on buff paste, was commonly associated with the dated sites and was
present within the dated deposits. The presence of this vessel type, therefore can be used as a
temporal diagnostic for dating many other mound sites that have been visited but for which
radiocarbon dates are not available due to lack of excavation. As amphorae sherds are
commonly observed on the surface of large mound sites, most of which have been visited, the
assignment of these sites to the Late Period is warranted. Of historical interest is that this red-
on-buff amphora pottery type was first noted and described by Jijn y Caamao in his 1920
report (1920:85-86). He does not seem to have recognized its widespread occurrence at mound
sites or its significance as a temporal diagnostic.
In regard to amphorae, basically a large jar form, variations have been noted in the
painting style as illustrated by the vessel shown in Photo 72. Amphorae always have thick rims
that are usually triangular in profile (though again, there is some variation). Sherds of this
distinctive vessel type are amply illustrated in Photos 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 29, 49, 73, 74,
75, 79, 80, 93, and 94. Rust-colored slip is also a common decorative feature on amphora and
other large and small vessels. It seems to be only associated with the Late Period.
Another common vessel type is that of the shallow rim bowl (often having carbon
deposits on the underside; Photos 10, 11, 12, 13, 74, 75, 93, 94), and there are several others.
Tuza-style bowls, imported from Carchi Province, also are present in small quantities at most
mound sites, as are Panzaleo-type thin ware vessels, some of which may be painted. The tiny
mica inclusions in the paste of these latter vessels suggest they are imports from the central
highlands, perhaps somewhere in the Pllaro area (just north of Ambatosee additional
discussion by T. Bray 1995a). Further information about Late Period pottery is provided in a
formal study by Meyers (1981).
Ceramic figurines, while present, are uncommon. Those that have been found are very
simple, consisting of stylized representations of a being with coffee bean slit eyes (see Photo
50; see also Currie 2001 for several examples, and Jijn y Caamao 1920:90, 1952:354). They
are always solid (rather than hollow), and the known examples are always broken below the
head (it is not known what they may have been connected to). Not much can be said about
these figurines except that they appear to be of local origin, though there is some similarity
with figurines documented in the Quito area (see Doyon 1988:51, Jijn y Caamao 1952:370).
The red painting/slip on the figurine in Photo 50 clearly places it in the Late Period.
It is the large jars (amphorae) that are striking for their relative abundance (in terms of
number of sherds), vessel size, and decoration. The appearance of this large vessel form seems
to represent something new and distinct from earlier periods. Given the painting often found
on amphorae, some of it elaborate (see Photo 72), it is not unlikely that they were used as
special purpose containers. A likely possibility in this regard is that they were used for storing
chicha, a mildly alcoholic Andean beverage made from corn.
6
The importance and widespread use of chicha during the early historic period is
documented by Salomon (1986:73-79). More generally, chicha drinking has important social,
ritual, and political connotations in the Andean region (Murra 1975), and this was no doubt
true for the northern highlands of Ecuador in times past. This is in keeping with DeBoers
(2003:326) recent analysis of the function of prehistoric pottery in the Andean region. He
demonstrates that chicha brewing and storage vessels became common in late prehistoric and
historic times, which suggests that the social significance of chicha drinking was generally
much less in earlier times. The northern highland Ecuador evidence suggests that chicha
drinking became much more pronounced with the appearance of amphorae during the Late
Period, exactly following DeBoers expectations. Given the apparent significant use of chicha
on the giant platform mounds, the advent of large-scale chicha production and drinking may
have significant socio-political implications for understanding the functioning of chiefdoms in
this region.
Another potentially interesting association concerning chicha and platform mounds is

the presence of canal-like hearth features, which were molded into the house floors on
mounds. Such features were first clearly described by Oberem (1981:64-68; see also Wurster
1981:81-124) at the Cochasqu site (see Photo 89; Jijn y Caamao [1920:47] may have
excavated similar features at the Aguacate mound near Urcuqu, and also possibly at the
Quinche mound site [1914:70-71], but his descriptions are unclear ). At Cochasqu a 17.1 m
diameter circular floor was exposed near the top of Mound E. There was also a second and
smaller circular floor 9.8 m in diameter, though it is uncertain if it was contemporaneous with
the larger floor. Each floor had two molded canal features; the canals in the larger floor were
5.7 and 7.0 m long (they were about 50 cm wide and 16 cm in depth). The canals of the smaller
floor were 2.0 and 3.0 m long. The same kind of hearth feature was also documented in Mound
G, this one being 9.0 m long. The hearths, which were fired to a brick-like hardness, contained
multiple triangular arrangements of conical stones (or impressions for the stones) along the
sides of the canals (4 sets and 5 sets, respectively, in the two Mound E hearths). These are
obviously tullpa rumis, used for supporting pots when cooking in the typical Andean manner.
Athens (1980 and herein) subsequently documented such hearths on floors at other mound
sites (Otavalo, Pinsaqui, Socapamba, and Atuntaquisee Photos 6, 35, 57, 69, 70, and 71),
and it is safe to say that they are a characteristic of house floors in platform mounds. The
mounds containing such features range in size from very small to extremely large, and they
may or may not have ramps. Oberem (1981:66) has also noted that these same hearth features,
albeit only 1.0 m long, were found unassociated with mounds at the Cochasqu site
(unfortunately these excavations do not seem to have been reported upon in detail).
The size of the hearth features and the apparent fact that chicha consumption was an
important activity provide fodder for interesting and possibly productive speculation. It easily
can be envisioned that the size of hearths (their length) may relate to the quantity of chicha that
was manufactured, and that this in turn must relate to the number of individuals being served
chicha. These are not unreasonable assumptions. If true, it can be imagined that the owners of
larger hearths most likely had a larger social agenda than those with smaller hearths. The
political ramifications are apparent. Thus, hearth features may have great potential as a source
of information that may allow for reconstruction of the prehistoric power structure through
7
time and space in the northern highlands. Without more data on these interesting features, little
more can be suggested at this time, though one avenue for future research is clearly apparent.
The fundamental premise of the chicha drinking model is not unlike what has been
observed ethnographically with the tropical forest Achuara Jvaro in southeastern Ecuador.
Their use of manioc chicha as a social lubricant is clearly designed to achieve social and
political ends at the household level, which ultimately serves to enhance security in a highly
competitive and dangerous social environment. In this case, each wife in a house has her own
hearth. The incentive for men to have multiple wives derives from the network of male allies
the husband gains from each wifes side of the family. Just as importantly, each wife also
increases the amount of chicha that can be produced through her gardening and preparation
labor, which enhances a mans prestige and solidifies an even broader network of relationships
(authors observations, 1976; see also Kelekna 1981:67-71). In the tribal context of the
Achuara, household security is of enormous concern, and this is accomplished through both
the acquisition of wives and the production of chicha, the two being inextricably bound
together.
Returning to mounds, amphorae, and hearth features, it is apparent that these shared
similarities represent what might be called a unity of cultural forms in the northern highland
region. Such a unity is believed to signify a singular prehistoric ethnic group that once existed
in the region (see Athens 1992). This prehistoric ethnic group certainly was the same as that
occupying the region at the time of the Inka conquest and surviving, albeit much changed, into
early historic times. Their descendants, in fact, still occupy the region and maintain their
ethnic integrity as indigenous people.
No traditional name for this ethnic group has survived if a name did ever exist. As a
name is necessary for descriptive purposes, the people formerly inhabiting the northern
highland mound region at the time of the Inka conquest have come to be called the Caranqui
(or Pas CaranquiJijn y Caamao 1952), the Cara (Murra 1946 and Athens 1980; see also
Meggers 1966), Otavalo-Caranqui and Cayambe (Newson 1995; see also Ramn 1987), and
Cayambes and Carangues (Espinosa Soriano 1988). Since there is no traditional name, one
name or variation can hardly be said to be more correct than another. However, Cara clearly
stands out as having a loaded and erroneous meaning to some investigators as a result of
writings of an earlier era, and thus should be discarded (Salazar 1996 48-68; Espinosa Soriano
1988:17). As the term Caranqui and the other hyphenated names refer to several of the
dominate chiefdoms identified ethnohistorically, these names also have their limitations.
However, as the name Caranqui was also originally used to designate a linquistic region (Jijn
y Caamao 1952:Fig. 15[Mapa II]), it probably has the most legitimacy in the sense of
describing an area that has a unity of cultural forms, including language. This name will be
used henceforth to designate the prehistoric and early historic people occupying the region,
who may be legitimately regarded as an ethnic group because of the unity of cultural forms
they shared.
It must be emphasized that consideration of the prehistoric people occupying the

mound region as a single ethnic group may have nothing to do with the way these people
thought of themselves at any point in time, prehistoric or historic. As Salazar (1996:78)
8
observes, pre-Hispanic Ecuador was comprised of numerossimos seoros [also called
parcialidades, a traditional territory under the rule of a chiefsee discussion below], cada uno
con su esfera de influencia and that use of terms to indicate tribal divisions (as Salazar calls
ethnic units such as Caranqui) conveys an inaccurate perspective of the social reality.
Although Salazar is almost certainly correct in his rejection of the notion of tribe (or
ethnic group) as a concept without meaning for the people encompassed by the name, his
rejection begs the question of why there was a unity of cultural forms in the region. Athens
(1992) attempted to address this issue by proposing that ethnicity has adaptive significance in
regions that do not haveindeed cannot haveany kind of overarching regional political
organization to provide security of place. Without going into details here, the validity of this
argument can be appreciated simply by considering the enormous difficulty of the Inka, an
expansionist empire, had in subjegating a region that lacked a unified political system.
In terms of settlement pattern, it is clear from archaeology that mound sites were not
loci of nucleated settlements or villages, although many of the larger sites do appear to have
had a more concentrated zone of settlement in the vicinity of the mounds (e.g., Buys et al.
1991). Mound sites were primarily residential locations of chiefs, their families, and possibly
retainers. Presumably there were at least some houses built on the ground surface in the
vicinity of the mounds, but the only actual evidence for such non-mound houses is the
reference Oberem (1981:65-66) makes to canal-like hearth features (see below) excavated in
an open area away from the mounds at Cochasqu.
The chiefs and their families would have lived on top of the mounds. Refuse
associated with house floors in the mounds indicates a residential function. There is nothing to
indicate that the houses had a specialized religious or ritual function as suggested by Oberem
(1981:66).
Most mounds, even the largest, seem to have been constructed largely as a single
event as evidenced by the fact that they consist entirely of earthen fill rather than accumulated
midden deposits from continual re-use. The fill is sometimes delineated into distinct cells
formed by cangagua blocks or other sediment. The purpose of these cells is unclear, but
perhaps they served to delineate the effort required of a particular work party; they also may
have helped contain the fill. The mounds at Cochasqu appear to have been faced with
especially large cangagua blocks, perhaps to facilitate and stabilize the shape of these
enormous structures. However, this has not been noted at other sites, though more field
investigation is needed.
Field studies have shown that house floors are often found about 70 to 100 cm below
the present mound surface, but that there are usually no other floors or features below this
surface. Presumably a house once existed on top of the present mound surface (i.e., above the
floor that is presently in evidence), but historic and modern agriculture on the mounds have
erased any evidence of its former existence. Thus, there would have been a later period of
mound enlargement following its initial use as indicated by the buried house floor. But this
second phase of mound construction would have been quite limited compared to the initial
phase of construction.
9
The only complete excavations of house floors have been by Oberem (1981) at the
Cochasqu site. As previously noted, the floors indicate that the houses were round.
Apparently mound platforms normally contained only one house, though Mound E at
Cochasqu indicates the possibility that there may have been two houses on occasion (though
definite contemporaneity of two houses on this mound remains uncertain). How many of the
mounds were occupied simultaneously at any one site is presently unknown (did each cacique
or principal build his own mound, or did they re-use mounds already in existence?). It is
presumed that at the larger sites a number of the mounds must have been in use
simultaneously.
There is no evidence at this time that mounds were constructed as burial monuments
during the Late Period. Burials in the larger mounds tend to be few and appear to post-date
their use as residences. Actual burial mounds have not been identified for the Late Period,
though some mounds are potentially good candidates and this question needs further
exploration (e.g., see Photo 67). Thus far burial mounds are only known for the preceeding
Intermediate Period (discussed below). No chiefly tombs either within or outside of mounds
have been reported for the Late Period.
The settlement pattern suggested by the seoro model mentioned above is that of
parcialidades headed by principales (lessor chiefs), which may be joined by allegiance to a
cacique (paramount chief). Some individual parcialidades might be autonomous, in which
case leadership would be by a cacique. Parcialidades may have been, at least in part, kinship
based. In the northern highland region each parcialidad would have consisted of a community
of farmsteads (rather than an agglutinated village) that occupied a discrete geographical area.
Presumably the parcialidades under the control of a cacique were geographically contiguous,
though at present there is no way to be certain of this. Salomon (1986:122) describes early
ethnohistoric parcialidades as consisting of 20 to a hundred household units made up of
around 70 to 400 people. Parcialidades are regarded as the fundamental social unit of northern
Andean society (see also Netherly 1984:230-231). The model implies impermanence and
organizational flexibility as to the formation of multiple parcialidad groups under the
leadership of a cacique.
It is easy to envision cacique living at the larger mound sites, presumably in houses on
top of ramp mounds, while principales lived in houses on top of mounds at the smaller
outlying sites. There is likely some degree of truth to this characterization, but the actual
situation was almost certainly more complicated given the diversity of mound sites in terms of
their size and settings, and also the configurations of individual mounds within sites. Salomon
(1986:124), for example, points to the possibility of the principales having a dual residence
pattern: one at his parcialidad and the other with the cacique. This makes a lot of sense for
holding together the geographically and socially disparate parcialidades. It also conforms to
the observed pattern in which smaller non-ramp mounds tend to cluster around larger ramp
mounds at the larger sites.
Ethnohistoric sources refer to the existence of a great deal of warfare and feuding
between rival political groups prior to Inka subjugation. As described by Paz Ponce de Len
10
(1582 [1897:111]) in his report for the Relaciones Geogrficas, the Indians of his
corregimiento in ancient times,
Traian guerra unos con otros sobre las tierras que poseian, y el que
ms podia, despojaba al otro de todo lo que poseia; y estas diferencias
tenian siempre los indios comarcanos y vecinos unos con otros, de
manera que todo era behetra.
Such agonistic behavior no doubt played a great part in the process of chiefdom formation and
and the general state of constant political flux that must have been a characteric of these
polities (Athens 1992).
Other than investigations incompletely reported upon at Cochasqu, only a single Late
Period household feature has ever been excavated at a non-mound site. This was a large pit
containing stratified household refuse at the El Salado site (Site 94-1) just north of Otavalo
mound group (Athens 1999, in prep.). Two radiocarbon dates place the deposits in the AD
1300s. Interestingly, painted amphorae sherds were not in evidence, which could possibly
indicate that painted amphorae were reserved for use on mounds (i.e., the painting was an
emblem of rank). Pottery in the pit feature included sherds with triangular rims and rust slip,
shallow rim bowls, Panzaleo thin ware sherds (common), and non-diagnostic utilitarian forms.
Animal bones were also present (mostly fragmentary), and these included domestic guinea pig
(cuy, Cavia porcellus), llama (Lama sp.), and dog in addition to white-tailed deer. The bone
identifications are similar to what has been recovered at mound sites with the exception that
rabbit (Sylvilagus brasiliensis) was missing as were several other minor contributions to the
record (Athens 1980; see also Stahl 2003 for discussion of Andean animal domesticates). A
flute fragment made from unidentified bird bone (from an obviously large bird) was also
recovered.
In regard to subsistence, the ethnohistoric literature clearly assigns maize a

preeminant role in the indigenous diet, but also notes the presence and importance of various
tubers and beans, quinoa, and other cultivars (see discussion in Salomon 1986). As Salomon
(1986:74) has remarked, the northern pramo Andes of Troll (1958, 1968) could as easily be
referred to as the maize Andes, and this is also supported by Reichel-Dolmatoffs (1961)
review of early documentary sources concerning early Colonial indigenous agriculture in
Colombia.
Archaeologically, carbonized maize kernels and cob fragments are very common in
excavations at Late Period sites. However, it is almost impossible to quantify such remains in
terms their dietary significance. Stable carbon isotope studies of human bone samples
overcome this problem by directly measuring the dietary contribution of C4 plants, which
have a distinctive photosynthetic pathway and isotopic signature (a full explanation is
provided in van der Merwe 1982, Norr 1995). Because maize is the only significant C4 food
plant in the Andean region, such studies can provide specific data on the dietary significance
of maize. For the northern highlands, a sample of bones from 17 different burials was
analyzed, and these indicated a very high prehistoric dietary dependence on maize. By the
Intermediate Period (see below) it reached two-thirds to three-quarters of the total diet (Tykot
11
et al. nd). Although no bone samples were available for the Late Period, presumably dietary
dependence on maize was as much if not more for this time. Maize was obviously very
important in the northern highland region from a relatively early time. As would be expected,
fragments from large grinding stones (manos and metates) are generally common at mound
sites (Photo 38).
Other significant cultigens of economic importance almost certainly included cotton

and coca, which are limited to the warm, lower elevation lands such as the Guayllabamba and
Chota-Mira River valleys, and also the western flanks of the Cordillera Occidental (Caillavet
2000:245-246, Salomon 1986). Unfortunately, there is no direct archaeological evidence for
this during the Late Period, but accounts in the Relaciones Geogrficas are clear that
cultivation of these products were significant economic activities during the early Colonial
period (Aguilar 1897, Borja 1897, Paz Ponce de Len 1897:116-117).
As for agricultural field systems, investigations have demonstrated the association of

a number of the large mound sites with ridge field systems (camellones) in the northern
Pichincha and Imbabura valley basins (Knapp 1984, 1988, Knapp and Denevan 1985). Ridge
fields involved the reclamation of marsh land, making possible a labor intensive double-
cropping agricultural system primarily emphasizing maize. What is especially interesting is
that this form of agriculture was initiated in the region at approximately the same time the
large mounds began to be built (Athens 1999, in prep.; Currie 2001), supporting earlier
hypotheses of density dependent high populations during the Late Period (Athens 1980;
Knapp 1984, 1988).
Some lengthy irrigation canals are also believed to have been constructed during the
Late Period on the basis of their passing next to mound sites (Knapp 1992). However, no
actual dating has been done of any canal feature (a difficult proposition at best), and some
skepticism regarding their prehistoric attribution is warranted until more definitive
information is available (i.e., it would be hard to construct a canal anywhere in the northern
highland region that did not pass close to a mound site; thus such features could easily be
historic).
Relatively extensive agricultural terracing has been documented in the Pimampiro

