LANGUAGE POLICIES IN AFRICA

INTERGOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE ON LANGUAGE

POLICIES IN AFRICA

Harare, Zimbabwe
17-21 March 1997

FINAL REPORT
(revised)

by

Herbert Chimhundu

(Rapporteur General / University of Zimbabwe)

Unesco

Web version edited by Karsten Legre

INTERGOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE ON LANGUAGE
POLICIES IN AFRICA

Harare, Zimbabwe, 17-21 March 1998

FINAL REPORT

by

Herbert Chimhundu

(Rapporteur General / University of Zimbabwe)

UNESCO 2002
Preliminary remarks
The material enclosed in this web version of the forthcoming publication Language Policies in
Africa was originally compiled by Herbert Chimhundu after the Harare conference in March
1997. At that time, Prof. Chimhundu was commissioned by UNESCO to write a report on the
meeting and to compile the speeches and other documents. The manuscript that he subsequently
submitted to UNESCO was left unattended until Director Noriko Aikawa (Intangible Heritage Unit
of UNESCO) approached me in a letter dated February 6, 2001, where she expressed UNESCOs
wish to have the manuscript published as soon as possible. She suggested that both a publisher and
funds for subsidising the publication be found. The latter was a rather difficult issue, since a
number of potential donors who were contacted while I was in Namibia were not able to support
the publication. Finally, some Norwegian colleagues from Oslo University responded positively.
They were prepared to fund publication of the document in Namibia within the framework of the
trilateral cooperation between Universities of Oslo, Zimbabwe and Gothenburg.
In the meantime, the manuscript returned by UNESCO was thoroughly checked to make sure that
the version to be submitted to potential donors and publishers was in a proper shape. As instructed
by Director Aikawa, the speeches given at the conference were shortened and clearly focused on the
message, while some redundancies (such as long introductions, words of thanks etc.) were
dropped. A number of inconsistencies were found and, where possible, corrected. The text was
completely revised for typos and formatted to the extent that a publishers house style would be
easy to apply. Finally, Dr. Carol Benson (Centre for Bilingualism, Stockholm University) went
through the manuscript again for a final comprehensive language check. However, the official
documents as well as the speech extracts remained untouched, the reason being that it does not
seem appropriate to change anything in this type of official text.
Prof. Chimhundu was contacted for a final edit in March 2002. Although his feedback could not be
obtained until July 2002, all of the remaining questions could be answered meanwhile. Hence the
revision of the manuscript of the Harare conference of 1997 was completed in June 2002 and
subsequently handed over to Director Aikawa at UNESCO headquarters in Paris during a meeting
on June 26, 2002, where benchmarks of the work on the manuscript as well as the strategy for its
immediate publication were discussed. Even though we were waiting for a promised update from
UNESCO, it was felt that the material was already at a stage that made a web version possible. In
fact, the documents of the Harare conference need to be made available to a wider audience, since
otherwise the fundamental decisions of March 1997 made to improve the situation of African
languages will be completely forgotten. Already more than five years have elapsed since the Harare
conference, and if we look at what has been done so far to implement the recommendations, it will
be difficult to detect any progress made in this respect. On the contrary, the position of African
languages, which was the major focus of the Harare meeting, appears to have been undermined
even more than it was five years ago.
Some documents included in the Chimhundu manuscript were dropped in consultation with
UNESCO Paris. Excluded in this web version are the following:
- Report on the Pan African Seminar on the Problems and Prospects of the Use of African
National Languages, Accra, 26-30 August 1996 (which is a mixture of English and French texts),
- Report on the Experts Meeting on the Strategies for the Promotion of African Languages in
Education, Conakry, 21-25 September 1991 (the meeting was in 1981 - UNESCO published the
proceedings and documents of the Conakry meeting shortly thereafter),
- Action Plan on Cultural Policies from the Stockholm Conference of 1998 (found unnecessary by
Dir. Aikawa-- to be replaced by a document on linguistic policies [forthcoming]), and
- Zimbabwe Report on the Intergovernmental Conference on Culture and Development, Stockholm,
30 March - 2 April 1998 (similar to the Action Plan, but too country-specific).
The editor of this web version thanks all who have helped him to complete the manuscript, namely
Carol Benson, Herbert Chimhundu, Oddrun Grnvik, Karl Gadellii and Jouni Maho. The financial
support of SAREC (via the project African languages at Gothenburg University), which enabled
the editor to make a visit to UNESCO in June 2002, is gratefully acknowledged.
Karsten Legre
Gteborg, 2002-12-15
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART IGENERAL REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

PART IITHE EXPERTS MEETING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

PART IIIMINISTERS CONFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

PART IV THE HARARE DECLARATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

PART VOTHER RELEVANT DOCUMENTS ONLANGUAGE POLICY IN AFRICA . . 57

PART VIEXPERTS CONTRIBUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

PART VIIEXTRACTS FROM SELECTED SPEECHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

PART VIII
PARTICIPATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

PART IX
PROGRAMME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

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 PART I

GENERAL REPORT

A INTRODUCTION

1. The Intergovernmental Conference on Language Policies in Africa, which was held in Harare
(Zimbabwe) from 17 - 21 March 1997, was the first meeting of its kind involving language
specialists attending as governmental experts and doing the preparatory work for and advising
relevant government ministers from their countries who were also attending the same conference.
This conference has had far greater impact than any of the previous ones on language issues in
Africa, partly because of this combination within official delegations at such a high level of
representation from almost all the countries on the continent, and partly because the whole
conference was well focussed on coming up with something concrete at the end of the day.

2. All African Member States of UNESCO were invited to the conference and altogether 51 out of
54 African countries attended as follows:
Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde,
Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo, Cte dIvoire, Djibouti, Egypt,
Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea
Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritius, Mauritania,
Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sa Tom and Principe,
Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo,
Tunisia, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

3. At the special invitation of UNESCO, India and Switzerland also sent delegates to the
conference, while France, Germany and the United Kingdom sent official observers, as did five
intergovernmental or international organisations (OAU, ACCT, AVA, British Council and
UNESCO itself.).

4. The general aim of the Intergovernmental Conference on Language Policies in Africa (ICLPA)
was to draw up strategies and define prospects for the political and technical management of the
African linguistic context, with the main outcome expected being a mutually agreed reference
framework to be used by each African state to set out a clear and comprehensive national language
policy indicating precisely the statuses and functions of the languages in use and the measures
proposed to implement that policy.

5. Since such policy at the national level would have to be specific, coherent and realistic, its
formulation would have to be preceded by research, much of which had been done across the
continent over the years, to determine:
which languages are the dominant local languages, inter-community languages or languages
used more widely;
which languages are used for what and at which levels;
what budget is required for further research, for production of materials (especially for
teaching), and for the equipment, personnel and structures to be set up to manage this
policy.

The language policy itself must:

define short, medium and long term goals;

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 take stock of the problems to be resolved;
determine the methods and resources to be used, and, in particular, the mechanisms to be set
up.

The basis for the strategies laid down must

be the linguistic landscape of the country and the region and
among the functions to be specified for each of the languages in the particular context must
be its use in the exercise of state functions and in relations between the state and its citizens.

6. Implicit in all this is a new openness to, and acceptance of, multilingualism in the nation states
themselves, something that has not always been the case in post-colonial Africa. After African
countries gained political independence, impassioned controversy arose in both intellectual and
political circles as to the status of the different indigenous languages among themselves and vis--
vis that of the language of the former colonial power. The debate became highly complex when a
whole mosaic of languages was involved and, basically, two opposing views emerged. On the one
hand, there were those who saw multilingualism as a conflict situation upon which you could not
build a united modern nation state, while on the other hand some emphasised the complimentarity
of the different languages as self-enriching and even pointed out the fact that there is no conflict
with a linguistic origin in the history of Africa. After managing multilingualism for centuries prior
to the colonial era, the management of the linguistic landscape became a major problem which
confronted the new leaders of the post-independence era, no doubt partly because of the artificial
borders and different colonial languages that and been imposed over them mainly by the British,
French and Portuguese as they carved out territories for themselves and established their own
spheres of influence. This is the reason why some African countries hesitated to adopt coherent
linguistic policies while others adopted measures which, as policy, have had to undergo repeated
amendment.

7. Over the years, specialists have gradually eliminated all the prejudices which seemed to be an
obstacle to the adoption of policies in favour of African languages, which previously included
claims that the languages themselves were poor and unsuitable as vehicles for scientific
concepts, and unfounded fears that, where a great many languages existed, recognising and
accommodating all of them would lead to disintegration of national unity. The context for
multilingual policies is now favourable partly because predominant international trends and
perspectives favour:
democratization and multi-party systems
human rights, including linguistic rights
sustainable development involving all sociocultural groups.
The philosophical bases and parameters for plurilingualism which guide current thinking and
planning are propounded in the agreements listed in B.5 below and contain many solemn
resolutions and recommendations made over the years by the African states themselves. All of
them are quite consistent with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UN/UNESCO 1948)
which, as far as language issues are concerned, have since been fortified by the Universal
Declaration of Linguistic Rights (Barcelona, 1996). Current international trends towards a multi-
party system make each adult citizen an elector, thus conferring a privileged role on the language of
each electoral constituency. Reliable research data is also now generally more available nationally
and it is quite possible to compare situations regionally and internationally. Furthermore, modern
equipment is now available (e.g. for desktop publishing) which makes publication of materials of
all types both easier and cheaper, something that boosts research, documentation and promotion of
languages even for the smaller communities.

8. Today, use of African languages is seen as the best way for ensuring active participation of the
African populations in the activies of national life and, in particular, in the planning and
management of development projects. Evaluation of development policies has shown that one
reason for the failure of development plans is that the populations concerned have not been actively
associated with them, and this is so because the plans are drawn up using a language and

3
terminology the populations do not understand. Within this developmental context, multilingualism
is increasingly being seen as both an instrument and an indicator of participation and assimilation,
serving as a means of helping individuals and communities to enjoy their autonomy to the full, and
to control and manage the process of democratisation and decentralisation in which they are
involved.

9. Further explanation of this new openness to multilingualism is to be found in the challenges and
problems of managing (economic) globalisation in the international context. Along with this
globalisation comes the growth of large sub-regional, regional and even continental entities. In this
context, multilingualism is set to play a crucial role in the management of interpersonal and
intercultural relations.

10. Africa has a long and widespread tradition of handling multilingualism. Often there is
complementary distribution of this multilingualism across languages by sectors of activities. Not
only is this multilingualism functional or commercial, it also cuts across the whole social fabric. It
forms a sociopolitical and sociolinguistic characteristic of most speech communities. If we were to
go by strict criteria of definition, there would virtually be no monolingual country, not just in Africa,
but in the whole world, given the internal linguistic and cultural diversity of most countries in the
world. Homogeneity is a fiction in the linguistic field more than in any other. Consequently, it is
on the basis of the actual languages in use, the relations between them, the functions that they
perform, the additional tasks that are expected of them and the policy of the society concerned that
language plans are defined and implemented. This policy would have to apply to known key
sectors, of which education is the critical one, the others being the cultural sector, the mass media,
the written press, radio and television.

11. Delegates to the ICLPA came to Harare in March 1997 with full knowledge of the above,
having been prepared by a letter of invitation from UNESCO stating the aims of the conference and
the Working Document, also circulated by UNESCO, amplifying both the aim and scope of the
conference. On their part, delegates to the Experts Meeting to the Conference were expected to
bring with them comprehensive linguistic profiles of their own countries to be submitted and/or
presented during the conference. A special format categorising the information required in facts
and figures had been circulated in advance by UNESCO.

B BACKGROUND TO THE CONFERENCE

1. The immediate background to the Harare Conference goes back to 1995 when the General
Conference of UNESCO passed Resolution 3.1 requesting the Director General to convene an
Intergovernmental Conference on Language Policies in Africa. This Conference eventually took
place from 17-21 March 1997 after close collaboration between UNESCO and the Government of
Zimbabwe which set up a special Task Force (or Organising Committee) in 1996 to prepare for it.
Support for the Conference was also forthcoming from the OAU (the Organisation of African
Unity) and ACCT (currently: Agence de Francophonie).

2. In August 1994, a UNESCO-sponsored International Conference on Strategies for the

Promotion of African Languages was held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Among other things, this
conference resolved to request the UNESCO representatives present to follow up the idea of
organising a continental conference involving both language experts and high-ranking politicians,
after it was realised that the productive research and recommendations of the language experts
would never have an impact without the commitment of governments to support concrete
programmes of action. During that conference, the delegate from Zimbabwe, Dr Herbert
Chimhundu of the University of Zimbabwe, had lamented the official neglect of language issues in
Africa generally and suggested that perhaps if the experts from different countries could find a
forum to compare notes across the continent politicians might take notice, especially in his own
country where he felt that, despite the attainment of political independence, the indigenous
languages were being increasingly vernacularised. The idea caught on and, when the matter of a

4
possible venue was raised, Dr Chimhundu suggested the University of Zimbabwe where he also
offered to set up an organising committee. The UNESCO officials present took the suggestion to
organise a continental conference to Paris. At the initiative of a number of African delegations to
the 1995 General Conference, a decision was finally made to organise an intergovernmental
conference and the Government of Zimbabwe made a bid to host it. Zimbabwes bid won and then
UNESCO and the Government of Zimbabwe entered into an agreement which made the conference
to be held in Harare a political meeting rather than just a meeting of experts.

3. The decision to hold this conference was preceded by over two decades of research, conferences,
special seminars and meetings, often under the auspices of UNESCO and (or) the OAU and (or)
ACCT. However, research as well as these meetings had failed to translate into concrete
programmes of actions, nor did they have much impact on the continent until the mid-1990s, when
both the intellectual and ruling elites finally realised that African countries needed specific, coherent
and realistic language policies that would enable them to manage their predominantly multilingual
situations in a meaningful and profitable way in which their peoples could fully participate in
national affairs, especially in light of the process of democratisation that was now under way in
most countries.

4. Previously, many recommendations which had been made at various regional and international
conferences were never implemented. However, from about 1995, a new seriousness of purpose
could be observed at increasingly higher official levels and, a year after the Intergovernmental
Conference on Language Policies (ICLP) was held in Harare, another related UNESCO -
sponsored Intergovernmental Conference was held in Stockholm, Sweden, from 30 March to 2
April 1998 on Cultural Policies for Development. This Conference was designed through both
plenary sessions and workshops to enable direct interaction between governmental delegates and
representatives of civil society, while both groups focussed on practical outcomes rather than
solemn declarations and resolutions. Among the five policy objectives adopted in the Action Plan
on Cultural Policies for Development was to promote cultural and linguistic diversity in and for
the information society. In a sense, this conference reaffirmed the same principles that had also
been followed by the ICLP in Harare in 1997.

5. Prior to both the Harare and Stockholm Conferences, a Pan African Seminar had been held in
Accra, Ghana, from 26-30 August 1996 specifically on the Problems and Prospects for the use of
African National Languages in Education. The seminar noted that many studies had been made in
African languages and acknowledged various efforts that had previously been made towards the
development of the languages of Africa for their use in education and as tools for both material
and cultural uplifting of the African peoples, noting in particular the following agreements that had
been made over the years:

the Charter of the Organisation of African Unity (1963)

the UNESCO Declaration on the Principles of International Cultural Cooperation (1996)
the OAU Cultural Charter for Africa (1976)
the OAU Lagos Plan of Action (1980)
the Declaration on the Cultural Aspects of the Lagos Plan of Action (1985)
the OAU Language Plan of Action for Africa (1986).

The Pan African Seminar adopted ten explicit goals and orientations, as well as a series of actions
and supportive measures that linked language action in the African states to peace, justice and
democracy.

6. A couple of years earlier, an experts meeting had been held in Conakry, Guinea, from 21-25
September 1981 to define Strategies for the Promotion of African Languages. The observations
made during the experts critical appraisal of linguistic situations and language policies highlighted
points that were reiterated in Harare in March 1997, especially:

5
 the fact that the language of the former colonial powers still enjoyed privileged status to the
detriment of the African languages which were confined to low status functions such as
elementary schooling, literacy training and oral communication,
the fact that most African states were yet to formulate clear, coherent policy in support of
African languages,
the failure of government officials to appreciate the fact that the promotion of African languages
is linked to general development, and
the failure by both the intellectual and ruling elites to understand or appreciate the link between
African languages and independence in all fields.
The main consequences of all of the above as being the exclusion or marginalisation of most of
the population in public life and the lack of financial, human and material resources devoted to
the promotion of African languages.

The 1981 meeting defined and emphasised the need to use of African languages in all spheres of
life and to fund training, research, publication and distribution of documentation in these
languages. Delegates also came up with practical proposals for specific areas of training, research
and documentation, as well as cooperation between states that have common languages, noting that
hitherto very few efforts had been made to encourage such cooperation.

7. Similar sentiments and objectives had been set out in more general terms in the 1986 OAUs
Language Plan of Action for Africa which recognised multilingualism and encouraged every
member state to have a clearly defined language policy that not only accommodated but actually
prioritised indigenous African languages. The Plan of Action also set out a series of activities and
measures that were to be taken at continental, regional and national levels in more general terms but
otherwise in pretty much the same manner and spirit as the ICLPA in Harare eleven years later.

8. By the time the Harare Conference was held, there had been a lot of debate and many
resolutions, recommendations and plans adopted to promote and use the languages of Africa in all
spheres of life, including public life and education, and to recognise and accommodate all of this
within a conducive and comprehensive policy framework by appropriate legal provision that would
enhance their status and make their promotion possible or easier in many practical ways. To that
extent, delegates to the Harare Conference in March 1997 did not set out to re-invent the wheel.
Rather, they set out to address once and for all the problem of failure to follow up research and
rhetoric with concrete actions, something that had happened again and again in the past.

9. Therefore, what made the Harare Conference more successful and more important than all the
previous conferences was the fact that, for the first time ever, academics and other language experts
who could formulate the solutions and advise governments were brought together with high-
ranking politicians who could make decisions and commit their respective governments to follow
up with the desired programme of activities.

C ORGANISATION OF THE CONFERENCE

1. During the last six months prior to the Conference, the Zimbabwe National Commission for
UNESCO regularly convened meetings of the Task Force that made all the necessary preparations
on behalf of the Government, leading up to the arrival of the delegates in March 1997.

The Task Force comprised two committees, a Steering Committee and a Technical Committee, as
listed below:

Steering Committee

Mr L. Mbuyamba UNESCO, Harare Sub-regional Office for

Southern Africa

6
 Mr D. Dijakovic UNESCO, Harare Sub-regional Office for
Southern Africa
Mrs M.G. Takundwa (Chair) National Commission for UNESCO
Mr S.S. Chishiri National Commission for UNESCO
Mr F.H. Musegedi Ministry of Higher Education
Mrs S. Manyuchi Ministry of Higher Education
Mr B.C. Chitsike Ministry of Education, Literature Bureau
Mr F. Matambirofa Department of African Languages and
Literature, University of Zimbabwe
Mr Goredema Ministry of Home Affairs, National Museums
and Monuments

Technical Committee

Mr S. J. Chifunyise Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Education,

Sport Recreation and Culture
Dr. H. Chimhundu Dean, Faculty of Arts, University of Zimbabwe
Mr W.B. Gwete Department of Linguistics, University of
Zimbabwe
Mrs Z. Gambahaya Department of African Languages and
Literature, University of Zimbabwe
Mrs C. Kadada Ministry of Higher Education
Mr Charamba Ministry of Higher Education
Mr R.H. Chakamba Ministry of Education, CDU
Mr K. Nkomo Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Mr J.D. Mano Ministry of Information, Posts and
Telecommunications
Mr S.S. Chishiri National Commission for UNESCO
Mr R.T. Maganga Ministry of Justice, Legal and Parliamentary
Affairs (Department of Policy and Legal
Research)
Dr A.B. Shankanga UNESCO Harare, Sub-regional Office for
Southern Africa
Mr D. Dijakovic UNESCO Harare, Sub-regional Office for
Southern Africa

The Steering Committee was responsible for all the logistical arrangements while the Technical
Committee was responsible for the substance of the Conference technically, including in particular
preparation of the input of Zimbabwe at the conference, which some of them would then attend as
part of the host countrys official delegation. The two committees held a series of separate and
joint meetings to check on each others progress and to make decisions and, in between those
meetings, individual members were assigned tasks during the period leading up to the conference.

2. The Conference itself was held over five days and divided into two parts, starting with the
Experts Meeting from Monday the 17th to Wednesday the 19 th , and followed by the Ministers
Conference from Thursday the 20th to Friday the 21st of March 1997.

3. During the first working session of the Experts Meeting after the Official Opening by the
Honourable G. Machinga, Zimbabwes Minister of Education, Sport and Culture, the rules of
procedure and the agenda were adopted, both with some amendments, after which the meeting
elected its Bureau as follows:
Main Committee
Chairperson: Professor Okoth Okombo (Kenya)
Vice Chairperson: Dr Ahmed Etman (Egypt)

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 Mr Gerard Kedrebeogo (Burkina Faso)
Dr S.M. Beukes (South Africa)
Antonia Daio (Sa Tom et Principe)

Rapporteur General: Dr H. Chimhundu (Zimbabwe)

Vice-Rapporteur: Professor Laurent Nkusi (Rwanda)

Credentials Committee
Chairperson: Mr. Antoine Lipou (Congo)
Vice-Chairpersons: Ms Georgina Quarshie (Ghana)
Dr Hailemichael Aregga (Ethiopia)
Members: Mr Manuel Viega (Cape Verde)
Mrs Angelika Tjoutuku (Namibia)
Mr S. J. Chifunyise (Zimbabwe)
Professor Yousif El Khakifa Abu Bak (Sudan)

Drafting Committee:
Chairperson: Mr V. Bissoondoyal (Mauritius)
Vice-Chairpersons: Dr J. Tsonope (Botswana)
Mr Moussa Diaby (Mali)
Members: Louis Martin Onguene Essono (Cameroon)
Dr Ismail Junaidu (Nigeria)
Mr Najib Ayed (Tunisia)
Mr E. S. Matteru (Tanzania)
Professor Mukash Kalel (Zaire)

4. During the first working session of the Ministers Conference after the Official Opening by the
Honourable Dr I. Chombo, Zimbabwes Minister of Higher Education and Technology, the Rules
of Procedure were adopted, a Bureau was elected and the report of the Experts Meeting was
presented. The following were elected to the Bureau of the Ministers Conference:

Main Committee

Chairman Zimbabwe
Vice Chairman Gabon
Rapporteur General Lesotho
Vice Rapporteur General Rwanda

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 Credentials Committee

Chairman Liberia
Members Djibouti
Sudan
Zimbabwe

Drafting Committee

Chairman Mauritius
Members Botswana
Cameroon
Tanzania.

5. The Experts Meeting received papers and presentations by delegates from and on specific
linguistic contexts and situations, and deliberated on the status and use of African languages across
the continent, as well as the appropriateness of various strategies and policy options. They
formulated and adopted a document comprising resolutions and recommendations that were
passed on for consideration by the Ministers Conference. The Ministers repeated and amplified
the conclusions of the experts, which they amended and formally adopted as the Harare Declaration
and Plan of Action with a detailed work plan for implementation by the individual countries and
regionally in the short, medium and long terms.

6. At the end of the Ministers Conference, a Follow-up Committee was elected composed of
representatives of the five regions as follows:

Lesotho for Southern Africa

Tanzania for East Africa
Gabon for Central Africa
Ghana for West Africa
Morocco for North Africa
with Zimbabwe as the host country being declared the sixth member.

D DELIBERATIONS AND OUTCOMES

1. During the Experts Meeting, several statements and presentations were made outlining the
language situation in Africa and research that has been carried out in some African countries, as
well as the language situations and policies in India and Switzerland.

2. Delegates agreed that all African countries must be recognised as being multilingual, although
some countries such as Lesotho (language: Sesotho) and Rwanda (Kinyarwanda) were generally
cited as monolingual on the basis that they pass the arbitrary threshold of 90 percent as the
defining landmark of a monolingual country. The degree of multilingualism varies greatly, with
Nigeria reported to have 105 million people who speak 410 languages, 397 of them minority
languages spoken by 60 percent of the population. Tanzania has 28 million people who speak 120
languages, but a vast majority of Tanzanians use Kiswahili as a lingua franca, a language also used
as such in other countries in East and Central Africa. Even the smaller countries also show
linguistic diversity. Burkina Faso has about 60 languages for a population of 9 million, half of
which speak More, while the 3 million inhabitants of Benin are spread over 58 languages.

3. According to the definition of languages and dialects, there are between 1250 and 2100
languages in Africa, concentrated in an area between Senegal in the West and Ethiopia in the East
around what is now referred to as the Fragmentation Belt. Generally speaking, the distribution
of populations speaking the various African languages tends to be regional: that is, the speakers of

9
a particular language are not dispersed but tend to be restricted to well-defined geographical areas.
Partly for this reason, even languages with small populations become significant for the purposes
of development and use in national life.

4. The Experts Meeting concluded that the multiplicity of languages in Africa was not a bug bear
but a source of enrichment. Thus, the ideal policy should enable the African people to maintain
their ethnic identity through the local language or mother tongue, while at the same time they
should be allowed to integrate into the national community through the predominant language or
through one of the major national languages, while they still interacted with the rest of the world
through a language of wider or international communication.

5. Imported languages, particularly those that were imposed during the colonial era, have become an
accepted part of the language situation in Africa. Managing this situation judiciously means that
conflicting situations between indigenous national languages and the imported languages can be
avoided. Delegates agreed with the suggestion that it was necessary to give African languages
elbow room in relation to foreign languages because there are some special functions that the
imported languages cannot fulfil. In particular, there should be a linguistic coherence between
national languages within the education system.

6. In formulating appropriate policies and strategies, delegates noted that there were different
typologies both for language situations and for language policies in Africa. Regarding language
situations, the typology may be categorised as follows:

.1 Nations with one African language spoken by the vast majority of the population:
(a) as a mother tongue such as Somalia (language: Somali), Lesotho (Sesotho),
Rwanda (Kinyarwanda), Swaziland (Siswati), Burundi (Kirundi), Botswana
(Setswana); or (b) as a lingua franca, such as Kenya and Tanzania (Kiswahili), the
Central African Republic (Sango), Mali (Bambara), Senegal (Wolof), Sudan
(Arabic) and Ethiopia (Amharic);

.2 nations having a predominant African language, such as Ghana (Akan-Twi),

Burkina Faso (More/Mosi), Niger (Hausa), Zimbabwe (Shona), Togo (Ewe), Benin
(Ge) and Malawi (Chichewa);

.3 nations with several dominant African languages in competition, such as Nigeria

(Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo), Sierra Leone (Temne, Mende) and Zaire (Kikongo, Lingala,
Chiluba, Kiswahili/Kingwana);

.4 nations having no predominant African language, such as Cameroon, Cte

dIvoire and Mozambique.