area (near the Ro Chota) by T. Bray (1995b; see photograph in Almeida Reyes 1997:49).
Although dates are lacking, the terraces must certainly have been utilized during the Late
Period, perhaps for cotton or coca. The present study has also documented a fairly extensive
terrace system in the upper Agato area to the northeast of Otavalo (Site I-104; see Photo 76).
Despite these interesting examples, however, there is no evidence that terraces were widely
used in the region during prehistoric times. Nevertheless, the terrace sites along with that of
the ridge field systems suggest intensive agricultural use of the northern highland landscape
during prehistoric times.
The prehistoric significance of trade and exchange in the northern highland region
have been important themes in many studies, especially those relying on ethnohistoric data
(e.g., Salomon 1986:201-205, Caillavet 2000; see also summary discussion in Stahl 2003).
This is based on the obvious geographical/environmental constraints involved in the farming
12
of cotton and coca, the extraction of salt, and procurement of other exotic goods (bird feathers,
marine shell, stone for axes, gold, serpentine, etc.). However, extending early Colonial
exchange practices back to prehistoric times is problematical. As Athens (1995) has argued,
there is a scarcity of actual archaeological evidence for trade and exchange (as indicated by
non-perishable exotic goods) during the Late Period. In contrast, exotic goods are much more
in evidence during the much earlier La Chimba Period (see below). This is an interesting
finding because it suggests that the rise of chiefdoms in the region had little or nothing to do
with elites or social groups in propitious settings excercising control over needed or desired
resources. This, in fact, is supported by the spatial/geographic distribution of the mound sites,
which shows no clusterings or hierarchies that would suggest favored economic locations or
situations (other than the greater concentration mound sites in the temperate highland valleys).
Similary, there is no evident correlation between the size of mounds and/or particular sites in
locations that might have any conceivable scarce or geographically restricted resource (e.g.,
salt, cotton, coca, trade routes from the coast or Oriente region). Thus, while ethnohistoric
economic reconstructions may accurately portray the early Colonial period, the archaeological
evidence does not support the applicability of these findings to the Late Period in northern
highland Ecuador.
LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD: CA. AD 1250-700
Archaeological evidence for the two Intemediate Periods, the Late and the Early, is
quite limited and essentially unsatisfactory for defining periods. However, there is a clear
separation both with the Late Period and the earlier La Chimba Period. What is going on in
between these beginning and ending points is not nearly so clear. This no doubt reflects to a
great extent the dearth of archaeological information. However, it may also reflect something
of the character of the archaeological record in which a unity of cultural forms is not nearly
so well expressed in a manner that is archaeologically visible. What follows is a best effort
to summarize the available archaeological information into what appear to be two distinct
periods. As more information becomes available, it obviously may be necessary to revise how
these periods are defined and to adjust their dates.
There are four fairly well documented sites that have contributed information about
the two Intermediate time periods in the northern highlands. These are the Cochasqu site
(Oberem 1981), the Malchingu site (Meyers et al. 1975), the Socapamba site (Athens 1980),
and the Im-ll site (Athens 1999, in prep.; Athens and Osborn 1974). The Im-11 site is located
on the northern side of Otavalo (see map in Athens 1999:181). The Late Intermediate Period,
which will be addressed first, is defined primarily on the basis of information obtained from
the Cochasqu and Socapamba sites.
The Late Intermediate Period is characterized by the appearance of earthen burial

mounds as documented at the Cochasqu and Socapamba sites. Characterization of this Late
Intermediate Period has its antecedant in the work of Jijn y Caamao (1952:342), who
designated a Tolas con Pozo period (tola being the local word for earthen mound). This
designation refers to shaft burials found under earthen mounds. Jijn y Caamao (1952:342)
13
provides a succinct description of his basis for defining this period, which he admits is poorly
known:
En 1909 y 1911 pudimos excavar en la hacienda El Hospital

UrcurquProvincia de ImbaburaRegin Caranquiunos cuantos
montculos que se distinguen de los dems, estudiados por nosotros en
Imbabura: por su tamao de dos a seis metros de dimetro, de 0,60 a
1,20 mts. de altura; por ser de plano circular; por tener en el interior
uno o dos sepulcros, cavados n desde la superficie del montculo,
sino desde el terreno en que ste se levanta y que tiene de 1,50 a 2,10
mts. de profundidad, de 0,70 a 1,60 de dimetro; algunos de estos
montculos tienen dos, o tres coronas de piedras, dispuestas formando
un crculo, lo que demuestra no son casas derruidas, sino verdaderos
monumentos funerarios.
Jijn y Caamao (1952:342) further notes that one of the mounds had a rim sherd in the same
form and painted red just like those commonly found in the Aguacate mound, a habitation
mound he had excavated earlier. Another sherd, having an annular base, had on its neck a
crown of solid conical points. Both of these observations suggest a Late Period time frame for
the burial mounds (especially the presence of an Aguacate-type rim sherd). This is one of
several reasons that many of Jijn y Caamaos interpretations have proven difficult to mesh
with modern archaeological findings.
Nevertheless, excavations at both the Cochasqu and Socapamba mound sites indicate
that burial mounds are definitely present in the northern highlands by the Late Intermediate
Period. Mound 19 of the Socapamba site, radiocarbon dated to AD 760, contained a primary
burial feature associated with a surface at mid-depth in the mound. It also had many burials
that were placed in the mound subsequent to covering this surface with fill (see Athens
1980:127-130). Mound 19 is a circular earthwork measuring 30 m in diameter and 4.75 m in
height. It appears that this mound was built as a burial monument, but this was not
demonstrated conclusively. Burial pottery included bowls with annular bases having interior
red slip that was highly polished (some bowls also had slightly everted wavy rim profiles).
Panzaleo thin ware bowls with annular bases were also present. A common feature of
Panzaleo bowls and other bowls was the presence of an appliqu frog, monkey, or other
creature (identification of the zoomorphic form is uncertain) climbing over the lip of the
vessel. Some of the pottery definitely anticipates the Late Period, as with presence of the
shallow rim bowl form, though with red rather than rust slip. Another object deserving
mention was the recovery of a single small metal artifact with a burial, perhaps a bell. It
appears to have been made of copper.
At the Cochasqu site, two burial mounds were excavated by Oberem (1970), who
reported that a series of radiocarbon dates from these mounds clustered around AD 1000, with
samples as early as AD 900 and as late as AD 1300. Although Oberem (1975:79), in another
publication, places his burial mounds in the Late Period (what he calls Cochasqu II), the
radiocarbon dates clearly contradict this assignment.
14
One of the Cochasqu burial mounds measured 40 m in diameter and 5 m in height
above the ground surface; the other measured 35 and 3.5 m, respectively. The pozo or burial
shaft of the first mound was excavated into sterile sediments below the mound, while in the
small mound the burial was placed in a natural cavity in the ground surface, and the mound
built on top. The burial pit of the larger mound contained a single female interment,
accompanied by seven other craniums. Sherds from three vessels of painted thin ware pottery
(presumably Panzaleo thin ware) were also found in the pit. The smaller mound, in contrast
had 15 vessels in the burial pit, but oddly, there were no skeletal remains. Most of the vessels
were of the Panzaleo thin ware type decorated with dark red designs and some having a
checkerboard pattern. These vessels were all globular olla forms, some with annular bases.
The painting style, notwithstanding the use of curvilinear designs radiating from the vessels
neck, seems to anticipate the Late Period. However, the pottery definitely appears to consist
entirely of imported types. The band of conical ceramic points around the neck of one vessel
recalls the description by Jijn y Caamao of a vessel he found in one of the Urcuqu burial
mounds, though he surely would have identified the vessel as a Panzaleo type if that had been
the case.
To summarize, evidence from the Late Intermediate Period appears to indicate

growing social differentiation within the society, with some members receiving relatively
elaborate burial treatment in grave sites that are highly visible on the landscape. The
Socapamba evidence also suggests that these same mounds may have become favored
locations of interment for others in the society following placement of the principal burial and
construction of the monument. However, the scale of mound construction was nothing like
what it became during the subsequent Late Period, during which time the mounds were used as
platforms for residences.
Nothing is known of the settlement pattern during the Late Intermediate Period, and
no residential sites have been excavated.
During the Late Intermediate Period, the northern boundary of the culture area seems
to have remained stable. Present archaeological evidence indicates maintenance of a sharp
cultural boundary at the Chota-Mira Rivers, with the north (Carchi Province) following its
own cultural trajectory (see Francisco 1969). To the south, within the Guayllabamba River
basin, evidence for the maintenance of a cultural boundary is not clear,. Little is known
concerning this period for the western flank of the Cordillera Occidental (but see Lippi 1998
and Isaacson 1987 for archaeological sequences in the nearby western Pichincha area).
EARLY INTERMEDIATE PERIOD: CA. AD 1-700
The Malchinqu and Im-ll data provide some indication that shaft tombs, some with
side chambers, are a characteristic of the Early Intermediate Period. A radiocarbon
determination on wood was obtained from the 6 meter deep shaft and chamber tomb at
Malchingu. The date was AD 131-340 (cal., 1 sigma). Bones were not preserved in either of
the two excavated tombs, though a total of 23 vessels were present. Negative painting
depicting geometric designs was employed on some of the vessels. The range of vessel types
15
are nicely illustrated by Meyers et al. (1975), who note clear resemblances with the pottery
excavated from similar tombs at the Im-11 site. At this latter site, a radiocarbon determination
derived from a specially processed (using the XAD resin protocol) bone sample from a two-
meter deep shaft and chamber tomb yielded a calibrated date of AD 615-689 (1 sigma range;
Athens 1999:180; see also Athens and Osborn 1974). Both of the excavated tombs contained
single flexed burials (in upright or seated position).
These findings suggest that Jijn y Caamaos (1952:232) original definition of an

early Sepulcros en Pozo period may have some basis in reality, especially if the side
chamber aspect of the shaft tombs is considered to be the defining feature of the shaft tombs.
Jijn y Caamao (1914:27-59) describes excavations of 21 shaft tombs (none with side
chambers), near Baratillo (between Urcuqu and Ibarra). The deepest of these reached a depth
of 4.5 meters. The burials appear to be mostly secondary (from the illustrations). The pottery
found in these tombs suggest an Intermediate Period date, but it is impossible to narrow the
time period to either the early or late part. It is possible, perhaps even probable, that shaft
tombs extend temporally over the entire span of the Early Intermediate Period.
To the south, in the Quito area, exceptionally deep shaft tombs (up to 16 meters),
presumably pertaining to individuals of special or high status, have been described for the La
Florida site (Doyon 1988). These date to about AD 260. Much of the pottery found in these
tombs, however, seems very different from that found in the north, suggesting a separate
cultural tradition, though perhaps one that is not entirely unrelated.
The Im-11 site also contains an Early Intermediate Period habitation component, with
radiocarbon dates of AD 240-416 (lower part) and AD 432-603 upper part (Athens 1999:180).
The site is situated on a relatively flat plain between two small (and deeply incised) streams on
the north side of Otavalo. Geographically, this is in the heart of the Inter-Andean basin in an
extremely productive agricultural zone. Unfortunately, house floors were not identified in the
deposits, though large bell-shaped pit features were common (one of which contained an
extended burial). Of the thousands of pottery sherds collected, only a few had traces of
negative painting. Two sherds with red line paint (on polished bowls or other small vessel)
were also observed, but painted sherds were so rare that it is difficult to be certain that they
were not intrusive into the assemblage. The most distinctive pottery consisted of highly
polished red slipped and black slipped bowls (also noted for the La Florida siteDoyon
1988:56). These bowls occasionaly had annular bases. Globular ollas were also noted, some
with roughly burnished cross-hatch designs (Athens and Osborn 1974). In general, the pottery
appears to closely resemble the many vessels illustrated by Meyers et al. (1975) for the
Malchingu burials. Panzaleo thin ware pottery is a very minor but persistent component of the
Im-11 assemblage.
In terms of food remains, charred maize and beans were common. The beans, in fact,
were extremely common in some excavations. These appeared to be Phaseolus vulgaris (the
common bean), but formal identification has not been made. Grinding stones, including both
manos and metate slab fragments, were also plentiful in the deposits, further suggesting that
maize was a significant part of the diet. Stable carbon isotope analysis of bone from Im-11
burials indicate that maize comprised as much as two-thirds to three-quarters of the total
16
dietary food intake. There is no evidence for intensified farming practices during the Early
Intermediate Period, such as use of camellones.
Among faunal bone remains, the most interesting finding concerns negative evidence:
no bones of camelids or guinea pig were present in the site deposits. Rabbit predominated in
the animal bone assemblage, followed by white-tailed deer, and a single armadillo bone. Dog
was possibly present, but not securely identified.
At this time there is no indication that Early Intermediate Period archaeological

remains have been found north of the Chota-Mira Rivers or on the western flank of the
Cordillera Occidental. Thus, it appears that the Early Intermediate Period was characterized by
a rather circumscribed culture area for the inter-Andean basins north of Quito. Population size
may have been significant, but it is unclear if people were aggregated into villages or hamlets,
or were more dispersed, living on isolated farmsteads. The Im-ll site suggests the former (a
small village or hamlet), but the evidence is too limited to extend such a characterization to the
entire region.
LA CHIMBA PERIOD: 700 BC - AD 1
The most important site of this early ceramic period is La Chimba, located at 3,180 m
elevation in northeastern Pichincha Province (near Olmedo). The site is very unusual for the
highlands in that portions of it contain three meters of well-preserved and stratified occupation
deposits. Fifteen radiocarbon dates indicate that these deposits span the period from 700 BC to
about AD. 250 (Athens 1990, 1995; also Stahl and Athens 2001). A finely detailed pottery
chronology has been worked out with the numerous distinctive types that are present (Athens
1990, in prep.). Three main subperiods are recognized based on the most conspicuous pottery
changes, though these subperiods can be further subdivided. The major subperiods are
presented in Stahl and Athens (2001:165), and basically consist of an Early La Chimba Phase
marked by Punctate Bowls, a Middle La Chimba Phase marked by fineline diagonal or
crosshatch incision on carinated bowls, and a Late La Chimba Phase indicated by bowls and
jars with exterior red paint and also lipped (incurving rims) bowls with excision (see also
Athens 1978b for an early presentation of this scheme with illustrations). The dates for these
phases are as follows: 700-440 BC, 440-44 BC, 44 BC-AD 250. As suggested by the dates, the
Late La Chimba pottery component at the La Chimba site temporally corresponds to the early
part of the Early Intermediate Period, to which it properly pertains.
Diagnostic La Chimba pottery is known to be widespread in the region. Early and

Middle phase sherds have been found at both the Im-11 and El Salado (94-1) sites near
Otavalo (see Athens and Osborn 1974, Athens in prep.). Middle phase sherds have also been
documented in deep deposits at Mound 18 at Socapamba (Athens 1980:214), and also at the
Tababuela site in the Chota Valley (Berenguer and Echeverra (1988, 1995). This latter site,
having dense, undisturbed midden remains (unlike the other locations) on a high bench or
terrace landform overlooking the confluence of the Ro Ambi and the Ro Chota, has a pottery
assemblage correlating with Levels 15 and 16 of the La Chimba TP-7 master chronology,
which dates to 400-350 BC. No La Chimba type pottery has been reported for Carchi
17
Province, suggesting a firm cultural boundary at the Chota-Mira River was in place perhaps as
early as 700 BC.
For the region south of the Guayllabamba River, the situation regarding relationships
outside the region is more complex. Some of the pottery from the Cotocollao site in Quito
(Villalba 1988) does resemble that from La Chimba, but the dates for Cotocollao are
significantly older (to 1500 BC). This overlap may be due to it and La Chimba sharing some of
the general Formative Period vessel shapes and decorative techniques even though the La
Chimba occupation dates only to the very end of what has been defined as the Ecuadorian
Formative (based largely on the coastal sequence).
In terms of cultigens, La Chimba yielded abundant charred remains of maize, beans,

quinoa, oca, and potato. In addition, cotton was present throughout the sequence, as were a
number of wild/weedy annuals (Pearsall 2003:230-231). As Pearsall (2003:231) notes, the
antiquity of this subsistence system is likely to be considerebly earlier than the 2640 BP [700
BC] date for the beginning of the occupation at La Chimba.
As for animal bone remains, 40,000 skeletal elements were recovered and analyzed
from the La Chimba site (Stahl and Athens 2001). The findings are consistent with those from
the Im-11 site in that no guinea pig or llama bones were recovered. This further confirms that
guinea pig and llama were not present in the northern highlands until the advent of the Late
Period. The vast majority of animal bone at La Chimba is from deer and rabbit, probably
reflecting the sites high elevation and its nearness to pramo grasslands and forest. Far fewer
quantities of a wide diversity of other taxa were also identified, including dog, oppossum,
armadillo, fox, bear, raccoon, coati, kinkajou, skunk, mountain lion, tapir, porcupine, paca, and
various small rodents, birds, and reptiles.
In regard to diet, stable isotope analyses indicate that maize consumption constituted
about one-third of the whole diet at La Chimba (Tykot et al. nd). This appears to be a
reasonable finding in view of the marginal location of La Chimba for maize farming due to its
elevation, and the consequent expected greater emphasis on growing and consuming potatoes,
oca, and other cold-adapted cultivars. Also, consumption of animal protein seems to have been
more important at La Chimba compared to other sites from later time periods. Nevertheless,
maize was obviously still a significant food source.
One notable point concerning the La Chimba and Tababuela sites is that they are
located in relatively marginal agricultural zones: La Chimba is very high (and cold), right at
the present day margin for growing maize, and the Tababuela location is extremely dry (no
cultivation at all is possible at present). This locational information suggests that by the Early
La Chimba period agriculturalists had already spread throughout the more propitious inter-
Andean valley agricultural zones, and were expanding into the more marginal agricultural
areas. The implication, of course (as suggested by Pearsall above), is that there must be an
earlier period of farming that encompasses the time when agriculturalists first entered the
valleys, removed the forests that must have once covered most of the valley basins, and
generally transformed the natural landscape into a human-constructed landscape.
18
With respect to settlement pattern, the evidence from La Chimba and Tababuela
suggests that people tended to live in villages or hamlets as opposed to being dispersed on
farmsteads. Obviously the data are limited, but at least for these two sites, the density of refuse
accumulation suggests residential aggregation, and in the case of La Chimba, an extraordinary
stability of residential location through time.
There is a fair amount of evidence from La Chimba for long distance trade or
exchange (see Athens 1990, 1995), which is replicated at the Tababuela site. Marine shell,
mainly Spondylidae and Strombidae, was common at La Chimba (almost entirely in the form
of small fragmentary pieces, indicating shell artifact manufacturing at the site). There was also
a small amount of coastal pottery (probably Chorrera), and a substantial amount of Cosanga
(thin ware) pottery, presumably from the Cosanga region in the eastern lowlands (see Porras
1975). One squirrel monkey bone was also present, which indicates that either a live monkey
(as a pet?) or its carcass came from the lowland tropical forest (either from the western or
eastern slopes of the Andes). Several tiny droplets of gold were recovered from the midden
deposits, indicating gold casting was undertaken at the site. The gold also would have been
derived from the tropical forest region, presumably as placer deposits in the rivers. A dense
greenstone (related to basalt), used for axes, was commonly present, and it also seems to be an
exotic material. Finally, as Pearsall has noted, cotton was present, which only grows in warm
regions. This presumably explains the common presence of spindle whorl disks in the La
Chimba midden deposits, which were made from pottery sherds. A figurine with a
characteristic cheek bulge, recovered in the 1974 excavations, suggests that coca may also
have been present, though no actual coca was identified at the site (Athens 1980:119). Finally,
mention may be made of the obsidian flake debris present at the site (over 14,000 pieces from
just TP-7). Several types of obsidian are present in the collection, and one of these is known to
have come from the Mullumica source (Salazar 1985, Asaro et al. 1994). The overall
impression is that there was considerably more movement of exotic goods in the region during
the La Chimba period than in subsequent periods (Athens 1995).
THE PRECERAMIC PERIOD: PRE-1550 BC
Archaeological Evidence
Preceramic archaeological evidence in the northern highland region remains unclear