3. The typology of current language policies may be categorised as follows:

.1 Countries which consciously promote one language:

(a) exoglossic, as in the case of Francophone countries (excluding Zaire);
Mozambique, Angola and Guinea Bissau (Portuguese); Liberia (English);
and
(b) endoglossic, as in the case of Tanzania (Kiswahili), Ethiopia (Amharic),
Somalia (Somali) and the Central African Republic (Sango);

.2 (a) countries having an exoglossic language but with developing endoglossic

tendencies: Kenya, Uganda, Malawi, Burundi, Rwanda, Lesotho, Botswana,
Swaziland and the Central African Republic (all except Uganda with one
African language being promoted at national level);
(b) countries having an exoglossic language with more than one African

10
 language being promoted: Nigeria, Guinea and Zaire;

.3 countries with an exoglossic language policy, but using indigenous languages in

some areas (e.g. first years of primary education, limited local language press
and the law courts): Zambia, Zimbabwe and Sierra Leone.

4. The delegates laid particular emphasis on the need for using African languages to accelerate the
process of development, considering the fact that, in the majority of African states, less than 20
percent of the population has mastered the former colonial language. The Experts agreed that the
African languages constituted a key factor in African economic, social, cultural and political
development. Therefore, everything must be done to allow these languages to be used effectively
within the democratic process. In this respect, African languages should not be confined to the
areas of oral communication, literacy and primary school teaching, but they should also play an
important role in other areas of development.

5. For the purposes of development, the delegates noted that the languages of Africa may be
categorised as follows:

.1 Mother tongues, defined as the languages learnt by children through social interaction
with members of the communities to which they are linked by parentage;

.2 community languages, defined as the dominant languages used in areas broader than
their ethnic boundaries but not having a national scope;

.3 national languages, which may be either linguae francae or one or more local
languages decreed for nationwide use throughout a country;

.4 inter-African Languages, which are languages of African intercommunication

used widely across national boundaries, such as Kiswahili in East Africa or Pulaar and
Mandinka over much of the central equatorial belt from west to east;

.5 international languages such as English, French and Portuguese that are used for
communication within and outside Africa.

10. Given the above linguistic landscape, the experts agreed that the debate on strategies and
perspectives for harmonious multilinguistic integration should concentrate on an African
perspective, the principal actors in general policy formulation, the policy options and
implementation strategies.

11. The use of African languages in all aspects of national life captured the attention of the
delegates. In this connection, the experts observed and emphasised that:

No language is intrinsically developed: it is through usage that development occurs and that
a language extends its technical scope.
A language that performs several functions inevitably acquires prestige and, once possessed
of growing prestige, it gains access to new functions.
Creativity has no limits and therefore technicalization and terminological development have
no limits.
limited access and restricted roles and functions in the education field adversely affect the
development of African languages and their transformation into national languages.
Even in the most radical analysis by economists, there is growing recognition of the fact
that economic and technological efficiency cannot be dissociated from the cultural context.
The shortage of staff and material in mother-tongue teaching, learning and promotion is the
result of long-standing discrimination, which can be eliminated.
Negative attitudes which downgrade African mother tongues while at the same time

11
 favouring imported languages are based on obvious and superficial rationalisations in an
attempt to justify imbalances born of injustices rooted in historical circumstances.

12. In view of the above, delegates felt that it was necessary to define a common linguistic policy in
a broad sense and, in particular, to define the framework of its political and technical management,
and to identify the management tools. The majority of the experts emphasised the need to create
adequate structures for linguistic planning on the one hand, and, on the other, the need to train staff.
Some of the experts indicated that it was important to find out what the peoples attitude was
regarding their own languages. Two delegates gave an account of experiments carried out in their
own countries in order to make the population more aware of the need to give priority to their own
languages, and they indicated the importance of the mass media in the promotion of indigenous
languages.

13. The experts underlined the importance of regional and sub-regional cooperation for the
development of language policy. Bearing in mind the work carried out under the guidance of
UNESCO, which has enabled the identification of common languages, and to ascertain the situation
regarding research on these languages in the different countries in which they are spoken, the
delegates invited UNESCO to contribute to the re-invigoration of specialised institutions such as
CELTHO, EACROTANAL and CICIBA in order to enable them to carry out their mission as
experts. They also strongly recommended the creation of a Pan-African Linguistic Association to
bring about regional cooperation in the field of linguistic research.

14. Deploring the fact that often pertinent recommendations proposed at Pan-African meetings that
had been supported previously had not been put into practice, the Experts worked out and agreed
on concrete proposals for action to implement linguistic policies. They adopted a detailed plan of
action with programme of feasible activities to be accomplished within specified time scales. These
proposals were submitted to the Conference of Ministers in two documents, one appended to the
other as follow:

Draft Harare Declaration;

Draft Harare Plan of Action.

15. The Conference of Ministers picked up from where the Experts Meeting had left off, basing
their deliberations on the work that had already been done by the specialists. The Ministers and
Heads of Delegations, the State representatives and the representatives from several International
Organisations made speeches which made clear the cultural, political and social foundations of
language policies specific to the African continent, particularly underlining strategies for carrying
out proposals and the follow-up mechanism.

16. The OAU representative underlined the new context in which henceforth the formulation of
language policy in Africa should be placed. Democratic change, good governance, cultural
pluralism and human rights are today the parameters which have to be taken into account in order
to guide all developmental policy, particularly policy relating to African languages which support
cultural identity. The OAU spokesman underlined that the protection of cultural identities would
not result in the isolation of Africans from the rest of the world within the context of growing
globalization, as the linguistic problem in Africa had become a central problem which concerns not
only the States but also the general public. He declared that those present should put wheels into
motion so that the decisions taken at the conference would be put into effect. For the immediate
future, he suggested that a transnational network and language data bank be established, as well as
the organisation, under the auspices of the OAU, of a Congress of a Pan-African Association of
Linguists.

17. Mrs Lourdes Arizpe, Assistant Director General for Culture, representing the Director-General
of UNESCO, stressed the importance of the conference after reminding participants that the respect

12
for linguistic diversity was one of the principal points in the UNESCO Charter. The Assistant
Director-General gave an account of the Organisations efforts in favour of the rehabilitation and
promotion of African languages, as well as formulation of linguistic policy likely to give support to
cultural identity. Based on research findings and the report of the World Commission for Culture
and Development, Mrs Arizpe drew the delegates attention to the urgent need to formulate
linguistic strategies which take into account the need to complement the vernacular with national or
official languages as well as international languages. Realistic and effective language policies must
be formulated in a perspective of justice and peace in order to involve all socio-cultural groups in a
sustainable developmental policy.

18. His Excellency Dr E.O. Akinluyi, Chairman of the African Group of Ambassadors to
UNESCO, pointed out the importance of languages as instruments of development, not only in the
cultural domain, but also in connection with the economic, social and political spheres. Taking into
account the diversity of languages and cultures on the African continent, and of the desire of states
to construct nations, he proclaimed plurilingualism as the only path to follow in order to reconcile
legitimate feelings of ethnic identity, national aspirations and community awareness. Referring to
the OAUs 1986 Plan of Action, he deplored the fact that the recommendations of African
conferences had often not been implemented and hoped that the Governments of African States
would clearly show their intention to put into effect the Harare Plan of Action which offers a
flexible framework capable of being adapted to the specific tasks which need to be carried out.
Finally, he reminded participants that it was urgent for each state to put into practice the
recommendations of the conference.

19. After outlining the linguistic situation in Africa, where indigenous languages and colonial
languages co-exist, the Honourable Dr I Chombo, the Minister of Higher Education in Zimbabwe
who closed the conference, pleaded for plurilingualism. He stated that it was necessary to re-
examine linguistic policy with a view to developing African languages at both national and regional
levels by giving them the status of working languages in economic, political and social spheres.
This strategy must at the same time enable the promotion of national unity, peace and stability. The
policy must also facilitate communication between African States, not only through colonial
languages, but also through African languages that are spoken in several countries. To achieve this
goal, it is necessary to give status to all languages in each country by clearly defining those which
are considered official, national without being official, local, and languages used for liturgies and
for other purposes, without in any way wishing to abandon English, Portuguese and French, which
are for Africa the languages of international communication at both national and pan-African levels,
as well as at local and regional levels.

20. On the basis of ideas expressed in these speeches, which repeated and amplified the
conclusions of the Meeting of Experts, the conference examined, amended and formally adopted
the Harare Declaration and the Plan of Action, which formed an integral part of the detailed work-
plan for implementation of the adopted policy. In order to ensure that the decisions taken at Harare
would be carried out, the conference designated a Follow-up Committee which was composed in
accordance with the suggestions of representatives from each of the five geographical regions plus
Zimbabwe as the host country (see Part I. C, paragraph 6, above). Professor O. Okombo of
Kenya, who had chaired the Experts Meeting, and Professor P. Ntahombaye of Burundi, were
appointed in a personal capacity as members of the secretariat of the Follow-up Committee.

21. Therefore, the three major outcomes of the Intergovernmental Conference on Language
Policies in Africa were

the Harare Declaration

the Plan of Action and Programme of Implementation
the Follow-up Committee.

The full text of the Harare Declaration and Plan of Action are reproduced in part IV of this

13
publication.

14
 PART II

THE EXPERTS MEETING

A INTRODUCTION
1. All the working sessions of the Experts meeting were held in plenary over a period of three
days from Monday 17th March to Wednesday 19 th March 1997. Discussions revolved around
presentations and comments by delegates on:
specific linguistic situations within the wider context the management of multilingualism
within the twin process of development and democratisation;
the role, status, use and promotion of African languages in situations currently dominated
by foreign or imported former colonial languages;
a global vision and the perspectives and strategies appropriate in a development context.

2. Delegates spent a considerable amount of time discussing how to come up with a flexible
framework for common linguistic policies and the structures for planning and implementation,
cooperation and collaboration at sub-regional and regional levels:

in language research and development,

through the use and promotion of inter-African languages,
through professional associations such as the Pan African Association of Linguists,
by organising linguistic conferences, congresses and summits through, for instance, the Pan
African Congress of Linguists,
through specialised language research institutions within the different sub-regions such as
CELTHO, EACROTANAL and CICIBA.

3. As they crystalised, the ideas the experts came up with were captured by the rapporteurs and
drafting committee for inclusion, as a set of proposals, in the Draft Harare Declaration and Draft
Harare Plan of Action that the Experts presented on the fourth and fifth days for consideration by
the Conference of Ministers.

B OFFICIAL OPENING OF THE CONFERENCE

1. During the Official Opening of the Conference, the preliminary welcome remarks were made by
Mrs Margaret Takundwa, the Acting Secretary General of the Zimbabwe National Commission for
UNESCO, who had been Chairperson of the Zimbabwe Organising Committee which was the task
force that had made the preparations for the conference. Mrs Takundwa then introduced the
Chairman for the Opening Session, Dr Michael Mambo, the Secretary for Higher Education and
Deputy Chairman of the National Commission for UNESCO in Zimbabwe.

2. In his welcome remarks, Dr Mambo acknowledged especially the assistance that the Zimbabwe
Organising Committee had received from the UNESCO Sub - regional Office in Harare and then
invited the first speaker to take the floor.

3. The first speaker was Mr Doumbia, who was representing the Secretary General of the
Agence de Cooperation Culturelle et Technique (ACCT). Mr Doumbia outlined the aims and
objectives of the conference and its background in relation to the cooperation programmes of
ACCT in the promotion and development of African languages.

4. Then followed the main speaker in this session, Dr A.B. Shankanga of the UNESCO Sub-
regional Office for Southern Africa in Harare. Dr Shankanga acknowledged and thanked all those

15
who had been actively supportive of this conference: the host country and the Government of
Zimbabwe for the host arrangements; the African Group of Ambassadors to UNESCO for
logistical support; the OAU and ACCT for support and participation through representation by
experts in African languages; experts from countries in other continents where special measures
had had to be instituted to address issues in multilingual national contexts who had come to share
their valuable experiences; and the experts designated by their respectable governments to represent
them at the conference. Most of these governmental experts, he noted, were outstanding scholars
with many years of research experience in linguistics, language policy and planning, curricular
design in African languages, basic education and other relevant areas. Many of them had also been
associated with UNESCO-sponsored activities and conferences on African languages.

5. This latest conference, however, was different both in its organisation and scope. It was a major
event for the African continent, taking place as it was on the eve of the twenty first century when
there was no longer any doubt about the capacity of African languages to perform a full range of
functions and to serve as media for expressing abstract thought and modern concepts, even in
areas of science and technology. Because of their expertise and professional backgrounds,
delegates to the conference were familiar with the debate on the language question in Africa,
whether in the national context or in the regional or global settings. Issues from both the research
and the debate, which were pertinent to the conference currently being held, included:

language and education,

language and politics,
cultural - linguistic pluralism and the nation - state dimension,
language and citizens participation in the democratic process,
language and citizens participation in socio - cultural, economic, scientific and
technological development,
languages and the culture of peace, now also a pertinent issue in many parts of the
world.

6. Post-colonial research and the intensifying debate involving scholars, politicians and the
community at large showed that the language issue now occupied a central place.
Recommendations on how to deal with language issues had been directed at individual nations
and groups of countries sharing the same or similar situations or experiences.

7. The current conference was not just another occasion to engage in debate of a general nature on
what factors might have contributed to the absence of sustained efforts to promote African
languages, or the difficulties encountered in adopting or implementing a language policy act at the
national level. The task of analysing the problem had already been accomplished through research,
reflection and discussion in many countries around the world. Rather the current conference was
intended to provide an opportunity for governmental and other experts to recommend policy
options for African member states. Therefore, the task of the Experts Meetings was to formulate
proposals for realistic policy frameworks with reference in particular to the following fundamental
questions:

.1 (a) To ensure that citizens without knowledge or proficiency in the languages of

the former colonial masters, where these have been retained as the official
languages, have equal opportunities to participate fully in activities of national
life;
.1 (b) the likelihood that those with little or no mastery of such official languages will
feel or actually be excluded from the mainstream of national life, as facility in
such languages is increasingly perceived as a symbol of or a means to success;

.2 the fact that exercise of democratic and other fundamental rights of citizens is
seriously undermined by the fact that these official languages are the languages
of legislation, justice, administration, commerce, education and the mass media,

16
 while at the same time it is acknowledged that no more that 15-20 percent of
the population in the majority of African countries have the minimum level of
proficiency in the official languages inherited from the former colonial powers;

.3 how multilingualism and multiculturalism can be used as forces for democracy,

nation - building and unity in diversity through empowering individual
communities and nation states to foster development;

.4 the use of language as a sharpened tool for achieving shared goals through
communication and culture in the global village, the global civil society and the
supra - technological society of the twenty - first century.

8. In a sentence, the challenge presented for the Experts Meeting by Dr Shankanka was to draw
up policy scenarios that would answer these questions which were also highlighted in the Working
Document previously circulated to the delegates for the conference. As the sessions Chairman
remarked, Dr Shankankas address placed the conference in focus by defining the problems and
tasks at hand, having previously been enabled to take stock of our language situation nationally and
as a continent through conferences in which UNESCO had played a catalytic role.

9. Thus the stage having been set, the Guest of Honour, the Honourable G. Machinga, Zimbabwes
Minister of Education, Sports and Culture, officially opened the Conference. In his opening
address, Mr Machinga reiterated welcome remarks and thanks made previously, and acknowledged
the fact that the question of language in Africa had been discussed before in many fora sponsored
by both UNESCO and the OAU, a fact that underlined the importance of both current and
continuing debates. Therefore, the expectation now was that the current conference would not only
deliberate on the complexities of the language situation in Africa, but also actually formulate
strategies and recommendations for governments to arrive at workable and implementable policy
frameworks for their own countries.

10. Historical circumstances and linguistic diversity made the set assignment difficult, yet it had to
be done because the importance of ones own language in thought processes, the understanding of
concepts and in communication generally was now acknowledged universally. Therefore, the
Experts Meeting was expected to:

review current language policies and problems,

examine the role, status and promotion of African languages in politics and in
economic and administrative affairs,
guide the Ministers Conference towards launching a path as regards language
policy in Africa and the setting up of an appropriate structure for the articulation
of language policies and programmes.

C FIRST WORKING SESSION

1. The Chairman of the first working session of the Experts Meeting, Ambassador S. Chigwedere,
the Secretary for Education in Zimbabwe, swiftly guided the delegates through the business as per
agenda, which comprised three items:

Adoption of the Rules of Procedure

Election of the Bureau of the Experts Meeting
Adoption of the Agenda of the Experts Meeting.

2. The bulk of the business during this session was procedural routine, but the following points
arising from it may be highlighted:

17
 .1 In UNESCO terms, the Harare ICLPA was a Category 2 Conference, with the
participants for such an important conference designated by the competent
authorities of their governments.

.2 Apart from subsidiary bodies elected by the Experts Meeting to coordinate and
service the meeting, all the sessions were to be plenary and public.

.3 English and French were the designated official languages of the whole
conference, but speakers were free to use any other languages, provided that they
made the necessary arrangements for the translation of their speeches into one of
the working languages.

.4 Following specific requests by individual delegates and general discussion by the

meeting, UNESCO noted the need to add or make arrangements for Portuguese
and Arabic in similar meetings in the future.

.5 Towards the end of the session, its Chairman, Ambassador Chigwedere, handed
over the Chairmanship to Professor Okombo of Kenya, who had been duly
elected as Chairman of the Experts Meeting.

.6 Professor Okombo then guided the meeting through adoption of the agenda for
the experts meeting and the programme for the Conference as a whole.

.7 The delegates accepted proposals by Zimbabwe and Burundi to amend the agenda
in order to reflect the desired shift in focus from prospects to policies, in order to
gear the meeting towards coming up with a clear policy position right from the
outset.

D SECOND WORKING SESSION

1. The second session of the Experts Meeting was devoted to the agenda item, Brief Overview of
the Language Situation in Africa, and started with a keynote address by Dr Herbert Chimhundu
in his capacity as Chairman of the Zimbabwean delegation to the conference. He emphasised the
need to give the meeting clear direction from the outset by outlining the major issues so that the
experts started with a common understanding of the purpose of their meeting, the African
linguistic situation, current trends and perspectives and the expected outcomes from their three-day
meeting.

2. On the purpose of the conference, Dr Chimhundu explained that the whole conference was more
than just academic, noting that extensive research had already been done, and numerous resolutions
and recommendations had been adopted at various fora. What was needed now was concrete
action by the African states, being informed and guided by the experiences they would be
sharing, to actually design language policies that they would implement nationally and regionally.
Therefore, the three - day Experts Meeting was expected to produce a set of clear and
comprehensive recommendations that would assist the Ministers Conference to make definite
decisions on policy guidelines for the political and technical management of multilingual situations
of varying complexity within the framework of workable policy alternatives.

3. Dr Chimhundu noted that the African linguistic situation was extremely complex, with
multilingualism as the norm, and only a small minority of the African states having clear and
comprehensive language policies. Even fewer had written such language policies into their
constitutions, while, in the vast majority of cases, language policies were either non- existent or
only implicit from scattered pieces of legislation and/or from conventional practice.

4. It was generally accepted that the starting point for formulating a meaningful language policy

18
was a complete understanding of the linguistic situation on the ground in terms of how many
languages were spoken, where and by how many people; their roles, statuses and patterns of use;
the state of publishing and availability of written materials in them; their use in the media; and
access by their speakers to both print and electronic media. For this reason, actual statistics on
these aspects had been compiled separately as submissions made beforehand by the conference
participants and from other sources. Still, research had to be on-going, especially at universities,
where relevant departments and institutes can contribute significantly to the development of African
languages and, through them, contribute to the fuller development of the human resource potential
through which all other forms of development can be realised. Language must be linked with
development. Hence there is a need not only to set up linguistic normative bodies (language
councils, boards or academies), but also to establish language research centres or institutes, as well
as language promotion and service units or departments in government ministries.

5. At the political level, broad agendas and policy guidelines for language and culture in Africa had
already been drawn up by the OAU in the Cultural Charter for Africa (1976) and the Language
Plan of Action for Africa (1986). At the regional level, the time had now come for action rather than
rhetoric about the need to promote and to consolidate the status of African languages in official and
formal domains, and to adopt some of the regional linguae francae and official working languages,
especially Kiswahili as per the OAU decision of 1986 to add it to English, French, Portuguese
and Arabic. At the nation-state level, the time had now come for African governments to heed the
advice of experts and to make the necessary decisions and legislation required to formulate and
implement policy on the statuses, roles and uses of the languages spoken within their borders,
and to create effective linguistic normative bodies to direct and oversee the standardisation,
promotion and development of local languages.

6. The concrete actions proposed above would be in line with current trends and perspectives, both
regionally and internationally. While some African countries (e.g. South Africa) had already gone
a step ahead, there were clear indications that an increasing number (including Zimbabwe) were
now ready to follow suit. Citizens debates were now raging linking language and culture with
development, empowerment and democracy, thus adding new dimensions to earlier debates that
tended only to emphasise pride, identity and decolonisation of the mind. The link between language
and democracy translates into multilingualism and recognition of linguistic rights as human rights,
as these were now recognised and promoted by UNESCO. Internationally, the debate on language
and empowerment through access to information and grassroots participation and leadership had
culminated in the signing of the Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights in Barcelona, Spain,
on 6 June 1996.

7. The week - long ICLPA was expected to:

.1 Use pre-prepared national linguistic profiles and position papers to take stock of
the current situation concerning the use and status of African languages;

.2 refer to the Working Document previously circulated by UNESCO to draw up

and adopt a document to serve as a reference framework for the political and
technical management of a language policy;

.3 issue a declaration committing each member state to draw up a comprehensive

national language policy;

.4 draw up a plan of action, including a timetable for implementation;

.5 cover in the declaration and plan of action the broad aims and specific objectives
indicated in the UNESCO Working Document with reference to the whole of
Africa and, in particular, with respect to:
the typology of language contexts and situations,

19
 the typology of language policies and practices,
categorization of languages based on predominant patterns of use, and
specific areas such as education, the media and administration;

.6 cover the whole range of aspects to be treated in the process of formulating and
implementing comprehensive language policies, viz:
clearly define the status of all the languages in use,
define short, medium and long term goals for the development, promotion
and use of languages,
determine the methods and resources to be used in achieving the stated
goals as well as targets and problems to be solved,
make specific provisions for language use, development and promotion in
crucial sectors such as education, law and the media,
state language requirements for citizenship, formal training and work in
various other sectors.

8. In the discussion following the address by Dr Chimhundu, the experts acknowledged that
language policy is ultimately a political decision that can only be taken by central government.
Linguists and other language workers and stakeholders can only advise and lobby, but ultimately
the formulation and implementation of policy on the official statuses, roles and uses of languages
within a nation state has to be done through legislation. In this regard, delegates highlighted the fact
that, in many countries on the continent, local languages continued to receive very little official
attention.

9. A delegate gave as an example of concrete action, the creation in April 1996 of the Pan South
African Language Board (PANSALB), which had been established by Parliament as a statutory
body to monitor language policy development and implementation. He suggested that the
PANSALB could be taken as a model of an important mechanism by the conference.

10. Delegates agreed that the question of language was now also tied up to the process of
democratisation. Democratising language policy meant not just replacing one language with
another, but responding to the real needs of the people. In practice, this meant promoting
multilingualism in many African countries. It was emphasised that a country cannot develop its
human resource base to full potential without the languages of the people.

11. The delegate from Lesotho pointed out that Lesotho, which along with a few other countries
had long been regarded as being linguistically homogenous, was in fact not so. Lesotho had a
national language which was spoken and understood by almost everyone in the country, but it also
had a number of minority languages which were yet to be recognised.

12. The meeting discussed minority language groups and their languages at some length. One
delegate suggested that the guidelines to be drawn up should emphasise policies relating to
minority languages as well as the research aspect because it was only through research that the
language situation could be described precisely.

13. The meeting also agreed that there was a need to decide how to tackle negative attitudes
towards the use of African languages.

E THIRD WORKING SESSION

1. During their third working session, the experts discussed experiences of multilingualism in a
few countries. Reports on Ethiopia, Zambia and South Africa were actually presented during the
session. These are summarised in section F below, together with nine other reports that were
submitted as written papers from Cameroon, Senegal, Niger, Togo, Mozambique, Swaziland,
Burkina Faso, Nigeria and Zimbabwe. Together these twelve country profiles give a good picture of

20
the multilingual situation across the continent.

2. In the discussion that followed the presentations, the experts agreed that what they were
concerned with was language policy rather than language provision. According to the meeting,
language policy is the practising of the agreed process of formulating a policy. Language
provision, on the other hand, is just a statement on paper or in the countrys constitution about the
statuses of the countrys various languages without necessarily looking at whether the agreed
points were put in practice or not.

3. The meeting also agreed that, although they could not design or prescribe a policy that would
apply to all the countries, they were supposed to come up with policy guidelines which would then
be presented to the ministers meeting. They agreed that the policies should aim at producing
intellectuals that are competent both locally (nationally) and internationally. The meeting
emphasised the need to start research in earnest on African languages. This was considered useful
as it would contribute to human civilisation.

4. A paper was also presented to the meeting by a delegate from Congo. The presenter highlighted
the fact that the experts were meeting not as a conference on linguistic matters only, but that the
agenda was to build a dream of Africa through language policies. He also highlighted the fact that
language policies for Africa should be those that help in the process of democratising Africa, that
accept pluralism and also promote regional co-operation in Africa. He argued that, in formulating
such policies, the language users should also be involved. The presenter noted that present policies
would affect future generations. Thus, when formulating them, people should remember that they
were building something for the future. The delegate also noted that the term language policy went
hand in hand with language planning, and thus, it should be given a time framework.

5. On implementing the policy, the presenter argued that people should think about resources,
both human and material, that are needed for making sure that policy guidelines are realised. He
also noted that, for a policy to be implemented, there is need for a strategy of implementation.

F SELECTED COUNTRY PROFILES

1. South Africa

1.1 South Africa has a population of 43 million. It has a new constitution which provides for 11
official languages, as well as the promotion of other languages, referred to as heritage languages.
These heritage languages include indigenous languages like the Khoisan languages, languages
such as German and French, as well as languages for religious purposes like Hindi and Tamil.
Sign language is also mentioned in the constitution. The constitution states that the language plan
for South Africa should address the various language issues in terms of the constitutional
provisions and needs of the people. One of the important aims of PANSALB is the setting up of
research programmes and projects to promote the use of historically marginalised languages in the
country.

1.2 For the Department of Education, there are two relevant issues, that is, language of teaching
and learning, as well as language taught as a subject. The second issue is relevant to the discussion
in that the current thinking is that the learner concentrates on one language up to Grade 2 or 3 and
from there onwards adds another language throughout schooling but preferably ends up in Grade
12 with 4 languages. These languages should be languages of choice throughout. The second
issue is that of the language of learning and teaching. Currently the majority if not all the schools in
South Africa use either English or Afrikaans. The ideal situation is that each and every learner
should ultimately enjoy education in his or her language, but in the short term the department
provides for some interim measures.