at present. Only one site, Im-11, has produced aceramic deposits that are interpreted to be
preceramic. These were found below a thick (84 cm) compact volcanic ash layer that
separates it from the Early Intermediate Period ceramic deposits. The aceramic deposits,
consisting only of relatively small obsidian flakes and small amounts of charcoal, are
radiocarbon dated to 1732-1517 BC (Athens 1999, in prep.). This date, just below the 3000 to
3500 year old (1050 to 1550 BC) Cuicocha volcanic ash deposit (Athens 1999:179), is exactly
what would be expected for in situ charcoal. Although the dating is secure, the amount of
excavation was too limited and the number of artifacts too small to contribute much to an
understanding of human activities for the time period represented. Also, it is impossible to
know whether the lack of ceramics is due to the location being a special use lithic work area or
simply due to an absence of ceramic manufacture during the time period represented by the
19
lithics. However, the find does point to the importance of examining paleosols beneath thick
volcanic ash deposits if early archaeological remains are to be discovered in the northern
highlands.
Pollen Evidence
In 1989 a sediment core was obtained from Lake San Pablo, located just southeast of
Otavalo, and subsequently another, deeper, core was obtained in 1994 (Athens 1999:161-166,
in prep.). In a preliminary review of pollen slides from the 1989 core, maize pollen was found
from the top to the core base, the latter dating to about 4200 cal. BP (2250 BC). In addition,
charcoal particles in pollen slides from the basal intervals were identified as primarily
pertaining to maize based on their diagnostic cell structure. From this work, it is clear that
maize farming was underway in the inter-Andean valley surrounding Lake San Pablo at least
as early as 2250 BC, and probably earlier (assuming that the deepest occurrence of maize
pollen did not fortuitously coincide the base of the core). As suggested by the preceramic
archaeological evidence, people were obviously present in the Lake San Pablo area by 2250
BC, though at this time there is no indication that they used pottery.
One of the most important questions for the region concerns the time when agriculture
first began. When did the presumed Andean forest begin to be cleared from the valley basins
for agriculture, and when did maize cultivation begin? Indeed, did agriculture begin with
maize cultivation, or was it preceeded by another form of agriculture? It is hoped that these
questions can be answered with the presently ongoing analysis of pollen samples from the
1994 core. This second core reached a depth dating to about 7000 years ago. Deeper
penetration was apparently precluded by avalanche debris from Mt. Imbabura, an event that
was subsequently identified in the appropriate stratigraphic context at a nearby lake shore cut
bank along the Panamerican Highway (Minard Hall, pers. comm.). By way of comparison,
pollen cores from the Colombia highlands indicate that maize cultivation dates as early as
7300 to 7500 cal. BP (W. Bray et al.1987:445; Monsalve 1985; Kuhry 1988), and it may be
slightly earlier on the Ecuadorian coast (about 7900 cal. BP; see Piperno and Pearsall
1998:186-188).
VOLCANIC ASH
The significance of volcanic ash (or tephra) falls for the archaeology of the northern
highland region has been discussed in Athens (1999). A volcano eruption sequence/ash fall
chronology is provided by Hall and Mothes (1994). There are two points that should be
emphasized regarding the value of ash falls for archaeology. The first is that they can provide
extremely important marker horizons for dating archaeological deposits. The second and
related point is that ash falls are useful for determining where to look for archaeological sites.
The significance of the first point is demonstrated by the use of the Quilotoa ash to
date the extensive buried ridge field (camellone) system at the El Salado site (Site 94-1; see
Athens 1999). The Quilotoa ash is easily identifiable and obvious in stratigraphic profiles, and
is known to date to about 700 cal. BP (AD 1250) as determined from a number of sources
20
(Athens in prep., Hall and Mothes 1994). An example of a similar use of this ash for dating a
ridge field system at the Zuleta site is provided by Currie (2001). With respect to the El Salado
field system, no other means for dating was available, or indeed would have had the precision
of an volcanic eruptive event that leaves its mark throughout an entire region.
As for ash indicating where to look for archaeological sites, an important example
concerns the preceramic deposits at the Im-11 site, which were found in a paleosol under the
thick Cuicocha ash. Thus, if archaeologists are interested in locating preceramic sites in the
Otavalo area, it is clear that they must focus their efforts on sedimentary units below the
Cuicocha ash, and in particular, within the paleosol under this ash. The latter has been
identified at a variety of locations in the area, including the El Salado site.
Another point regarding volcanic ash that deserves mention is its potentially
destructive force. The Lake San Pablo core documented 32 tephra layers (Athens 1999:163-
166). While most of these episodes of volcanism would have been benign in terms of human
occupation and use of the landscape (even beneficial for agriculture), several would have been
devastating. The Pululagua ash at 2284 cal. BP (334 BC) presumably would have been one of
these, and the Cuicocha ash fall/pyroclastic flow between about 3000 and 3500 cal. BP (1050
and 1550 BC) would have been particularly devastating (though perhaps less widespread).
Figure 2 illustrates graphically the most significant ash falls for the region, including the
apparent abandonment of the northern highland region between about 1550 and 700 BC.
There are no models to demonstrate just how devastating major volcanic events
would have been to prehistoric human populations in the region, but clearly they would have
severely impacted inhabitants over a broad area that depended on agriculture for subsistence.
Recovery of agricultural lands presumably would have taken years if not decades once the
eruption ceased. The Cuicocha eruption, in fact, may have involved a series of major ash and
pyroclastic flow events over a protracted period. Dating and stratigraphic information obtained
from the El Salado site indicates that this volcano was almost constantly active over a period
of about 500 years (Athens 1999).
Volcanism could well explain the absence of archaeological evidence in the region
between about 700 BC, the date for the earliest evidence of La Chimba pottery, and 3500 BP,
the start of the Cuicocha eruption (700 and 1550 BC, respectively). The La Chimba pottery
evidence seems to indicate that the Pululagua eruption at about 334 BC did not completely
prevent occupation during early La Chimba times, though it must have had some impact. What
is especially interesting, however, is that archaeological evidence presently indicates that it
took about 300 years before regional repopulation occurred after the last of the Cuicocha
eruptive events ended around 1050 BC (that is, between the time that the Cuicocha eruption
ceased and the earliest evidence for La Chimba pottery).
Much more serious, perhaps, were the eruptive events associated with the Cayambe
volcano between about 5400 and 5900 cal. BP. The 102 cm ash deposit caused by an eruption
at 3900 BC presumably would have caused a major ecological disaster in the region. However,
whether people, presumably agriculturalists, were present at this time is not yet known.
21
SUMMARY
In general, the various investigations provide a fairly solid chronology for the
prehistory of northern highland Ecuador, indicating a cultural sequence culminating in the
appearance of large chiefdom polities as witnessed by the enormous earthen mound sites that
dot the landscape. Some of the sites and many of mounds in them are truly large. The largest
site, Atuntaqui, occupies about 8.5 sq. km. and many of the sites cover more than 0.5 sq. km.
in area. The largest of the ramp mounds attain 100 meters on a side, 20 meters in height, and
over 200 meters in length for the ramp. A few mounds are even larger! The mounds served as
foundations for chiefly residences.
A basic ceramic chronology has also been developed. A review of the stylistic
attributes of the pottery suggests a largely autochthonous developmental sequence for the
region (Athens 1995), though it is recognized that the La Chimba Period incorporates some of
the widespread Late Formative styles and vessel forms of Ecuador into its pottery.
Also clear is that use of many of the basic Andean cultigens was established by the
earliest ceramic times. Faunal studies, however, seem to demonstrate that important Andean
animal domesticates (llama and guinea pig) did not appear in the region until the Late Period.
Maize was also being grown in the region at least since 4200 cal. BP (2250 BC), which is well
before the appearance of the earliest ceramics in the region. Maize is known to have been a
dietary staple since at least the La Chimba period. Ongoing lake core studies should provide
information on the antiquity of maize cultivation (before 4200 cal. BP) in the northern
highland region.
Finally, intense periods of volcanism may have affected human settlement in the
region during at least several periods, and may explain gaps in the archaeological record, such
as the one between about 1550 and 700 BC.
BACKGROUND TO THE PRESENT PROJECT
The main purpose of the proposed 2001 investigations was to complete an inventory
of earthen mound sites in the highland region of northern Ecuador. A few of these sites first
became widely known as a result of archaeological investigations by Jijn y Caamao (1914,
1920, 1952) and to some extent Uhle (1939) in the early part of the 20th century. Then in the
1960s a German team undertook the first modern excavations with extensive work at the
Cochasqu site, famous for its extremely large and impressive ramp mounds (Oberem 1969,
1975, 1981). However, a systematic inventory of mound sites did not begin until the
investigations of Athens during the 1970s (Athens 1980, 1992), who believed that the regional
distribution, spatial configuration, and size characteristics of these sites and their individual
mounds held important clues concerning the nature of the chiefdom polities they undoubtedly
represented. During the 1970s, discovering that many mound sites could be identified on
aerial photographs, Athens was able to eventually document 22 sites having large quadrilateral
mounds with ramps. He also documented a number of other mound sites that did not have the
ramp features.
22
Because of the large size of the region and the remoteness of some areas, Athens was
unable to ground check all of the mound sites he found on aerial photographs in the 1970s
(including many of the smaller sites without ramp mounds). In 1983 Gondard and Lpez
published an inventory of sites for the northern highland region that they had independently
located on aerial photographs. Unfortunately, no ground checking was performed at any of
their sites. In a brief 1997 reconnaissance Athens (in prep.) was able to spot check several of
the more dubious of the Gondard and Lpez mound sites, and found them not to have
mounds or other material of archaeological interest. He was also highly skeptical of the
numerous supposed bohio sites they had noted for the Imbabura region. The need for full scale
checking of the Gondard and Lpez inventory data thereby became apparent, and it was also
clear that some of the earlier work of Athens was also in need of review and updating.
During his 1997 reconnaissance, Athens (in prep.) also carefully inspected the
Atuntaqui mound site due to the considerable recent damage he had noted at several of the
largest mounds. He observed that many of the more widely dispersed mounds in this densely
settled and intensively farmed area had not been included on his earlier map of this site (see
Athens 1980:248). Thus, there was a need to update the existing map to accurately depict all
of the mounds, some of which were the quadrilateral type.
As a result of several recent trips to the region by Athens (in 1989, 1994, and 1997) it
also had become obvious that the pace of mound destruction is accelerating. The causes are
numerous, including the construction of new residential neighborhoods for a rapidly
expanding population in locations that were formerly agricultural lands, the construction of
new roads and highways, the use of earthen mounds as a convenient source of construction fill,
removal of mounds for irrigated and mechanized agriculture, and the use of mound fill as a
source of raw material for brick manufacture. A recent general discussion of the
archaeological site destruction problem in Ecuador is provided by Almeida Reyes (1999).
Thus, there is a great need to document the present condition of each site so that government
authorities concerned with historic preservation (mainly the Instituto Nacional de Patrimonio
Cultural) can appreciate the magnitude of the problem and implement protective measures.
The present project provides documentation (written as well as photographic) of the present
condition of many archaeological mound sites throughout the northern highland region.
FIELD INVESTIGATIONS: 2001
OUTLINE OF ACTIVITIES
On arriving in Ecuador on May 20, 2001, Athens spent the first week in Quito with
two main objectives. The first was to meet with the Director (Dra. Monica Bolaos) and staff
of the Instituto Nacional de Patrimonio Cultural del Ecuador (INPC) to discuss the project and
obtain a research permit. Several meetings at the INPC office proved very productive for the
general information and assistance that was provided concerning ongoing archaeological
research in Ecuador and related matters, and an official permit was subsequently issued some
days later.
23
The other objective was to obtain additional aerial photographic coverage of the
northern highlands from the Instituto Geogrfico Militar. A total of 56 standard 10 x 10 inch
aerial photographs (scale approximately 1:46,000) were obtained from flights mostly dating to
1963, 1965, and 1966 (a few also date to 1961). Together with photographs obtained during
the 1970s, a total of 98 overlapping aerial photographs were available for the study. These
effectively provided almost complete regional coverage. A 4x stereoscope had been brought
from the United States for use with the aerials, which proved invaluable throughout the
project. It should be noted that the aerials from earlier flights are generally more useful than
later ones because of the more limited land use impacts during the 1960s compared to the
present.
In addition to the standard-sized aerials, a single photographic enlargement was

obtained for use in mapping the Atuntaqui mound site (approximately 1:10,000 scale; this
would complement two enlargements purchased in 1997). The enlargements were needed for
tracing mound locations and major geographic and urban reference features (e.g., roads) based
on field inspection of all locations. The procedure was that once mounds were located with
the smaller photographs using the stereoscope, their locations could be pin-pointed on the
enlargement (which lost some resolution with enlargement), and with ground checking of each
mound location, an accurate map of the entire site area could be gradually traced. For large
site areas with good ground visibility, this is an effective and very efficient procedure for
obtaining accurate information concerning the basic layout of structural remains. Obviously, a
topographic survey with theodolite would provide much more detail and accuracy, but use of
such an instrument would have been far too time-consuming for this initial phase of
documentation.
Topographic maps of the project area were also purchased from the Instituto
Geogrfico Militar to augment the collection of maps obtained for research during previous
years.
Another important activity in Quito was purchasing new books published in Ecuador
during the past several years concerning archaeological research in Ecuador. A number of
important volumes were obtained, along with very useful back issues of a number of
periodicals.
Finally, in Quito, a visit was made to the Instituto Geofisico of the Escuela Politecnica
to meet with senior staff, Drs. Minard Hall and Patricia Mothes, to discuss the present project
and also to find out about ongoing research concerning volcanism and tephra falls in the
region. Arrangements were made to meet with Drs. Hall and Mothes in the north during the
project for a field tour. A very productive weekend was subsequently spent with them in the
north, visiting archaeological sites and geological locations of interest.
Athens left for Otavalo the morning of May 25th in a 4-wheel drive rental vehicle
(about a 1.75 hour drive), and on reaching Otavalo met with Dr. Jos Echeverra A., an
archaeologist at the Universidad Catlica (Ibarra branch) who would collaborate on the
present project. He quickly got Athens situated in a pre-arranged house, and field
investigations began the next day. While in Otavalo Athens also met with the director of the
24
Instituto Otavaleo de Antropologa (IOA), Lic. Marcelo Valdospinos R., and other members
of the IOA staff. The IOA was the sponsoring institution for Athens, as it has been for almost
30 years. Athens and Echeverra continued working almost daily until June 26, when Athens
returned to Quito.
On returning to Quito, Athens met again with INPC staff for a debriefing, and also
obtained a permit to export a small number of archaeological samples for further study
(several charcoal samples, sherd samples, and a few faunal bone samples). At this time the
National Herbarium was visited for identification of approximately 20 plant specimens
collected during the field investigations (mostly Andean trees). Athens returned to the United
States the morning of July 1.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS 2001: SUMMARY
A site by site presentation of observations and findings concerning the 2001