1.3 The department is currently busy developing guidelines in this regard, trying to spell out what

21
should be done by practical means. For example, if there are 45 learners in a grade this should be a
sustainable number, but, if there are less than 45, then in any school it is difficult to try and provide
for them. So there should be more than that. If there are less than 45, then at district level or
regional level those learners are provided for.

2. Ethiopia

2.1 Ethiopia has a population of over 50 million people. It is a linguistically diverse country. It has
more than 80 languages, and many more dialects are used in everyday communication. Ethiopia is
inhabited by 4 major ethnic and linguistic families, namely Cushitic consisting of 22 languages,
Semitic with 12, and Omotic and Nilo-Saharan both with 18.

2.2 Amharic has been declared the working language at the federal level, while other ethnic
languages serve as working languages in their respective regions.

2.3 The sociolinguistic status of the languages is reflected by a new policy decision governing the
use of languages from primary school level. Different regions are in the process of designing and
implementing teaching materials through translation from Amharic into the respective languages.

3. Zambia

Zambia has 7 local languages that are taught in schools from Grade 1 to secondary level and then
beyond up to university. One major problem they have is that, although the government always
says it is committed to the development of local languages, there is no funding. Government has
not provided funding for the development of local languages, but on the other hand it funds a
colonial language, English in this case.

4. Cameroon

4.1 Cameroon is a country with 13,5 million inhabitants, whose official languages are English and
French. There are 50 main languages in Cameroon. They have large numbers of speakers, but
none comprised more than 50% of the population. The most widely spoken language besides
English or French is Pidgin English, which is used in three quarters of the country. The problem
with this usage is that Pidgin English carries no cultural identity. The actual socio-linguistic
situation is different from the one officially proclaimed by the authorities. On 8 September 1996,
Literacy Day, it was officially noted that 48 % of the population does not know how to read or
write in English or French.

4.2 Earlier (in 1983), 248 language units were identified. Moreover, estimates of the number of
languages identified vary between 250 and 272. There are less than 300, but more than 250.
Classification by phylum means that there are the Nilo-Saharan phylum, the Afro-Asiatic phylum
and the Niger-Kordofanian phylum. Some Cameroon languages are disappearing. There are nine
vehicular languages, five of which are important and four of which are less widely used.

4.3 For judicial purposes, only English and French are used. If defendants speak in their mother
tongue, an interpreter is employed. This also applies to the legislature, where members of
parliament speak in either English or French. In regional administration, officials are also obliged
to use one of the official languages. For election campaigns, on the other hand, candidates use local
languages to address a crowd and brochures are produced in languages best understood by voters.
At secondary school level, French or English are the languages of instruction, whereas Cameroon
languages are used for teaching for the first three years of primary school. Some secondary
schools offer national languages as subjects of study. On 27 May 1995, the Government
announced that a new law would be presented to parliament whereby national languages would be
taught in schools. This matter is currently before the National Assembly.

22
4.4 It must be said that few of the 248 languages have been standardised. At present, 20 have been
standardised and 73 others are to be standardised to in the near future. Of the 6 universities in the
country, 2 are interested in teaching national languages. National languages are used in the teaching
of adult literacy. Advertising only uses French and English, except for two enterprises which
advertise in national languages. There are some publications and some radio programs in national
languages, but the majority are in the official languages.

5. Senegal

5.1 The most recent population census in Senegal counted 7,900,000 inhabitants. The constitution
stipulated that French is the official language of the country. A law passed on 28 September 1978
declared that there are 6 national languages: Diola, Malinke, Poular (Ful), Serer, Soninke and
Wolof. Standardisation of these languages has taken place in recent years.

5.2 French is used in the legislature, but the use of national languages has been authorised and even
encouraged since the election of non-French speaking parliamentarians since 1978. French is the
official language of the judiciary, but interpreters are employed frequently to interpret to and from
national languages. French is also the language of the executive and regional administration. Since
Senegal has opted for decentralisation, other languages will be more widely used in the future. In
the area of education, pre-school teaching takes place in national languages, with the first two years
of school being conducted in the mother tongue and French being introduced in the third year. In
August 1995, a conference on education emphasised the urgency of introducing national languages
at school. A plan has since been drawn up by the Ministry with this objective in mind. French and
optional Arabic are the languages in primary school. At secondary school, French and English are
obligatory and other foreign languages are available as subjects, together with one national
language. The University of Dakar has a solid tradition of research and teaching national languages
as subjects. Since 1971, literacy programmes have involved national languages.

5.3 Arabic has an important place as a medium of religious and cultural practices, as well as a
teaching medium in Koranic schools. In commerce, communication is dominated by national
languages. In specialised areas such as advertising, however, the reverse is the case, and French is
used most frequently. In the area of mass communication, national languages are used much less
than French by the press, whereas national languages are used to a greater degree in radio and
television.

5.4 Senegals situation is less complex than many other African countries and, therefore, offers
more possibilities for linguistic management. National languages are playing a more important role
in all sectors, thanks to literacy campaigns and numerous initiatives taken by the Department
responsible for Basic Education and National Languages. Governments policy, in this regard, is
based on a concept of plurilingualism.

6. Niger

6.1 Since 1960, French has been Nigers official language. Since 1963 national languages have
been used in nation-building and national development. Education takes place in French, as do
administrative functions and all sectors of modern life. There are 10 national languages. National
languages are mainly spoken by 80% of the population, which can not communicate in French.

6.2 Literacy projects have begun by using Hausa and extended programmes to include 6 other
languages. Formal education is in French. Since 1976, experimental teaching has been using
national languages as a means to acquire French. In training colleges national languages are also
taught. At the Department of Linguistics of the University, teaching of some Niger languages takes
place.

6.3 The legislature uses French, together with Hausa and Zarma. 86% of radio broadcasting takes

23
place in national languages. Newspapers are only published in French. National languages may be
used more widely in all areas if certain obstacles to their development are removed. Linguistic
research is negligible because of lack of funding. National languages are not used in the
administration of the country. However, communication between the authorities and the people take
place more and more frequently in local languages, where French is not understood.

6.4 There is no judicial framework to give national languages proper status. This situation needs to
be amended. Niger has a multilingual context and linguistic management should take into account
vehicularity, population influence and socio-economic impact. National languages should be
protected and promoted. This requires standardisation of all national languages other than Hausa
and Arabic, which are already in a state of development. The constitution adopted on 26 December
1992 stipulates that all communities in Niger are free to use their own languages. For 15 years
there has been an attempt to use 5 national languages in education. Linguistic management would
be facilitated if Hausa and Zarma were given specific status as national languages. Training could
take place in these two languages and they could be taught as subjects in secondary schools. After
several decades, one of these languages could become the official language together with French.
The other languages are used at present for basic acquisition of knowledge at the primary school
level. They are also widely used in literacy campaigns, on the radio and television.

6.5 The National Centre for Linguistic Management is the only body which can respond to the
language issue in Niger.

7. Togo

7.1 Togo has a population of 4 200 000 which speaks approximately 40 languages and dialects.
The two national languages are Ewe in the South and Kabye in the North. Because of its colonial
history, Togo has had German, English and French as official languages. There is no official policy
for linguistic management in Togo, in spite of some acts being passed in favour of the promotion
of languages in education and other areas.

7.2 A Department of Literacy and Community Development has been established in the Ministry
of Social Affairs. Four languages are used in literacy teaching. Since 1979, knowledge of French
plus one national language has been a criteria for election to the National Assembly. In education
and training, national languages and French have been complementary since 1975.

7.3 In the area of linguistic management, a great deal has been achieved, but much remains to be
done. There is a shortage of qualified teachers, for example, due to lack of means. There is a
mentality which needs to be overcome, which sees the promotion of national languages as a waste
of time and money by the Government, because they are not perceived as taking into account the
scientific realities of the modern world. National languages should be used in all areas of life,
including formal teaching, mass media and advertising. In 1992, it was proposed that the National
Assembly adopt a charter to set up an institute of national languages in order to define policy and
pursue research.

7.4 In education, French is the language used for teaching; national languages are subjects. In the
future, however, it is intended that national languages be the medium for teaching and that French
would be defined as a foreign language. Exchanges are envisaged between African institutes in a
sub-region which uses the same languages. Training of trainers and researchers is essential.
National languages should intervene in the political, educational, cultural, social and economic life
of the continents communities.

8. Mozambique

8.1 Mozambique is a multi-lingual country. According to the last census of 1980, Mozambique had
24 indigenous languages in co-existence with Portuguese. Almost every Mozambican, that is,

24
98.8% of the countrys population, claims to know one of the 24 indigenous languages as a native
language. Among the native Mozambicans, 75.6% claim to be exclusive speakers of at least one of
the indigenous languages, thus claiming that they do not know Portuguese. Those who are
bilingual in at least one of the indigenous languages and Portuguese constitute 23.3% of the
population. Portuguese is thus spoken by 24.4% of the population.

8.2 Indigenous languages are primarily used for communication among family members, especially
in rural areas. The indigenous language spoken is taken as a social indicator of ones ethnic
identity. Indigenous languages are also used in religious activities, radio and television
broadcasting, literacy campaigns and political mobilisation. The major radio station in Mozambique
offers programmes in some of the indigenous languages.

8.3 Indigenous languages are also making their way into formal education, where they have been
experimented with in primary school classes and literacy classes for women. These languages
enjoy national status in Mozambique, but do not have official status. Portuguese, on the other hand,
has official status but no national status. Portuguese is used in official activities, it has attained the
status of being the language of national unity. It is thus primarily used in all state functions, in
government institutions and in formal education.

8.4 Portuguese has, however, also become a primary language in the home environment between
close relatives, in informal conversations, in the streets and at the market. It has also been
recognised as being the language of the urban elite.

9. Swaziland

9.1 Swaziland is a country with less than one million people. It has one national language, Siswati,
which has also been known as the symbol of ethnic identity of Swaziland. English is the main
official language, with Siswati being classified as an official language, but in practice its official
status has remained questionable. English enjoys more official status than Siswati, which has been
relegated to being merely a language of communication among Siswati speakers.

9.2 English has official status in education, where it is the medium of instruction from Grade 3
onwards. For a student to have passed his examinations, he should have passed or obtained a credit
in English. There is thus no recognition of Siswati in the education system of Swaziland. English
is a compulsory subject in the school curriculum, and in most cases students end up shunning their
mother tongue and prefer to study English, French or Portuguese.

9.3 For business transactions, commercial advertisements, labels, posters and leaflets, English is the
language that is used. English is predominant in legislation, in the judicial system and in
administration.

9.4 Swaziland does not have print media in Siswati, so English dominates in this area too. Siswati
is officially used in the broadcast media where there is a channel broadcast in Siswati the whole
day, with English being broadcast on another channel. Siswati is thus used mainly for informal
communication, for its official status is still theory, not practice.

10. Burkina Faso

10.1 Burkina Faso, a West African country, has an estimated population of 10,495 823 in 1995 and
an average population density of about 33.5 people per square kilometre. It has 59 ethnic
languages. The term ethnic language refers to the fact that each of the 50 languages is spoken
by a distinct ethnic group which, in general, has its own territory, its own history and traditions. All
these languages are officially recognised as national languages and are used primarily for
communication within each ethnic group. However, none of them has been standardised.

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10.2 Out of the 59 languages in Burkina Faso, only 20 have been fairly described and are currently
being used for adult literacy. However, these and all the others are mostly used for oral rather than
for written communication.

10.3 French is Burkina Fasos official language. It is, however, important to note that not more
than 10% of the countrys population have a good command of standard French. It is the language
of government, the judicial system, administration and the national system as a whole. It is also the
language of formal education at all levels of the educational system and the sole medium of
instruction from primary up to university.

10.4 Based on the 1985 census of Burkina Fasos population, the following are the estimates (in
percentage of the countrys total population) of the demographic size of some of this countrys
languages: Bisa (2.71%), Bobo (2.23%), Bwamu (1.59%), Dagara (1.75%), Dafing (1.85%),
Fulfulde (9.04%), Gulmancema (5.07%), Jula (4.01%) Lobiri (1.49%), Lyele (2.43%), Moore
(53.12%), Nuni (1.19%), San (2.05%), Senufo (0.99%) and Tamasheq (0.82%). These are the
languages that are used for news, educational and cultural broadcasts on the national Radio
Rurale. Of these, only Fulfulde, Jula and Moore are used on national television.

10.4 For religious purposes people resort to the districts or provinces local languages, except for
the western provinces where Jula (the regional lingua franca) is used for evangelisation.

11. Nigeria

11.1 Nigeria has a population of more than 86 million people. The languages spoken by the
majority of these people are Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba, which are Nigerias national languages. In
addition to the national languages, Nigeria has more than 400 minority languages.

11.2 English is the countrys official language. It is the language for administration, that is, it is the
language for the executive, and for mailings to foreign, regional or local governments. However,
for provincial or local (town) level administration and at election campaign meetings, English,
Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo are used. These four languages are also used in parliament, as well as in
the writing and promulgation of law. In the judicial system, the authorised languages are English,
Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba although English is ordinarily used.

11.3 In the education system, mother tongues and languages of the immediate community are used
in nursery and primary school, with English introduced later in the primary phase. English is used
at secondary school as well as in institutions of higher learning, for example, universities. For adult
literacy, Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, mother tongues and English were used. At the primary school level,
English, Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba are languages that can be taught. At the secondary school level,
English, Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba are compulsory languages for teaching. At universities, English,
Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Arabic and French can be taught but all are optional.

11.4 English, Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba are the languages that are used in business, that is, in
commercial advertisements, administrative posters, labelling, instruction manuals and commercial
printed matter. These four languages are also used in the written press, while in addition to them
Edo, Kanuri, Fulfulde, Izon, Efik, Tiv, Arabic, Swahili, French and languages of the immediate
community are used on the radio. On television Hausa, Igbo, English, Yoruba and languages of the
immediate community are used.

12. Zimbabwe

12.1 Zimbabwe has an estimated population of about 11.9 million. Shona and Ndebele are the
national languages and these constitute 75% and 16.5% of the population respectively. English is
the official language and has importance as a language of wider communication, and as the
language used in legislation, the judicial system and administration.

26
12.2 The minority languages of Zimbabwe include Kalanga, Tonga (Hwange, Binga),
Nyanja/Chewa, Nambya, Changani, Venda, Sotho, Chikunda/Sena, Tshwawo, Doma, Xhosa, Tonga
(Mudzi), Tswana, Hwesa and Barwe. Among these, Kalanga, Tonga, Venda, Changani, Nambya
(Dombe) and Chewa (Nyanja) hold official minority language status. These languages are
officially recognised and can be used as media for instruction as well as being taught in the first
three years of primary school.

12.3 There is no official language policy as such but it appears that a combination of English and
one of the local languages is used to prepare for formal schooling. The national languages and
English are used officially in the first three years of primary school. Minority languages are taught
in their respective areas and are replaced by the predominant national language from Grade 4
onwards. In secondary schools and institutions of higher learning, English is used except when
teaching the national languages.

12.4 English, Shona and Ndebele are used in the written press and on television and in radio
broadcasting, but English is dominant on television and on two of the four radio channels. Venda,
Chewa, Nyanja, Kalanga, Changani and Tonga are also used on radio.

G EXPERIENCES OF MULTILINGUALISM IN THE WORLD

1. For the purposes of comparison, brief presentations were also made on experiences of
multilingualism from other continents.

2.1 In Latin America the debate on language pluralism is still on. Movements are demanding the
use of their own languages for different purposes in these countries. The problem faced by each
country is how to bring in indigenous languages in bilingual education for the first two years in
primary school. In other regions, indigenous languages have remained marginalised.

2.2 In Peru, bilingual education is well developed. Indigenous languages have been introduced at all
levels in the education system.

3.1 India has a complex system of managing multingualism. According to the 1961 census, there
were 1651 mother tongues, 18 of which were major languages. Each language has different
regional variations which also has to be developed. Some of the languages have no writing scripts.
Government collaborates with and advises the states in the different areas. The Indian government
allows each state to choose an official language to use in its area. Therefore, people are able to
make applications, representations and all other interactions in any language.

3.2 India also has translation centres and national academies of literature which encourage creative
writing in all Indian languages. The country has a language policy related to the languages to be
used in education and the development of languages. Every child at the high school level is literate
in at least three languages.

3.3 Urban school and mother tongues: if a class has more than 10 children who speak the same
mother tongue, those children are taught in that language, while the other languages are taught as
second languages. After the third grade, children are then taught in the second language. The
mother tongue is a variety of the first language.

H RECOMMENDATIONS TO THE DRAFTING COMMITTEE

1. After the first three sessions, which were all held on the first day, the Experts Meeting
continued as open working sessions without strictly adhering to the wording and order of items as

27
listed on the agenda. Instead, the delegates opted to concentrate on discussion and preparations of
recommendations to be included by the drafting committee in the two documents the experts were
preparing for the Ministers Conference. This decision was made after the fourth session during
which the Chairman of the Experts Meeting, Professor Okombo, delivered an address entitled
Statement of the Vision of Africa. Professor Okombos address guided the remainder of the
meeting on guidelines for policy, strategies, and regional as well as sub-regional cooperation.

2. Language policies in Africa should be guided by an African dream which involved:

democratisation of political or social institutions,

development conceived in many ways--justice, fairness, equal right to monetary
aid, human rights,
acceptance of pluralism as a way of life,
regional cooperation,
retention of the African identity,
development of a confident and proud personality,
Africa without situations (of conflict),
democracy and creation of peace promoting languages,
a flexible general policy which allows each community to use its language while
integrating into a wider society,
defining key terms, e.g. strategies, indigenisatation and policy,
linguistically empowered citizens to operate at all levels, i.e. regional, national and
international,
definition of skills and competencies required.

3. Regarding policy and strategies for implementation:

We should lead our governments in making official statements, stating what

guidelines Africa must adopt and the steps to be taken to implement the policies.
Human and material resources should be made available for implementing the
defined steps, taking into account the functional loads of languages.
We should develop a standard language typology.
We should determine how many languages there are for each country:
What is each one used for?
Who uses them and for what?
What attitudes do people have about using them?
What media is used to transmit the information?
We should train teachers of the languages.
There is need to establish the legal status of each language.
We should produce a declaration making clear statements and provide a timetable
for action.
African countries must develop language databases with monitoring done initially
by a body within each country.
There is the need to prescribe follow-up processes or an institution to help
countries develop and implement their language policies and also to monitor
progress and advise individual countries.
Research is required to strengthen the language position.

4. The process of implementation should involve:

regional cooperation (especially for cross-border languages),

developing regional/sub-regional languages,
re-activating the OAU Plan of Action and adding a fifth working language
making all people concerned in implementing language policies aware of the

28
 policies,
having Francophone countries teaching English and Anglophone countries
teaching French in their countries
where necessary in order to develop an African language, looking beyond the
African languages themselves,
giving economic value to our languages,
having a central language planning service or institute in each country (a formal
body charged with language issues, such as translation and terminologies),
having rewards and incentive mechanisms to encourage innovation.

5. Four general guidelines for policy formulation were stated as follows:

.1 There is a need to establish a Language Policy Drafting Committee for each country.

.2 There is a need to produce a clear Language Policy Document for each country.

.3 Language plans must operate at national, regional and international levels.

.4 Language guidelines should be formulated through legislation, i.e. an Act of

Parliament.
6. Delegates recommended that the Drafting Committee should give definitions of the terms
language policy and strategy as a preamble to the document. The Vision of Africa, as had been
discussed, was endorsed by the delegates.

7. The delegates recommended that one of the objectives should be to produce a linguistically
empowered citizen who was able to operate at all levels of developmental activities locally,
nationally and internationally. Reference was made to the OAUs Language Plan of Action for
Africa, which defined this person as someone who was confident and fluent in his community,
internal region, the nation and the international dimension. The same document also suggested that
each region should develop a language of its choice as a lingua franca. The vision, as adopted by
the delegates, was that a nation should have an official language which nationals can use for
communication amongst themselves and also for use in formal occasions such as conferences and
parliamentary sessions.

8. It was also recommended that a comprehensive assessment of each country be made in terms of
human, financial, material and technical resources, before the language question is addressed in
order to assess whether it is feasible in each country. Delegates suggested that by the time of the
next meeting, all countries should have achieved at least one of the recommendations. It was also
suggested that there be a follow-up committee to follow up on the activities of each country and to
offer advice as well as to make sure that what was discussed during the conference was being
implemented.

9. Africas problems were said to be attitudinal, material, professional and political. It was thus
recommended that a future be created for African languages especially in the area of employment.
Governments would then come in professionally by training teachers in African languages.
Another strategy would be to write newspapers in African languages. On the political aspect,
government would be urged to support the policies morally, financially and administratively and
also by according the languages status. Delegates noted that African countries needed to be
assisted educationally and linguistically in order to be able to carry out these resolutions. It was
also recommended that there was need for the promotion of African languages as well as their
adoption to be linguae francae for African people. Delegates also recommended that national
languages be made examinable at all levels.

10. Delegates recommended that a Language Planning Board be set up in each country to work out

29
language policy and the detailed programmes for the policy and strategies needed to implement
these policies. It was also recommended that consultation be done with the speakers of the
languages and that a constitution be drafted enshrining the languages used by the people in
individual countries. Delegates were of the opinion that, without a constitution that empowered a
people linguistically, no language policy could succeed. It was recommended that the policy
statement of each country should state the function that each language will perform.

11. Delegates suggested that the framework adopted should be one of functional multilingualism.
This referred to a policy of rotation of languages on a clearly defined basis. The framework avoids
language domination because all languages will be used on a rotational basis. Delegates cited the
example of the Pan-African Project for Training and Educational Materials Production in African
Languages (PATPAL) which was concerned with the prospect and use of African languages in
education. Its objectives were to use African languages as a media of instruction, to train
professionals at all levels in African languages and to develop the effective distribution of materials
in African languages. Delegates recommended that such a project be implemented at national levels.
They felt that it was the responsibility of competent national teams already involved in the
development and teaching of African languages. Delegates proposed that the project be adopted by
the conference as one of the concrete strategies for cooperation in African language policy
implementation. Organisations such as the OAU, UNESCO, UNICEF and NGOs might then be
called upon to sponsor the implementation of the project.

12. Countries generally regarded as monolingual were urged to work towards multilingualism and
to develop the languages they have to a functional level for them to be useful to their speakers.

13. The use of more locally produced programmes and translation of foreign programmes in the
local media was also recommended, as were special training programmes for announcers.

14. It was also recommended that another strategy would be to put all African languages into
writing systems, as well as carrying out a linguistic description of each language, and standardise
its writing.

15. Regional cooperation was encouraged across borders, for instance, in the sharing of teaching
material between the Tonga and Chewa speaking countries.

16. Delegates also recommended that there be set up an appropriate system of communication and
coordination to ensure solidarity at continental levels among decision makers and professionals.

17. Materials production (for instance, textbooks and teachers guides) was also encouraged in the
languages spoken in individual countries and in cross-border languages.

I OFFICIAL CLOSING OF THE EXPERTS MEETING

1. In a special address before the closing session, the Assistant Director General for Culture, Mrs
L. Arizpe, made a brief presentation of the Report of UNESCOs Commission on Culture, during
which she highlighted the need for co-operation between African governments and peoples, as well
as the need for people to protect their identity, since all forms of development should be put into the
context of a peoples cultural needs. The report was later discussed by the experts, assessing how
African languages could fit into this report. The delegates hailed the report.

2. During review discussions preceding the official closure of the Experts Meeting, the delegates
had time to reiterate and amplify some of the major recommendations in the quest for desired goals
to be achieved within the vision they had defined for Africa. These major recommendations to the
Ministers Conference are listed as paragraphs 3 to 8 below.

30
3. Each country should produce a language policy document where every language spoken in the
country can find its place. This language policy should be flexible enough to allow each
community to use its language side-by-side with other languages. The development of languages
used for wider communication, that is, those that are at the local, regional and international levels,
would be facilitated by a policy formulating institution or body that should be established in each
country. The experts also agreed that such a policy should be sanctioned by legislative action.

4. In choosing which policy option a country can take, the experts agreed on certain procedural
recommendations. They agreed that each country or region should formulate its policy on the
basis of established use and informed awareness of its language situation, but within a general
framework leading to a common vision. To achieve such a policy the people who formulate it
should, as a pre-requisite, determine the correct typology of a countrys linguistic situation and also
define the status of the countrys various languages, taking into account the functions of each
language and the media in which it is used. The policy formulators should also establish the
number of languages and language families spoken in a given country, along with the number of
people who use a particular language and their attitude towards it.

5. The experts also advised that the policy formulators should consult all interested individuals and
groups of people in the process of formulating and implementing language policies. This should be
coupled with organised follow-up and monitoring activities at national and regional levels, in
cooperation with organisations such as UNESCO, the OAU and ACCT.

6. It was also recommended that, in view of language policy needs at the Pan-African level,
governments should make clear policy statements, programmes of tasks and time-tables for
implementation. They should acknowledge the fact that the language issue cuts across all sectors of
a nation and thus should use language experts in formulating relevant language policies and also
defining the steps for implementation. Governments should also help in developing human,
material and technological resources in implementing defined steps. Another recommendation was
that African governments should re-activate the Language Plan of Action for Africa and implement
the decision taken in 1986 to make Kiswahili one of the working languages of the OAU. The
governments could also adopt the Pan-African Project for Training and Educational Materials
Production in African Languages (PATPAL), as well as the charter from the Accra meeting of 1996
on Language in Education.

7. At the regional level, it was recommended that governments should monitor relevant policies and
provide for follow-up activities facilitated by international organisations such as UNESCO and
OAU. Governments should also co-operate on matters of policy and resources for the development
of cross-border languages, as well as regional/sub regional languages. In addition, governments
should also strengthen inter-African co-operation by having international languages taught across
zones of dominance as well as revitalising African language research institutions and facilitating the
formation and continued existence of the Pan-African Association of Linguists.

8. At the government level, African governments were advised to train language practitioners in
various professions and to produce teaching and learning resources, including those required for
second language teaching/learning and those for scientific and technological activities.
Governments were advised to develop language databases and/or language banks at national and
regional levels, as well as create channels for exchange of information and expertise on language
matters. This could be done in conjunction with the establishment of a central language planning
service or institute to serve as a formal body responsible for language issues such as translation
services and compilation of terminology lists. It was also recommended that governments should
give value to the languages by specifying language requirements for specific areas like education,
training, employment and citizenship.

9. The Zimbabwean Minister of Information, Posts and Telecommunications, the Honourable J.

Mujuru, officially closed the Experts Meeting. In her closing remarks, Mrs Mujuru stressed the

31
need to use African languages for effective communication, especially on matters concerning
development, since foreign languages cannot help all that much in the process of a nations
development. She also noted the importance of language as a medium of effective communication
and as a powerful tool for change and development. In line with this, she urged all to recognise the
need to have a clearly defined language policy that caters for indigenous languages - a policy that
relates well to each nations political and cultural values. The Minister noted that language is also
important for identity, and that one can only express and explain himself/herself culturally through
his/her local language. This is why there is a need to accord indigenous African languages their
rightful status.