investigations is presented in Table 2. Roughly 50 locations were examined in some detail,
most by field visits and a few only through examination of aerial photographs. Based on this
information, a revised inventory of mound sites in the region was prepared (Table 1). Figure 1a
shows the locations of all known mound sites based on the Table 1 inventory, and Figure 1b
provides identification labels for all site locations indicated on the Figure 1a map.
Most field visits to mound sites amounted to no more than several hours spent at the
site or in the general vicinity due to travel distance. However, one field visit, to La Merced de
Buenos Aires, involved an overnight excursion due to the distance.
Documentation of visited sites included the taking of photographs, with the total
collection comprising 443 slides and 215 color prints for the field season. All of the
photographs are individually documented in a photograph record (Athens, files for 2001
project). A selection of 97 photographs are included as part of the documentation presented in
this report (see Photo Gallery). Although most photographs are from the present project, a few
date back to the 1970s (dates are indicated in the captions).
In regard to the field survey of mound sites, the following points summarize the
principal findings:
1. Survey coverage, while extensive, did not include a number of sites listed in the
Gondard and Lpez (1983; abbreviated G&L hereafter) report. It is estimated that
another two to three weeks of intensive survey are needed to cover the remaining
sites. The most incompletely reviewed region was the Cayambe basin. The most
completely surveyed area was the Otavalo basin. Besides the Cayambe basin, other
areas needing survey attention in the future include the Urcuqu-Tumbabiro-
Cahuasqu region and the Ro Chota region. While all of these areas were carefully
reviewed on aerial photographs, ground survey is still very important for obtaining
accurate information concerning the sites and their present condition.
25
2. Figure 1a shows the distribution of all presently verified mound sites. Symbols are
used to distinguish various categories of mound sites. Some sites on this map were
not field checked during the present project because their identifications are secure as
a result of previous investigations (e.g., the Pinsaqui, Gualiman, Zuleta, and
Cochasqu mound sites among a few others). Although a few changes and additions to
the map (and inventory) might be made in the future as a result of new surveys and
field checks, these are likely to be minor and not affect the overall character of the
map.
3. The G&L inventory has been demonstrated to contain many significant errors,
although it is still useful as a starting point for conducting ground verification surveys.
While bohios (large circular house sites with walls of mounded earth) are a commonly
indicated site type in the G&L study for Imbabura and northern Pichincha Provinces,
no such remains have been verified on the ground or in aerial photographs thus far
(bohios, however, are definitely a common feature in Carchi Province, and are easily
discerned on aerial photographs). It is therefore likely an erroneous designation for
sites south of Chota-Mira Rivers. The same can be said for the G&L category of no
especificados and also many of their terrace designations. These problems are
clearly the result of G&Ls failure to undertake ground checks of their aerial
photograph site locations.
4. A detailed map was prepared of the Atuntaqui mound site (Im-4), and this is presented
in Figure 3. The site extends over an area of roughly 8.5 sq. km. It originally
contained at least 33 mounds, not counting any that may have been destroyed before
1966 (and therefore not visible on aerial photographs). Notes on the characteristics
and condition of the 33 mounds are presented in Table 3. There seem to have been 3
ramp mounds at this site, in addition to the enormous Orozca and Pupo Tolas in
Andrade Marin. Because of urban expansion, road and highway construction, and
general economic development, many of the mounds of this site have suffered greatly.
5. The remnant face of Mound 30 at the Atuntaqui site was examined in detail (much of
the mound had been recently removed by a bulldozer for construction of a new house
on the ground surfacesee Photo 32). This steep-sided circular mound was
originally about 80 m in diameter. The remnant face measures 10.5 m in elevation
above the ground surface, which may be close to its original height. Two thin
surfaces were observed in the middle of the mound face (the surfaces were harder and
thicker near hearth features, and the lower surface was partially burned). The surfaces
probably represented living floors for habitation structures. Remnants of molded and
burned canal-like hearth features were associated with each of these surfaces (Photo
35). These appeared to be the same form documented in other mounds of the region
(see Photo Gallery). The upper and more complete canal was 13 cm across at the top,
9.5 cm across at the base, and 9.5 cm deep. The molded clay that formed the canal
had been fired like a brick in the typical fashion. Diagnostic red line crosshatch on
buff pottery was collected from the upper surface (Photo 34), confirming the mounds
Late Period age. There was also plentiful charcoal associated with this surface. A
26
sample was recovered for radiocarbon dating; it yielded an age of AD 1406-1438 (see
Table 4; 1 sigma range).
6. A second radiocarbon date was obtained from the La Libertad ramp mound (Site P-
038). The charcoal sample, recovered from a midden deposit located at the upper end
of the ramp near where it joins the platform (see Photo 92), dated to AD 1433-1642
(see Table 4; 1 sigma range). The highest probability range for this date (52.4% of
68.2%) is AD 1440-1520. The results indicate that use of the platform most likely
occurred during the later part of the Late Period. It is unlikely that the mound was
used after either the Inka or Spanish conquests.
7. Site I-104, a small mound site, proved especially interesting for its terrace platform
features and extensive agricultural terracing (see Photos 76-77). Such terraces, which
are clearly prehistoric, had not been previously identified in the Otavalo basin. The
terraces provide one more piece of evidence testifying to highly intensive agricultural
land use in this region during prehistoric times. No date estimate was obtained for the
terrace platforms or agricultural terraces.
8. Three entirely new discoveries of ramp mound sites were made during the present
project. This was an unexpected result, demonstrating that sole reliance on aerial
photographs for site identification is very risky. The sites are Im-30 (Aafito,
southeast of AtuntaquiPhoto 41), Im-32 (on Cruz Loma east of Otavalo), and Im-34
(east of La Merced de Buenos AiresPhotos 86-87). All of the new sites have just
one ramp mound. The Buenos Aires site is in an especially good state of preservation.
9. Another new site consists of four very large terrace platforms at Tomacucho (Pi-11).
The largest terrace platform measures approximately 125 x 125 m. This cluster of
huge features, located just 1.5 km southwest of San Jos de Minas, should be
investigated in more detail. The features may, in fact, be related to the nearby ramp
mound site, P-004 (Photo 90), and the Alance mounds, designated Pi-6 and P-052.
10. An interesting agricultural terrace site (Pi-12) was spotted from some distance away
but not visited. It was located along the west side of the Ro Perlav. west of Alance
(which is south of San Jos de Minas). The site appeared to have classic stone-
faced agricultural terraces, one above the other in two adjacent sets. This will be a
difficult location to reach for ground verification (access must be from the west side
of the Ro Perlavi), but the site should be investigated further.
11. Many mound sites in the region have been adversely affected by urban expansion
and/or agricultural intensification, and for many of these, this has been a major
problem. Impacts have been caused by the bulldozing of mounds or parts of mounds
to make level space for urban house and building construction (Photos 4, 22, and 32),
construction of playing fields (canchas; Photos 81, 82, and 91), or building roads
through mounds (Photos 17, 23, and 55). There is also the use of mound fill for brick-
making factories (Photos 51, 63 and 78), burial vaults, cemeteries, and modern
construction platforms (Photos 19, 58, and 78), use of mound fill as a ready source of
27
construction fill (Photos 3, 23, 24, 25, and 27), and removing or otherwise severely
impacting mounds for agricultural expansion and intensification, mainly by large land
owners (Photos 14 and 37). Some huaquero looting is no doubt a factor, especially
since bulldozers are more accessible now than in the past (Photos 31 and 67).
However, as far as is known, few or no artifacts are ever found in these mounds; thus
the looter is rarely, if ever, compensated for his troubles. As this fact has become more
widely known over the past 30 years, the looting problem is probably no longer very
consequential, at least in comparison to the other problems.
WOOD REFERENCES FOR CHARCOAL IDENTIFICATION
Although not anticipated during the planning stage of the present project, an effort
was made in the field to opportunistically collect specimens of wood from native Andean trees
for use as references for archaeological charcoal identification. In this way charcoal collected
from archaeological deposits potentially can be identified to provide information on such
topics as the types of woods that were commonly available in the prehistoric natural
environment near sites, the possible cultural selection of woods for cooking and construction,
and other details concerning prehistoric wood use. In addition, the ability to identify
archaeological charcoal provides the opportunity for better sample selection for radiometric
dating (e.g., short-lived taxa should be selected in preference to long-lived taxa for more
accurate results). Although only a beginning effort, the present collection, listed in Table 5,
provides a starting point for a new type of research not heretofore conducted in the northern
highlands of Ecuador (or very many other locations in the Andes). The assistance of the
Herbario Nacional Del Ecuador in Quito in identifying many of the tree taxa from which wood
samples were collected is gratefully acknowledged.
CONCLUSION
While it is regrettable that not every mound site could be visited as had been planned,
and also that field visits were of short duration in some cases, the project did largely achieve its
purpose of producing a reasonably accurate compilation of mound sites for the region as
represented in the Table 1 inventory and the Figure 1a map. While future inventory work may
add a few new mound sites to the list and the map, and will certainly alter many of the
descriptions in the G&L inventory, it is unlikely that the overall regional character of the
mound site distribution will change. In terms of providing needed information for interpretive
studies of prehistoric chiefdoms in northern highland Ecuador, the present results represent a
considerable clarification and improvement of basic information about the nature of mound
sites in the northern highlands.
The survey also provided the opportunity to correct an earlier incomplete map of the
Atuntaqui mounds. Besides illustrating all mounds (including some no longer present), the
map provides an indication of the present condition of the mounds. In time, no doubt,
additional mounds of this important site will eventually disappear as urban expansion
proceeds. However, it is hoped that the plan map might provide a basis for preservation
28
planning of at least some of the most impressive and better preserved mounds. A copy of the
site map has been provided to the Municipality of Atuntaqui in an effort to further this aim.
One of the unfortunate aspects of the present project was the documentation of the
severity of impacts to so many of the mounds throughout the region. Relatively few sites have
escaped problems brought on largely by the onslaught of rapid population growth and
economic development that the region has witnessed during the past 30 years. Little can be
done now to correct damage that has already occurred, but there are still many sites and
mounds worth preserving. There is no reason that this cannot be accomplished if a concerted
effort is made by the local and national government authorities, local communities, and
landowners. Indeed there are already good examples of mound sites that have been preserved
in the region (e.g., the Cochasqu and Zuleta mound sites), showing that preservation can be
accomplished if there is a will, and certainly preservation is more likely to happen if the public
shows an interest.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE FUTURE
There are three basic recommendations concerning the earthen mound sites in the
northern highland region of Ecuador. The first is to complete the field inspection and
verification survey that was begun with the present project. The locations needing the most
attention are indicated in the first point of the summary of field findings above. Also,
individual site maps also should be gradually prepared for all mound sites, showing both their
configuration and condition on the older aerial photographs, and also their present condition
(much like the Atuntaqui map, Fig. 3). Part of the continuing inventory work should be the
implementation of a new site numbering system to replace the awkward dual system
necessitated by the separate Athens and G&L inventories. The new numbering system can
follow the format proposed by Berenguer and Echeverra (1979), perhaps with responsibility
for oversight and administration of the numbering system given to the Instituto Otavaleo de
Antropologa.
The second recommendation, a much larger and longer term endeavor, is to develop a
computer database for all sites and mound features in the region using a GIS (Geographical
Information Systems) approach. Such a database could provide detailed information on the
location and topographic setting of all mound sites, individual site maps if available, detailed
descriptions of individual mounds, the present condition of the mounds, photographs, names
of land owners, references concerning prior research, and other details of both research and
management value.
The third recommendation, following comments in the Conclusion, is that a much

more concerted effort for the preservation of mounds needs to be undertaken. Obviously
public officials and large land owners need to be aware that they are duty bound by their
positions and advantageous economic circumstances to preserve and conserve the cultural
heritage of Ecuador. However, the biggest effort at present should be the advancement of
public education regarding the need and value for preserving mound sites. It is through public
pressure that government officials and land owners will be most responsive in their efforts to
29
see that important archaeological sites are protected within their jurisdictions or under their
purview. This could be done through presentations by archaeologists and knowledgeable
citizens at local meetings, on television, on the radio, and in newspapers. In addition, local
professional archaeologists in Ecuador should take advantage of every public forum and
meeting to present information concerning the need for mound preservation, thereby gradually
increasing public awareness and sensitivity to the issue. Some work in this regard also needs
to be undertaken with indigenous groups, which may be naturally more inclined to want
vestiges of their past Indian heritage preserved on the landscape. To be sure, there are
professionals in Ecuador already engaged in the above activities, fighting for the preservation
of sites and educating the public, and their efforts are of the greatest value. However,
experience during the present project suggests that their efforts must be broadened and
intensified, particularly at the local level beyond the largest cities, if they are to have the
desired effect.
*****
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I want to single out Dr. Jos Echeverra A. for his collaboration on the present project.
It was largely through his efforts and great knowledge of the local area that the present project
achieved as much as it did in such a brief period. I look forward to sharing many future field
seasons in Ecuador with this great friend and colleague. I would also like to express my
gratitude to the many wonderful people of the small towns and rural areas we met and spoke
with during our study of the mounds. Their extraordinary hospitality, always warm and
gracious even though we were complete strangers, left us with many pleasant memories. My
sincere thanks also goes to the Heinz Family Foundation for making this research possible, to
the Instituto Nacional de Patrimonio Cultural del Ecuador and Dra. Monica Bolaos and her
staff for facilitating a research permit and providing helpful information, and the Instituto
Otavaleo de Antropologa, under the direction Lic. Marcelo Valdospinos R., for its
sponsorship of the research.
30
TABLES
31
32
Table 1. Inventory of earthen mound sites in the northern highlands of Ecuador.
Site Alternate Proposed Site Location Site Mean Environmental Site Map No. of
No.1 Site No.2 Name Area Elevation Zone Reference Mounds
(ha) 3, 4 of Site (m) (ramps)
[quad.
mounds]5
C-113 Santiaguillo to km W 16 1,600 dry valley 7
and SW of (2)
Santiaguillo [5]
C-126a Piedra Labrada 1.4 km SW of 5 1,580 dry valley Athens 6
Tumbatu 1978:263 [2]
Athens
1980:250
C-126b Chota N side of R. 28 1,580 dry valley Athens 10
Chota, area of 1978:263 (5)
Guarangal, S Athens [1]
of Tumbatu 1980:250
Im-1 I-123 Otavalo Otavalo, 11 2,540 intermontane Athens 4
between calle moist 1999:181 (1?)
Quito and the [1]
Panamerican
Hwy
Im-2 I-105 Pinsaqui west side of 40 2,553 intermontane Athens 32
intersection of moist 1978:252 (4)
Panamerican Athens [1]
Hwy and road 1980:239
to Cotacachi
Im-3 I-131 Perugache 2.5 km due 103 2,680 intermontane Athens 18+
west of San moist 1978:239 [1]
Jos de Athens
Quichinche 1980:226
Im-4 I-110 Atuntaqui Atuntaqui & 850 2,440 intermontane present 33
I-112 Andrade Marin moist report; see (3)
I-113 to Natabuela also Jijn y [7]
I-132 Caamao
I-033 1952:346-
I-056 350
Im-5 I-132 Gualsaqu N and W of 100 2,720 intermontane 7
Quillopamba moist [3]
(W of
Gualsaqui)
Im-6 I-016 Gualimn 1-2 km S of 88 1,700 tropical Athens 66
Peaherrera, montane 1978:257 (3)
Intag Athens [3]
1980:244
Im-7 I-082 Caranqui Caranqui 57 2,280 intermontane 7
moist [2]
33
Table 1. Inventory of earthen mound sites in the northern highlands of Ecuador (cont.).
[quad.
mounds]5
Im-9 I-066 Yaguarcocha 1 km NE of 15 2,400 intermontane Athens 11
San Miguel de moist 1978:262 (1)
Yaguarcocha Athens [10]
1980:249
Im-10 I-058 Socapamba 2.5 km NW of 104 2,300 intermontane Athens 60
Laguna de dry 1978:220 (2)
Yaguarcocha Athens [6]
1980:207
Im-12 I-068 Potrerillos 1.7 km SW of 9 1,585 dry valley Athens 7
Site I-070 1978:263 [3]
Athens
1980:250
Im-13 I-087 Zuleta Hda. Zuleta; 340 2,870 intermontane Athens 148
I-088 13.5 km E of L. moist 1978:259 (13)
I-089 San Pablo Athens [10+]
I-090 1980:246
Athens
1992:206
Im-14 I-099 Cochaloma 1.2 km SW of 32 2,850 intermontane Athens 16
(formerly San Gonzlez moist 1978:264 (3)
Rafael) Surez Athens
1980:251
Im-15 I-001 Sequambo to km SE 8 1,400 dry valley Athens 8
of Cuambo 1978:260 (3)
Athens [1]
1980:247
Im-16 I-039 Urcuqu/San 3 km W of 140 2,460 intermontane 25
Juan Urcuqu moist/ (2)
Im-17 I-024 Perihuela 4 km NW of 60 2,600 intermontane 11
Imantag moist (1) [5]
Im-18 I-085 Angochagua km N of 150 2,700 intermontane 20
Angochagua moist [3]
and W of La
Rinconada
Im-19 I-006 Cahuasqu to km W 65 2,480 intermontane 8
of Cahuasqui moist (1?) [2]
Im-20 I-042 Tumbabiro 3 km SW of 20 2,420 intermontane 6
I-043 Tumbabiro moist (2)
Im-22 I-026 Los Molinos 1.3 km NW of 38 2,440 intermontane 15
Imantag moist [3]
Im-23 I-111 San Antonio 1.5 km E of 18 2,240 intermontane 6
San Antonio moist
Imbarra
34
[quad.
mounds]5
Im-24 I-052 San Jos San Jos, 3.5 46 2,060 intermontane 23
km SE of moist/dry [3]
Urcuqu
Im-25 I-128 Rosaspamba Hda. 7 2,900 intermontane 4
Rosaspamba; moist [1]
W of Q. El
Manzano and
N of Q.
Taxopamba;
4.6 km SW of
Otavalo
Im-30 Aafito Aafito; 4 km 1 2,760 Aafito 1
SSE of (1)
Atuntaqui
Im-31 Gonzlez SW edge of 6 2,700 intermontane 6
Surez Gonzlez moist [+]
Surez
Im-32 Cruz Loma 2 km SE of 6 2,700 intermontane 5
Otavalo and 1 moist (1)
km S of Arbol [3]
Pucar
Im-33 I-105 Ilumn Sur 0.4 km SW of 21 2,580 intermontane Athens 10
(portion) Ilumn moist 1978:252 [2]
Athens
1980:239
Im-34 I-106 Ilumn Norte 0.3 km W of 4 2,570 intermontane Athens 4
Ilumn moist 1978:252 [2]
Athens
1980:239
Im-35 I-105 Carabuela 0.5 km N of 5 2,460 intermontane Athens 12
(portion) Carabuela moist 1978:252 [2]
Athens
1980:239
Im-36 I-105 Pinsaqui West 1 km NW of 50 2,440 intermontane Athens 7
(portion) Hda. Pinsaqui moist 1978:252 [3]
Athens
1980:239
Im-37 La Floresta 2 km E of La 1 2,200 moist upper 2
Merced de montaa zone (1)
Buenos Aires [1]
I-025 Morascunga Morascunga 4 2,500 intermontane 3
Bajo; 3.2 km moist [3]
NW of Imantag
35
[quad.
mounds]5
I-034 Imantag Imantag; NE of 1 2,400 intermontane 1
main square moist [1]
I-035 Quitumbita 2.5 km NE of 6 2,160 intermontane 3
Imantag moist [1]
I-037 Paridero 4 km N or 21 2,340 intermontane 6
Imantag; 1.2 moist (1)
km S of [4]
Irubincho
I-050 Santa Rosa l km SE of 2 2,240 intermontane 1
Urcuqu moist/dry [1]
I-051 Chalta 2.5 km SE of 13 2,120 intermontane 18
Urcuqu moist/dry [1]
I-070 Ambuqu 4.2 km N of 4 1,580 dry valley Athens 4
Ambuqu and 1978:263 (1)
0.5 km S of Athens [1]
Ro Chota 1980:250
I-071 Pimampiro 2.5 km NNW ? 1,800 dry valley 2?
of Pimampiro (2)
I-096 San Pablo church at SE 1 2,700 intermontane 3
entrance to moist [1]
town
I-104 Agato Alta 3 km E of 127 2,800 intermontane 6
Peguche; 1 km moist [5]
E of Agato
I-107 San Roque San Roque 1 2,440 intermontane 1
moist
I-115 Chilcapamba 1.8 km NW of 5 2,600 intermontane 3
Quiroga moist
I-116 Cotacachi 0.3 km SW of 1 2,420 intermontane 1
Cotacachi in moist [1]
urbanizacin
Santa Ana
I-117 Cotacachi SW of city 1 2,450 intermontane 1
moist
I-118 Quiroga 0.4 km W of 3 2,540 intermontane 3
Quiroga moist [1]
I-129 Quichinche San Jos de 1 2,650 intermontane 1
Quichinche moist [1?]
(just NW of
main plaza)
36
[quad.
mounds]5
I-130 Pisab 1.7 km SW of 1 2,780 intermontane 2
Hda. moist [2]
Perugache (W
of San Jos de
Quichinche)
I-173 Huaycupungu Huaycunpungu 1 2,680 intermontane 2
moist [1]
Pi-2 P-089 Paquiestancia Hda. 63 2,980 intermontane Athens 46

Paquiestancia moist 1978:219; (5)
2.8 km E of 1980:206 [4]
Ayora
Pi-3 P-094 Cayambe hill slope E 32 2,850 intermontane 9
side of city moist (2)
(Puntiachil) [3]
Pi-4 P-077 Cochasqu 2.5 km WNW 110 3,000 intermontane Oberem 45
of Tocachi dry 1975:81; (9)
1981(3):57 [6]
Pi-5 Quinche 1.4 km SW of 22 2,750 intermontane Jijn y 21
El Quinche dry Caamao [14]
(1914,
1952:345)
Pi-6 P-052 Alance 2.8 km SW of 30 2,260 intermontane 25
San Jos de moist
Minas
Pi-9 P-091 Ayora east side of 20 2,840 intermontane 4
Ayora moist [2]
Pi-10 Guachal 6 km S of 1 2,800 intermontane 1
Cayambe; 3 moist (1)
km E of
Guachal
Pi-11 Tomacucho 1.5 km SW of 25 2,280 intermontane 4
San Jos de moist [4]
Minas
P-004 San Vicente 1.5 km W of 3 2,250 intermontane 1
San Jos de moist (1)
Minas
P-005 Jatunpamba 3 km W of San 8 2,040 intermontane 3
Jos de Minas moist [2]
P-037 La Libertad W side of La 1 2,080 intermontane 1
Libertad dry [1]
P-038 La Libertad E side of La 1 2,140 intermontane 1
Libertad dry (1)
37
[quad.
mounds]5
P-085 Santa Ana 1.5 km NNE of 3.5 2,900 intermontane 15
Tupigachi, on moist
E side of
railroad tracks
P-087 Tupigachi 0.5 km NW of 2,800 intermontane ?
Hda. El Prado moist
(1.5 km NW of
Escuela Marin)
P-092 Granobles Hda. 22 2,800 intermontane 20
Granobles on E moist [1]
side of Ro
Granobles 2.5
km E of
Cayambe
P-093 Cabaa Hda. La 8.5 2,800 intermontane 2
Cabaa 1 km moist (2)
NW of
Cayambe
1. From Athens (1978, 1980)

2. From Gondard and Lpez (1983).
3. Site area determined by measurement of largest rectangle (or several contiguous rectangles) that will
encompass all mounds at a site.
4. In some cases the definition of a site can be rather arbitrary as mounds within a given area sometimes can
be widely scattered. In general, however, distinct mound clusters are considered separate sites.
5. Occasionally it can be difficult to distinguish between quadrilateral mounds and circular (mounds) due to
their present conditionthe cited figures represent conservative estimates for quadrilateral mounds.
Whether this distinction bears any relationship to mound function is unclear, though generally quadrilateral
mounds are much larger than circular mounds.
38
Table 2. Observations and comments concerning earthen mounds and other sites in northern highland Ecuador.
Site Alternate Proposed Site No. of Length, Width Length of Length, Width Photos Comments/Observations
No.1 Site No.2 Name Mounds4 and Height of Longest and Height of
(ramps) Largest Ramp Ramp Largest Quad. 2001 Observations Indicated by [2001]
[quad. Mound5 (m) (m) Mound5 (m) G&L indicates Gondard and Lpez (1983)
mounds]
MOUND SITES
C-113 Santiaguillo 7 60x60x12 55 55x55x5 8, 9, 10, 11, [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of a single quadrilateral
(2) 12, 13 mound, 2 to 4 circular mounds, and one other unspecified feature. Field
[5] inspection documented 2 ramp mounds, 5 quadrilateral mounds, and a
large circular earthen ring construction. Diagnostic Late Period and
Tuza-style sherds were relatively common around the mounds. Both
ramps of the ramp mounds have a western orientation. The northern
ramp mound measures roughly 60 m at the base and has a ramp 25 m
long. It is constructed on a slope, and the downslope side of the mound
has a height of 12 m. The southern ramp mound is situated in the
middle of the 4 quadrilateral mounds. The platform measures roughly
20 x 35 m and the ramp is 55 m long. The ramp rises scarcely more
39
than a meter above the ground surface before becoming wider and
higher near the mound. Aerial photos dating to 1965 show what looks
to be a large excavation pit in the center, which has since been filled. A
modern abandoned earth (tapia) house is now in ruins in the center of
the mound. The downslope height of this ramp mound is about 5 m; the
upslope height is about a meter. The two northern quadrilateral mounds
are constructed together side by side. The closest of these to the ramp
mound has a platform measuring 12 x 12 m; the platform of the adjacent
mound is 1.7 m lower and measures 10 x 10 m. The former has a
downslope height of 6 m and an upslope height of 2, while the latter has
a downslope height of 5 m. The quadrilateral mounds on the southern
side of the ramp mound are separate structures; they were not measured,
but are roughly equivalent in size to the other mounds on the north side.
Another quadrilateral mound is located south of northern ramp mound.
It measures about 55 x 55 m and is 5 m high. Although it does not
presently have a quadrilateral shape due to modern
Table 2. Observations and comments concerning earthen mounds and other sites in northern highland Ecuador (cont.).
mounds]
MOUND SITES
impacts, aerial photos show a definite quadrilateral shape.
A large trench, visible in the 1965 aerial photo, has been dug through
the mounds center. This trench is presently used for several pig pens.
The ring structure consists of a circular earthen wall 60 m in diameter
and 1.3 m high and about 1.2 m wide. There is a break in the wall on its
eastern side, though this was not present when the aerial photo was
taken. The aerial photos show what appears to be a square wall on the
outside, roughly 106 m sq., but no trace of this seems to remain at
present. It appears to have been a tapia (tamped mud) wall in the
photo, though it is difficult to be certain. At the center of the ring is a
40
large pit, 4 x 4 m , around which is apparently the excavated spoils,

forming another ring. The whole is visible on the aerial photo. No
artifacts of any kind were visible. Whether a small mound might have
been here originally is unknown. Only a single Late Period sherd was
found inside the ring. The ring is definitely not a bohio as it is much
too large. There is a similar feature, complete with the square possible
wall outside the ring, at the Sequambo site (Im-15) directly across the
Ro Mira (see Athens 1980:247). In this previous presentation is was
thought that these structures might be pucar. However, the ring walls
are both too low and too small to be defensive, and pucar are always
found on hilltops. If these ring features are prehistoric and associated
with Late Period ramp mound sites, their absence at other Late Period
ramp mound sites seems odd.
C-126a Piedra Labrada 6 35x46x? [2001] Ground check needed; original site designation of C-126 (by
[2] G&L) divided into C-126a and C-126b mounds to reflect distinct
clusters.
mounds]
MOUND SITES
C-126b Chota 10 (5) 55x55x? 111 39x32x ? 65 Site visible on aerial photos, and ramp mound can be seen from
[1] highway on south side of Ro Chota. Ground check needed.
Im-1 I-123 Otavalo 4 75x80x11 27 64x67x9 3, 4,5, 6, 7 [2001] G&L indicate that site consists of 2 to 4 circular mounds. The
(1?) site was originally described by Athens (1980:237-238,259), and re-
[1] mapped in 1994 (see Athens 1999:181). There is one possible ramp
mound (based on detailed examination of aerial photo), one large
quadrilateral mound, one circular mound, and the remnant of a large
mound of indeterminate shape (probably a quadrilateral mound given
the 8 to 10 m height of the remnant). Pottery and radiocarbon dates
indicate that the mounds pertain to the Late Period. A description of
41
the present condition of the mounds was prepared in 1997 based on

observations that year (Athens in prep.). A field inspection during the
present project indicated that no further destruction has occurred since
1997.
Im-2 I-105 Pinsaqui 32 50x50x9 77 40x40x? 55, 56, 57 [2001] All of the ramp mounds form a tight cluster. Little time was
(portion) (4) spent at this site except to note the extensive damage caused by
[1] house/business constructed by cutting into a ramp mound next to the
road to Cotacachi (on the south side). In the 1960s construction of the
new Cotacachi road removed a ramp and a small part of the platform of
another mound.
mounds]
MOUND SITES
Im-3 I-131 Perugache 18+ 70x70x10 52 [2001] G&L indicate that this site has 2 to 4 circular mounds and 2 to 4
[1] quadrilateral mounds. Access to the site in 2001 was denied by the
hacienda guard. However, from the road and an overview of the
Hacienda Perugache from above the valley near the Selva Alegre
cement plant, it could be seen that there was one large quadrangular
mound ca. 70 m sq., and ca. 10 m high. Also 2 circular mounds could
be seen in the field east of the hacienda house, one ca. 30 m in diameter
and 5.5 m high and the other about 20 m in diameter and about 3 m
high. The latter, being the easternmost, had been cut through the center
by a tractor. There were originally at least 18 mounds and perhaps
42
almost twice as many at this site, with most being small and rather low
circular mounds (see map in Athens 1980). These small mounds
appear to have all disappeared, presumably the result of plowing the
fields with a tractor.
Im-4 I-110 I-112 Atuntaqui 33 100x100x22 120 120x150x40 17, 18, 19, [2001] This site originally contained at least 33 mounds, of which 8
I-113 I-132 (3) 20, 21, 22, have disappeared entirely due to urbanization, and another 10 have
I-033 I-056 [7] 23, 24, 25, been seriously impacted. Detailed study of aerial photos and mapping
26, 27, 28, was undertaken of this 8.5 sq. km site in 2001. The map is illustrated
29, 30 31, in Figure 3, and descriptive information concerning each of the mounds
32, 33, 34, is presented in Table 3. The remains of 3 ramp mounds are present,
35 along with 5 to 8 large quadrilateral mounds. The mounds of this group
include Orozca Tola, Pupo Tola, and Paila Tola, which were all
originally mapped by Jijn y Caamao (first published in 1914; see also
1952).
mounds]
MOUND SITES
Im-5 I-132 Gualsaqu 7 90x90xca.10 84, 85 [2001] G&L describe the site as having more than 8 circular mounds, 2
[3] to 4 quadrilateral mounds, and 2 to 4 unspecified features. Field
inspection of the site disclosed 7 mounds in an area of about 1 sq. km.
There is one very large quadrilateral mound ca. 90 m sq., though it was
not visited during the field inspection (height not certain, but probably
10 to 12 m), and another 2 smaller quadrilateral mound not as well
defined. Other features are circular mounds, mostly 20 to 30 m in
diameter. No diagnostic pottery observed.
Im-6 I-016 Gualimn 66 (3) [3] 74x67x15 104 66
43
Im-7 I-082 Caranqui 7 90x100x10 63, 64 This site is very close to the Inka ruin, Palacio de Atahualpa (see
[2] Almeida Reyes 1997:43-45; Athens 1978: 217, 1980:204). One of the
mounds has been extensively impacted as a source of sediment for
brick making.
Im-9 I-066 Yaguarcocha 11 (1) [10] 51x44x? 58 35x27x? 46
Im-10 I-058 Socapamba 60 28x28x6 35 30x30x 5 67, 68, 69, [2001] Site has been extensively impacted by land subdivision.
(2) 70, 71, 72,
[6] 73, 74, 75
Im-12 I-068 Potrerillos 7 37x37x? [2001] Site has been destroyed by irrigated sugarcane field; original
[3] designation of Im-12 included all of the Chota sites; it is here restricted
to just the I-068 cluster.
Im-13 I-087 Zuleta 148 84x84x8 159 46x50x? 62 See Currie (2001) for a recent account of investigations at this site.
I-088 (13)
I-089 [10+]
I-090
mounds]
MOUND SITES
Im-14 I-099 Cochaloma 16 100x100x15 64 47, 48 49, [2001] School has been built on top of northern ramp mound. The
(formerly San (3) 50 ramp is now gone. A tower for an electrical line is located in the center
Rafael) of a circular mound between the two other ramp mounds.
Im-15 I-001 Sequambo 8 45x41x? 165 27x27 x ? 14, 15, 16 [2001] Site has been extensively impacted by conversion of formerly
(3) unused land to irrigated agricultural fields. The five non-ramp mounds
[1] do not appear to be present, though the site was only viewed from a
distance (from the Santiaguillo site).
Im-16 I-039 Urcuqu/San 25 97x105x? 65 Ground check is needed.
Juan (2)
44
Im-17 I-024 Perihuela 11 55x55x11 50 65x65x10 58, 59, 60, [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of a single ramp mound
(1) 61 and 5 to 8 quadrilateral mounds. Field observations confirm the
[5] presence of a single ramp mound, at least 5 quadrilateral mounds, and
5 circular mounds. The aerial photos also indicate about 30 small
(possibly burial) mounds clustered to the north and west of the site.
However, these could not be seen on the ground, probably due to
intensive cultivation of the area since the 1966 date of the aerial photo.
The base of the ramp mound is about 55 m sq. The ramp, pointing
south (180), is about 50 m long. The downslope height of the mound
is about 11 m. Measurements of the other mounds were not taken,
though many of the mounds were of impressive size and height.
Im-18 I-085 Angochagua 20 80x80x? Ground check is needed; aerial photo suggests much of site area has
[3] ridge fields.
Im-19 I-006 Cahuasqu 8 (1?) 90x80x? ca. 90 90x80x? Ground check is needed; it appears from aerial photo that a ramp
[2] mound may be located at the extreme NW corner of site.
Im-20 I-042 Tumbabiro 6 75x85x? 100 Ground check is needed. The 2 ramp mounds, clearly visible on aerial
I-043 (2) photos, are separated by 1.2 km.
mounds]
MOUND SITES
Im-22 I-026 Los Molinos 15 30x30x? Ground check is needed; mounds in mechanically cultivated wheat
[3] fields.
Im-23 I-111 San Antonio 6 55x60x? Ground check is needed.
Im-24 I-052 San Jos 23 45x45x? Ground check is needed.
[3]
Im-25 I-128 Rosaspamba 4 45x45x? 54 [2001] G&L indicate that the site consists of 5 to 8 of their Type 2
[1] bohios. The site was previously described as having 3 mounds (Athens
1980:265) with diagnostic Late Period pottery in vicinity. At the time
of site inspection there was a well-preserved circular mound ca. 30 m in
45
diameter and 4.5 m high. A terrace platform, about 35 x 35 m, was

located against the hill slope. Examination of aerial photos indicate the
presence of several other mounds that no longer exist.
The location at the time of the visit was being plowed with a tractor.
Im-30 Aafito 1 50x50x4.5 60 41 [2001] Single ramp mound; top platform is ca. 40 m N-S x 35 m E-W;
(1) ramp is ca. 60 m long oriented at compass bearing of 333-153; height
on downslope side is 4.5 m; 3.5 m high on side at midpoint; on upslope
side, where platform seems to terminate, the mound is ca. 2.5 m high;
exposed face on side indicates the mound is entirely earthen
construction; very little ceramicsnothing diagnostic; no other
mounds. Mound is cultivated by local residents.
mounds]
MOUND SITES
Im-31 Gonzlez 6 50x50x10 51 [2001] It does not appear that G&L identified this site, though the
Surez [2+] mounds are rather obvious on aerial photos. The mounds were
originally considered part of the San Rafael site (Im-14), but the
Gonzlez Surez mound cluster is best considered a separate site. Field
inspection indicated the presence of 2 quadrilateral mounds, though it
appears from aerial photos that 3 or 4 may have been originally present.
A total of 6 mounds were formerly present at this site but only 5 are
presently visible (several extensively modified). The northern-most
mound is the location of a brick factory. The two largest remnant
quadrilateral mounds are ca. 10 m high. No diagnostic pottery was
46
observed.
Im-32 Cruz Loma 5 50x50x1 50 40x40x3 79, 80 [2001] This is a new mound site, located about 1 km south of Arbol
(1) Pucar. The site consists of 1 ramp mound, 3 quadrilateral mounds,
[3] and 1 circular mound. The ramp mound and two of the quadrilateral
mounds were constructed along the ridge crest, providing a splendid
view of Lake San Pablo to the southeast. The ridge crest mounds
obviously have been partly sculpted from the natural terrain, with fill
added to provide raised and level platform surfaces. The base of the
ramp mound measures approximately 50 m sq., the platform measures
24 m sq., and the ramp is ca. 50 m long, pointing to the south. The
artificial height of the platform is probably not more than 1 m in the
center, though the hill on which the mound is built slopes steeply on all
but the upslope side. The ridge crest quadrilateral mounds measure 25
m sq. and 40 m sq. Abundant diagnostic Late Period pottery was found
on top of the ramp mound.
Im-33 I-105 Ilumn Sur 10 50x50x?
(portion) [2]
mounds]
MOUND SITES
Im-34 I-106 Ilumn Norte 4 60x60x6? 83 [2001] Described by G&L as having 2 to 4 quadrilateral mounds, more
[2] than 8 terraces, and 2 to 4 of the Type 2 bohios, and other unspecified
features. Site as defined here is entirely on the east side of the
Panamerican Highway and along the entrance road to Ilumn. Field
inspection indicates that the Ilumn site consists of 2 circular mounds
and 2 terrace platform mounds. The other features mentioned by G&L
were not in evidence and could not be discerned on aerial photos. One
of the circular mounds is 30 m in diameter and 3 m high, and the other
is 40 m in diameter and 6 m high (these are closest to the highway).
The terrace platforms have been greatly modified by modern urban
47
expansion, and the southern mound now has an elementary school on it.
Aerial photos indicates that these mounds were formerly approximately
60 m on a side (terrace platform to north) and 40 m on a side (terrace
platform to south).
Im-35 I-105 Carabuela 12 45x50x? Ground check is needed; most of the smaller 9 circular mounds have
(portion) [2] disappeared.
Im-36 I-105 Pinsaqui West 7 45x45x? The mounds of this site are dispersed; ground check is needed.
(portion) [3]
mounds]
MOUND SITES
Im-37 La Floresta 2 26x26x5 20 22x22x6 86, 87 [2001] This is a new site consisting of a single ramp mound and a
(1) single quadrilateral mound. Terrace platforms and a possible cemetery
[1] are nearby. The mound site is located in pasture about 2 km east of La
Merced de Buenos Aires along the east side of the road to the Ro Mira
highway. The location is called La Floresta. The ramp mound is 26 m
sq. at the base and has a platform 20 m sq.; its height is about 5 m. Its
ramp, pointing in a magnetic due south direction, is 20 m long. The
nearby quadrilateral mound is 15 m sq. on top, about 6 to 7 m high at its
west face, 1.5 m high at its south face, and 2 m high at its east face (no
measurement is recorded for its north face. What appears to be borrow
48
areas (for excavation of mound fill) surround most of the site. The
property manager had collected diagnostic Late Period sherds just
upslope of the mounds. Others features possibly associated with these
mounds include two terrace platforms in the pasture on the opposite
side of the road across from the mounds (to the north), a reputed
cemetery site on a ridge that descends behind the terrace platforms, and
a series of at least 5 terrace platforms on the side of a large hill east of
the site. These terrace platforms are different than terrace platform
mounds in that they consist of level surfaces created by cutting into the
hill slope. It would seem that these locations were likely used as house
sites.
mounds]
MOUND SITES
I-025 Morascunga 3 46x46x10 42, 43, 44 [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of 5 to 8 circular
[3] mounds. Field inspection indicated the presence of 3 quadrilateral
mounds. The eastern mound has a platform measuring 18 x 18 m and a
downslope height of 9 m. The upslope height is 4 m. A small
huaquero trench near the middle of the platform was dug prior to 1966
as indicated by aerial photos. About 100 m upslope are a pair of
quadrilateral mounds separated by about 20 m. The southern-most of
these mounds has a platform about 20 m sq , a downslope height of 8
m, and an upslope height of 3 m. The northern mound has a platform
measuring 25 m sq. and a downslope height of 10 m. The upslope side
49
slopes gradually down to the land surface (height not recorded). Rust-
slipped sherds were noted, suggestive of a Late Period date for the site.
Aerial photos do not indicate the former presence of other mounds in
1966.
I-034 Imantag 1 75x75x12 36 [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of a single quadrilateral
[1] mound. Review of aerial photos confirmed that mound is quadrilateral,
measuring about 75 m sq. at base. Field inspection indicated that
height of mound was about 12 m. A trench 3 m deep and 6 to 8 m wide
had been dug from the west side to the center of the mound. Aerial
photos indicate that the trench was dug prior to 1966. Large thick
chunks of a burned floor were found in the trench backdirt, indicative
of the presence of a habitation structure on top of the mound similar to
those documented in other mounds (e.g., Athens 1980). Sherds with
rust slip were also noted, suggestive of a Late Period time frame.
Construction of a new convent has removed a portion of the southern
side of the mound.
mounds]
MOUND SITES
I-035 Quitumbita 3 55x55x? [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of 2 to 4 circular
[1] mounds, and 2 to 4 quadrilateral mounds. Review of the aerial photos
show that there are two probable circular mounds, widely separated,
and only one quadrilateral mound. The quadrilateral mound is about 55
m sq., while the circular mounds are about 32 m in diameter. A field
visit was not possible due to locked gates at the entrance to the
hacienda. Unfortunately, the mounds were not visible from the road.
I-037 Paridero 6 74x74x12 90 40x40x7 37, 38, 39, [2001] This is a new site consisting of a single ramp mound, 4
(1) 40 quadrilateral mounds, and 1 circular mound. The ramp mound is 74 m
[4] sq. at base, 45 m sq. at the top (platform), and 12 m high. The ramp has
50
been removed by tractor plowing, but aerial photos indicate that it was
originally about 90 m long. A fragment of a basin-shaped metate was
observed on the side of the ramp mound. Mound A is 35 m sq. at base
and 8 m high. Mound B, the only circular mound, is 20 m in diameter
and about 4 m high. Mound C is 40 m sq. at base and 7 to 8 m high.
Mounds D and E, located ca. 200 m to the west of the ramp mound, are
each about 20 m sq. at base and 5 m high. Diagnostic pottery was not
observed.
I-050 Santa Rosa 1 80x150x? Ground check needed; single mound is on hilltop that appears to have
[1] been modified into quadrilateral platform.
I-051 Chalta 18 3 130x140x? Ground check needed; mounds in two clusters separated by 700 m with
[1] large quadrangular mound to north (this mound may be hilltop
modified into platform)
I-070 Ambuqu 4 (1) [1] 45x45x? 20 35x45x? Ground check is needed.
I-071 Pimampiro 2 ? ? ? Information from G&L; aerial photo unavailable for confirmation;
(2) ground check is needed.
mounds]
MOUND SITES
I-096 San Pablo 3 75x92x6 78 [2001] Site described by G&L as consisting of a single quadrilateral
[1] mound. Because of the urban setting of the site, the mounds are very
difficult to see on aerial photos. The church (now abandoned due to
earthquake damage) is built on top of the quadrilateral mound that
originally measured about 75 x 92 m and is presently about 6 m high.
The mound has been heavily impacted by the church and also the
placement of concrete burial vaults on its sides. Two abandoned brick
kilns are located on the church grounds, and brick manufacture has
obviously resulted in the destruction of much of the mound not directly
underneath the church. A large circular mound, perhaps 50 m in
51
diameter, appears to have once existed immediately south of the