10. In her speech, Mrs Mujuru encouraged governments to support and promote their respective
local languages and cultures rather than foreign ones. She denounced cultural imperialism through
the use of colonial languages and encouraged people to be proud of their mother languages. In her
concluding remarks, Mrs Mujuru thanked UNESCO, OAU, ACCT and other organisations for
providing resources for the successful organisation of the Conference.

32
 PART III

MINISTERS CONFERENCE

A INTRODUCTION
1. After the Official Opening of the Ministers Conference on Thursday 20 March 1997, the
Ministers and Heads of Delegations had their first working session during which they elected their
Bureau and adopted the Rules of Procedure. Speeches were made that reiterated and amplified the
sentiments and conclusions of the Experts Meeting, leading to the adoption on Friday 21 March
1997 of the Harare Declaration and Plan of Action for its implementation, and finally, to the setting
up of a Follow-up Committee with one member country from each of the five regions of the
continent and the founding of a two-member secretariat.

2. In response to the experts advice and recommendations, the ministers meeting made a
commitment to undertake the necessary preparations for language policies, taking into account the
peoples needs in each country. The ministers also undertook to enhance, in each country, the
participation of people from all sectors of life. Subsequently, the ministers meeting invited
international organisations, especially those working in the areas of co-operation, education and
culture, along with financial organisations and institutions to support African states to achieve
development by means of sound language policies. The ministers appealed to regional African
institutions to give increased support both to national language policies and to regional integration.
African institutions were also called upon to co-operate with all concerned in Africa and throughout
the world in restoring the African identity through the development of African languages. The
meeting also encouraged institutions and research departments involved in the teaching of African
languages to intensify their activities in order to play a pivotal role in the effort to achieve the
development of Africa.

3. The ministers meeting also appealed to UNESCO to facilitate regular meetings of government
experts in order to evaluate how far the decisions and resolutions taken by this conference have
been implemented. In response to this appeal, the UNESCO representative advised the ministers
meeting that, since recommendations made in previous meetings were not implemented, it would be
wise to have short-term recommendations that could be taken to bodies like UNESCO for quicker
implementation.

B OFFICIAL OPENING
1. The Opening Session of the Ministers Conference was chaired by the Honourable G.
Machinga, Zimbabwes Minister of Education, Sport and Culture. In his welcome remarks,
Minister Machinga acknowledged the presence of the Honourable Dr I. Chombo, Zimbabwes
Minister of Higher Education and Technology, who was the Guest of Honour (in place of His
Excellency R. G. Mugabe, President of the Republic of Zimbabwe); His Excellency Dr Akinluyi,
Ambassador and Permanent Delegate to UNESCO and Chairman of the African Group of
Ambassadors in Paris; Mr Diouff, Director from the Division of Education, Science and Culture
and representative of the OAU; and Mrs Arizpe, UNESCOs Assistant Director General for
Culture (representing the Director General of UNESCO). He also extended an invitation to all the
delegates to tour and experience the life and culture of Zimbabwe.

2. His Excellency Dr Akinliyu then followed with an address in which he noted UNESCOs
consistent support for the examination of language issues in partnership with Africa, since

33
UNESCOs membership was significantly swollen by newly independent African states. He noted
that Africa and UNESCO had now enjoyed for three decades an alliance in pursuit of international
cooperation for the establishment of peace through education, science and culture. UNESCO
recognises the cultural dimension for the planning and extension of development strategies, and
emphasizes the importance of language and culture: language is the most important vehicle of
culture, while culture provides the context for all forms of development. Hence the organisation of
the current conference, whose major purpose is the creation of well thought-out policies so that the
language treasures of the continent can be exploited systematically in the development process.

3. Dr Akinluyi congratulated UNESCO for the two-tiered arrangement which allowed debate and
dialogue to take place at the tier of language experts and at the tier of government ministers. He
observed that the Experts Meeting had had very productive multi-faceted deliberations, pooling
together their experiences from within and outside the continent, and he emphasised that
UNESCOs follow-ups on the recommended plurilinguistic mechanisms and procedures should
be swift. In this regard, he made five important generalisations emphasising:

the need for a clear dichotomy between policy and practice, and between planning and
implementation;
the need to view national languages as essential components and instruments of
development;
the link between language and peace, and between place and development: peace was
secured by accommodating inalienable linguistic rights (There can be no development
without peace and there can be no peace without development);
that plurilingual or multilingual policies must start by recognising that the mother
tongue should be accorded due importance in the matrix of considerations;
the need to prioritise work towards the production of a Thesaurus Linguarum
Africanarum (a treasury of African languages).

4. In view of past failures to follow-up on studies and recommendations regarding implementation,

what is now of paramount importance is political will by member states to implement
recommendations pertaining to their own progress and to shift the emphasis from conferences,
seminars and symposia which can not and shall not be mistaken for substantive progress. Such
political will needs to be translated into action on recommendations by Africa, about Africa, to
Africa and for Africa. Books and articles or papers in libraries provide a lot of evidence that enough
research, discussion and documentation has been done, and the current conference must now
provide Africa with:
,
guidelines for policy, planning and practice
frameworks that are flexible and adaptable to the situation in each country,
an irreducible minimum of actions today and an agenda for tomorrow,
a quantum leap in multilingual endeavours,
an effective and timely follow-up mechanism.

5. In pursuit of all of this, the Ministers Conference was urged to underscore the importance of
multilingualism, not only as a critical factor in development, but also as a potent tool for unity in
diversity.

6. In response, the OAU Representative, Mr Diouff, re-iterated similar sentiments and the major
points that came out of the Experts Meeting, relating them to earlier efforts and agreements within
the OAU itself, the work of various agencies in Africa and the long-standing cooperation between
the OAU and UNESCO. Now, more than ever before, there is real likelihood that resolutions and
recommendations will be translated into concrete action in the areas of language and culture.

7. In her own address, Mrs Arizpe acknowledged the Director General of UNESCO Mr Federico
Mayors personal interest in the language issue and the importance he attached to it. She observed

34
that the timing of the current conference was right in view of:

.1 The present trend of evolution of the African continent where a democratic approach
is progressively established;

.2 General acceptance of the need to abandon highly centralised systems for

decentralisation of decision-making to local communities;

.3 The consensus that was reached that a coherent strategy is the only way to put an
end to repetitive and uncoordinated seminars and meetings, and to useless studies and
publications.

8. The Assistant Director General noted that, over the years, the question of language has become
an integral part of UNESCOs programmes, in line with Article 1 of its Constitution which
condemns all forms of discrimination based on language, among other things. At first, UNESCO
put an emphasis on languages as teaching tools while the study of vernacular languages and
language variation were basically issues for academics. After independence, the language problem
became a national issue, particularly with reference to the mother tongue which was seen and
accepted as the medium for free access to education, information, and in national development in
general as well as a national vehicle for cultural authenticity. Mrs Arizpe noted that these issues
were highlighted as African participation in UNESCO increased in the sectors of culture, education
and the social sciences. She reiterated the truth of Amadu Hampate BAs famous statement: In
Africa, when an old man dies a library burns down.

9. Since the 1960s, UNESCO has taken a series of actions and made a number of achievements in
the field of languages, notably:
a series of conferences on the development of education in Africa,
studies of oral traditions,
promotion of African languages as a media of instruction and for adult, continuing
and/or lifelong education,
cultural policies, culminating in the 1975 Intergovernmental Conference on Cultural
Policies in Africa, whose recommendations included the reinstatement and promotion
of African languages as irreplaceable media of social communication and the carriers
of cultural inheritance for various communities,
the Conakry Conference of 1981, which was a landmark in that it provided an
overview of the status and functions of African languages and concluded that, as far as
language policy was concerned, the situation was still the same twenty years after
independence,
the Addis Ababa Meeting of 1994, which was similar but examined the global
linguistic landscape in which the language of the former colonial power still had a role
while the central role would be reserved for African languages.

10. Given this background, the Harare Conference of 1997 is, therefore, the culmination of a
process that started decades before. The global landscape today makes it necessary for people of all
continents to speak and use at least three languages: a local language, a national language and an
international language. Mrs Arizpe referred to the UNESCO Report entitled Our Cultural
Diversity in which the guiding principle was strongly stated as evolving global ethics together with
a commitment to cultural pluralism. She concluded that:

a culture of peace requires a balance of knowledge, and use of regional and

vernacular languages as cooperation for development can become the main focus of
our actions; and that
cultural pluralism, including linguistic pluralism, is the way forward towards the next
century.

35
11. Therefore, the Harare Conference is a major event which will be considered in the future as a
major milestone in the development of the African continent, and not just another conference to be
added to the list of previous ones.

12. Mrs Arizpe pledged UNESCOs support, in cooperation with the OAU, ACCT and other
partners, to assist in the implementation of decisions of the Ministers Conference which would be
based on the recommendations of the Experts Meeting.

13. The Honourable Dr I. Chombo, Minister of Higher Education in Zimbabwe, then officially
opened the Minister Conference. In his address, Minister Chombo illustrated the reality of
multilingualism by referring to the number of languages in a few African countries, and he then
stressed the need for clear language policies to promote unity, peace and stability in the midst of
multilingualism. He stressed the need to promote the use of inter-African languages within the
regions and sub-regions, in addition to the given international languages, and suggested that the
African languages should also be used in OAU and other international conferences. African
language use is important for sociopolitical and economic development of the African people
because originality and creativity comes naturally in the mother tongue:

People think and dream in their own languages and express themselves fully in them.

Therefore, there is a need to recognise, study and further document this multilingual reality by, for
instance, drawing up an African linguistic atlas and specialised terminologies. Dr Chombo noted
that there is no language that failed to express the reality that faced it. It is time everyone accepts the
fact that multilingualism is enriching - it does not necessarily lead to the breaking up of states into
tiny warring principalities.

C PRESENTATION OF THE EXPERTS REPORT

1. During their first working session, the Ministers had adopted the Rules of Procedure and elected
a Bureau for their Conference. Subsequent to that, a special session of the Experts Meeting
reconvened to formally adopt the Final Draft Report to be presented to the Conference of
Ministers.

2. During the presentation of the Report, the Chairman of the Experts Meeting explained that, in
considering the overall language situation, the Experts had:

given reports on language situations from different countries;

shared views on their perceptions of the general situation from their professional
experiences;
shared experiences from different professional perspectives as specialists in
language studies, educationists, researchers and administrators in various,
capacities; and then
eventually came up with a comprehensive set of recommendations to present to the
Ministers to add, drop and amend as they wished, after which the document would
become the official Harare Declaration.

D THE HARARE DECLARATION AND PLAN OF ACTION

1. Through their adoption of the Harare Declaration and Plan of Action, Ministers and Heads of
Delegations of the 51 African states attending the ICLPA totally committed themselves to
correcting previous anomalies by adopting policy measures that were consistent with a new vision
for Africa within the broader context of democratisation across the continent. The starting point

36
was recognition of the richness of linguistic diversity and the adoption of multilingual policies to
accommodate, promote and develop mother tongues as well as community, national and inter-
African languages, alongside the international languages, in order to:

enhance the participation of all citizens in all aspects of national life;

promote a view of development that is broader than merely economic and allows
for the African not only to grow but also to operate effectively at all levels from
local through regional to international;
assume a proper cultural identity in an environment that encourages peaceful co-
existence and in societies that recognise linguistic rights as human rights within a
broader context of justice, fairness and equity for all;
maximise creativity and resourcefulness of the African people through optimal use
of their own languages;
develop the African languages themselves to the extent that they will be used in all
forms of discourse, including scientific and technological, as part of the cognitive
preparation for Africans to face the challenges of the next millennium.

2. Each country is thus expected to formulate and legislate for the implementation of a
comprehensive national language policy based on the principles of pluralism and unity in diversity,
so that each community will use its own language side-by-side with other languages while
integrating with the wider society. In this way, every language spoken in the country will find its
own place, and policy formulation and monitoring bodies will have to be set up to oversee all of
this. Within this general framework leading to a common vision of Africa, each country or region
will formulate its own policy based on established needs and the prevailing linguistic situation after
thorough research and consultations. Follow-up and monitoring activities will need to be organised
at national and regional levels in conjunction with such organisations as UNESCO, the OAU and
ACCT.

3. Various strategies were adopted for implementation of language policies at the Pan-African,
regional and national levels.

4. At the Pan-African level, governments individually and collectively committed themselves not
only to formulate appropriate language policies, but also to define steps for their implementation
following clear timetables, and to seek and or provide the necessary human, material and
technological resources. Through the Harare Declaration, African governments also agreed to re-
activate previous commitments made:

through the 1986 Language Plan of Action for Africa to make Kiswahili one of
the working languages of the OAU;
by adopting PATPAL (the Pan-African Project for Training and Educational
Materials Production in African Languages);
to request, through the OAU, adoption of the decisions and conclusions of the
Accra meeting on Language in Education (1996).

5. At the regional level the African governments committed themselves to:

monitoring policies and implementation programmes in collaboration with

international organisations such as the OAU and UNESCO;
developing inter-African languages and sharing resources for the same;
strengthening cooperation by teaching international languages across their regions
of dominance; and
establishing and/or revitalising African language research institutions and the Pan
African Association of Linguists and other regional linguistic associations.

6. At nation-state level, governments will individually and collectively:

37
 train language practitioners in the various professions;
produce, share and exchange language materials, information and expertise;
establish language policy monitoring, research and service bodies charged with the
task of developing terminologies and language banks and providing services such
as translation and translator training;
provide incentives by specifying language requirements in key domains such as
education, training, employment and citizenship that would give practical forms of
value to the African languages.

7. Among the commitments and appeals made by the African governments are:

the continued use of language experts in policy formulation, implementation,

monitoring and reviewing through periodic meetings; and
an open invitation to international organisations, especially UNESCO, to assist
African states to implement the programme of action to which they committed
themselves by adopting the Harare Declaration.

8. The 51 African governments attending the conference adopted a Plan of Action by which they
would implement dynamic language policies through a series of actions with specified objectives,
targeted results and time frames, as well as appropriate bodies to take the responsibility at regional,
sub-regional and national levels. Altogether ten categories of activities were identified for
implementation in the short, medium and long terms:

.1 The most immediate task assigned to each state is to formulate a language policy
during 1998-1999 in order to start rehabilitating its national languages. The policy will
explicitly define the status and functions of each of the languages spoken in each
country.

.2 During 1998-2000, implementation of this policy should be followed up in each

country by developing a language management plan in the key sectors of politics,
administration, education and literacy.

.3 Also during 1998-2000, all countries should set up the necessary political, technical,
pedagogical and other structures for the implementation and direction of the Action
Plan.

.4 In order to clearly define the typology of African languages, UNESCO, OAU, ACCT
and other partners will be requested to facilitate and/or assist with the compilation
during 2000-2002 of a complete inventory of African languages and language areas to
be published in the form of a language atlas for Africa.

.5 During the period 1999-2001, existing regional and sub-regional structures and
institutions such as CICIBA, EACROTANAL and CELTHO will be revitalised with
the assistance of international partners so that these structures and institutions can be
actively involved in the rehabilitation and promotion of national and trans-national
languages in Africa.

.6 As an on-going activity, member states and cooperating organisations will promote the
reading environment through intensive production of linguistic tools and didactic
materials in the local sub-regional and regional languages.

.7 IDEM has been assigned the responsibility to see to it that these same languages will
be taught and used as media for instruction in the medium to long term.

38
 .8 At the same tine, individual countries and collaborating sub-regional, regional and
international organisations will conduct extensive literacy campaigns and get their
populations to be educated in the various African languages to the level where they can
not only read them but also use them in other subjects and careers.

.9 African organisations (OAU, ACCT) and international organisations (UNESCO)

would, in the short term, create a Pan African Association of Linguists to contribute to
the promotion of African languages while, in the medium to long terms, they will set
up dynamic networks for multi-sectoral cooperation in order to promote transnational
languages as tools for inter-African cooperation.

.10 Every two years, African countries and their sub-regional and regional organisations
would evaluate implementation of the Action Plan, with the assistance of UNESCO,
OAU and other partners, in order to ensure proper coordination of the activities and to
measure their impact.

E CLOSING SESSION
1. Among the highlights of the closing session were congratulatory remarks by Mrs Arizpe, who
stressed the fact that an extremely important document for posterity had been reached by
consensus. She described the Harare Declaration as a most important vehicle which will be
analysed exhaustively by the Ministers and will become an intellectual, ethical and political vehicle
which we can use to help African countries to become what they have set for themselves.

2. The closing session was chaired by the Honourable Dr I. Chombo. Brief addresses were
delivered, first by the Secretary General of the Pan African Writers Association (PAWA), Mr Okai
of Ghana, followed by HE Dr Akinluyi, Mr Diouff and Dr Shankanka, before the Guest of
Honour, the Honourable Dr W.P.M Mangwende, Minister of Sport, Recreation and Culture in
Zimbabwe, delivered his closing address. Finally, a vote of thanks was given by the Honourable
Professor D. Mkandawire, the Minister of Education for Malawi.

3. Mr Okai explained that PAWA is an organisation of all the writers associations on the
continent, on behalf of which he congratulated the ICLPA as a logical and timely follow-up to the
UNESCO Conference on the promotion and use of African languages in a multilingual
environment held in Addis Ababa, which he had attended in 1994. In his view, ICLPAs unique and
historic essence is that it is seeking to lay the basis for the most revolutionary and quite overdue
movement for the cultural emancipation of the African people who have been marginalised for far
too long in self-government and self-determination, as hitherto most decision - making has been
taking place above their heads and in languages other than their own. Now the first important step
has been taken in a thousand mile journey towards the cultural condition of just and humane
togetherness. The writers will carry out the campaign to attain the spiritual environment of the
African society. PAWAs constitution prioritises the task of taking of all the necessary steps and
setting programmes to ensure that the African languages come into their own and come back into
peoples lives. PAWA pledges to collaborate with other organisations such as UNESCO and OAU
to achieve all this for the good of the African personality.

4. Dr Akinluyi added that ICLPAs concerns focuses on one of the basic issues underpinning the
Peres De Cuellar Report on Culture and Development in the 21st Century:

The most durable way to accommodate ethnic diversity is to create a sense of the
nation as a civic community rooted in values that can be shared by all ethnic
components of the national society. Such a sense of community is best achieved if
the concept of nation is freed from ethnic exclusivity.

39
5. Plurilingualism is a key towards the attainment of that goal. The current conference shows
Africas resolve to ensure that its linguistic and cultural diversity can and should be allowed to
constitute levels of self - actualisation, collective progress and national strength.

6. The Harare Declaration was produced in a week of concentrated unidirectional effort targeted
towards fashioning strategies for linguistic pluralism and cultural reinstatement. The CARDINAL
PROPERTIES OF THE DECLARATION are that:

the document is flexible enough for adoption by member states for urgent and
practical implementation mutatis mutandis;
its PLAN OF ACTION is a new unique feature deliberately endowed with
circumscribed objectives and a phased approach to facilitate achievability;
the time - frame or timetable affixed to it makes implementation meaningful and
beneficial;
it containsd an irreducible minimum of actions for today and an agenda for
tomorrow;
it clearly stipulates the complementing bodies, i.e. who does what.

7. The ICLPA is yet another conference and declaration but hopefully the last in the series of
cognate conferences and seminars before adoption by each member state of a structured approach
in terms of implementation, monitoring and funding.

8. On funding, Dr Akinluyi:

urged the member states themselves to make more money available for this project
rather than merely looking to UNESCO;
reminded delegates that UNESCO is not a fund but a catalyst and facilitator
whose support will depend on well articulated submissions supported by evidence
of significant progress; and
explained that applications can also be made for funds through the participation
programme and submitted through the national commissions.
9. Dr Akinliyu quoted President Ahmed Sekou Tour, 1981, from the Promotion of African
Languages for the Horizon 2000 Project to underscore the importance of the weeks
proceedings and ultimate implementation:

All languages, whatever they may be, are the product of the peoples creative
genius. An individual does not create a language. It is the absolute need to translate
a message from one man to another that necessitates the existence of language as a
means to that end. The more languages an individual has, therefore, the more subtle
variations there are in his creativity. Language has never set men against one
another but opposing interests do.

10. Dr Akinluyi congratulated governmental experts for their success and achievements during the
earlier part of the week. They haved emerged as a group of high-powered technicians who must
now perceive themselves as a component of an intra-African network of specialists who must
continue to consult one another formally and informally:

Their work does not end here. It is just beginning. The Herculian task before you
should not be done in isolation.

He also congratulated the Ministers Conference for coming up with the Harare Declaration as a
combined action symbolising the preparedness of the 51 out of 54 African States present to
urgently implement the agreed agenda and to provide support and funding for it.

11. Finally, he thanked UNESCO, the OAU, ACCT and all the delegates, including non-African,

40
for their support and participation. Now the Africa group in UNESCO must ensure that the gains
made in Harare are not lost but adopted as part of UNESCO policy through the Executive Board
and through the General Conferences participation. The follow-ups must be vigorous and general
across the continent because cultural liberation, of which language is a key factor, is a logical
follow-up to political emancipation. The OAU must address the former with the same vigour as it
may successfully achieve the political emancipation for its member states.

12. Mr Diouff and Dr Shankanka followed up with addresses that echoed the same sentiments and
fortified the same commitments. It was noted that UNESCO conferences, seminars, meetings,
symposia and other such gatherings can be classified in 8 categories indicative of their relative
importance and the extent to which the involvement or views of their governments are represented
or involved, or whether the particular meeting is intended as an academic platform for scholars,
thinkers or researchers, i.e. experts giving views or offering advice in a personal capacity. The
ICLPA was assigned Category 2 status, after the General Conference of UNESCO, which was a
Category I meeting. Therefore, UNESCO attached great importance to the current meeting.

13. The results were very pleasing in that:

A significant number, 51 out of 54 African countries participating, were

represented at the Ministerial level, while all the others had high ranking officials
and experts attending.
The level and quality of the debate was very high because of the combination of a
high level of expertise and the informed positions of those participating.
The Conference was well covered by both the local and international media.
The Conference enhanced the perception of language issues in Africa and renewed
the resolve to do something about those issues.
There was an outcome in terms of a practical agenda for action.
UNESCOs role had now been strengthened as it continued to work with
individual governments and other development agencies in this area, particularly in
instituting procedures, mechanisms and processes for developing an integrated,
interdisciplinary and holistic policy framework.
A task force sub - committee was set up to do the necessary follow - ups.

14. The proposal was made and adopted that, as part of the follow-up action, the conference
authorities, participating states or preferably the host country make a statement at the next session
of the General Conference to report on the outcomes of this conference, with other participating
countries also highlighting the conclusions of the Conference at that forum, both in plenary
session and in the commissions.

15. General appreciation was expressed for the participation and contributions of distinguished
ministers, participants, OAU, ACCT and bureau members, service staff, interpreters and all the
other facilitators, especially the host government.

16. In his closing address, Dr Mangwende spoke about the impact of the high-powered
deliberations of the week which had come at a most opportune time for Zimbabwe when the debate
on the role and functions of the indigenous languages in the overall development of the country
features prominently, in parliament and in the media. The ICLPA has provided Zimbabweans with
direction and put the country, along with all of the other participating countries, in a better position
to solve the language problem.

17. Speaker after speaker highlighted the general concerns of Africa and emphasised the need to
use local and national languages officially and in the decision-making process, in promoting
development, understanding, pluralism and as well as co-existing. The guidelines so clearly
articulated by the Conference must now be implemented urgently by charting a new vision and by
removing all policies and practices that denigrate the languages of Africa. In all this, Africa will

41
need to cooperate as a region to mobilise human, technical and financial resources in the
formulation of effective language policies and language development strategies. Hopefully future
meetings will preoccupy themselves with how well member states have implemented the policies
agreed upon in Harare and will not engage in further debate at the theoretical level.

18. On behalf of the Conference and of the Government of Zimbabwe, Dr Mangwende concluded
his closing address by thanking the UNESCO Director General through Assistant Director
General Mrs Arizpe; the UNESCO Regional Office for preparations and guidance through the
meetings; the outstanding contributions and intervention of the ministers, indicative of the African
countries commitment; the enthusiastic participation and professional outputs of the experts; and
the OAU, ACCT and other organisations for their support, which has all led to the resounding
success of the Conference.

19. In the Vote of Thanks, the Honourable Professor Mkandawire thanked UNESCO for initiating
and successfully organising the Conference and acknowledged UNESCOs commitment to the
central issue of languages in Africa, going back to the early 1950s when a committee of experts
recommended that school instruction should be carried out in the mother tongue even while most of
the continent was still under colonial rule. Now UNESCO has enabled Africa to revisit the
important issue of language when conditions are more favourable for successful implementation by
the member states. The support of the OAU and ACC and their contribution to the debate and
participation at the Conference were also fully appreciated.

20. For the future, it is hoped that the comprehensive guidelines adopted at the end of this
conference wll help African governments to formulate realistic language policies, implementation of
which would be treated as a matter of urgency because the causal relationship between sensible
language policies on one hand and sustainable development and the preservation of democracy on
the other have been demonstrated. Dr Mkandawire was encouraged in this belief by the large
representation of governments at the conference. He concluded his remarks by congratulating and
thanking the host government and all the organisations and people who had contributed in one way
or another to the success of the conference.

42
 PART IV

THE HARARE DECLARATION

INTERGOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE OF MINISTERS ON LANGUAGE

POLICIES IN AFRICA, HARARE
20-21 MARCH 1997

HARARE DECLARATION

Preamble

We, Ministers and Heads of Delegations representing African states at the Intergovernmental
Conference of Ministers on Language Policies in Africa, organised by UNESCO with the co-
operation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) and the Francophone Agency (ACCT)
through the support of the Republic of Zimbabwe, having given due consideration to the views and
recommendations of 51 government experts who met in Harare from 17 to 19 march 1997;

GUIDED

By the 28th session of the General Conference of UNESCO and the OAU Language Plan of
Action for Africa;

COGNISANT

Of the richness of the linguistic diversity in Africa and its potential as a resource for all types of
development;

CONVINCED

Of the necessity and urgency for African States to adopt clear policies for the use and development
of mother tongues as well as community languages, national, inter-African and international
languages;

CONVINCED FURTHER

That the optimal use of African languages is a prerequisite for maximising African creativity and
resourcefulness in development activities;

AWARE

That the language policies introduced since independence have generally favoured the colonial
languages by setting up language structures that confer a monopoly of official status to the
languages of the former colonial powers;

FURTHER AWARE

That most of the recommendations previously made to correct this situation have not been
implemented;

CONSIDERING

That only very few African states have clear and comprehensive language policies and that even
fewer have enshrined the stipulations of such policies in their constitutions;

43
RECOGNISING

That language policy decisions are actually political decisions that can only be taken by national
governments;

HEREBY DECLARE

Our total commitment to the realisation of the following policy measures designed to correct the
anomalies outlined above.