quadrilateral mound. There is no trace of this at present. There is also
a small circular mound SE of the church, perhaps about 20 m in
diameter. The aerial photos suggest the possibility of two other
mounds, but these could not be confirmed.
I-104 Agato Alta 6 160x200x? 76, 77 [2001] Identified by G&L as a mound site with 1 quadrilateral mound
[5] and more than 8 circular mounds. Our investigations, in the vicinity of
the road to Yacu Loma Alta, disclosed one circular mound (or possibly
quadrangular mound with eroded edges due to cultivation) ca. 40 m in
diameter and 5 m high. There were also at least four or five features
that can be described as terrace platforms (or 3-sided quadrangular
mounds built on hill slopes), some of which are quite large. There were
also many agricultural terraces on the slopes with down slope faces
averaging about 1.5 m high. These are obviously of some antiquity.
The terraces were made by a cut and fill process (cutting in the upper
slope, and filling the lower slope to make a level surface. Some pottery
sherds were collected from the fill of a terrace platform along road to
Yacu Loma Alta, along with a charcoal sample from a concentration in
the fill. The extensive terracing indicates a degree of land-use
intensification not previously suspected. The antiquity of the site is not
known; it could encompass several periods, almost certainly including
the Late Period.
mounds]
MOUND SITES
I-107 San Roque 1 [2001] Site consists of circular mound as seen on aerial photo. Visited
location, but due to urban expansion, mound no longer exists. Jos
Echeverra remembers the mound, and says it was about 3 m high and
35 m in diameter; he also noted that bulldozing of the mound occurred
about 3 years ago.
I-115 Chilcapamba 3 [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of 2 to 4 circular
mounds. Field inspection documented 3 circular mounds. A mound
locally called Troje Tola is 35 m in diameter and 4 m high, having a
power pole in its center. A basin-shaped metate fragment was found on
the mound surface. The two other mounds measured approximately 35
52
and 25 m in diameter, and 5 m high and 2.5 m high, respectively. These

latter mounds both had modern houses on top of them.
I-116 Cotacachi 1 45x45x5 [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of a single quadrilateral
[1] mound. Field inspection indicated substantial destruction to mound as
a result of modern house construction and gardening. Mound appears
to have had a maximum height of about 5 m and a diameter of about 45
m. Review of aerial photos suggests that this was probably an isolated
quadrilateral mound.
I-117 Cotacachi 1 [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of 2 to 4 Type 2 bohios
and other unspecified features. Field inspection provided no evidence
for bohios, indicating only the presence of a single circular mound
about 35 m in diameter and 4 m high with house on top at SW side of
city. Jos Echeverra says he remembers another nearby location
having a circular mound which has since been leveled for recent house
construction.
Table 2. Observations and comments concerning earthen mounds and other sites in northern highland Ecuador (cont.),
mounds]
MOUND SITES
I-118 Quiroga 3 50x50x4 45 [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of 2 to 4 circular
[1] mounds. Field inspection revealed one quadrilateral mound 50 m sq. at
base (platform is ca. 45 m sq.) and 4 m high. About 200 to 300 m to
SW is a large circular mound 45 m in diameter and 5.5 m high. Aerial
photos indicate the probable former presence of a small circular mound,
but it no longer exists. Other mounds were not in evidence and could
not be confirmed on aerial photos.
I-129 Quichinche 1 30x30x4 [2001] Site described by G&L as having 1 circular mound and 2 to 4
[1?] quadrangular mounds. Field inspection disclosed a single highly
modified mound, possibly quadrilateral, about 4 m high and 30 m in
53
diameter. The top 1.5 m has been squared to a 12 x 12 m platform

shape in modern times. Several rust-slipped sherds suggest a Late
Period date. No other mounds were observed in vicinity. Examination
of aerial photos failed to definitely indicate additional mounds
I-130 Pisab 2 25x25x5 53 [2001] Site described by G&L as consisting of a single quadrilateral
[2] mound. Field inspection of the narrow upper valley confirmed the
presence of a quadrangular mound about 25 m sq. and about 5 m high
on downslope side. There is also terrace platform to the northwest,
about 15 x 15 m and about 2.5 m high on downslope side. No surface
sherds were visible due to the thick pasture grass.
mounds]
MOUND SITES
I-173 Huaycupungu 2 50x50x9 81, 82 [2001] G&L indicate that site consists of a single quadrilateral mound
[1] and 2 to 4 circular mounds. Ground inspection indicated the presence
of a single quadrilateral mound. One face had been exposed by
construction of a soccer field. The mound appears to have measured 50
m sq. It is 9 m high. Several rust-slip sherds were observed, suggesting
a Late Period date for the mound. One small circular mound was also
observed some 100 m to the NE. This mound is about 35 m in diameter
and 4 m high. A modern house presently occupies the top of the
mound.
Pi-2 P-089 Paquiestancia 46 (5) 87x55x? 100 36 x 28 x ? An extensive ridge field system (camellones) is located in the mound
54
[4] complex.
Pi-3 P-094 Cayambe 9 83x46x? ? 60x60x? It appears that a significantly larger ramp mound once existed at this
(2) location (Jijn y Caamao 1914:293-294), of which the 100 x 200 m
[3] platform can still be identified on aerial photos; Buys et al. (1991)
provide a recent description of the site.
Pi-4 P-077 Cochasqu 45 (9) [6] 80x90x20 260 70x90x? 88, 89
Pi-5 Quinche 21 50x60x? Much of this site has been destroyed; mapped recently by M.A.
[14] Cordero (unpublished). Most of the mounds appear to be quadrilateral
structures based on Jijn y Caamaos (1914) plan map, though it is
difficult to be certain about some of the mounds.
mounds]
MOUND SITES
Pi-6 P-052 Alance 25 [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of more than 8 circular
mounds and 1 quadrilateral mound. The site was previously described
by Athens (1980:267) as having roughly 25 mounds, none with ramps.
Field survey was limited due to lateness of the day. Roughly 10
mounds were observed, most being intact. It appeared that many of the
smallest mounds may no longer be visible due to plowing for
agriculture. The mounds are readily visible on aerial photos. No
quadrilateral mound could be discerned.
Pi-9 P-091 Ayora 4 8x105x? Two quadrilateral mounds and possibly two circular mounds are
[2] indicated on aerial photos. One of the quadrilateral mounds was very
55
large; ground check is needed, though site may have been destroyed by
urban expansion.
Pi-10 Guachal 1 50x50x5 70 Site consists of a single isolated ramp mound.
(1)
Pi-11 Tomacucho 4 125x125x4 [2001] This is a new site consisting of a cluster of 4 large terrace
[4] platforms SE of the San Vicente ramp mound and across the
Tomacucho quebrada. The largest platform measures roughly 125 x
125 m, and the others are in the range of 60 x 90 m. The site does not
appear to have been recorded by G&L. Lack of sufficient time made it
impossible to undertake a surface reconnaissance of the terrace
platforms, and their heights can only be estimated. Two of the terrace
platforms are side by side. The terrace platforms are clearly visible on
aerial photos.
mounds]
MOUND SITES
P-004 San Vicente 1 78x100x8 115 90 [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of a single ramp mound.
(1) The location was previously called Tomacucho, but it is now referred to
as SanVicente. The mound was confirmed by field investigations. The
mound is situated on a sloping ridge. The base of the mound measures
approximately 78 x 100 m, and the ramp is about 115 m long and
oriented in a 38-218 direction. The mound is 8 m high on the upslope
side and 15 m high on the downslope side. It appears that several
terrace platforms are built into the ridge above the mound, but these
could not be confirmed in the field. Diagnostic Late Period pottery was
observed on the surface below the mound platform.
56
P-005 Jatunpamba 3 60x60x? [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of 2 to 4 quadrilateral

[2] mounds. Because of the time needed to cross the quebrada from the
Tomacucho ramp mound location, it was not possible to actually visit
this site. However, a clear view of it was afforded from the Tomacucho
location. Three mounds could be seen. Two of these were quadrilateral
mounds, and one appeared to be a circular mound.
P-037 La Libertad 1 60x60x6 95 [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of 2 to 4 quadrilateral
[1] mounds. Field inspection indicated the presence of what is probably a
quadrilateral mound approximately 60 m sq. and 6 m high (there is
some ambiguity as to its quadrilateral shape from both field inspection
and review of aerial photos). Pottery was fairly common in several cuts
that have been made for houses and construction. The sherds appeared
to pertain to the Late Period, but were not diagnostic. No other mounds
were observed in the field or on the aerial photos.
mounds]
MOUND SITES
P-038 La Libertad 1 45x55x11 40 91, 92, 93, [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of a single ramp mound.
(1) 94 The mound is clearly visible on aerial photos, and the G&L
identification was confirmed with field inspection. The mound base is
about 45 x 55 m, and the platform on top is 22 m sq. It is ca. 11 m
high. The ramp is about 40 m long, pointing to west. Most of the ramp
recently has been cut in half longitudinally for construction of a playing
field (cancha). Near where it joins the platform, the exposed cut
revealed stacked (undressed) stones used for mound construction. A
cultural midden lens was exposed in the ramp cut near where it joins
the platform and about 80 cm below the surface. This is probably
57
debris discarded from habitation on the mound surface. A charcoal

sample was collected along with several undiagnostic sherds and a
several bone fragments. Other sherds at the site are diagnostic of the
Late Period. The bone fragments were identified by Peter Stahl as
pertaining to large mammal (2 fragments), large Artiodactyla (1
fragment), rabbit (Sylvilagus; 1 fragment), and small mammal (1
fragment).
P-085 Santa Ana 15 Site consists of a cluster of small circular mounds; needs ground check.
P-087 Tupigachi ? Identified by G&L as site, but aerial photo review not convincing;
needs ground check.
P-092 Granobles 20 55x85x? Site has isolated large quadrilateral mound and cluster of indeterminate
[1] mounds 0.75 km to NE and another smaller outlying cluster further to
the NE; the Granobles mounds are surrounded by the largest and best
preserved complex of ancient ridge fields (camellones) in the northern
highlands.
P-093 Cabaa 2 40x50x? 46 Ground check is needed; several clusters of outlying circular mounds
(2) are present in vicinity in addition to ramp mounds.
MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS AND NON-MOUND SITES

Location Elevation Site Type
meters
Alobuela 2,000 Sacrificial 1, 2 [2001] Site is located at Alobuela, ca. 3 km north of Atuntaqui near H.
Stone La Capilla, ca. 2,200 m elevation. This is a carved volcanic stone
(perhaps andesite) slab, 2.4 m long, 88 cm wide, and 33 cm thick, flat
on bottom and top. Carved furrows in stone are ca. 7 cm deep and 5
to 12 cm wide; stone is pointed at one end and rounded at the other.
The furrows are said to be for collecting blood. The stone, which is
obviously prehistoric, is not at its original location. It is said to be
from a ridge top about 3.5 km to north. Style of carving suggests Inka
origin; such stone carving is unknown for the Late Period.
C-112 Santa Ana; 1,520 Bohios [2001] Site consists of a cluster of more than 8 bohios identified by
G&L. Review of aerial photos indicate that there may be more than
12 bohios. Unfortunately, during the field visit to Santiaguillo there
58
was insufficient time to visit this site or to verify that it still exists
(new irrigation is bringing much previously unused land into
cultivation).
C-124 San Juan Alto 2,230 Bohios [2001] G&L indicate that the site has more than 8 bohios. During
field inspection the site could only be viewed from the road at a
distance. Only 2 bohios could be distinguished at the time, though
aerial photos confirm the presence of at least 5 bohios. The site
appears to be intact, though determination of its present condition will
require closer inspection.
El Charco; E 2,400 burial mounds [2001] This is a new site, consisting of at least 8 small burial mounds
of La Merced along a ridge top to the east of the Buenos Aires mounds (perhaps 1
de Buenos km in straight line distance from La Merced de Buenos Aires).
Aires Informants indicated that there were many other small mounds on
neighboring ridges, and a few of these were observed. Several had
been excavated, and skeletal remains were found along with a few
whole vessels. The mounds typically are about 3 to 4 meters in
diameter and about 1 meter high.

meters
SE of La 3,000 burial mounds [2001] This is a new site, consisting of at least 8 small burial mounds
Merced de along a ridge top to the southeast of Buenos Aires mounds (perhaps 5
Buenos Aires km in straight line distance), and above the road to Cahuasqui.
Access to the site from the road requires a walk of several hours up
very steep terrain. Thick bamboo scrub is common on the upper hill
slope and covers most the site, a result of burning during the dry
season. Many of the mounds had been excavated, though there were
still a number of intact mounds. It was estimated that there are about
15 mounds in total, though only about 8 were actually observed.
Informants reported that skeletal remains were found along with a few
whole vessels. It seemed clear from descriptions that the vessels were
not particularly notable for their quality. The mounds typically are
about 3 to 4 meters in diameter and about 1 meter high.
59
Im-8 I-057 Imbaya 2,140 delete site [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of 2 to 4 circular
designation mounds. This site also was documented by Athens (1980:261) on the
basis of aerial photos, and he reported that it had 8 to 10 mounds.
Field inspection failed to disclose any mounds. The most obvious
mound locations observed in the aerial photos proved to be natural
hills.
Im-11 Otavalo 2,554 midden [2001] This is a non-mound site located along the Panamerican
deposits, Highway on the northern side of Otavalo (see map in Athens 1999).
burials The site dates to the Early Intermediate Period. There is also an
underlying preceramic/aceramic component. The site is disappearing
rapidly as a result of urban expansion and land subdivision. A
detailed discussion of findings at this site are presented in Athens
(1999, in prep.).
Im-26 Arrayanpugru delete site [2001] 4 km SW of Otavalo; mounds cannot be confirmed at this
designation location on ground or in aerial photos.

meters
Im-27 Imbabuela delete site [2001] 1.5 km S of Otavalo at Hda. Imbabuela; mounds cannot be
designation confirmed at this location on ground or in aerial photos.
Im-28 Loma Negra delete site [2001] 1 km E of Otavalo; mounds cannot be confirmed at this
designation location on ground or in aerial photos.
I-100 W. Lake San 2,780 delete site [2001] Identified by G&L as bohio site with 5 to 8 features at 2,790 m
Pablo designation elevation. Review of aerial photos could not confirm any features at
indicated location or immediate surroundings.
I-101 Eugenio 2,730 delete site [2001] Identified by G&L as a bohio site (combination of types) with
Espejo designation 2 to 4 features and other unspecified features. Review of aerial photos
could not confirm any features at indicated location or immediate
surroundings.
60
I-103 Loma Pucar 2,800 ? [2001] Identified by G&L as a single bohio of the A type.
Attempted to visit this site but indigenous woman asked us to leave
when we attempted to approach the location. Some kind of feature
was visible at the high point on the hill, though whether it was a
natural erosional feature or the ruins of a structure could not be
discerned from the distance. It was definitely not a bohio, however.
I-108 Aafito 2,760 delete site [2001] Site identified by G&L as an isolated ramp mound, evidently
designation on the basis of crop mark on the aerial photo. However, no mound
was present at the indicated location, but there was a natural ridge
feature. Located ESE of Site Im-30 (ramp mound) at distance of ca.
200 m.
I-109 Agualongo 2,580 delete site [2001] G&L indicate that there is 1 quadrangular mound and 1 ramp
Grande (SE of designation mound. The Knapp (1992:42) irrigation study shows three mounds
San Roque) just below the hacienda. Field inspection of the site failed to indicate
the presence of any mounds, nor could any be confirmed on aerial
photos.

meters
I-114 Mitaqui 2,600 delete site [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of 2 to 4 circular
Chiquito designation mounds. Despite extensive ground search, it was not possible to
locate any mounds. Also, could not locate mounds on aerial photos.
The validity of the site appears questionable.
I-120 San Martn 2,500 delete site [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of a single quadrilateral
designation mound. However, there was no evidence for this mound either in the
field or on aerial photos.
I-121 La Esperanza 2,500 delete site [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of 2 to 4 circular
designation mounds. However, there was no evidence for these mounds either in
the field or on aerial photos.
I-124 SSE of 2,680 delete site [2001] Site described by G&L as having 2 to 4 bohios. Detailed
Otavalo, ca. designation examination of aerial photos, however, failed to reveal any indication
61
1.25 km of a site at this location.

Tababuela 1,550 midden The Tababuela site, on a high bench overlooking the confluence of the
deposits Ro Chota and Ro Ambi, dates to about 350-400 BC. This site is
reported in Athens (1990:38-41, in prep.), and Berenguer and
Echeverra (1988, 1995).
El Salado 2,515 camellones and El Salado is located just north of Otavalo. Dating to the Late Period,
(94-1) midden it has a buried ridge field system and habitation deposits. The site is
reported in Athens (1999).
Pi-1 La Chimba 3,180 midden The La Chimba site, located east of Olmedo, has 3 meters of stratified
deposits midden. The site dates between 700 BC and AD 250. La Chimba is
reported in Athens (1990, 1995, in prep.), and Stahl and Athens
(2001).
P-003 La Cocha 2,000-2,300 delete site [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of more than 8 terraces.
designation A field reconnaissance, however, failed to indicate the presence of
any terraces. Terraces are not visible on aerial photos.

meters
Pi-8 P-042 Pululagua 2,500 delete site [2001] No mounds are present; previous identification in Athens
designation (1978:278; 1980:268) determined to be erroneous.
Pi-12 Perlav 1,600-1,700 terraces [2001] This is a large terrace site with stone facings. It is located on
the west face of the steeply sloping quebrada cut by the Ro Perlav
directly west of the Alance site (about 2 km). There are at least two
sets of terraces side by side, each comprising 8 or 10 terraces, one
directly above the other. The site was only viewed at great distance
from the Alance site. Access will be difficult due to its remote
location. The site is not visible on aerial photos.
1. From Athens (1978, 1980). Sites not listed in either the Athens or Gondard and Lpez (1983), or which are not mounds, are placed at end of table with following
exceptions: pucar are listed in inventory of Plaza Schuller (1976); Inka site at Caranqui is not listed, the various ridge field (camellone) sites are not listed; and the
62
terrace sites reported by Bray (1995) for the Pimampiro area are not listed.
2. From Gondard and Lpez (1983).
3. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish hemispherical mounds from quadrilateral mounds. The figures here represent a conservative interpretation.
4. In some cases the definition of a site can be rather arbitrary as mounds within a given area may be widely dispersed. In general, however, distinct mound
clusters are considered separate sites.
5. Some measurements are derived from aerial photographs. Length and width measurements are from the mound base. Note that the largest ramp mound
does not always have the longest ramp structure.
Table 3. Observations recorded for individual mounds at the Atuntaqui site (Im-4).
Mound No.* Condition Observations
1 southwest side cut by Original dimensions at base were approximately 92 x 115 m. Mound height
road, exposing 12 m is approximately 12 m.
tall profile
2 cemetery covers most Orozca Tola; dimensions are 207 x 150 m at base, and roughly 92 x 74 m for
of top platform platform; height not determinable without survey instruments, but estimated
to be at least 25 m (measurements of Jijn y Caamao [1952:349] are a little
different). Exposures on the southwest side near the road at the base of the
mound suggest it is entirely constructed of fill. The cemetery on top is said
to date to the 1930s, though the earliest grave marker actually observed
dated to 1956. There is a paved road on the west side of the mound that
leads to the cemetery. Jijn y Caamaos plan view map (1952:349),
originally prepared about 1910 to 1912, does not show a modern cemetery
on top.
3 fairly good condition Pupo Tola; dimensions are 154 x 138 m, and roughly 58 x 62 m for top
exception for adobe platform; height is roughly estimated to be about 25 m (measurements of
brick factory at Jijn y Caamao [1952:349] are a little different). The distance between the
northwest corner base of Orozca and Pupo Tolas is about 58 m. It is curious that such large
and steeply slopping mounds do not have ramps, which is pretty clear from
the aerial photos and the descriptions of Jijn y Caamao based on
observations about 1910 to 1912.
4 fairly good Although it was thought that this might be a hill (Jijn y Caamao does not
mention it, even though it is adjacent to Orozca and Pupo Tolas), close
examination of exposed faces on the northwest side of the mound show that
it is artificial, at least on the sides. The top platform is relatively flat, having
an area of about 60 x 60 m. Mound dimensions at the base are roughly 175
x 166 m, and height averages about 20 (less on upslope side, and more on
downslope side). Surface pottery suggests Late Period construction.
5 fair to poor This is a possible small circular mound immediately south of potable water
plant serving Andrade Marin. Mound height is about 2 m. Sides severely
impacted. Lots of prehistoric pottery in vicinity, but no exposures on sides
of mound for examination.
6 poor Mound is completely hidden by buildings all around it, and it has been cut
away on all sides. However, the mound still seems to have its original
height of about 12 m, and on this basis it must have been approximately the
same size as Mound 1. The church has been built completely through the
mound on its southeast side.
7 poor Mound is very damaged as a result of the construction of a very large brick
fence for a new municipal slaughter house (camal). The mound has the
remnant of an old tapia wall on top. Mound seems to have been originally
circular in shape and about 50 m in diameter. A remnant section measures
about 5 m high. A piece of a human cranium was noted in the bulldozed
soil. A diagnostic red line crosshatch on buff sherd was collected from the
exposed face of the remnant mound, clearly dating it to the Late Period.
8 fair This is a ramp mound only cursorily investigated in the field. It measures
about 92 x 92 m at the base and is about 5.5 m high. The top platform does
not have the distinct level surface characterizing most ramp mounds, but is
more rounded in appearance. The original ramp was about 275 m long as
determined from aerial photos. The ramp northeast of the road that bisects it
has been much impacted due to recent tapia wall construction. The Fritada
Amazonas restaurant is directly across the Panamerican Highway from this
mound.
63
Table 3. Observations recorded for individual mounds at the Atuntaqui site (Im-4) (cont.).

9 poor Only small remnants of this once huge ramp mound remains. Aerial photos
indicate that it originally measured 133 x 115 m, and almost certainly had a
ramp 250 m long. Initial major destruction occurred with the construction of
the Panamerican Highway through the center of the mound (about 1966),
and this construction episode apparently removed the entire ramp feature.
The remnant section has been further significantly reduced as a result of
removal of remaining portions of the mound for fill during several episodes
in the 1990s. The remnant section measures 12 m high. In 1994 a large
burned feature was noted by Athens in the upper part of the vertical exposed
face, which is almost certainly a canal-like hearth feature as typically found
in such mounds. This portion of the mound, unfortunately, was gone by
1997, as was the entire north side of the mound, leaving only a relatively
thin sliver of the mound standing today. Unfortunately, no diagnostic
pottery was ever observed from around this mound, though it clearly dates to
the Late Period.
10 poor This is a circular mound about 50 m in diameter and 5.5 m high. The mound
is almost perfectly bisected as a result of the property owner on the west side
selling her half for use as construction fill. Despite a search, no evidence for
a surface could be found in the exposed mound face. Rust-slipped sherds
suggest a Late Period date for the mound. Fragments of a large, 1-meter
diameter prehistoric olla with exterior rust slip were observed tossed aside,
and the owner said the vessel came from under the mound.
11 fair to good This is almost completely intact circular mound about the same size as
Mound 10 (50 m diameter, 5.5 m high). The west edge has been partly
removed for construction of a small water reservoir for agriculture.
Diagnostic Late Period sherds were observed in a irrigation canal running
alongside the edge of the mound that had been removed.
12 fair This is a circular mound originally about 35 m in diameter, though at present
it has been reduced to about 25 m due to encroachment of agricultural fields.
The mound, which is heavily overgrown with vegetation, is about 2.5 m
high. An irrigation canal has been dug through the center of the mound. A
rust-slipped rim sherd with triangular profile (diagnostic Late Period) was
observed on the surface near the mound.
13 good This is a circular mound about 35 m in diameter and 3.5 m high. It is intact
except for a utility pole in the center.
14 good This is a circular mound about 25 m in diameter and 3.5 m high. It is
completely intact. A walnut (nogal) tree is next to the mound. A nut-
cracking stone with central depression and a metate fragment were
observed in a nearby agricultural field.
15 no longer present This mound is no longer present, though aerial photos definitely confirm its
former presence. It was identical to that of nearby Mounds 13 and 14. It
would have been about 25 m in diameter and about 3 to 3.5 m high.
16 no longer present This small circular mound is no longer present; it would have been about 20
m in diameter and 2 m high.
17 no longer present This circular mound is no longer present; it would have been about 60 m in
diameter. Presumably its height would have been 5 m or more.
64

18 poor The ruins of a sugar mill (trapiche) are on top of this circular mound, which
measures about 35 m in diameter and 2.5 to 3 m high. Two deep huaquero
trenches had been dug inside the collapsing ruins. Both were about 1.6 x 1.2
m, while one was 1.6 m deep and the other about 5 m deep. Examination of
the shallower excavation confirmed that it had been dug through mound fill.
Sugarcane had been common in the area until about 20 years ago.
diameter. Presumably its height would have been 5 m or more. A lady
working in the field where the mound would have been said that the
previous owner had bulldozed the mound about 10 years ago. The new
owner then built a 3 m high tapia wall around the field, which is now
entirely under intensive cultivation.
20 no longer present This possible circular mound is no longer present; it would have been about
25 m in diameter. Unfortunately, the aerial photos do not allow a firm
conclusion as to whether the circular feature noted on them really was a
mound.
diameter. Its identification from aerial photos is fairly definite.
22 no longer present This possible circular mound is no longer present; it would have been about
25 m in diameter. Unfortunately, the aerial photos do not allow a firm
conclusion as to whether the circular feature noted on them really was a
mound.
23 poor This is a remnant of a small circular mound about 25 m in diameter and 2.5
m high. A mostly disintegrated tapia house in on top. The side of the
mound has a 2 m deep huaquero excavation pit.
24 poor This is a 10 x 10 m remnant of what was once a 50 m diameter circular
mound. The remnant, about 5 m high, appears to maintain the original
height of the mound. No indication of a surface or midden concentration in
any of the exposed faces. Age of the mound is uncertain as no diagnostic
sherds were observed save for a possible painted Panzaleo thin ware sherd
with red painted lines on buff.
25 poor This is a large quadrilateral mound that has been substantially impacted by
bulldozers removing fill. It is about 10 to 12 m high and 80 x 80 m at the
base; the top platform is level. On the southwest side there was what
appeared to be a surface about 1.5 m below the surface. Several diagnostic
red line crosshatch on buff sherds were observed in the mound fill.
26 fair This is Paila Tola, which Jijn y Caamao (1914, 1952:346-347) mapped
around 1910-1912. The base of the mound measures about 100 x 115 m,
and it is about 15 m high (the measurements of Jijn y Caamao are a little
different). The top of the mound measures about 55 x 65 m. Jijn y
Caamao provides a measurement of the ramp of 120 m. Some of the ramp
was still visible during the 1970s, however it has now completely
disappeared with house and road construction. The distinctive feature of
Paila Tola is its interior depression in place of the usual platform. The
depression is about 3 m deep. No other quadrilateral mound is known to
have such an interior depression. Other than the ramp, the mound is in fairly
good condition.
65

27 fair This is a circular mound roughly 35 m in diameter and 3.5 m high. It is
located within a gated hacienda and access was not possible for field
inspection. However, the mound was visible from the road, and it could be
seen that a chapel had been built on top of it. The 1965 aerial photo also
shows a structure or other use of the mound, though the chapel appears to be
a later construction.
28 poor This is apparently a circular mound originally about 90 m in diameter, and
perhaps 12 m high. The mound is locally called Santa Rosa. Much of the
mound is now destroyed. The previous owner used a tractor to open the
mound, probably more than 15 years ago. Diagnostic Late Period sherds
were observed on the mound. The remains of a tapia structure are on top of
the mound.
29 good This is a circular mound about 25 m in diameter and 2.5 m high. An
abandoned indigenous house is on top of the mound (without roof).
Diagnostic Late Period pottery was observed below the mound (red line
crosshatch on buff and triangular rims).
30 poor This is a circular mound that was originally about 80 m in diameter and 10.5
m high. Only a small remnant of this mound is still standing, the rest having
been bulldozed away for house construction. Two surface layers were noted
in the exposed mound face. The upper surface was about 3 above the
ground surface, and the lower was about 40 cm below this. Both had
remnant canal-like molded and fired hearth features. The cross section
measurement of the upper canal was 13 cm wide at the top, slightly sloping
sides that give a depth of 9.5 cm, and a basal width of 9.5 cm. A large
diagnostic red line crosshatch on buff sherd was found among a dense
concentration of large charcoal chunks associated with the upper surface,
indicating the mound dates to the Late Period. The concentration of
charcoal seems to be in an erosional cavity in which material from the
mound surface accumulated, perhaps following burning of the house that
was on the surface. Charred corn kernels were fairly abundant in the
charcoal.
31 no longer present Aerial photos indicate that this was a small circular mound abut 25 to 35 m
in diameter and perhaps 2.5 to 3 m high. The location of the mound was
determined during a field inspection, but the mound was no longer present.
It was located within a large, mechanized and irrigated wheat field, and was
obviously removed to facilitate cultivation.
32 no longer present Aerial photos indicate that this was a small circular mound abut 25 to 35 m
in diameter and perhaps 2.5 to 3 m high. A visit to the location indicated
that the mound is no longer extant.
33 unknown This is a large circular mound about 90 m in diameter and perhaps 10 to 12
m high. It looks very much like Mound 30 in aerial photos. Unfortunately, a
field inspection was not made to this mound, and further information is not
available.
* Locations of mounds shown in Figure 3, the Atuntaqui site map.
66
Table 4. Radiocarbon determinations, Atuntaqui Im-4) and La Libertad (P-038) mounds.
Cat. No. Lab.No. Provenience Submitted 13C/12C Conven- Calibrated Calibrated
Weight tional Age Age Age
g/Material BP BP* AD/BC*
Atun-30-feat-1 Wk- Atuntaqui mound site 22.9 -24.3 0.2 519 46 544-512 AD 1406-1438
12153 (Im-4), Mound 30; charcoal
Feature 1; sample
collected from
exposed face with
concentration of large
charcoal chunks
associated with lower
surface in mound and
Late Period sherd.
P-038rampface Wk- La Libertad ramp 10.0 -21.3 0.2 389 45 507-325 AD 1433-1642
12154 mound site (P-038); charcoal
charcoal sample
collected from
exposed midden
deposit in upper ramp
feature near
connection to
platform.
* Calibration from Calib 3.0.3 computer program of Stuiver and Reimer (1993); all dates have a 1 sigma age
range.
67
Table 5. Wood samples collected from native Andean trees, northern highland Ecuador.
Common Family Genera and Species Collection Site Altitude
Name
Moquillo Actinidiaceae Saurauia Willd. hills above La Merced de Buenos ca. 2700 m
Aires
Molle Anacardiaceae Schinus molle L. Otavalo 2550 m
Pumamaqui Araliaceae Oreopanax mucronulatus Gualsaqu 2700 m
Harms
Aliso Betulceas Alnus acuminata HBK Hda. Rosaspamba, south of Otavalo 2800 m
on slopes of Mojanda
Dialoman Bignoniaceae Delostoma integrifolium Alance; south-southwest of San Jos 2260 m
D.Don de Minas
Encino Cunoniaceae Weinmannia L hills above La Merced de Buenos ca. 2700 m
Aires
Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus L. upper valley, Hda. Perugachi 2800 m
Lechero Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia laurifolia Quichinche 2650 m
Lamb.; also listed as
Sapium sp.*
Motilon Euphorbiaceae Hyeronima macrocarpa hills to north of San Jos de Minas 2700 m
Muell. Arg.
Porotn Fabaceae-Faboideae Erythrina edulis Triana ex Quichinche 2650 m

M. Micheli
Cascarillo Lauraceae Persea mutisii Kunt hills above La Merced de Buenos ca. 2700 m
Aires
Cedro Meliaceae Cedrela montana Moritz Huaycupungu (L. San Pablo) 2670 m
ex Turex.
Charmuelan Myrsinaceae Geissanthus quindiensis hills above La Merced de Buenos ca. 2700 m
Mez Aires
Arrayan Myrtaceae Myrcianthes alaternifolia hills to north of San Jos de Minas 2750 m
(Benth) Grifo
Roble Proteaceae Roupala Aubl. hills to north of San Jos de Minas 2700 m
Capul** Rosaceae Prunus serotina Ehrh. Otavalo 2550 m
Rubiaceae Palicourea Aubl. upper valley, Hda. Perugachi 2800 m
Symplocaceae Simplocos quitensis Brand hills to north of San Jos de Minas 2750 m
Guatzi Theaceae Freziera canescens hills to north of San Jos de Minas 2750 m
Bonpl.
Moku ?(not identified) ? hills to north of San Jos de Minas 2700 m
* see Cuamacs and Tipaz (1995:106).