1. VISION FOR AFRICA

Although linguistic in nature, these commitments should be construed within the broader context of
democratisation in Africa. The policy measures stated below are based on our continental vision of
the Africa we aspire to have, namely:

(a) a democratic Africa that seeks to enhance the active participation of all citizens in all institutions
- social, economic, political, et cetera;

(b) a democratic Africa where development is not construed in narrow economic goals but instead
in terms of a culturally valued way of living together; and within a broader context of justice,
fairness and equity for all; respect for linguistic rights as human rights, including those of
minorities;

(c) in broader terms, Africa that acknowledges its ethno-linguistic pluralism and accepts this as a
normal way of life and as a rich resource for development and progress;

(d) a democratic Africa that seeks to promote peaceful coexistence of people in a society where
pluralism does not entail replacement of one language or identity by another, but instead promotes
complementarity of functions as well as co-operation and a sense of common destiny;

(e) Africa where democratisation in a pluralistic context seeks to produce through sound and
explicit language policies Africans who are able to operate effectively at local levels as well as at
regional and international levels;

(f) a democratic Africa that provides the environment for the promotion and preservation of an
African identity as well as the cultivation of a proud and confident African personality;

(g) Africa where scientific and technological discourse is conducted in the national languages as
part of our cognitive preparation for facing the challenges of the next millennium.

2. GUIDELINES FOR POLICY FORMULATION

(a) All African language policies should be those that enhance the chances of attaining the vision of
Africa portrayed above.

(b) Each country should produce a clear Language Policy Document, within which every language
spoken in the country can find its place.

(c) Guidelines for policy formulation should be sanctioned by legislative action.

(d) Every country's policy framework should be flexible enough to allow each community to use its
language side-by-side with other languages while integrating with the wider society, within an

44
empowering language policy that caters for communication at local, regional and international
levels.

(e) A language policy-formulating and monitoring institution/body should be established in. each
country.

3. POLICY OPTIONS

Each country/region should formulate its own policy on the basis of established needs and an
informed awareness of its prevailing linguistic situation, as well the language equipment of its
citizens but within a general framework leading to a common vision. Such a policy should be
arrived at by:

(a) determining the correct typology of a country's language situation, and defining the statuses of
the country's various languages, taking into account their functions and the media (oral, written,
electronic, etc.) in which they are used;

(b) establishing how many languages and language families there are in a given country, as well as
what each is used for, who uses them, and people's attitudes towards them;

(c) involving all concerned individuals and/or groups of individuals in the formulation and
implementation of language policies;

(d) organising follow-up and monitoring activities at national and regional levels in conjunction
with such organisations as UNESCO, the OAU and ACCT.

4. STRATEGIES FOR IMPLEMENTATION

4.1 Pan-African level

In view of the policy needs stated above, African governments should individually and collectively:

(a) make declarations expressing clear policy statements, programme of tasks, and time-tables for
implementation;

(b)acknowledge the fact that the language issue cuts across all sectors of national life;

(c) make use of language experts in formulating relevant language policies, state the guidelines
Africa must adopt, and define the steps for their implementation;

(d) take into account and help develop human, material and technological resources in
implementing the defined steps;

(e) re-activate the Language Plan for Africa and implement the decision taken in 1986 to make
Kiswahili one of the working languages of OAU;

(f) adopt the Pan-African Project for Training and Educational Materials Production in African
Languages (PATPAL, as contained in Appendix 1?).

(g) request the OAU to take the necessary steps to ensure the adoption of the decisions and
conclusions of the Accra meeting on Language in Education.

4.2 Regional level

45
At the regional level governments should:

(a) monitor policies and provide follow-up activities facilitated by international organisations, such
as UNESCO and OAU;

(b) co-operate on matters of policy and resources for cross-border languages;

(c) develop regional/sub-regional languages;

(d) strengthen inter-African co-operation by having international languages taught across their
zones of dominance;
(e) revitalise African language research institutions, and facilitate the formation and continued
existence of the Pan African Association of Linguists.

4.3 Government level

African governments should individually and collectively:

(a) train language practitioners in the' various professions and produce teaching and learning
resources including those required for second-language teaching/learning;

(b) develop language databases and/or language banks at national and regional levels, as well as
create channels for exchange of information and expertise on language matters;

(c) establish a central language planning service or institute to serve as a formal body charged with
the responsibility for language issues such as translation services and compilation of terminologies;

(d) give economic and other practical forms of value to the languages by specifying language
requirements for specific domains such as education, training, employment, and
citizenship.

5 COMMITMENTS AND APPEALS

In the furtherance of the policy objectives stated above, we, individually and collectively:

(a) commit ourselves to undertake as soon as possible the adequate preparation of language
policies, taking into account the fundamental aspirations of our populations, the modern
technological environment as well as the requirements of international life in our time;

(b) undertake to enhance the participation of all our national communities in the public life of our
countries by guaranteeing them a hearing in whatever language they use to express their thoughts
and feelings concerning public matters;

(c) urge all our citizens responsible for public, para-public and private institutions in the area of
political, administrative and social life in our countries to recognise the fundamental need to respect
the right of every human being to use the language of his or her choice;

(d) invite all international organisations, especially those involved in the areas of co-operation,
education and culture, as well as financial organisations and institutions to give their support to the
efforts and the determination -of our states to achieve development by means of dynamic language
policies;

(e) appeal to regional African institutions to give increased support both to national language
policies and to regional integration;

46
(f) encourage institutions and research departments involved in the initiation into and teaching of
African languages to intensify and reinforce their activities in order to play a catalytic role in the
global effort to achieve the development of Africa;

(g) appeal to all concerned in Africa and throughout the world to engage in a clear and forthright
co-operation, with respect for the integrity of African identity and the harmonious promotion of
human values and dignity as given expression in African languages;

(h) appeal to UNESCO to facilitate periodic meetings of government experts in order to evaluate
how far the decisions and resolutions taken by this Conference have been implemented.

PLAN OF ACTION
The Plan proposes actions at the regional, sub-regional and national levels. It states the nature of
each action as well as its objectives, targeted results, time frame and implementing bodies.

No ACTIVITY OBJECTIVE RESULT TARGETED TIME IMPLE-

FRAME MENTIN
G
BODIES
1 Defining Rehabilitating A precise, consistent Short Each state
language National language policy for eachterm
policies languages country (status-function(1998-
1999)
2 Language Implementation of Typology and use of Short and Each
management the language national languages in the medium country
plan policy various spheres of term
activities (politics, (1998-
administration, education, 2000)
literacy)
3 Setting up Creation and The existence of Short All
national revitalisation of functional structures term and countries
structures operational policy (political, technical, medium
and technical pedagogical) term
structures for the (1998-
implementation 2000)
and direction of
the Action Plan
4 Language Typology of An exhaustive inventory Medium UNES-
Atlas of African languages of all African languages term CO,
Africa and language areas (2000- OAU,
2002) ACCT,
other
partners

47
5 Revitalising Effective Rehabilitation of national medium Regional
regional and involvement in the and trans-national and long and sub-
sub-regional promotion of languages term regional
structures African languages (1999- institu-
(CICIBA, 2010) tions and
EACROTAN partners
AL,
CELTHO, etc
6 Producing Intensive The promotion of a Short, Countries
linguistic and production of reading environment in medium regional
didactic tools linguistic tools local, sub-regional and and long and sub-
and didactic regional languages term regional
material organisa-
tions,
UNES-
CO and
partners
7 Teaching of Using these The mastery of Medium IDEM
local, sub- languages as knowledge and know- and long
regional and media of how, and the term
regional instruction and development of skills and
languages teaching them identity by the actors
involved in language
reform and the target
groups through these
languages
8 Literacy The conduct of Populations educated (in Medium Countr-
extensive literacy reading, writing, and long ies, sub-
campaigns arithmetic, in the various term regional
African languages and
regional
organi-
sations,
UNES-
CO,
OAU and
other
partners

48
9 Regional and The promotion of The promotion of Medium Countr-
sub-regional national and dynamic networks for and long ies, sub-
co-operation trans-national multisectoral co- term regional
congress of languages as tools operation through Short and
the Pan for inter-African transnational term regional
African co-operation languagesContribute organi-
Association Create a Pan individually and sations,
of linguistics African collectively to the UNES-
association promotion of African CO,
languages OAU and
other
partners
OAU,
UNES-
CO and
ACCT
10 Follow-up Ensuring proper Implementation of the Biennial Countri-
and co-ordination of language management es, sub-
evaluation the activities and plan and Action Plan regional
measuring their and
impact regional
organisati
ons,
UNES-
CO,
OAU and
other
partners

49
 PART V
OTHER RELEVANT DOCUMENTS ON
LANGUAGE POLICY IN AFRICA

LANGUAGE PLAN OF ACTION FOR AFRICA (1986)

PREAMBLE

We Heads of State and Government of the Organisation of African Unity meeting in our Twenty-
second ordinary Session, in Addis Ababa, from 28 to 30 July 1986,

GUIDED

By the Organisation of African Unity Charter

By the Pan-African Cultural Manifesto of Algiers (1969),
By the Inter -Governmental Conference on Cultural Policies in Africa organised by UNESCO in
Accra 1975 in co-operation with the organisation of African Unity,
By the Cultural Charter for Africa, with Special reference to Part I Article 1 (a) and (b), Article 2 (a)
, Part III Article 6 1 (a) and 2 (b) , and Part V Articles 17-19,
By the OAU Lagos Plan of Action (1980) for the Economic Development of Africa,
By the Final Report (27th April, 1982) of UNESCO's Meeting of Experts on the "Definition of a
Strategy for Promotion of African Languages" :

Convinced that language is at the heart of a people's culture and further convinced that, in,
accordance with the provisions of the cultural Charter for Africa, the Cultural advancement of the
African peoples and the acceleration of their economic and social development will not be possible
without harnessing in a practical manner indigenous African languages in that advancement and
development ;

Convinced that, as in other spheres of her national life, Africa needs to assert her independence and
identity in the field of language

Aware that, up to the present, the majority of Member States have not taken the necessary practical
steps to accord their indigenous languages their rightful official role as provided for by the Cultural
Charter for Africa, the Lagos Plan of Action and other related resolutions of the organisation of
African Unity,

Recognising that each sovereign state has the right to devise a language policy that reflects the
agricultural and socio-economic realities of its country which is consonant or in close harmony
with the needs and aspirations of its people

Convinced that the adoption and practical promotion of African languages as the official languages
of the state is dependent primarily and as a matter of absolute imperative
on the political will and determination of each sovereign state;

Convinced that the adoption and practical promotion of African languages as the official languages
of the state are certain to have great advantages over the use of non-indigenous languages in
democratising the process of formal education and involvement of the African populations in the
political, cultural and economic affairs of their country;

50
Aware that, illiteracy is an obstacle to the economic, cultural and social development of African
countries and that mass literacy campaigns cannot succeed without the use of indigenous African
languages;

Aware that in recognition of the ever-growing interdependence and interaction at all levels of human
endeavour and brotherhood of man, communication with the outside world beyond the boundaries
of the African continent is inevitable and ought to be provided for or reflected in the language
policies to be devised and implemented by each sovereign state ;

Convinced that the promotion of African languages, especially those which transcend national
frontiers, is a vital factor in the cause of African Unity ;

Recognising that, within Africa itself, the existence side by side in almost all African countries of
several languages is a major fact of life and the knowledge that, because of this, multilingualism (i.
e. the mastery and use of several languages by individual for purposes of daily communication) is
an equally dominant social feature of life in these countries, should induce Member States to make
the promotion of multilingualism in their countries a prime consideration in the evolution of an
appropriate language policy;

Agree to adopt the Language Plan of Action for Africa as set out below :

PART I

AIMS, OBJECTIVES AND PRINCIPLES

The aims and objectives of this Plan of Action are as follows :

a) To encourage each and every Member State to have a clearly defined language policy;

b) To ensure that all languages within the boundaries of Member States are recognised and
accepted as a source of mutual enrichment;

c) To liberate the African peoples from undue reliance on the utilisation of non-indigenous
languages as the dominant, official languages of the state in favour of the gradual take over of
appropriate and carefully selected indigenous African Languages in this domain;

d) To ensure that African languages, by appropriate legal provision and practical promotions,
assume their rightful role as the means of official communication in the public affairs of each
Member State in replacement of European languages which have hitherto played this role;

e) To encourage the increased use of African languages as vehicles of instruction at all educational
levels;

f) To ensure that all the secrets of the political and socio-economic system of each Member State is
mobilised in such a manner that they play their due part in ensuring that the African languages(s)
prescribed as official language(s) assume their intended role in the shortest time possible;

g) To foster and promote national, regional and continental linguistic unity in Africa in the context
of the multilingualism prevailing in most African countries.

PART II

51
 PRIORITIES

a) Policy formulation
Whether at the national, regional or continental levels, the selection and prescription without undue
delay of certain viable national, regional or continental indigenous African languages as the official
languages to be used for the formal official functions of the State, regional grouping or the OAU.

b) Implementation and Promotion

The subsequent implementation of the language policy adopted and the incorporation of the
official African languages in the political, educational, social, cultural and economic lives of the
people.

c) Modernisation
The modernisation as necessary and by any means required of the indigenous African Languages
selected and prescribed as official languages.

d) Mobilisation of resources
The mobilisation of financial, human and other resources and all relevant public and private relevant
institutions in the practical promotion of the chosen official languages.

PART III

PROGRAMME OF ACTION (METHODS AND MEANS)

In order to fulfil the objectives set out in Part I, the African States solemnly subscribe to the
following programme of action :

a) At continental level and as a concrete expression and demonstration of the OAU's seriousness of
purpose, the adoption without undue delay by the Organisation of African Unity and the regional
associations, Organisations or institutions affiliated to it of viable indigenous African languages as
working language;

b) To encourage regional associations, organisations or institutions already accorded or those

applying for observer status to the OAU to adopt indigenous African working languages as their
working languages;

c) At regional level, the adoption by regional groupings of viable, regional indigenous African
languages as official or working languages;

d) At national level, the imperative need for each OAU Member State to consider it necessary and
primary that it formulates with the minimum of delay a language policy that places an indigenous
African language or languages spoken and in active use by its peoples at the centre of its socio-
economic development;

e) In order to fulfil the objective in (d), the need by each Member State to establish a national
language council, where none exists, or to strengthen it, where one already exists, as a national
sounding board for the formulation of an appropriate national language policy;

f) The absolute necessity that each Member State, as a matter of supreme practical importance,
follows up the formulation of an appropriate national language policy with an adequate and
sustained allocation of the necessary financial and material resources to ensure that the language or

52
languages prescribed as official language(s) achieve(s) a level of modernisation that meets the
needs of administering a modern state;

g) In recognition of the negative estimation in which indigenous African Languages are generally
held in Africa by the general public, the necessity for each Member State, as part of its national
programme of promoting those African languages duly prescribed as official languages, to mount a
sustained campaign of educating or re-educating the national population about the inherent or
potential practical utility of African languages to counter the present widespread negative attitudes
in Africa towards these languages;

h) In recognition that the formal national education system plays a key role in thepractical use of
any language, the need for each member State to ensure that all the sectors (i. e. primary, secondary
and tertiary) of the national education system are pressed as appropriate in the service of the
practical promotion of the indigenous language(s) selected and prescribed as (an) official
language(s);

i) Aware that African universities, research institutes and other institutions concerned with the study
and promotion of African Languages have a unique role to play instrengthening the role these
languages play in the daily lives of the African peoples, the need for these institutions to strike a
proper balance in future between the scientific study of the African language and their actual use
and practical promotion;

j) In connection with (i) above, the need for each Member State to render its national universities
and other research and related institutions a primary instrument for the practical promotions of
African languages as regards such critical promotional activities as the compilation of technical and
general dictionaries, the writing of textbooks on useful subjects, the training of teachers of language
translators, interpreters, broadcasters and journalists, the production of useful books and other
types of literature relevant to the lives of the contemporary African and the up-dating of vocabulary
in African languages;

k) In recognition of the fact that to impact formal or other types of knowledge the vehicle of
instruction or communication should be a language familiar to the learner, theabsolute necessity
that each Member State should, as an essential part of this educational policy, prescribe as media or
vehicles of instruction those indigenous African Languages that best and most effectively facilitate
the learning process;

l) In recognition of the singularly strategic role widespread literacy among the national population
plays in the socio-economic development of a country, and recognising further that literacy
education will be greatly facilitated and speeded up if languages familiar to the national population
are employed, the advisability of using indigenous African languages as media of instruction in
national literacy campaigns mounted by Member States.

Done in Addis Ababa, 30 July 1986.

53
 RESOLUTION ON THE LANGUAGE PLAN OF ACTION FOR AFRICA

The Conference of African Ministers of Culture meeting in its First Ordinary Session in Port
Louis, Mauritius, from 14 to 15 April 1986,

Recalling the provisions of the Cultural Charter for Africa concerning the promotion of African
languages,

Convinced of the irreplaceable role they play in the preservation, development and dissemination of
African Cultures,

Further convinced that the promotion of these languages contribute to the Assertion of the cultural
identity, the strengthening of national independence and the building of African Unity,

1. ADOPTS the language Plan of Action for Africa prepared by the meeting of Experts
convened by the Inter-African Bureau of Languages (OAU/IBL) in Kampala, Uganda, in
June 1985, and attached hereto

2. RECOMMENDS the member States to draw inspirations from it for their policies and
programmes of development of African Languages;

3. FURTHER RECOMMENDS the experts concerned to establish a Pan-African

Language Association.

54
 PANAFRICAN SEMINAR ON
"THE PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF THE
USE OF AFRICAN NATIONAL LANGUAGES
IN EDUCATION
ACCRA - GHANA
FROM AUGUST 26 - 30, 1996

CHARTER
For the promotion and use of African Languages in Education
AUGUST, 1996
CONTENTS
PREAMBLE
I. PRINCIPLES
II. GOALS AND ORIENTATIONS
III. ACTIONS
IV. SUPPORTIVE MEASURES
V. CONCLUSION

DRAFT CHARTER
FOR THE PROMOTION OF AFRICAN
LANGUAGES IN EDUCATION
PREAMBLE

1. Whereas, for over one hundred and fifty years, efforts have been ongoing, both by Africans
themselves and others, for interested persons and institutions, towards the development of the
languages of Africa for use in education and as tools for both the material and the cultural uplift of
the African peoples; as evidenced by the following agreements, among others:
- The Charter of the Organisation of African Unity (1963)
- The UNESCO Declaration on the Principles of International cultural
co-operation (1966)
- The OAU Cultural Charter for Africa (1976)
- The OAU Lagos Plan of Action (1980)
- the Declaration on the cultural Aspects of the Lagos Plan of Action (1985)
- the OAU Language Plan of Action for Africa (1986)
2. And whereas these efforts have continued throughout the years and very significant
contributions have been made through African language studies and promotion to the determination
of linguistic universals and to human understanding and development in general;

3. Whereas today there is widespread recognition of the importance of African languages not just
for the above purposes, but even more so, as key factors in the total social and economic
emancipation and the cultural and spiritual advancement of the African peoples;

4. Whereas there is now near total awareness of the value of education using the African languages
for the purpose; and all but a few of the African states are now committed to the fullest possible use
of their languages in education;

5. Noting however that despite the achievements in this respect, more remains in fact to be achieved
than ever before, and that the task is all the more urgent, in view of the continuing socio-economic
crises that have beset the African nations over the past 15 years;

55
6. Noting, in addition, the need for the languages of the people as a means of
grassrootscommunication, and also as a key factor in the rehabilitation of populations uprooted and
displaced as a result of civil wars in many of the African countries;

7. Noting the important role of the study and knowledge of languages in the achievement of peace
and mutual understanding not only between nations but also and primarily between groups and
peoples within nations, and its pertinence particularly for the war-torn countries of Africa;

8. Aware that the benefits of the languages involvement, as indicated above, cannot be derived
through the use of foreign languages, but only by making full use of the languages of the African
peoples themselves, and especially within the perspective of achieving the objective of "Education
for All".

9. Aware also that languages, throughout the world, have always been crucial to the development of
personality and the attainment of both group and national consciousness as well as in the
development of group and national culture;

10. Aware of the universal principle that the learner learns best in his mother tongue or most
familiar language, but that this principle has for long been flouted throughout Africa, must to the
detriment of African education;

11. Aware, in addition, of the continuing need to correct negative attitudes towards language
teaching and learning in Africa;

I. PRINCIPLES

We, the African Ministers and those Responsible for Education in the African States,assembled
here in Accra in the Republic of Ghana from 26 to 30 August, 1996.

Taking into account the fact that the African countries are in the process of development and that
education is a priority among their strategies for this development;

Taking into account also that education very largely depends on the communication ofknowledge,
and that language is indispensable for this communication of knowledge.

We must solemnly affirm as follows:

1. The dignity and worth of each and every one of our mother tongue languages, and their complete
inevitability as instruments of African education, culture and personality development;

2. The premier place of these languages as instruments of national communication fromthe

grassroots, and therefore of all national economic and social development;

3. That full literacy in and a full understanding of these national languages is a humanright to be
attained within a multilingual educational system appropriate to the socio-economic and socio-
linguistic situation of a country. In this respect, we affirm also:

The right of every African to literacy and education in his mother tongue, this being defined
as the language native to the individual or the prevailing language of his immediate
community;

- The right to a familiarity with, and as perfect an understanding as possible of,the Lingua
Francas and other major languages of his or her country, for the sake of unity, co-operation,

56
 mutual development, and the free flow of information within the nation;

The right of the African peoples to use their languages for all purposes of inter-country
subregional and regional development, without prejudice to theacquisition and use of
selected foreign languages for such purposes as thoseof religion; international business;
and international understanding.

- The right to linguistic empowerment of all Africans, to enable them fully to join the
processes of democracy in their countries.

4. The need for specific actions to be taken by African governments and their agents towards the
exercise, enjoyment, preservation and protection of these rights.

II. GOALS AND ORIENTATIONS

The main goal of this charter is the promotion of the use of African languages in all normal and
specialised situations and functions. Actions for the purpose will be oriented towards the
following:

1. National awareness campaigns for the removal of prejudices and the development of positive
attitudes towards African mother tongue teaching and learning and community and national usage;

2. The use of the national lingua francas and major community languages for all national business
and administration, as well as in all other spheres of national life, be it information; national debates
and legislation; theatre, music or other entertainment;

3. Quality education both formal and non-formal in the community language at levels, and the
acquisition of the national lingua francas, without prejudice to the learning and use of the
international languages of national adoption;

4. Mass literacy of every language group in its own language, and of every community in its
prevailing language.

5. Mass literacy of every community in the national Lingua Franca or Lingua Francas, as well as in
the major community languages of the country;

6. Full media use of the languages in newspapers and journals radio and television, and the
development of rural language journalism towards this end;

7. The preservation of the oral traditions as well as the rapid development of national literatures in
the languages;

8. The development of national language book publishing and the development and regulation of
the national book trade for the purpose;

9. The development of local language translation and of translation personnel and their training, so
as to facilitate the free flow of information among the various language groups within the nation;

10. The development of a realistic planned and phased programme for the achievement of the
above goals, in the light of the resources that are available or that can be madeavailable to the nation.

III. ACTIONS

The following actions will be necessary, where they have not been already taken:

57
1. Language mapping, to identify the languages of a country, their extent and their first and second
language speaker populations; as well as other linguistic research, resulting in descriptions of all
the languages and the provision of modem grammars and dictionaries;

2. For maximum success, the densitation of all agents and others concerned in the development of
mother tongue languages, by means of public meetings, use of themeetings seminar and
workshops, the theatre and other such means.

3. The adoption of clear national language policies for the development. A policy would include
all the languages of a country, whether major languages, minority groups, spell out the role and
status of every language, which languages are to be adopted for nation-wide communication, which
for zonal communication, and which for literacy among its native speakers.

4. The setting up of institutions for research and the motivation, direction and co-ordination of all
or specific aspects of the language action, such as national language academies, language
associations; as well as the strength ensuing of university and other institutions for teaching and
training.

5. The development of institutional arrangements for the preparation of syllabuses and curricula,
for the conduct of examinations and other such evaluative activities, and for the certification both of
teachers as well as of students leaving educational institutions for entry into the work force.

6. The training of journalists, translators and educational and literacy personnel, as well as literary
critics to encourage and monitor the production of ethnic literature.

7. A determination of which languages are to be taught as subject or used as medium of instruction

in the national education system and at what levels without prejudice to the learning of the
international languages of a country's adoption.

8. The provision of libraries with easy access to mother tongue books; the provision of magazines,
book, information bulletins and government handouts, and an abundance of post-literacy and
continuing education materials, all free or at low cost, for encouraging of the reading habit.

9. The setting up of efficient management and co-ordination structures and mechanisms for the
language action within Ministries of Education, these structures and mechanisms being concerned
with co-ordinating also the involvement of partners in the educational action, as well as with
supervision and monitoring and evaluation.

10. The effective co-ordination and management of both the literacy and the basic education effort
as part of the same programme and this with respect to content and methodology development;
training and staff deployment and career structure; and the use of spaces, facilities and equipment.

11. Mobilisation and training of teachers and literacy personnel for teaching of and in the mother
tongue languages, upgrading of their teacher status, and providing incentives for their work.

12. Encouragement and development of local production, through private publishing, printing and
other such enterprises for the provision of both pupils, teachers and general materials for mother
tongue education. These actions would include also the translation into the mother tongues and
publishing of high quality literature from other African sources or from international sources
world-wide.

IV. SUPPORTIVE MEASURES

As regards supportive measures, the following will be necessary where they have not yet been

58
undertaken:

1. The Organisation of funds for phased programme for the language action, both from national
revenue as well as from non-government sources;

2. The increase of the contribution of governments towards their national language programmes;

3. In view of the magnitude of the language action, the mobilisation of private sources as well as
language communities themselves within the nation for financial and other support for the
development and use of their own language.

4. Legislation as necessary for adoption of the national language policy, and immediately and
freedom from bureaucracy in its implementation;

5. Legislation also for guaranteeing the use of mother tongue languages as the primary
instruments for government business and administration within our countries;

6. The encouragement of partners in the pursuit of the language action, both through international
and bilateral co-operation and NGO's and the planned and co-ordinated utilisation of their efforts;

7. The involvement of national linguists and language specialists in all policy matters involving
languages, both national languages and the foreign languages of adoption;

8. The constant review, monitoring and updating of the language policy provisions;

9. Legal measures for regulation of the book trade especially in favour of mother tongue books;
protection of copyright; and action against plagiarism, book piracy and otherkinds of copyright
infringement;

10. The strict observance of international conventions mandating exemptions from customs duties
and taxes for paper supplies and printing materials for the production of educational books;

11. Inter-African co-operation, and other co-operation as relevant, in such matters as:

the standardisation, as far as possible, of orthographies of common language, so as to

ensure easier access to educational and especially reading materials,

- exchange of expertise as necessary in language and mother tongue education,

- the provision of paper and the setting up of paper industries.

V. CONCLUSION

In conclusion, we recognise and appreciate the role of UNESCO, since its inception and
continuing to date, and of the OAU and other international and bilateral agencies and NGO's in the
language action through research, stimulation, provision of technical and material support, and
assistance with funding, in favour of the language action in the African states, and we fully
recommend that this role should continue and that the Organisation should provide itself with
suitable personnel for the purpose.

Finally, as a necessary prerequisite for the African language action, and as much as lies in our
power, we would not tire in our efforts to guarantee individual and collective freedoms, in the
peaceful, just and democratic societies towards which all Africa is now working.

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 PART VI

EXPERTS CONTRIBUTIONS
Keynote address by Dr Herbert Chimhundu
of the Zimbabwe delegation to
the Experts Meeting of the
Intergovernmental Conference on African language policies

held in
HARARE, ZIMBABWE
17 - 21 MARCH 1997

Distinguished Guests, Ladies and Gentlemen, Colleagues and Friends. . .

1. PURPOSE OF THE CONFERENCE

The main reason I am addressing you now is to get the Experts' Meeting properly focused from the
outset, in order to ensure that both the agenda we are adopting today and our deliberations up to
Wednesday will yield the expected outcomes and make the task of the Ministers and Heads of
Delegations easier on Thursday and Friday. Therefore, in my address, I will concentrate on the
aims, objectives and expected outcomes of the whole five-day Intergovernmental Conference as
these were understood by the Zimbabwean Task Force and Technical Committee in which I served
during the past six months that we have been preparing for this conference. During this period, the
Task Force worked in very close liaison with the Zimbabwe National Commission for UNESCO
and the Government of the Republic of Zimbabwe, and most especially with the Ministry of
Education, the Ministry of Higher Education, the Ministry of Sport, Recreation and Culture, as well
as the Ministry of Information, Posts and Telecommunications. Therefore, those of us who are in
the Zimbabwean Delegation feel that we are in a very good position to interpret the intended thrust
of this conference.
First it is important to emphasise that, as is indicated by the title Intergovernmental
Conference on Language Policies in Africa this is not just another academic conference.
Although language policies must be guided by research, which may be both theoretical and
empirical, our primary concerns and our discussions during the course of the week should be
informed and guided by the experiences which we will be sharing about our own national language
situations, policies and practices. Hopefully, as we compare notes in this way, we will not only
define strategies for the management of multilingual situations of varied complexity, but we will
also actually design alternative language policy frameworks which our countries can implement
nationally or regionally.
In other words, we now need to come up with something more concrete and more practical
from all the linguistic research and conferencing that has been going on since 1976 when the
Organisation of African Unity adopted the Cultural Charter for Africa and subsequently
followed this up in 1986 with the Language Plan of Action for Africa. The numerous
resolutions and recommendations that have been adopted at various fora during the last twenty
years or so, and the many practical steps that have been taken by several countries on the continent,
have convinced the sponsors and organisers of this conference that most African countries are now
ready to formulate and seriously implement clear language policies that will provide the necessary
conducive framework for the development, promotion and use of community, national and regional

60
languages for various purposes. Therefore, this meeting of language experts is expected to produce
a report with clear recommendations that will assist the Ministers Conference to make appropriate
decisions on policy guidelines for the political and technical management of the African linguistic
context within the framework of workable policy alternatives.
In the case of Zimbabwe, for example, it is pleasing to note that serious attention has now
been turned to language issues, and that the national debate on language, culture and development is
expected to intensify after this conference, and to culminate in the formulation and adoption of a
comprehensive national language policy. Zimbabwe, like other countries also represented here
today, is keen to learn from the experiences of those countries in Africa which already have such
policies and have already set up strong linguistic normative bodies.

2. THE AFRICAN LINGUISTIC SITUATION

The starting point for any meaningful language policy has to be a complete understanding of the
situation on the ground in terms of the number of languages spoken, the sizes of the speech
communities and their geographical distribution; patterns of use, roles and statuses of these
languages; the state of publishing and the availability of written materials in those languages; their
use in both the print and electronic media or access by their speakers to the mass media; as well as
the existence or otherwise of an explicit and comprehensive national language policy.
At the continental level, we can start with five generalisations that are valid:
1. The African linguistic situation is extremely complex, characterised as it is by
multilingualism which varies considerably in degree from estimates of 410 languages in
Nigeria and 206 in Zaire to reports of only one each in Lesotho and Swaziland.
2. A minority of African states has clear and comprehensive language policies, and only very
few have actually written such policies into their national constitutions.
3. In the majority of cases, language policies are either non-existent or only implicit from an
examination of scattered pieces of legislation as defining instruments, or from observation
of conventional practice or requirements in particular sectors such as education, training and
justice.
4. Whether these are explicit or implicit, language policies vary considerably across the
continent.
5. The matter of adopting regional linguae francae as official or working languages appears to
have been shelved since the O.A.U. made a decision in 1986, which was never implemented,
to add Swahili to English, French, Portuguese and Arabic.

In the Southern African region, Botswana and South Africa have already formally addressed
language issues, and Mozambique is reported to be preparing to follow suit. Botswana previously
had only the Setswana Language Council, but this is now subsumed under the Botswana
Languages Council as the umbrella body which has powers to make decisions and is taken
seriously. In practice, however, Botswana has adopted the dominant language as the official
language. So have Lesotho, Swaziland, Tanzania and Malawi, although Malawi seems to be shifting
towards a multilingual solution and has already set up a Centre for Language Studies at its national
university to aid this process.
The establishment of a similar language research centre has been suggested here in
Zimbabwe by the existing language committees. For its part, the University of Zimbabwe has
strongly supported major research projects such as ALLEX, the African Languages Lexical Project,
which is primarily engaged in dictionary making. Addressing participants at the Fifth ALLEX
Planning and Training Workshop about two months ago, the Vice-Chancellor of the University of
Zimbabwe said:
...We need to strengthen the Department of African Languages and Literature at this
university, and through it contribute to the development of our national languages and,
through them, contribute to a fuller development of our human resource potential, through
which all other forms of development, including economic development, can then be
realised. We have to link language with development.
It has also been reported that Mozambique may be moving towards a multilingual solution

61
appropriate to its own linguistic diversity by recognising eighteen languages for official use in its
regions, while South Africa has already recognised eleven for the same reasons. South Africa has
gone further in its policy programme and, under the auspices of the Department of Arts, Culture,
Science and Technology, has set up three services. The first is the State Language Services, which
deals mainly with translation. The second is the National Terminology Services which is creating a
national term bank, particularly to enhance the functional capacity of the nine newly recognised
languages, i. e. African languages. The third is the establishment and management of the National
Lexicography Units, by amending and broadening the provisions of an Act of 1975 so that
monolingual dictionary projects can now be commissioned for all the official languages, in addition
to Afrikaans and English. However, in many other countries on the continent, African languages
continue to be downgraded and hardly receive any official attention, despite the occasional rhetoric
about the need to develop African Languages to the level of working languages and to advanced
subject status, and despite the existence of suitable guidelines in the form of the OAU's Cultural
Charter for Africa and Language Plan of Action for Africa.

3. CURRENT TRENDS AND PERSPECTIVES

Within the context of any particular nation, language policy is actually a political decision that can
only be taken by central government. Linguists and other language workers and stakeholders can
only advise and lobby, but ultimately the formulation and implementation of policy on the official
statuses, roles and uses of languages within a nation state have to be done through legislation. For
example, it takes an act of parliament to create an effective linguistic normative body with authority
and power that the community will respect. It is such a body that would then be in a position to
direct and oversee the standardisation, promotion and development of the local languages within the
framework of a comprehensive language policy.
Being fully aware of this, and as part of its preparations for this conference, the Zimbabwe
Government has been consulting widely. Its delegation to this meeting comprises representatives of
various ministries and institutions which are considered to be stakeholders in language policy
formulation or in the teaching, research and promotion of national languages. A Technical
Committee has already produced a Position Paper which was first circulated widely for comment in
the months preceding the conference. Reactions to this paper were studied by the Technical
Committee and incorporated where appropriate.
It is already quite clear that Zimbabwe is now preparing to move towards a comprehensive
language policy, although this policy is still to be formulated. Clear indications to this effect have
been included in the Position Paper, as well as in two Government White Papers which were
circulated last year by the Ministry of Sport, Recreation and Culture on National Cultural Policy
and on Policy on the Music Industry in Zimbabwe. When the Ministry of Education revived the
Shona and Ndebele Language Committees earlier in 1996, official policy statements were made and
publicised to the effect that government now wanted to combine these committees and to set up,
through an Act of Parliament, a National Language Council which would be given the powers
necessary for the purpose of effectively monitoring the form, development and use of the local or
national languages. A citizens' debate on language and culture, and their links with development
and, in particular, indigenisation of the economy, is now very much alive, and it seems to be having
a greater impact than earlier debates on the same issues that tended to emphasise national pride and
identity only.
Why is it important or necessary to mention all of this? I must stress that I am merely using
our experiences and expectations in Zimbabwe as examples to illustrate what this intergovernmental
conference is all about. Notice that we are no longer merely talking about decolonisation of the
mind or about national pride and identity. These are givens. We are now emphasising development,
empowerment and democracy. In my considered view, development of the national languages is
quite consistent with the national goals set out in such programmes as economic indigenisation and
Vision 2020, because it is part of empowerment which is facilitated through access to information,
grassroots participation and grassroots leadership. Thus the question of language is also tied up
with democratisation as a process, for freedom and democracy are least likely to be enjoyed in a
foreign language.

62
 In the wider background, there has also been the international debate on language and
democracy, which culminated in the signing of the Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights in
Barcelona on 6 June 1996. Essentially what the 52 articles of this long and complex document do
in four languages (Catalan, Spanish, French and English) is to prescribe multilingualism and
recognition of linguistic rights as human rights.
As a matter of fact, these principles are consistent with the aims, objectives and principles of
the OAU's Language Plan of Action for Africa, which we have already referred to and which
was signed by the Heads of State and Government at the end of the Twenty Second Ordinary
Session on 30 July 1986. Among other things, this document encouraged "each and every member
state to have a clearly defined language policy".
Democratising language policy is not just a matter of replacing one language by another.
Rather, it is a matter of responding to the real needs of the people. In practice, this would mean
promoting multilingualism in many African countries. For instance, how can you guarantee
democracy when the law of the land is not understood in the language of the people? How do you
abide by what you do not know? How can you use information to which you have no access or to
which you only have limited access? How can you fully participate in anything, or compete, or learn
effectively or be creative in a language in which you are not fully proficient or literate? Above all,
how can a country develop its human resource base to full potential without the languages of the
people?

4. EXPECTED OUTCOMES

To conclude my address, let me enumerate the outcomes expected from this week-long conference.
Basing our deliberations on pre-prepared national linguistic profiles and national position papers,
our Experts' Meeting is expected to come up with a report which will contain clear and practical
recommendations that are consistent with the broad aims and specific objectives that are indicated
in the WORKING DOCUMENT that has been circulated for this conference by UNESCO.
This document outlines the following, with reference to the whole of Africa:
1. A typology of language contexts and situations with four categories;
2. A typology of language policies and practices with three categories;
3. Language categorisation for the purposes of development based on five patterns of use that
are predominant, ranging from local mother tongues to international languages; and
4. Experiences, problems and the pros and cons of all of the above, with particular reference to
specific areas or sectors, notably:
a) Politics and administration;
b) Development;
c) Education;
d) The written press;
e) Radio; and
f) Television.
Our meeting must look at all these areas, compare notes on the basis of our national linguistic
situations and policy positions, and then come up with concrete suggestions and recommendations
on viable options for the formulation of policies and strategies which can be used during the
Ministers' Conference on Thursday and Friday.
If we succeed in our own assigned tasks, we must then expect the Ministers' Conference to
issue a declaration and policy guidelines which individual countries can follow up with a view to
formulating comprehensive and workable national language policies. Such a policy is one that
would do the following:
a) Clearly define the status of all the languages in use;
b) Define short, medium and long term goals for the development, promotion and use of
languages;
c) Determine the methods and resources to be used in achieving the stated goals as well as
targets and problems to be solved;
d) Make specific provisions for language use, development and promotion in crucial sectors
such as education, law and the media; and

63
 e) Set language requirements for citizenship, formal training and work in various other
sectors.
In short, it is expected that this conference will take stock of the current situation concerning the
use and status of African languages, as well as examine and adopt a document to serve as a
reference framework for the political and technical management of a language policy.

64
 Notes from Address by Professor O. Okombo (Kenya)
Chairman of the Experts Meeting
on the topic

STRATEGIES AND POLICIES: MULTILINGUALISM, MANAGEMENT

AND APPROPRIATE INTEGRATION
What are we here for?
To contribute to the current African debate on the kind of Africa that we want: for ourselves, for
our children, and for our grandchildren.
Our contribution is expected to be in the area of language:
i) What policies should guide language use in our various countries? and
ii) What practical measures should be taken to ensure that those policies work?

What is the current thinking about the Africa that we want?

The kinds of recommendations that we make for language policies in Africa and the strategies
for the implementation of those policies must fit in the picture of the Africa that we want.
Today, the dominant themes in the thinking about Africa include the following:
The democratisation of our social and political institutions,
the participation of all our peoples in making decisions about things that affect their lives,
development perceived not only in terms of economic factors, but also in such social factors
and justice and equity,
respect for human rights, both at individual and community levels (including the rights of
minorities),
acceptance of pluralism as a way of life, and the creation of a culture of peaceful co-
existence in a pluralistic society,
the promotion of regional co-operation among African states,
the retention of our African identity and the development of a proud and confident African
personality.

The questions to ask ourselves at this meeting

What language policies will facilitate the realisation of this vision of Africa?
How can those language polices be implemented?
What time scale, what resource allocations, what functional loads for the various languages, in
what ways are the various languages to be made ready for their decided functions, and who will
have the responsibility of seeing to it that everything goes according to plan?

How do we approach this task?

The task of making recommendations for language policies and the strategies for their
implementation must start with a factual assessment of the African language situations as they exist
now: How many languages are there, what are they used for, what are people's attitudes to them, in
what media are they used, et cetera? This assessment leads to a typology of language situations of
the kind hat are displayed in the Working Document.
The next task is a categorisation of languages in terms of function in a manner that is sensitive to
the uniqueness of each situation, always remembering that one and the same language can belong
to more than one category, e. g. for some people the same language may be
- a mother tongue
- a community language
- a national language, and
a language of African intercommunication (this would be the case for a mother
tongue speaker of Kiswahili).
This is the kind of categorisation found on pp7-8 of the working document.

65
What must we do today and tomorrow?
As the experts gathered to do the groundwork for the conference of Ministers, we must by the end
of the day tomorrow have a document outlining:
1. What vision of African language policies must fit into;
2. What every country must do to understand its own language situation;
3. What policy options are compatible with the various African language situations;
4. What implementation of management question every country must answer as a way of
determining the strategy for realising its chosen language policy.

66
 PART VII

EXTRACTS FROM SELECTED SPEECHES

67
 Address by
Dr A. B. Shankanga

(Director, UNESCO Sub-Regional Office for Southern Africa, Harare)

at the opening session of the Experts Meeting (17 March 1997)

...Until not too long ago, there have been people who doubted the capacity of African languages to
serve as media for expressing abstract thought; and that concepts relating to life in today's world, in
particular as regards science and technology, cannot be effectively conveyed through the medium of
African languages. I do not propose to go into any detail about the debate on the language question
in Africa as everyone in the room has experienced the issue in one form or another; whether in the
national context, regional or global setting. Research and reflection have been promoted on such
aspects of the issue as language and education; language, politics, cultural/linguistic pluralism and
the nation-state dimension; language and the citizen's participation in the democratic process, and in
the socio-cultural, economic, scientific and technological development. In many parts of the world
today, language and the culture of peace would be a very pertinent concept to examine as we
grapple with the challenge of constructing the defences of peace in the minds of men, women,
children and youth.
For more than 50 years, and especially since the attainment of independence by African
States, the language issue has been the subject of intense and passionate discussion by politicians,
researchers, experts and members of the community at large. The range of academic research and
university dissertations produced over the years is an indication that the issue occupies a central
place in our lives. Recommendations on how to deal with the linguistic landscape have been
directed at individual countries, and also for consideration by groups of countries sharing the same
language or experiencing similar linguistic situations.
As suggested in the Working Document, this Conference should not be seen as yet another
occasion to engage in debate of a general nature on what factors may have contributed to the
absence of sustained efforts to promote African languages, or the difficulties encountered in
adopting or implementing a language policy at national level. The impressive work in the research
and academic arena, conducted in countries around the world, suggests that the task of analysing
the problems inherent in the language question has been accomplished. This Conference is
intended as an opportunity for Governmental and other experts to recommend policy options for
the African Member States. The task before the Expert Meeting, in particular, must be to formulate
proposals for realistic policy frameworks with reference to a number of fundamental questions,
arising from the research and other experiences as discussed earlier. I wish to highlight the
following:
- In situations where the language of the former colonial power is the official
national language, what measures will ensure that those citizens who have little or no
mastery of the official language have equal opportunities to participate fully in
activities of national life? The more facility in the official language is perceived as a
symbol of, or a means to, success in national life, the greater is the possibility that
those who have no mastery of that language will feel excluded from the mainstream
of national life itself.
- The exercise of democratic and other fundamental rights and obligations of
citizens must be seriously affected by the fact that the official language is the
language of legislation, justice, administration, commerce, education and mass
media. It is estimated that no more than 15% - 20% of the population in the
majority of African countries have the minimum level of proficiency in the official
languages, largely the languages of the former colonial powers;
- How can multilingualism and multiculturalism be used as forces for democracy
and nation-building and national unity? How can a situation of diversity of
language, dialects and ethnic groupings be used to release energies and empower

68
 individual communities and nation-states to foster development?
Finally, ... communication and culture in the global village, the global civil society, and the supra-
technological society of the 21st century, will rely increasingly on language as a sharpened tool for
achieving shared goals, for development and reducing poverty and deprivation, and, above all, for
enhancing peace and unity, within countries, between countries, and globally...

69
 Address by the
Honourable Minister of Education, Mr G. Machinga,
on the occasion of the official opening of the Experts Meeting of the
Intergovernmental Conference on Language Policies in Africa
(17 March 1997)

...I am informed that the question of language in Africa has been the subject of discussion
previously in many fora sponsored by UNESCO and by the Organisation of African Unity, a fact
that underlines the importance of the theme of the current debate to which such an prominent
gathering of experts and eminent scholars as yourselves have come to make a contribution to.
I am informed that you will be deliberating on the complexities of the language situations in
Africa with a view to formulating strategy and making recommendations that will assist our
countries, with their own particular situations, to arrive at workable and implementable policy
frameworks. Our languages have been relegated to the background because of our historical
situations. Yet we all know the importance of own language in thought processes, the
understanding of concepts and in communication. Yet given our very complex linguistic situations,
how shall we define meaningful policy? This is the problem which I hope in the three days
allocated to the experts meeting you will tackle thoroughly to come up with useful
recommendations for the ministers' meeting that follows thereafter. A great responsibility is
therefore thrust upon you in that your recommendations will constitute a landmark in our thinking
as Africans as to which direction we ought to take vis--vis the question of language, given the
complexities of our differing situations. However I am confident you will rise to the challenge and
produce appropriate solutions and strategies.
I am informed also that your discussions will contribute towards the production of a
language atlas, which I believe will be a very useful tool for us Africans to chart new paths in the
area of policy formulation and in empirically defining our situation to ourselves. I am also given to
understand that part of your discussions will focus on current language policies and practices in
Africa and the problems encountered in and created by these current policies and that you will also
examine the role, status and promotion of African languages in politics, economic and
administrative affairs. The task is complex yet necessary. This is because language is an important
and critical factor of development whose potential contribution should be fully utilised to maximum
effect

70
 Speech by the Minister of Information, Posts and Telecommunications,
The Honourable Joyce Mujuru,
during the Experts Meeting of the
Intergovernmental Conference on Language Policies in Africa

(19 MARCH, 1997)

...The use of African languages is a burning issue in Africa including Zimbabwe where our
parliament has been debating this topic extensively for a very long time.
The use of African languages is the best way of ensuring active participation by the local
people in national development programmes and projects affecting their livelihood. Failure of
development programmes has been found to occur where there is a communication breakdown
arising mostly because the plans would have been drawn up using a language and terminology
which local populations do not understand.
The management of the linguistic 'landscape' is one of the major challenges which our
African leaders are confronted with at independence. Often politicians and intellectuals are locked
in debate over the status of different ethnic languages in order to come up with an official national
language. This controversy can only be lessened if there is a clearly defined language policy.
Years after our independence, the languages of our former colonial powers remain the
official national languages. The colonial education systems we inherited have contributed to this
status quo. Instruction is in foreign languages.
Nowadays our children cannot speak their mother or natural languages fluently but can
communicate eloquently in a foreign language. The mother language is perceived as inferior and
associated with the undereducated poor in the 'ghettos' and in the rural areas. It is important
therefore, that parents encourage their children to be proud of their mother languages.
In Zimbabwe, as in many other African countries, you find that, as a more sophisticated and
wealth urban society develops, so does the usage of English or other colonial language.
.... My Ministry's main task is to communicate government policies and plans to the general public,
in the hope of maintaining dialogue between government and the people. In the absence of
information human progress would be impeded. The emerging communication and information
technologies provide a powerful means of transforming our societies and language plays no mean
part.
Language is a very important medium of communicating messages and ideas, of
influencing behavioural changes, of either building or destroying cultures and moral values.
Language is indeed a powerful medium in the social and economic development of humanity. And
yet it is ironic that African governments have ignored their indigenous languages for so long.
This historic conference on African languages has come at an opportune time. We have all
along promoted foreign languages at the expense of our own local languages which reflect the
dynamism and rich diversity of our traditions and cultures. African or indigenous culture should
not be seen to be subservient to other foreign cultures. Our African languages help create a distinct
identity for the African continent as a whole and we should be proud of that. Our biggest challenge
therefore, is to develop and promote our local languages in order to stem the tide of foreign cultural
invasion and the intrusion of alien values. For it is through our own languages that we can express
and explain our national and ethnic cultures. And this can come to pass when we have instituted
coherent national language policies.
I trust that this very important gathering has come up with a comprehensive set of
recommendations which will assist our governments in developing future-oriented African
language policies which relate in very basic ways to our political and cultural values.
I hope you were able to ask yourselves what state of our societies we do envisage with formal
African language policies?

71
 What cherishable values of our societies do we want to promote as African nations,
exploiting the communication opportunities, both existing and potential, arising from our
implementation of African language policy to help us achieve our national objectives? How can a
national language policy promote our culture, cultivate a deep sense of patriotism and create distinct
national identities? I am sure that these and many other questions were entertained during your
deliberations.
... The status of the language can be judged from its use in all fields of everyday life but also from
the extent to which it is used by those for which it is not the first means of communication. In any
event, communication and use are crucial to the very existence of any language. It is therefore
legitimate for linguistic communities to assert their aspirations, calling for the realisation of the
objectives of having indigenous languages accorded the status they deserve.
I am informed ... that the deliberations of this meeting are going to be presented to the
ministers meeting. The conclusions of the Conference will go a long way towards assisting our
governments in drawing up and implementing language policies in our respective countries since
the language question is a developmental issue.

72
 Address at the Opening Session of the Conference of Ministers
by H. E. Ambassador E. Oluwasegun Akinluyi
(Chairman of the Africa Group of Ambassadors in UNESCO)

Thursday 20 March 1997

It is a great pleasure and an honour for me to be here with you today, as part of this international
intergovernmental gathering, devoted to the important question of Language Policies in Africa.
It is not an accident that this meeting should be taking place under the aegis of UNESCO - an
organisation which has always striven to be in partnership with Africa. Ever since in the 1960's, its
membership was significantly swollen by the emergence of newly independent African States
which, without exception, cast their lot with UNESCO in their search for international co-operation,
for the establishment of peace through Education, Science and Culture.
For the last three decades, and again, often through its organs and activities, UNESCO has
endeavoured to be a dependable ally to many of its African Member States in their efforts to
develop their societies. This is how, in partnership, UNESCO and several of its African Member
States have worked together for the recognition of the importance of the cultural dimension in the
planning and execution of development strategies. I believe it is true to say that it is due, in a large
measure to that collaboration and the support of other Member States of like minds, that today we
can say that at last the international community at large has now accepted that development
strategies that limit themselves to economic aspects and fail to take culture into consideration are
almost certain to fail.
Our gathering here today, which is convened to deal with the question of that most
important vehicle of culture-language, can only be considered a logical and important action which
emanates from the central role of Culture in development, and the crucial place of language in the
fulfilment of that role. A major purport of this Conference is about the creation of well thought-out
language policies that will, in a systematic way, lead to the optimum exploitation of the language
treasures of the continent, to the greatest advantage. Our inventory of the existing situation, our
critical examination of their weaknesses and strengths and the great opportunity of exchanging
views and information will help us arrive at the best reasoned and thought-out conclusions and
recommendations, addressed to our individual Member States that are united by language and
culture. In this endeavour, we have been blessed with the fruits of the labour of our experts and
specialists who have been taking a very deep and careful look at the pertinent issues.
...On behalf of the fifty three nation Africa Group in UNESCO, I bring felicitations and
very best wishes to this Conference. The Africa Group, apart from endeavouring to contribute
assiduously to the vibrancy of UNESCO, strives with resolve and commitment to consider and
promote Afrocentric issues and interests within the areas of competence of UNESCO. It is also our
policy to be more pro-active than re-active.
Indeed, a number of us, including my humble self, belong to the Executive Board, to which
the quintessence of these deliberations will ultimately be forwarded. We are also well represented at
several other intergovernmental bodies within the Organisation.
It is noteworthy that in UNESCO, Africa is the only region which has a department created
specifically to cater for its needs. This new Department, headed by a Deputy Director General,
himself an African (and incidentally a former Prime Minister) has constituted a major focus of our
liaison with the organisation. I was recently at the OAU Headquarters in ADDIS during a
UNESCO - OAU promotion of greater synergy in the interest of Africa, with the nascent
department as a focal point.
...In the last three days, I have been privileged as an observer to witness the proceedings of
the Governmental Experts which was a prelude to this Conference. The multi-faceted deliberations
and recommendations which are now distilled and put before the Conference have indeed been
arrived at after pooling together experiences both within and outside the continent. Some
experiences have been shared. We have learnt or have been reminded, that pluri-linguistic

73
mechanisms and procedures in our countries are in varying stages of evolution. However, I crave
your indulgence to proffer a few general observations:
- that a dichotomy should be clearly made between policy and practice; stated
intention in the constitution, on the one hand, and implementation per se. Both
elements need to be accorded due importance.
- that national languages should be construed as an essential component of, and a
leverage for development.
- that the inescapable symbiosis between development and peace should be
underscored: ie. there can be no development without peace and, there can be no
peace without development. National languages, as an inalienable right, constitute a
part of development - development of the integrity (the wholeness) of the
personality and they equip it to cope with the demands of the community, the nation
and beyond. We all exist in a global village and there should be no exclusivity or
insularity of germane considerations.
- that, in the context of language, multi or pluri should be recognised as
presupposing mono. Accordingly the starting point, the MOTHER TONGUE
should be continuously accorded due importance in the matrix of considerations.
- that ultimately or contemporaneously, we should inter alia, work towards the
codification and publication of a Thesaurus Linguarum Africanarum (A treasury of
African languages).
Finally, permit me, as it were, to tell a tale out of court. In reading the antecedents to this
Conference one takes note of the number of similar previous conferences on the same issue. One
comes to the inescapable conclusion that there is a bulk of recommendations still waiting to be
implemented. There has been a bulk of residual items wittingly or unwittingly carried over from
decade to decade. The 1986 Plan of Action is just one case in point.
What all this indicates, inter alia, is that lectures, seminars, symposia and conferences may
be considered as mosaics in the pavement of progress, but they cannot and should not be mistaken
for substantive progress per se. What is, in fact, recurrently mentioned in UNESCO is the need for
POLITICAL WILL in Member States to implement recommendations pertaining to their own
progress. In the case that is before you, these are recommendations made by Africa, about Africa to
Africa and for Africa. They therefore stand every chance of success and implementation.
... The libraries of the world are replete with papers, and books, not only about what Africa says it
needs, but also what the rest of the world deems that it needs. What we now need is ACTION,
substantive and vibrant action, to combat the plethora of needs that beset us. Our salvation, under
God, lies in our own hands.
Linguistically, the crux and upshot of this Conference will represent what Africa today says that it
wants:
- We need guidelines for policy, planning, and practice; frameworks flexible and
adaptable to situations in each country.
- We need an irreducible minimum of actions for TODAY and agenda for
TOMORROW.
- We need a quantum leap in our multi and pluri-linguistic endeavours.
Above all
- We need an effective and timely follow up mechanism.
It is our duty, individually and collectively, to ourselves and to posterity, to ensure that whatever is
being planned in grandeur does not falter in execution.
The Africa Group wishes the Honourable Ministers all the best not only in their
deliberations, but also in the follow-up operations. We stand with you in your readiness to further
promote the enthronement of our cultural riches and in your resolve to underscore multilingualism
not only as a critical factor in development, but also as a potent tool for Unity in Diversity...