** said to be of Mexican origin, introduced to Ecuador during colonial times or before (Ulloa Ulloa and
Jrgensen 1995:272).
68
FIGURES
69
70
Figure 1a. Distribution map of ramp mound sites and quadrilateral mound sites of northern
highland Ecuador.
71
Figure 1b. Key to mound site distribution.
72
Figure 2. Schematic of archaeological sequence for northern highland Ecuador.
73
Figure 3. Plan map of Atuntaqui mound site (Im-4).
74
PHOTO GALLERY
75
76
Photo 1. Carved volcanic stone slab believed to have been used for human
sacrifices by informants. It is located north of Atuntaqui, but has
been displaced from its original provenience. Edison Ruiz (left) of
Atuntaqui is shown with Dr. Jos Echeverra (right). The stone is
very unusual for the region, and perhaps is of Inka origin.
Photo 2001.
77
Photo 2. Close-up view of sacrificial stone. Photo 2001,
78
Photo 3. Mound 3, Otavalo Mounds (Im-1). Bulldozer cut through south part of mound.
Radiocarbon dates indicate mound construction was after about AD 1300 (Athens
1999). Photo 1997.
Photo 4. View of Otavalo Mound 3 to northwest. Note removal of east part of mound for
construction of building. Photo 1997.
79
Photo 5. View of Otavalo Mound 4. This mound was excavated in 1972. A radiocarbon date of ca. AD 1450
was obtained. Photo 1971.
80
Photo 6. Hearth feature on eroded house floor, Otavalo Mound 4.
Photo 1972.
81
Photo 7. Sherds collected from street canal adjacent to Otavalo Mound 3, exterior view.
Note diagnostic Late Period pottery, especially jars to upper right with triangular-
profile rims and red line paint on buff. Photo 1972.
82
Photo 8. The southern ramp mound at Santiaguillo, Site C-113. Note
ruined adobe house on platform. Ring feature can be seen in
distance. Between the mound platform and ring feature, the
ramp is barely discernible. Photo 2001.
83
Photo 9. The northern ramp mound at Santiaguillo, Site C-113 (in lower right). The
platform is plainly visible, though the short ramp is barely discernible. Note large
quadrilateral mound in background. Photo 2001.
84
Photo 10. Late Period pottery from large quadrilateral mound, Santiaguillo, Site C-113;
exterior of sherds. Note that sherds in lower left are Tuza-style bowls, and those
in the upper left are shallow rim bowls. Photo 2003.
Photo 11. Interior view of sherds in Photo 10. Photo 2003.
85
Photo 12. Late Period pottery from ramp mound, Santiaguillo, Site C-113; exterior of
sherds. Note that sherds in lower left are Tuza-style bowls, and those in the lower
middle are shallow rim bowls. Photo 2003.
86
Photo 14. View of three ramp mounds at the Sequambo site (Im-15). The Ro Mira is in the
foreground. In the 1970s the land at Sequambo was undisturbed and uncultivated.
The mounds have been seriously impacted by agricultural development.
Photo 2001.
Photo 15. Pottery sherds from Sequambo site (Im-15); exterior view. Note sherds in upper
left with alternating thick red and white lines on buff. This is a variation of the
diagnostic red line on buff Late Period pottery. Photo 1976.
87
Photo 16. Pottery sherds from Sequambo site (Im-15); same sherds, interior view. Note
Tuza-style bowl sherds in center. Tuza sherds, typically associated with Carchi
Province, tend to be relatively common at mound sites within and close to the
Chota-Mira River Valley. Photo 1976.
88
Photo 17. Mound 1, Atuntaqui group (Im-4); the southwest face of this quadrilateral
platform mound is cut by the road, General Enriquez in Andrade Marin. The
mound face is 12 m high. Photo 2001.
Photo 18. General view of Mound 1, Atuntaqui group (Im-4); note house on top.
Photo 2001.
89
Photo 19. Orozca Tola of the Atuntaqui (Im-4) group. This is one of the largest earthen
mounds in northern highland Ecuador. A paved road leads to a modern cemetery
on top of the mound. Photograph taken from the top of Mound 1. Photo 2001.
90
Photo 20. View of southeast corner of Orozca Tola (Mound 2), Atuntaqui
group (Im-4). Photo taken from top of Pupo Tola. Photo 2001.
91
Photo 21. Pupo Tola (Mound 3), Atuntaqui group (Im-4). Photo taken from top of Orozca
Tola. Mt. Imbabura is in the background. Photo 2001.
Photo 22. Remnant of Mound 7, Atuntaqui group (Im-4). Only a remnant of this mound
remains as a result of construction of the fence for a camal. Photo 2001.
92
Photo 23. Mound 26, Atuntaqui group (Im-4). This huge quadrilateral platform mound was
cut through by construction of the Panamerican Highway; subsequently it has
been used as a source for construction fill. Photo 1994.
Photo 24. Mound 26, Atuntaqui group (Im-4). A view of what remains of the west side of
the mound following sediment removal for construction fill. Photo 1997.
93
Photo 25. Exposed face of Mound 10, Atuntaqui group (Im-4). Half of the mound was
removed for construction fill. Photo 1997.
Photo 26. Mound 14, Atuntaqui group (Im-4) . Photo 2001.
94
Photo 27. Mound 25, Atuntaqui group (Im-4), view to west. This is a large quadrilateral
platform mound west of city of Atuntaqui. Note extensive destruction of the
mound as a result of its use as a source of fill for modern construction activities.
Photo 2001.
Photo 28. Mound 25, Atuntaqui group (Im-4), view to east. Orozca Tola can be seen in the
distance in the background just above Mound 25, and the Paila Tola mound can
be seen to the left. Photo 2001.
95
Photo 29. Archaeologist Jos Echeverra with diagnostic Late Period
sherd (red line on buff) recovered from Mound 25, Atuntaqui
group (Im-4). Photo 2001.
96
Photo 30. Mound 26, Atuntaqui group (Im-4). This mound is referred to as Paila Tola
because its platform is actually a basin-shaped depression, sloping in from the
sides to a depth of about 3 meters. Photo 1997.
Photo 31. Remnant of Mound 28 at Atuntaqui group (Im-4). The damage to this mound has
been caused by looting (huaquero) activities. Photo 2001.
97
Photo 32. Remnant of Mound 30, Atuntaqui group (Im-4), following bulldozing for house
construction. Photo 2001.
98
Photo 33. View of exposed face of Mound 30, Atuntaqui group (Im-4).
Archaeologist Jos Echeverra is pointing to midden lens
associated with a surface, which contains plentiful charcoal and
a diagnostic Late Period sherd. Photo 2001.
99
Photo 34. Close-up of midden lens showing large diagnostic Late Period sherd (red line on
buff) and large chunks of charcoal in Mound 30. The charcoal dated to the early
AD 1400s. Photo 2001.
Photo 35. Canal-like molded hearth feature in exposed face of Mound 30 of the Atuntaqui
(Im-4) group. A lower burned surface and portion of another hearth feature is
below the canal-like feature. Photo 2001.
100
Photo 36. Imantag quadrilateral mound (I-034); view of the mostly intact north side.
Photo 2001.
Photo 37. Ramp mound at the Paridero site (I-037). The ramp (originally on the other side
of the mound) was removed to improve the agricultural field. Photo 2001.
101
Photo 38. Fragment of a basin-shaped metate observed on the surface of the Paridero ramp
mound (I-037). Photo 2001.
Photo 39. Mound A of the Paridero group (I-037). This mound is about 8 m high.
Photo 2001.
102
Photo 40. Mound E of the Paridero group (I-037). This mound is about 5 m high.
Photo 2001.
Photo 41. View of ramp mound at Site Im-30, Aafito (behind clump of eucalyptus trees in
foreground). The ramp, located on the downslope side, cannot be seen in the
photograph. Photo 2001.
103
Photo 42. The geographical setting of the Morascunga mounds (I-025), with expansive view
of Mt. Imbabura and valley below. View to east. Photo 2001.
Photo 43. The two western (upslope) quadrilateral mounds at Morascunga (I-025).
Photo 2001.
104
Photo 44. The easternmost (downslope) quadrilateral mound at Morascunga (I-025).
Photo 2001.
Photo 45. Quadrilateral mound at Quiroga, Site I-118. View to northwest. Photo 2001.
105
Photo 46. Quadrilateral ramp mound at Yaguarcocha, Site Im-9. Note other platform
mounds behind ramp mound. A person standing in front of the upper corner of
the ramp mound provides an indication of scale. Photo 1974.
Photo 47. Quadrilateral ramp mound on west side of Cochaloma, Site Im-14. Photograph
shows mound before placement of school on platform. Photo 1973.
106
Photo 48. Quadrilateral ramp mound at east side of Cochaloma, Site Im-14. Photo 1973.
107
Photo 49. Surface sherds collected from Cochaloma, Site Im-14 (formerly referred to as San
Rafael), exterior view. All sherds are diagnostic of the Late Period. Photo 1974.
Photo 50. Solid ceramic figurine fragment found on surface at Cochaloma, Site Im-14.
Note red painting on face (horizontal red lines); the bottom part of figurine and
entire back is red. Such figurines, while not common, have been found at other
mound sites. Top of figurine and widest point measures 6.5 cm across; it is about
3 cm thick.
108
Photo 51. Gonzlez Surez mounds (Im-31). Note two large quadrilateral mounds on either
side of the road. The mound on the left is used for making bricks. Photo 2001.
Photo 52. Large quadrilateral mound at the Hacienda Perugache (Im-3) under trees in center
of photograph. Photo 2001.
109
Photo 53. Quadrilateral mound at Pisab in the upper valley at the Hacienda Perugache (I-
130). Note person on right side of mound for scale. Photo 2001.
110
Photo 54. Circular mound at the Hacienda Rosaspamba on slopes of Mt.
Mojanda (Im-25). Photo 2001.
111
Photo 55. Quadrilateral ramp mound at Hacienda Pinsaqu site (Im-2). The highway cuts
across mound where ramp formerly joined the platform. The mound is 10 meters
high. Photo 1972.
Photo 56. Quadrilateral ramp mound at Hacienda Pinsaqu site (Im-2), Mound 1, located to
southwest of site. This mound is about 50 meters square at the base and the ramp
is 77 meters long; the top platform is 8.5 meters above the ground surface.
Photo 1972.
112
Photo 57. Canal-like hearth feature excavated on floor in Mound 1 of the
Pinsaqu site. Although the hearth feature appears very eroded,
note that several of the stone tullpa rumis are still in place.
Mound has late 15th century radiocarbon date. Photo 1976.
113
Photo 58. Circular mound at Perihuela (Im-17) with house on top. Photo 2001.
Photo 59. Ramp mound at Perihuela (Im-17) with power pole in the center. Photo 2001.
114
Photo 60. Quadrilateral mound at Perihuela (Im-17). Photo 2001.
Photo 61. Circular mound Perihuela (Im-17); this may be the same mound shown in Photo
53. Photo 1976.
115
Photo 62. Large quadrilateral ramp mound at the Hacienda Zuleta, Site Im-13. This is one
of the largest mound sites in the northern highlands. Photo 1973.
Photo 63. Quadrilateral platform mounds at site of Caranqui, Im-7. Earthen fill from the
mound on the right is being used for brick-making (note kiln). Photo 1976.
116
Photo 64. Standing walls of Inca center at Caranqui, located on the property of Sr. Tobias
Flores, directly east of the church. Photo 1976.
Photo 65. Large quadrilateral ramp mound in Chota Valley, Site C-126b. Note that ramp is
pointing toward camera (at a diagonal). View is to north. Photo 1972.
117
Photo 66. Large quadrilateral ramp mound located at Gualimn in Intag region, near town
of Peahererra, Site Im-6. For scale note farmer working on the side of the ramp
in center of photo. Photo 1972.
Photo 67. Large circular mound at Socapamba site, Im-10. Evidence of huaquero activity
may be seen. Photo 1972.
118
Photo 68. Quadrilateral ramp mound at Socapamba (Mound 21), Im-10. House floor was
excavated on platform (about 70 cm below mound surface). This was
radiocarbon dated to middle 14th or 15th century. Photo 1976.
119
Photo 69. Canal-like hearth feature excavated in Mound 21, Socapamba.
Photo 1976.
120
Photo 70. Canal-like hearth feature excavated in Mound 14 at Socapamba, a quadrilateral
platform mound. Photo 1976.
Photo 71. Close-up of Mound 14 hearth feature, showing molded construction and
arrangement of three holes were tullpa rumis stones would have been placed.
Photo 1976.
121
Photo 72. Reconstructed amphora vessel (upside down), diagnostic of the
Late Period from Socapamba site. This was excavated in area of
refuse associated with house floor in Mound 15, a quadrilateral
ramp mound dating to the 15th century. Photo 1976.
122
Photo 73. Pottery sherds (exterior view) and other artifacts excavated from Mound 15 at
Socapamaba. A rust-colored slip on large jars, sometimes almost a purple color,
is another diagnostic of the Late Periodsee large sherd at lower right. Note
also Tuza-style sherds in upper right of photo. Photo 1976.
123
Photo 74. Diagnostic Late Period pottery sherds, exterior view, excavated from Mound 23
at Socapamba. Note rust slip on large jar or olla rim sherd at upper left, also
found on several other sherds. The shallow rim bowl is also a diagnostic vessel
type, which is indicated by four sherds shown at lower left. These vessels
typically are blackened on the underside from use over fires, though the largest
sherd does not have such blackening. Photo 1976.
124
Photo 75. Interior view of sherds shown in Photo 74. Note Tuza sherd at lower right.
Photo 1976.
Photo 76. Terrace platform along Yacu Loma Alta road in Agato Alta (I-104). The entire
exposed face is earth fill. Photo 2001.
125
Photo 77. Terrace with exposed face on edge of small quebrada at Agato Alta site (I-104).
Photo 2001.
Photo 78. Quadrilateral mound with abandoned church on top and burial vaults on side, San
Pablo (I-096). The mound was also extensively used as a source of sediment for
brick making. Photo 2001.
126
Photo 79. Diagnostic Late Period sherds recovered from platform surface of Cruz Loma
(Im-32) ramp mound, exterior view. Sherd at upper left is a shallow rim bowl.
Photo 2003.
Photo 80. Interior view of sherds shown in Photo 79. Photo 2003.
127
Photo 81. Quadrilateral mound at Huaycupungu (on west shore of Lake San Pablo) that has
been bulldozed on one side for construction of a playing field (I-173).
Photo 2001.
Photo 82. View of Huaycupungu mound from ground surface (I-173). Photo 2001.
128
Photo 83. Large circular mound at Ilumn, Site I-106. Photo 2001.
Photo 84. Quadrilateral mound at Gualsaqu mound group, Site I-132. Photo 2001.
129
Photo 85. Quadrilateral mound of Gualsaqu mound group, Site I-132. Photo 1974.
Photo 86. View of town of La Merced de Buenos Aires in distance, located on the western
slopes of Cordillera Negra in northwestern Imbabura Province. Photo 2001.
130
Photo 87. Ramp mound near La Merced de Buenos Aires, Site Im-34; late afternoon fog is
starting to roll in. Photo 2001.
Photo 88. Mound G, a large quadrilateral ramp mound in the Cochasqu group, Site Pi-4.
For scale, note person standing on ramp. The mounds of this group intensively
studied in the 1960s by a German team under Udo Oberem. Photo 1974.
131
Photo 89. Canal-like molded hearth feature exposed on floor of circular house excavated in
Mound E, Cochasqu group (see Oberem 1981:68). Photo 1974.
Photo 90. Site P-004; ramp mound on ridge slope, San Vicente, west of San Jos de Minas.
Note large platform and ramp trailing down slope to left. Photo 2001.
132
Photo 91. Ramp mound at La Libertad site (P-038). View of ramp (toward camera) and
mound platform in background. Note that cancha structure has sliced into the
ramp feature. Photo 2001.
Photo 92. View of exposed face of La Libertad ramp mound where ramp joins platform.
Note stacked rock to left, used to construct the mound. Charcoal for radiocarbon
dating was recovered from midden concentration located above archaeologist in
photograph. Photo 2001.
133
Photo 93. Late Period pottery sherds recovered from surface of the La Libertad ramp
mound, Site P-038. The sherd at the far lower left (top row) is a shallow rim
bowl. The sherd just below the 2 inch mark on the ruler is a thin ware
Panzaleo-type sherd with exterior painting in a style similar to that of diagnostic
Late Period sherds. Photo 94 shows the interior of this sherd, which has what
seems to be a gray slip, a common feature (but not always present) of Late Period
thin ware pottery. Photo 2003.
134
Photo 95. Large quadrilateral mound at La Libertad (P-037). The mound is in the center of
the photograph in foreground. The ramp mound (P-038) is in the distance in the
center, but cannot be readily distinguished. Photo 2001.
135
Photo 96. Traditional-style indigenous house in Otavalo area. Grass
roofed houses with bajareque construction are now rare in
the region, though in earlier times they were common.
Photo 2001.
136
Photo 97. Indigenous house with tapia wall construction in Agato Alta. Note recently
harvested maize cobs hanging to dry. Photo 2001.
137
138
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Athens 2003 Inventario

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Inventory of Earthen Mound Sites,

Northern Highland Ecuador

INTERNATIONAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC.

NORTHERN HIGHLAND ECUADOR

J. Stephen Athens, Ph.D.

Final project report prepared for:

H. John Heinz III Fund Grant Program for

Instituto Nacional de Patrimonio Cultural del Ecuador

International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc.

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... iv

1. Inventory of earthen mound sites in the northern highlands of Ecuador ................ 33

1a. Distribution map of mound sites in northern highland Ecuador ............................. 71

64. Standing walls of Inca center at Caranqui, located on the property of

90. Site P-004; ramp mound on ridge slope, San Vicente,

This report presents an account of archaeological investigations undertaken by

The objectives of the project were as follows:

1. Field check probable/possible prehistoric earthen mound sites identified

2. Provide an assessment of the preservation status of mound sites, many of

3. Undertake detailed mapping of the Atuntaqui mound site, one of the

A synopsis of the archaeology of northern highland Ecuador is provided below to

THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF NORTHERN HIGHLAND ECUADOR

The northern Andean Intermediate area is often regarded as classic chiefdom

INKA PERIOD: AD 1505/1525-1534

Indigenous political organization would have changed dramatically as a result of Inka

En los estratos superiores, sobre todo de las pirmides, se encontraron

Another potentially interesting association concerning chicha and platform mounds is

It must be emphasized that consideration of the prehistoric people occupying the

In regard to subsistence, the ethnohistoric literature clearly assigns maize a

Other significant cultigens of economic importance almost certainly included cotton

As for agricultural field systems, investigations have demonstrated the association of

Relatively extensive agricultural terracing has been documented in the Pimampiro

LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD: CA. AD 1250-700

The Late Intermediate Period is characterized by the appearance of earthen burial

En 1909 y 1911 pudimos excavar en la hacienda El Hospital

To summarize, evidence from the Late Intermediate Period appears to indicate

EARLY INTERMEDIATE PERIOD: CA. AD 1-700

These findings suggest that Jijn y Caamaos (1952:232) original definition of an

At this time there is no indication that Early Intermediate Period archaeological

LA CHIMBA PERIOD: 700 BC - AD 1

Diagnostic La Chimba pottery is known to be widespread in the region. Early and

In terms of cultigens, La Chimba yielded abundant charred remains of maize, beans,

THE PRECERAMIC PERIOD: PRE-1550 BC

Preceramic archaeological evidence in the northern highland region remains unclear

BACKGROUND TO THE PRESENT PROJECT

FIELD INVESTIGATIONS: 2001

In addition to the standard-sized aerials, a single photographic enlargement was

ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS 2001: SUMMARY

A site by site presentation of observations and findings concerning the 2001

WOOD REFERENCES FOR CHARCOAL IDENTIFICATION

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE FUTURE

The third recommendation, following comments in the Conclusion, is that a much

Pi-2 P-089 Paquiestancia Hda. 63 2,980 intermontane Athens 46

1. From Athens (1978, 1980)

large pit, 4 x 4 m , around which is apparently the excavated spoils,

the present condition of the mounds was prepared in 1997 based on

diameter and 4.5 m high. A terrace platform, about 35 x 35 m, was

diameter, appears to have once existed immediately south of the

and 25 m in diameter, and 5 m high and 2.5 m high, respectively. These

diameter. The top 1.5 m has been squared to a 12 x 12 m platform

P-005 Jatunpamba 3 60x60x? [2001] Site is described by G&L as consisting of 2 to 4 quadrilateral

debris discarded from habitation on the mound surface. A charcoal

MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS AND NON-MOUND SITES

MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS AND NON-MOUND SITES

MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS AND NON-MOUND SITES