74
 Address by Mrs L Arizpe,
Assistant Director General, Sector of Culture,
representing the Director-General of UNESCO at the
Opening Ceremony of the Intergovernmental Conference on
Language Policies in Africa, Harare (Zimbabwe)
20 March 1997

... Mr Federico Mayor, Director-General of UNESCO would have liked to personally take part in
this Conference. Due to his other important duties, he asked me to represent him and to convey to
you his warmest greetings. Those who know him know the importance he attaches to the language
issue.
Let me first of all pay due tribute to the government of Zimbabwe which, at the last session
of the general conference, took the initiative not only to invite UNESCO to hold this Conference
but also in accepting generously to host it here in Harare. This initiative of Zimbabwe comes at the
right time in the present trend of the evolution of the African continent where a democratic
approach is progressively established and the need to abandon highly centralised systems for
decentralisation of decision to local communities generally accepted. This initiative is also an
appropriate response to the scholars who were rightly convinced that without a precise and realistic
language policy they could not achieve much in their research and studies. They had reached a
consensus that a coherent strategy was the only way to put an end to repetitive and uncoordinated
seminars, and meetings and to useless studies and publications.
One can ask why UNESCO is concerned about the language issue. Article 1 of its
constitution condemns all discriminations based among other things on language. On the basis of
this principle, UNESCO developed since its foundation various programmes and activities in the
field of languages. In the first period, emphasis was put on the language as teaching tools. The
concepts of vernacular languages, dialects, national, ethnic or tribal languages were largely debated
by specialists. With the independence of many countries specially in Africa the problem of
language and mother tongue in particular became a national issue. The language problem was
progressively seen as a right to free access to education and to the participation of ad citizen to the
development of their country as well as a national vehicle for cultural authenticity.
The participation of delegates from newly independent countries to the various sessions of
the Executive Board and the General Conference gave a new impetus to UNESCO's Programme
mainly in the sectors of culture, education and social sciences. The brilliant interventions of Joseph
KI-ZERBO and Amadou Hampate BA are still remembered. They particularly contributed to
launch programmes concerning African languages and oral traditions as well as the general history
of Africa. You surely know this famous statement Hampate Ba made at that period "In Africa, when
an old man dies, a library burns down". From that period, the problems of languages are an integral
part of UNESCO's programmes.
It would be too long to give even a brief description of UNESCO's achievements in the
field of languages. Let me just single out some major actions which highlight what has been
achieved so far. In the 1960s UNESCO launched a series of Conferences on the development of
education in Africa. These conferences were originally attended by Ministers of Education. but
since 1978. Ministers responsible for economic planning were also invited for obvious reasons of
co-ordinating education development with economic planning. One of such conferences was held
here in Harare in 1982. In 1972, the General Conference of UNESCO adopted a Ten year plan
for the systematic study of oral traditions and the promotion of African languages as a medium of
instruction and instrument of life-long education. This plan was an attempt to organise coherent
strategy of actions ranging from methodology for collecting and using oral data and the promotion
of African languages to adult education, participation of the people in cultural life and their
contribution to it.

75
The decade 1970-1980 has been dedicated to conferences on cultural policies. The concepts of
cultural identity, cultural identity and national unity, cultural authenticity, cultural co-operation
among many others were debated. As means of communication and vehicle of culture, a language
organised in Accra (Ghana) in 1975 made the following statement concerning the language
problem:
The conference unanimously agreed that the safeguarding of cultural reinstatement
and promotion of African languages as the irreplaceable media of social
communication and the carriers of the cultural inheritance of the various
communities. This rehabilitation of African languages will also require their
scientific and objective study and their incorporation into the educational social
administrative and political systems of states. The delegates acknowledged the vitally
important role of and the responsibility incumbent on, the public authorities in this
connection.
It went on
Regional languages continued to be a powerful means of communication and co-
operation, transcending frontiers...
In addition, widely spoken transactional languages should be promoted, though the
study and safeguarding of minority languages should also not be neglected...
At the request of individual states or of a group of countries, UNESCO has made various
interventions in finding appropriate solutions to practical or technical problems.
I would like before concluding this chapter, to mention two meetings of experts which seem
to me to be closely connected with this conference. The common specific characteristics of the two
meetings is that they go beyond the linguistic, pedagogical or cultural aspect of the language in
considering the status and functions of language in all sectors of national life.
The first meeting which was organised in Conakry (Guinea) in 1981 under the title of The
definition of a strategy for the promotion of African languages made a survey which provides an
overview of the status and functions of African languages twenty years after the independence of
African countries. The conclusion of the experts was that the situation as far as the language policy
was concerned was in most cases the same as before the independence. They made an appeal to all
concerned African governments, OAU, UNESCO to organise a conference on language policy in
order to engage African populations in the development process. One of the major achievements of
the meeting was the identification of languages common to various countries with number of
speakers, status and functions in each country.
The meeting of experts held in Addis Ababa in 1995 could be considered as a continuation
of the Conakry meeting with some minor differences. Instead of putting emphasis on African
languages, the Addis Ababa meeting examined the global linguistic landscape considering that even
the language of the former colonial power is integrated in that landscape. Moreover contrary to
global survey produced in Conakry, the Addis Ababa meeting insisted on the preparation of a
detailed survey for each country. This survey should indicate the official status and the functions in
public sector of each of the language spoken in a country. We had hoped to publish these data for
this conference. It however has been impossible for different reasons:
Some data have been received very recently, others need to be revised, others have not yet
been received. The presence of the experts here provide the opportunity to finalise each survey in
order to have a comprehensive publication.
Like in Conakry, the Addis Ababa meeting insisted on the central role which should be
played by African languages. In-depth discussions have been conducted on the role of African
languages in education, mass media, in social promotion, in democracy, in nation building, in inter
African and international co-operation. Their conclusion is that it is important today to review the
role which African languages should play in Africa's development process at the dawn of third
millennium. Hence the appeal to African governments and their partners to organise a conference
on a political level in order to solve this problem of language policy which naturally is of political
nature.
... My objective was to show you that this conference is the culmination of a process which
started some decades ago. My intention was also to draw your attention on the various appeals
received from scholars and all those involved in development programmes in Africa on the urgent

76
need to adopt a clear language policy and as far as possible to give African languages the official
status and functions they deserve. Many Africans, not only scholars, but also ordinary people who,
due to the language barrier, cannot be fully involved in development of their countries are anxiously
looking for the Harare decisions.
After three days of hard work, the governmental experts have prepared a report with
decisions and recommendations submitted to the scrutiny of the conference of Ministers.
UNESCO is looking forward to the decisions of the conference. I would like to assure you that as
in the past, UNESCO with its partners is prepared to shoulder your efforts in implementing the
decisions of this conference. For us in UNESCO this is not a conference which will be added on
the list of many other conferences and meetings. We are onvinced that this conference is a major
event which in the development of the African continent will be considered as a major milestone.
As in the past, UNESCO will be joined by its partners. I am happy to state that in implementing
the activities and programmes mentioned earlier, UNESCO has always worked hand in hand with
the Organisation of African Unity...
In concluding my address I would like to quote a Sicilian poet whose message can guide
our deliberations:
Put a people in chains, strip them, plug up their mouths, they are still free. Take
away their job, their passport, the table they eat on, the bed they sleep in, they are
still rich.
A people becomes poor and enslaved when they are robbed of the tongue left them
by their ancestors: they are lost forever (Ignazio Buttitta: "Lingua e Dealetu).

77
 Speech by Dr I. M. C. Chombo
Chairman of the National Commission for UNESCO,
on the occasion of the official opening of the Ministers' Meeting of the
Intergovernmental Conference on Language Policies in Africa
(20 March 1997)
.

..the subject of Language Policies in Africa is one that has many ramifications given the
complexities of the language situation in this vast continent. Most African countries are
multilingual. The main features of this multi-lingualism is the existence of a number of indigenous
languages side by side with one or more languages of former colonial powers. The main colonial
languages are English, French and Portuguese. Let me illustrate this situation by referring to four
African countries:
a) Angola - Angola has no less than 11 languages among which are to be counted:
Umbundu
Kimbundu
Kikongo
Lunda-Chokwe
Nyangela and
Portuguese
b) Guinea - Guinea has no less than 21 languages. Some of the main ones are:
Pulaar
Maninka
Susu
French
c) Kenya: Kenya has no less than 40 languages, among which are:
Gikuyu
Dholuo (Luo)
Kiswahili
Luhya and
English
d) Zimbabwe: our own country, Zimbabwe, has three official languages - English, Ndebele and
Shona, and a number of other languages.1
There is need for Africa to re-examine its language policies with the view of rationalising
and adopting decisive national language policies that promote unity, peace and stability in the midst
of multi-lingualism.
There is need to facilitate interstate communication not only in former colonial languages
but also in some indigenous African languages that are spoken by large populations that straddle
states.
1. In multi-lingual situations, it is necessary for countries to spell out in terms that are not
ambiguous, those languages which are to be regarded as:
i) official;

1Source: Sow, Alfa I. and Abdulaziz, M. H. "Language and Social Change". In Mazrui, A
(ed).1993. General History of Africa. London: Heineman, pp. 533-548.

78
 ii) national without being official;
iii) local, and as
iv) languages for specific use, for example, for religious worship.
Clearly stated policies will enable African governments to allocate more resources to the
development of official languages and use these languages in official communications. For the
purposes of social and economic development of the continent, local languages will also receive
attention.
At this juncture, may I make the following observation. I have often listened to people who
call themselves authorities in local languages address the communities whose languages they claim
to know in some former colonial languages and get some people to translate these languages to
local ones. Is this not shameful? Some ministers are also guilty of this. This is why Africa is
stagnating. I do not advocate that we should abandon English, French and Portuguese in Africa.
These languages are a sine qua non, particularly in international fora such as the present one.
However, indigenous languages, especially those with a wider circulation should be explored with
the objective of using them in international conferences organised by the Organisation of African
Unity and other bodies.
In his opening address to the Colloquium of the Second World Black and African Festival
of Arts and Culture in Lagos in 1977, the then head of Nigeria, Olusegun Obasanjo, expressed
what I am saying in these words:
It is my hope that your inquiries will identify the mental and material obstacles in
the way of a change of course in the direction of self-sustainable and original
productivity. You must give Attention to the question of the medium in which your
thought process is encapsulated. Have we lost our tongues forever must we think
and work in the languages of Europe for ever? Must the choice of fashionable,
acceptable or admissible research topics and areas be dictated to us by another
culturally dominant group? Must we measure the quality of our performance by
standards that are foreign? How much do we delude ourselves in the pursuit of
acceptability?2
Now, let us examine ourselves. Do we, indeed, use our own languages for the socio-political and
economic development of the peoples of Africa. The world outside Africa, especially the western
world, has long recognised the potency of local languages. This is why it abandoned Latin in
favour of what are now termed Romance languages. People think and dream in their own languages
and express themselves fully in them. Is it, indeed, not too much to demand originality and
creativity from a person who is a toddler in a particular language? This is exactly what we do when,
in an attempt to galvanise our nationals into activity, we drum messages into their ears in tones that
are incomprehensible to them.
Let us develop our languages territorially and extra-territorially, promote them, accord them
recognition and status, use them in social, political and economic arenas and accept that multi-
lingualism is enriching without breaking our states into tiny waring principalities. There is, indeed,
that danger, if every language, even those that command less than 1 percent in large populations of,
say 30 million, claim the same official status as those that command larger percentages. I also admit
that a minority language may claim official recognition in proportion to its importance as a
language of international communication such as English in many states in Africa. Therefore, every
case needs close scrutiny. Parochialism cannot be embraced.
In the face of recurrent droughts, the world economic recession, high level of inflation, rapid
migration of population from rural to urban areas, the shrinking world in which there are
competitive global economies, Africa needs to develop strategies which will enable her to avoid

2Source: Iwara, A. U. and Mveng, E. eds. 1977. Colloquium on Black civilization and
culture, Lagos, pp. 20-21.

79
stagnation. Language is the most important tool for development and the language which appeals
most to the totality of any individual is that which he or she knows best, that is, the mother tongue.
I have spoken at length on languages and language policies. May I now be permitted to turn
to unesco and express our thanks and appreciation for all that this organisation has done for
African languages through its activities and sponsorship. UNESCO has over the decades,
promoted research and communication in African languages. I need only mention the following:
(A) 1962: under the world programme for combating illiteracy, UNESCO encouraged the
use of African languages in adult education programmes.
(B) 1966: that year UNESCO staged a linguistic conference in Bamako. This conference
laid down the standardised transcription of some African languages in west africa.
(C) 1968: that year UNESCO was involved in "the preparation, adoption and
implementation of the ten-year plan for the systematic study of oral tradition and the
promotion of African languages as vehicles of culture and instruments of life-long
education" (Sow and Abdulaziz, p. 532).
The list is endless. Here I want to add that UNESCO is also to be congratulated on funding the
General History of Africa, edited by Ali Mazrui, a history in volumes which I am informed
UNESCO intends to have translated into some of the languages of Africa such as Arabic,
Kiswahili, Hausa and others. May I dare say that I hope this history will also be rendered into
Shona and Ndebele, the two official Zimbabwean African languages....
We all look to you to accomplish your task and give us a language map of Africa which
reflects the present situation of the continent. Experts have been working on this since Monday, 17
March, 1997. We know that you will do our continent great pride and honour and when you return
to Botswana, South Africa, Namibia, Malawi, Zambia, Nigeria, Togo, Ethiopia and to many other
countries represented here, you will sing our song of African languages.
May I urge you to march forward, develop the languages of Africa through research and
application to the problems that face us. I see no cogent reason, for example, for our failure to use
our languages as media of instruction in our secondary schools and even our universities. The
untutored may object that they lack a technical vocabulary but, as I am well informed by all
linguists, there is no language that fails to express the reality that faces it. We shall all, therefore,
receive with great eagerness and high expectations the documents that contain your decision which
we shall be glad to examine and take into account when formulating our language policies...

80
 Address at the Closing Session of the Conference of Ministers
by H. E. Ambassador E. Oluwasegun Akinluyi
(Chairman of the Africa Group of Ambassadors in UNESCO)
Friday 21 March 1997

....From the tenor of the discussions in the last five days it is clear that all are consensed on one of
the basic issues underpinning the Perez de Cuellar report on Culture and Development in the 21st
Century:
The most durable way to accommodate ethnic diversity is to create a sense of the
nation as a civic community, rooted in values that can be shared by all ethnic
components of the national society. Such a sense of community is best achieved if
the concept of NATION is freed from ethnic exclusivity.
I hold that plurilingualism, which is what we have been trying to promote at this Conference, is a
key avenue to the attainment of that goal.
Discussions here have demonstrated:
- that we refuse to contribute to the marginalisation of the Development Paradigm
- that we believe in the cultural dimension of development and
- that Africa is resolved to ensure that its linguistic and cultural diversities can and should
be enabled to constitute levers for individual actualisation, collective progress and national
strength.
We have come to the end of a concentrated period of uni-directional efforts targeted, once again, at
fashioning strategies for the promotion of linguistic pluralism and cultural reinstatement.
There is hardly any doubt that within the limitation imposed upon us by time, significant
strides have been taken to produce a document flexible enough for adoption by member states, for
urgent and practical implementation.
A Declaration such as this signifies that co-declarants have consensed to move positively in
the same direction.
We may also point out some cardinal properties that appear to confer a welcome dimension
on the document before us today:
i. It is flexible enough for implementation in each member state, mutatis mutandis.
ii. Unlike its predecessors, the plan of action is deliberately endowed with
circumscribed objectives and a phased approach, to facilitate achievability.
iii. A time frame is also affixed, to make implementation meaningful and beneficial.
iv. Indeed, it appears to respond to some of the appeals made in my intervention
yesterday. Inter alia, it contains "an irreducible minimum of Actions for today and
Agenda for tomorrow".
v. It also clearly stipulates the implementing bodies.
... this is
- yet another home grown document,
- yet another set of recommendations,

81
 - yet another declaration.
It is the last in a series of cognate conference and seminars. What is now urgently required in each
member state is a structured approach in terms of implementation, monitoring and funding. With
regard to funding, I wish to advert our minds to the following observations:
i. UNESCO while continuing to assist vibrantly within the constraints infused by
competing claims on limited funds, would expect each member-state to make more
money available for this project.
ii. It must be remembered that UNESCO is not a FUND; it is a catalyst and a
facilitator. Assistance by UNESCO will continue to depend upon well articulated
submissions, supported by evidence of well co-ordinated and significant progress.
iii. Applications may also be made for funds through the Participation Programme,
submitted by our National Commissions.
... in underscoring the importance of these proceedings and especially of ultimate implementation,
one recalls the words of President Ahmed SEKOU TOURE in 1981 during the promotion of
African Languages for the Horizon 2000 project:
All languages whatever they may be, are the product of the people's creative genius.
An individual does not create a language; it is the absolute need to transmit a
message from one man to another that necessitates the existence of language as a
means to that end. The more languages a nation has, therefore, the more subtle
variations there are in its creativity. Language has never set men against one another;
but opposing interests do.
We congratulate the governmental experts, who in the last few days have worked tirelessly and have
emerged as a group of high powered technicians. We advise them to perceive themselves as a vital
component of an intra African network of specialists, and therefore seek to consult one another
formally or informally. Their work does not end here. The Herculean task before you should not
be done in isolation.
As for our respected Ministers, we warmly congratulate you and construe your participation
and declaration as symbolising your preparedness to render your national machineries optimally
functional for the urgent implementation of the outlined agenda, and to provide the much needed
funds for the implementation of these laudable recommendations...
- Let us remember that Cultural Liberation of which language as a key factor, is a logical
follow up to political emancipation. We have no doubt that the OAU will address the
subject of cultural liberation with the same unremitting vigour with which it successfully
secured political emancipation for some of our member states.
- Let us remember that participation in this declaration confers on it the attribute of being
voluntarily compulsory, the potency of being mandatory. But voluntarism becomes
dangerous when delay in implementation is likely, as in this case, to be deleterious.
Let us leave here with renewed vigour for substantive strides on this crucial theatre of
activity.
Let us open new vistas for research, documentation and teaching:
- in schools
- in communities and
- via the media
Let it be said of all, when we depart from the scene:
They went far beyond conferences and seminars;
They also implemented, with far reaching positive results and multiplier

82
 effects for national development
Indeed,
lives of great men (and women) all remind us, that we can make our lives sublime,
and departing, leave behind us, footprints on the sands of time...

83
 Statement by Dr A. B. Shankanga, Director,
UNESCO Sub-Regional Office for Southern Africa, Harare
at the closing ceremony
(21 March 1997)

In UNESCO conferences, meetings, workshops, symposia and related gatherings, are classified in
eight categories. These categories indicate the extent to which people whose contributions represent
Government policy positions are involved or whether the particular meeting is intended as a
platform for scholars, thinkers, researchers, otherwise collectively known as experts to deliberate
and offer their opinion and advice in their personal capacity. The Intergovernmental Conference on
Language Policies in Africa was assigned Category II status. The General Conference of UNESCO
is a Category I meeting. I mention this to highlight the nature of the significance that UNESCO
attached to the holding of this Conference.
My colleagues from UNESCO who with myself have been privileged to be involved in the
organisation of the Conference are very impressed first, by the level of representation. Fifty-one of
the 54 countries on the African continent sent high-ranking governmental experts and senior
officials and a significant number of these countries were represented at Ministerial level. Second,
we are impressed by the level and quality of the debate. Not many Conferences benefit from such a
combination of high level expertise and policy informed positions of those participating as we have
experienced at this Conference.
The international media, both African and external to the continent, followed the discussions
at the Conference with keen interest.
I think I speak for all of us when I say that we leave here today with an enhanced perception
of the language issues in Africa and a renewed resolve to do something about those issues. ... We
commend the quality of the discussion, and in particular its outcome in terms of the practical
Agenda for Action that the Conference has just recommended to the Governments of Africa. The
concrete plan of cction and the degree of commitment expressed for those measures at this
Conference, can only strengthen UNESCO's role as it works with Governments, in collaboration
with other development agencies, in this area, particularly in the institution of procedures and
mechanisms and processes for developing integrated, inter-disciplinary and holistic policy
frameworks. We very much welcome the agreement to establish a regional Task Force to monitor
the implementation of the recommendations of the Conference, in particular the Plan of Action.
... I wish to propose, as part of the follow-up, that the Conference authorises one of the participating
countries, ideally the host country, to make a statement at the next session of the General
Conference to report on the outcome of this Conference. The conclusions of this Conference
should also be highlighted in the statements of the other delegations to the General Conference,
both in plenary and in the relevant Programme Commissions, in particular those concerning with
Culture, Education and Social Science programmes...

84
 Vote of Thanks
The Honourable Professor D. Mkandawire,
Minister of Education,
Republic of Malawi

What is our hope for the future?

It is our hope that the comprehensive guidelines which have been adopted this evening in the Harare
declaration will serve their purpose of helping our African governments formulate realistic language
policies. We hope that the implementation of these guidelines will be treated as a matter of urgency
because of the casual relationship between good national language policies, on one hand, and
sustainable development and the preservation of democracy, on the other.
Given the large governmental representation at this conference and the lively discussions which
have taken place and the recognition of the importance of African languages in our nations, we are
hopeful and optimistic that governments represented here will be urged seriously and expeditiously
to formulate comprehensive language policies that encourage the full participation of their citizens
as enunciated in the Harare declaration.

85
 Address by The Honourable Minister of Sport,
Recreation and Culture,
Dr W. P. M. Mangwende (MP),
on the official closing of the Inter-governmental
Conference on Language Policies in Africa, 21 March, 1997
The need to establish the necessary integrating links in the search for practical language policies for
a new Africa cannot be over emphasised. The sentiments expressed by, speaker after speaker are a
true testimony of Africas concern in that regard. I am confident, therefore, that these concerns will
be carefully scrutinised by all those responsible for language policy formulation, policy options and
implementation strategies.
...I am pleased to note that the need to use local and national languages in the decision
making process and the use of local languages in promoting understanding, pluralism and co-
existence has featured prominently in the deliberations of this conference. What remains, therefore,
is to ensure a systematic and urgent implementation of the language policy guidelines so well
defined by this conference.
Having accomplished this decisive break-through in charting a clear path in language
development in Africa, we must move forward by ensuring the removal of all policies and practices
that denigrated the languages of Africa.
... you have rightly stated that Africa needs a new vision. I believe that the time to chart that
vision is now. What we urgently need is a critical reassessment of ourselves, our development
policies, and in this case, our language policies in order to effectively use all our local languages in
the development process and in the expression of a truly African personality.
We cannot look elsewhere to achieve these cherished goals. There is therefore the need to
co-operate as a region in mobilising the available resources, human, technical and Financial, in the
formulation of effective language policies and language development strategies.
I am confident, that the next time we shall meet as African ministers to discuss the issue of
languages, we shall preoccupy ourselves with the critical evaluation of how well we will have
implemented the recommendations we have made here. We do not have the resources to engage in
further debate on concepts, principles, options and strategies on this issue. Neither do we have, the
time to postpone the implementation of the African language plan of action and the programme of
action we have adopted here today. There is no doubt in my mind, and indeed in the minds of my
colleagues present here that we Have the capacity to realise that our people expect us to carrying out
the tasks we have set ourselves to achieve.
The deliberations of the last few days have exerted full impact on all of us and will, most
undoubtedly, make an indelible impression on the entire African continent and beyond. Speaking
for Zimbabwe, I can say this conference has come at a most opportune time. This is at a time when
the debate on the role and functions of indigenous languages in the overall development of
Zimbabwe has featured prominently in the Zimbabwean parliament and the media. The conference
therefore leaves us the richer and better able to articulate and find solutions to our language policy
problems. It is my hope that the interaction that the conference has afforded us, both as language
experts and ministers will greatly enhance the individual states' ability to produce clear and
comprehensive national language policies and harmonise human, financial and other resources for
that development.

86
 PART VIII
PARTICIPATION

COUNTRIES REPRESENTED AT
THE INTERGOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE ON
LANGUAGE POLICIES IN AFRICA

1 Algeria
2 Angola
3 Benin
4 Botswana
5 Burkina Faso
6 Burundi
7 Cameroon
8 Cape Verte
9 Central African Republic
10 Chad
11 Comoros
12 Congo
13 Cte d'Ivoire
14 Djibouti
15 Egypt
16 Equatorial Guinea
17 Eritrea
18 Ethiopia
19 Gabon
20 Gambia
21 Ghana
22 Guinea
23 Guinea Bissau
24 Kenya
25 Lesotho
26 Liberia
27 Madagascar
28 Malawi
29 Mali

87
30 Mauritania
31 Mauritius
32 Morocco
33 Mozambique
34 Namibia
35 Niger
36 Nigeria
37 Rwanda
38 Sa Tom and Principe
39 Senegal
40 Seychelles
41 Sierra Leone
42 South Africa
43 Sudan
44 Swaziland
45 Tanzania
46 Togo
47 Tunisia
48 Uganda
49 Zaire
50 Zambia
51 Zimbabwe

Overseas Observers
1 . France
2. Germany
3. Holy Sea
4. India
5. Switzerland

Observer
Zimbabwe

International organisations
1. ACCT
2. OAU
3. UNESCO

88
4. AVA
5. British Council

GOVERNMENTAL EXPERTS

COUNTRY NAME OF PARTICIPANT

Angola Madame Amelia Arlete MINGAS
Benin Monsieur Igue MAMOUD
Botswana DR J TSONOPE
Burkina Faso Monsieur Gerard KEDREBEOGO
Burundi Professeur Philippe NTAHOMBAYE
Cameroun Louis Martin ONGUENE ESSONO
Cap Vert Monsieur Manuel VIEGA
Central African Republic Monsieur Desire Faustin TEGUEDERE
Chad Monsieur Kilma SAULTIDIGUE
Comores Monsieur Ahmed Ben Said JAFFAR
Congo Monsieur Antoine LIPOU
Cte d'Ivoire Mr Francois ADOPO
Djibouti Monsieur SILAH-EDDINE A SAMAD
Egypt Dr Ahmed ETMAN
Equatorial Guinea Crispin Onva Ondo ONGUENE
Eritrea Mr Tesfamichael GERAHTU
Ethiopia Dr Hailemichael AREGGA
Gabon Monsieur KOUENZI MICKALA
Gambia Mr Emmanuel WILLLAMS
Ghana Ms Georgina QUARSHIE
Guinea Monsieur Malamine DRAME
Guinea-Bissau Monsieur Alexandrino GOMES
Kenya Prof Okoth OKOMBO
Lesotho Dr T G KHATI
Liberia Mr Syvanus TUCKER
Madagascar Monsieur Julien RAKOTONAIVO
Malawi Dr Andrew Tilimbe KULEMEKA
Mali Monsieur Moussa DIABY
Mauritius Mr V BISSOONDOYAL
Morocco Monsieur Abderrafi BEN HALLAM

89
Mozambique Mr Gregorio Domingos FIRMINO
Namibia Mrs Angelika TJOUTUKU
Niger Mr Oumarou ISSOUFI ALZOUMA
Nigeria Dr Ismail JUNAIDU
Rwanda Professeur Laurent NKUSI
Sa Tom et Principe Madame Antonia DAIO
Senegal Monsieur Mamadou Lamine GASSAMA
Seychelles Mrs Marie-Therese CHOPPY
Sierra Leone Dr Morie K MANYEH
South Africa Dr S M BEUKES
Sudan Prof Yousif El Khalifa Abu BAKR
Swaziland Ms Sibongile DLAMINI
Tanzania MR E S MATTERU
Togo Abdourahmane Samya GNON-KONDE
Tunisia Monsieur Najib AYED
Uganda Mrs Gerald Nakatumba BUKENYA
Zaire Professeur MUKASH KALEL
Zambia Mr George SILILO
Zimbabwe Mr S J CHIFUNYISE
Zimbabwe Mr W B GWETE
Zimbabwe Mr R H CHAKAMBA
Zimbabwe Mrs Z GAMBAHAYA
Zimbabwe Dr H CHIMHUNDU

90
 UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC
AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION
Conference intergouvernementale sur les politiques linguistiques en Afrique
Intergovernmental Conference on Language Policies in Africa
Harare (Zimbabwe)
17-21 March 1997
Liste des participants.
List of participants

La liste des participants est reproduite dans lordre alphabetique franais des pays.
The list of participants is reproduced in the French alphabetical order of the respective countries.
1. ETATS MEMBRES / MEMBER STATES
Afrique du Sud/South Africa
Dr S. M. BEUKES
Deputy-Director: Language Planning
State Language Services
Private Bag X195
0001 PRETORIA
tel : (27 12) 314 6366, fax: (27 12) 324 2119

Mr T. W. D. MOHAPI
Deputy Director: Sotho Languages
State Language Services
Private Bag X195
0001 PRETORIA

Mr P. W. N. MTHEMBU
Assistant Director: African Languages
National Terminology Service
Department of Arts, Culture, Science & Technology
Private Bag X894 0001 PRETORIA

Ms H. L. MOYANE
Department of Education
Private Bag X195
0001 PRETORIA

91
Mr WJA Van TONDER
Department of Education
Private Bag X 195
0001 PRETORIA

Algerie/Algeria
S. Exc. M. Rabach BOUCHOUCHA
Ambassadeur de I'A1gerie
HARARE, Zimbabwe

M. Ahdehamid RAHMANI
Conseiller
Ambassade d'Algerie
HARARE, Zimbabwe

Angola
Madame Amelia Arlete MINGAS
Technicienne Superieure de I'Institut National des Langues
c/o Commission nationale angolaise pour I'UNESCO
LUANDA
Fax: 244 2. 39. 21. 3 8

Benin
S. Exc. M.Timothee ZANNOU
Ministre de la Culture et de la Communication
COTONOU

Monsieur IGUE Akanni Mamoud

Directeur, Centre national de Linguistique Applique, Departement des Sciences du langage et de
communication, Universit nationale du Benin
B. P. 526
COTONOU
Fax (229) 313 8 09, Tel (229) 3102 75 (Dom.)

Botswana
Mrs H. S. MOGAMI
Ministry of Education

92
GABORONE

Dr J. TSONOPE
c/o Botswana National Commission for UNESCO
Ministry of Education
Private Bag 005
GABORONE
Fax: (267) 3600. 458

Burkina Faso
Monsieur Gerard KEDREBEOGO
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique et Technologique (CNRST), Institut de recherche en
Sciences Sociales et Humaines
03 B. P. 7047
Ouagadougou- 03
Fax: (226) 3150 03, Tel : (226) 36 28 35

Burundi
Professeur Philippe NTAHOMBAYE
Facult des Lettres et Sciences humaines, Universit du Burundi
B. P. 5142
BUJUMBURA
Fax: (257) 22 32 88

Cameroun
Monsieur Louis Martin ONGUENE ESSONO
Professeur a I'Ecole Normale Superieure de Yaound
B. P. 1332
YAOUNDE
Fax: (237) 22 49 34

Cap-Vert
Monsieur Manuel VIEGA
Institut National de Culture
B. P. 76
Praia
Fax: (238) 6132 48, Tel: (238) 61 55 14

93
Comores
Monsieur Ahmed Ben Said JAFFAR
Directeur General Adjoint,
Centre National de Documentation et de Recherche Scientifique (CNDRS), Muse National des
Comores
B. P. 169
MORONI
Fax: (269) 74 41 89, Tel: (269) 74 41 87

Congo
M. Antoine LIPOU
Ministre de I'Education nationale, Universit Marien NGOUABI, Facult des Lettres et Sciences
Humaines, Departement de linguistique et langues africaines
B. P. 2 642
BRAZZAVILLE
Fax: (242) 82 27 92 (Comm. Nat.), Tel :(242) 83 35 71

Cte d'lvoire
Monsieur Francois ADOPO ASSI
Directeur de l'Institut de Linguistique Appliquee (I. L. A.), Universit de Cocody
08 B. P. 887
ABIDJAN 08
Fax et tel: (225) 44 02 99

Djibouti
Monsieur SILAH-EDDINE A. SAMAD
Directeur du CRIPEN (Centre de Recherche, d'lnformation et de Production de l'Education
Nationale), Ministre de I'Education nationale
B. P. 65
DJIBOUTI
Fax: (253) 35. 42. 34 (Comm. Nat.), Tel :(253) 35 29 16

Egypte/Egypt
Dr A. ETMAN
Director of the Centre for Comparative Linguistic and Literary Studies, Faculty of Arts, Cairo
University
c/o Egyptian National Commission for UNESCO
17 Kuwait Street (ex Shareh Ismail Abu Le Fotooh St)
Dokki, Guizeh

94
P. O. 12311
CAIRO
Fax: (20-2) 33. 56. 947, tel: (20-2) 33. 56. 659

Eritree/Eritrea
Mr Tesfamichael GERAHTU
Director, Department of National Pedagogy, Ministry of Education
ASMARA
Fax: (291) I 113866, tel: (291) I 113044/113045

Ethiopie/Ethiopia
Dr Haile-Michael AREGGA
Associate Professor of Linguistics & Ethiopian Languages
Department of Ethiopian Languages and Literature, Institute of Language Studies, Addis Ababa
University
P. O. Box 30038
ADDIS ABABA
Fax: (251)l 551065, tel: (251) I 1190 43 (Office)/61 37 71 (Res.)

Gabon
S. Exc. Madame Paulette MISSAMBO
Ministre d'Etat charge de l'Education nationale et de la Condition fminine
LIBREVILLE

Monsieur KOUENZI MICKALA

Docteur d'Etat s Lettres et Sciences Humaines
Professeur de Linguistique, Universit Omar Bongo
B. P. 6365
LIBREVILLE
Fax: (241) 76 37 59 (Comm. Nat.)/ 76 42 65 (Pers)
Tel : (241) 73 08 76 (Personnel)

M. E. Dodo BOLJNGUENZA
Conseiller, Ministre de l'Education nationale
LIBREVILLE

M. P. NOUGIANA DAOUDA
Facult des Lettres, Universit Omar Bongo

95
LIBREVILLE

M. G. INANGA
Journaliste, Radio-Tlvision gabonaise
LIBREVILLE

M. A. NDONUGOU
Joumaliste, Radio-Tlvision gabonaise
LIBREVILLE

Gambie/Gambia
Mr Emmanuel WILLIAMS
Assistant Director, Non-Formal Education Services
c/o Gambia National Commission for UNESCO
Ministry of Education, Youth, Sports and Culture
15 Marina Parade
P. O. Box 1133
BANJUL
Fax: (220) 225. 909, tel : (220) 225. 214

Ghana
Ms Georgina QUARSHIE
Current Chairperson of the UNESCO Social Sciences Committee
Director of the Regional Centre for the Study of French
c/o Ghana National Commission for UNESCO
Ministry of Education
P. O. Box 2739
ACCRA
Fax/tel : (233 21) 662 718

Guine quatoriale/Equatorial Guinea

Monsieur Crispin Onva Ondo ONGUENE
c/o Commission nationale de Guine quatoriale aupres de I'UNESCO
Ministre de I'Education et des Sciences
MALABO
tel : (240) 2653

96
Guine Bissau
Monsieur Alexandrino GOMES
Directeur de I'Institut pour le Developpement de l'Education (INDE), Ministre de lEducation
nationale
C. P. 353
BISSAU
Fax & tel : (245) 20 14 00 (Comm. Nat.)

Kenya
Prof. Okoth OKOMBO
Department of Linguistics and Literature, University of Nairobi (Kikuyu Campus)
P. O. Box 30197
NAIROBI
Fax: (254) 2 212604

Mr L. NYAMBURA
African Publishers Network
HARARE

Mr G. OKODE
Kenya Broadcasting Company
NAIROBI

Lesotho
Dr. T. G. KHATI
Principal Secretary; Ministry of Education and Manpower Development
P. O. Box 47
MASERU 100
Fax: (266) 310 206 tel : (266) 315 932

Mr Lesao LEHOHLA
Ministry of Education
MASERU

Liberia
Hon. Moses K. Kabah
Minister of Education
MONROVIA

97
Mr Syvanus TUCKER
Director, Liberian Languages, Ministry of Education
MONROVIA
Fax: (231) 227 838

Ms Hawala Gell KETEHI

Secretary-General, Liberian National Comission for UNESCO
MONROVIA

Madagascar
Monsieur William RATREMA RAKOTOARIVIA
Chef de Service, c/o Commission nationale malgache pour l'UNESCO
11, rue Naka Rabemanantsoa - Behoririka
B. P. 331
ANTANANARIVO (101)
fax: (261-2) 284 96, tel : (261-2) 217. 61

Malawi
H. Exc. Dr. Danton S. J. MKANDAWIRE
Minister of Education
ZOMBA

Dr Andrew Tilimbe KULEMEKA

University of Malawi
Chancellor College
P. O. Box 280
ZOMBA
Fax: (265) 522 046, tel: (265) 522 222; e-mail: @unima.wn.apc.org

Mali
Monsieur Moussa DIABY
Chef de la Division Recherche Linguistique et Pdagogique
Direction nationale de 1'Alphabetisation fonctionnelle et de la Linguistique appliquee (DNAFLA)
Ministre de 1'Education de Base
B. P. 62
BAMAKO

98
Fax: (223) 22 75 04 / 227767

Maroc/Morocco
Monsieur Abderrafi BENHALLAM
Professeur de Linguistique et d'Anglais la Faculte de Lettres de Rabat
Directeur de I'Institut "Langue et Communication"
c/o Commission nationale marocaine pour 1'education, la culture et les sciences
B. P. 420
10000 RABAT
Fax: (212-7) 67 59 65, Tel : (212 7) 67 59 68)

Maurice/Mauritius
Mr V. BISSOONDOYAL
Director, Mahatma Gandhi Institute
MOKA
Fax: (230) 433 2235, Tel : (230) 433 1277/78/79

Mauritanie/Mauritania
Monsieur HAROUNA TIREIRA
Institut des Langues Nationales, Ministre de l'Education nationale
c/o Commission nationale pour l'education, la science et la culture
B. P. 5115
NOUAKCHOTT
Tel/fax: (222-2) 528. 02

Mozambique
Dr Gregorio Domingos FIRMINO
c/o Mozambique National Commission for UNESCO
45 rua Dr Egas Moniz
C. P. 3674
MAPUTO
Tel/fax: (258-1) 49 17 66

Namibie/Namibia
Mrs Angelika TJOUTUKU
Senior Education Officer of African Languages
National Institute for Educational Development

99
c/o Namibia National Commission for UNESCO
Ministry of Higher Education, Vocational Training, Science and Technology
Private Bag 13391
Windhoek
(+ Mr Laurentius Davids)
Fax (264-61) 25. 36. 71, Tel (264-61) 25. 36. 70

Niger
Monsieur Oumarou ISSOUFI ALZOUMA
Chef, Departement Linguistique, Universit Abdou Moumouni
NIAMEY
Fax (Nat. Comm.) : (227) 72 27 97

Nigeria
M. Emmanuel O. AKINLUYI
Prsident du Groupe Africain

Dr Ismail JUNAIDU
Director, Language Development Centre of the Nigerian Educational Research and Development
Council (NERDC)
c/o Nigerian National Commission for UNESCO, Federal Ministry of Education
14 Broad Street
P. M. B. 2823
LAGOS
Fax: (234-1) 2633104, tel: (234-1) 2636099

Ouganda/Uganda
Mrs Gerald Nakatumba BUKENYA
Assistant Specialist, Mother Tongue, National Curriculum Development Centre
P. O. Box 7002
KAMPALA
Fax: (256) 41-244394 (Nat. Comm.); tel: (256) 285885/285544

Rpublique centrafricaine/Central African Republic

Monsieur Desire Faustin TEGUEDERE
c/o PNUD
P. O. Box 872
BANGUI

100
Fax : (236) 61 17 32

Rwanda
Professeur Laurent NKUSI
Universit Nationale du Rwanda
c/o Commission nationale rwandaise pour l'UNESCO
Ministre de l'Enseignement superieur, de la Recherche scientifique et de la culture
B. P. 624
KIGALI
Fax: (250) 82162 (Nat Corn), tel : (250) 30 096 (dom); 30 272/73 (prof.)

Sa Tom et Principe
Madame Antania DAIO
c/o Commission nationale de Sa Tome et Princip
Ministre de 1'Education, de la Jeunesse et des Sports
C. P. 41
SA TOM
Fax: (239-12) 21.518, tel : (23 9-12) 21518

Senegal
Monsieur Mamadou Lamine GAS SAMA
Conseiller Technique auprs du Ministre D1gu
Charg de I'Education de Base et des Langues Nationales
c/o Commission nationale pour I'UNESCO
87 rue Carnot Bayeux
DAKAR
Fax: (221) 211770

Seychelles
Mrs Marie-Therese CHOPPY

Sierra Leone
Dr Morie K. MANYEH
Head of Department of Linguistics, Faculty of Education, Njala University College, University of
Sierra Leone
Private Mail Bag
FREETOWN
Fax: (232) 22 224439

101
Soudan/Sudan
Prof. Dr. Yousif E I Khalifa ABU BAKR
Khartoum International Institute
c/o Sudanese National Commission for Education, Science and Culture
P. O. Box 2324
KHARTOUM
fax: (249 11) 776030, tel: (249 11) 779888

Swaziland
Mr Solomon DLAMINI
Permanent Secretary
Ministry of Education
MBABANE

Ms Sibongile DLAMINI
Senior Inspector Siswati, Ministry of Education
P. O. Box 39
MBABANE
Fax: (268) 43 880, tel : (268) 42 491, Tlx: 2293 WD

Tanzanie/Tanzania
Mr E. S. MATERU
Acting Director of Culture and Languages Department
c/o UNESCO National Commission of the United Republic of Tanzania
Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education
Jengo la Umoja wa Vijana, Morogoro Road
P. O. Box 20384
DAR-ES-SALAAM
Fax: (255) 51. 46167, Tel: (255) 51. 44513

Mrs Mariam HAMDAN

Deputy Principal Secretary, Ministry of Information, Culture, Youth and Tourism
ZANZIBAR

Tchad/Chad
Monsieur Kilma SAULTIDIGUE

102
c/o Commission nationale tchadienne pour l'UNESCO
Ministre de l'Education nationale, de la Culture, de la Jeunesse et des Sports
Rond Point Fontaine de I'Union, avenue Mobutu Sesse Seko
B. P. 731
N'DJAMENA
Fax: (235) 5160 79, Tel : (235) 5146 71

Togo
Monsieur Abdourahmane Samya GNON-KONDE
Directeur de la Formation permanente de l'Action et de la Recherche Pdagogique (DIFOP)
BP 1306
LOME
Fax: (228) 22 57 87, tel : (228) 25 3 8 94

Tunisie/Tunisia
Monsieur Najib AYED
Directeur de l'Institut National des Sciences de l'Education (INSE)
c/o Commission nationale tunisienne pour l'UNESCO
22, rue d'Angleterre
B. P. 1280 R. P.
1000 TUNIS
Tel: (216-1) 25 82 90/33 08 38
Fax: (216-1) 33 10 14

Zaire
Professeur MUKASH KALEL
Secretaire Permanent de 1'Observatoire des Langues
c/o Commission nationale zairoise pour 1'UNESCO
B. P. 14
KINSHASA 1 Gombe G. C.
Fax: (871) 150. 3261

Zambia
Hon. Dr. Syainukayumbu SYAMUJAYE
Deputy Minister of Education
LUSAKA

103
Mr George SILILO
c/o Zambia National Commission for UNESCO
Ministry of Education
P. O. Box 50619
LUSAKA
Fax: (260 1) 254 954, tel: (260 1) 254 954/ 250. 900

Zimbabwe
Hon. Dr I. CHOMBO
Minister of Higher Education

Hon. Dr. G. MACHINGA

Minister of Education

Hon. Mrs J. MUJURU

Minister of Information, Posts and Telecomunications

Dr MAMBO
Deputy Chairman, Zimbabwe National Commission for UNESCO, Ministry of Higher Education
Old Mutual Centre
Union Avenue
P. O. Box U. A. 275
HARARE
Fax: (263-4) 790. 923; Tel: (263-4) 79. 5991/5

Hon. Dr. S. NDLOVU

Deputy Minister of Higher Education

Hon. Dr. W. P. MANGWENDE

Minister of Sports, Recreation and Culture

H. Exc. M. CHIGWEDERE
Ambassador

Mr Stephen CHIFUNYISE
Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Youth, Sports, Culture and Recreation

104
Dr H. CHIMHUNDU
Dean, Faculty of Arts, University of Zimbabwe

Mrs M. G. TAKUNDWA
Acting Secretary General, Zimbabwe National Commission for UNESCO

II. OBSERVATEURS/OBSERVERS

1. Organisations internationales gouvernmentales

M. Marcel DIOUF
Chef de la Division Education, Science et Culture, Organisation de l'Unit africaine (OUA)
BP 3243
ADDIS ABEBA
Fax: (251-1) 5178 44

M. B. DOUMBIA
Specialiste de programme, Agence de la Francophonie (ACCT)/The Francophone Agency
13 quai Andr Citron
75015 PARIS
Fax: 0145 79 14 98, Tel: 0144 37 33 00

2. Etats/States
Allemagne/Germany
Dr Reinhold Meyer
Afrique/Moyen Orient, Langues africaines, Deutsche Welle
50968 Kln
fax: 0221/389 4900, tel: 0221/389 4901

Dr Kurt Komarek
GTZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH)
Postfach 5180
65726 Eschborn
Fax: (06196) 79-1366, Tel: (06196) 79-1356

France
M. Michel Lafon, CNRS (based in Mozambique)

105
M. Bemard Bourgeois
M. Bemard Hoarau,
Chef, Service de Cooperation culturelle
c/o Ambassade de France
HARARE

Grande Bretagne
Dr Thelma Henderson
University of Warwick

Mr Neil Howcroft
Deputy Director, The British Council
23 Jason Moyo Avenue
P.O.Box 664
HARARE
Fax: 263-4-737877, Tel: 263-4-790627, E-mail: Britcou@harare.iafrica.com

Inde/India
Dr Omkar N. KOUL
Professor cum Deputy Director, Central Institute of Indian Languages
Ministry of Human Resource Development, Departement of Education
MANASAGANGOTRI MYSORE 570 006
Fax: 91 821515032, tel: 91821515558

Saint Siege
S. Exc. Paul Peter Prabhu
Nonce Apostolique au Zimbabwe,
Chef de la Delegation d'Observation

Monsieur Francis Chikasha

expert

Suisse/Switzerland
Monsieur Jacques-Andr TSCHOUMY
Directeur honoraire de l'Institut romande de recherches et de documentation pedagogiques (IRDP)
Cassarde 8
Boite postale 54

106
CH-2000 Neufchatel
Fax: (41) 32 724 00 43; tel: (41) 32 724 00 43

3. Organisations internationales non gouvernementales

Association des Universits africaines
Mrs Ines MACHUNGO
P. O. Box 5744
ACCRA North (Ghana)
Fax: (233-21) 774821 Tel: (233-21) 77 4495, Email: secgen@aau. org

Association panafricaine des Ecrivains/Panafrican Writers Association (PAWA)

M. Atukwei OKAI
Secretary General
PAWA House, Roman Ridge
P. O. Box C 456 Cantomnents
ACCRA (Ghana)

Dr John R. WATTERS
Africa Area Director, Summer Institute of Linguistics
Nairobi (Kenya)

Prof. Maurice TADADJEU

Professor of African Languages and Linguistics, University of Yaound (Cameroun)
YAOUNDE

4. UNESCO SECRETARIAT
Mrs Lourdes ARIZPE
Assistant Director-General for Culture, Representative of the Director-General

Mr A B SHANKANGA
Director, UNESCO Subregional Office for Southern Africa

Secretary General of the Conference

M. L. MBUYAMBA
UNESCO Representative in Angola and Regional Cultural Adviser

M. Augustin GATERA

107
Programme Specialist, Sector of Culture

Drafting Committee
Secretariat
M. Joseph POTH
Programme Specialist
PARIS

M. Augustin MARIRO
Regional Adviser for Technical and Vocational Education, BREDA,
DAKAR

Credentials Committee
Secretariat
Mr A B SHANKANGA
Director and Representative, UNESCO Harare

Mass Media
Secretariat
M. D. BOMBOTE
Regional Information Officer BREDA, Dakar

Technical Services. Logistics and Documents Centre

Secretariat
Mr D.DIJAKOVIC
Assistant Programme Specialist in Culture
Assisted by
T. G. BHOWA
Documentalist

Advisors
UNESCO Harare
Mr M. MBAMBA, Programme Specialist
Dr I. INSA, Programme Specialist

Secretaries
Ms Afra Chideme

108
Ms Elizabeth Mupako
Ms Felicia Madigane

109
 PART IX
PROGRAMME
OF
THE INTERGOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE ON
LANGUAGE POLICIES IN AFRICA

INTERGOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE ON LANGUAGE POLICIES IN AFRICA

Final Draft Programme

HARARE

Holiday Inn Crown Plaza

Monomotapa Hotel

17-21 MARCH 1997

110
Monday 17 March 1997
Chairman: Dr. Mambo (Deputy Chairman, UNESCO National Commision)
09h00 - 10h00 Opening of the Experts Meeting
Statement by ACCT Representative
Statement by Dr. A.B. Shankanga, UNESCO Sub-regional Office
for Southern Africa
Official Opening by Honourable G. MachingaMinister of Education,
Zimbabwe
10h00 - 10h30 Tea/Coffee Break
Chairman: Ambassador Chigwedere
10h30 - 13h00 Adoption of rules of procedure
Election of President, Vice-President and Rapporteur
Adoption of the Agenda of the Experts Meeting

Chairman of Session: Member of Bureau

1. Brief Overview of the Actual Use of African Languages Today
Multilinguism in Africa today: some typologies and their use on the
operational plan (health, justice, education, communication, politics)
13h00 - 15h00 Lunch Break
15h00 - 16h00 Brief Overview of the Actual Use of African Languages Today
(continued)
2. Assessment of Policies and practices
16h00 - 17h00 Tea/Coffee Break
17h00 - 18h00 3. Experiences of Multilinguism in the world
18h00 Reception by UNESCO in the UNESCO Office

Tuesday 18 March 1997

09h00 - 10h00 Strategies and Perspectives: Multilinguism, Management and
Appropriate Integration
- Fundamental debate on the problems of African languages in the
development process.
For a use of African Languages in all national activities: (political,
technical and institutional)
10h00 - 10h15 Tea/Coffee Break
10h15 -13h00 Strategies and Perspectives (continued)
13h00 - 15h00 Lunch Break
15h00 - 18h00 Regional and Sub-regional Cooperation
Concrete suggestions for the implementation of linguistic strategies

Wednesday 19 March 1997

111
09h00 - 10h00 Adoption of the Report, Recommendations and Resolutions to be
submitted to the Conference
10h00 - 10h15 Tea/Coffee Break
10h15 - 13h00 Adoption of the Report (continued)

Closing Ceremony
Chairman: Honourable Dr S. Ndlovu, MP, Deputy Minister of Higher Education
Guest of Honour: Honourable Mrs J. Mujuru, MP, Minister of Information, Posts and
Telecommunications

Thursday 20 March 1997

09h00 - 10h30 Official Opening of the Conference of the Ministers
Chairman: Hon. Dr I Chombo, Minister of Higher Education
Guest of Honour: HE R. G. Mugabe, President of the Republic of Zimbabwe
Cultural Performances
Welcome by the Chairman
Address by the Chairman of the Group of Ambassadors at UNESCO Paris: HE. Dr E. O.
Akinluyi (Ambassador/Permanent Delegate for Nigeria)
Address by OAU Representative: Mr M. Diouf, Director, Division of Education, Science
and Culture
Address by Mrs. L. Arizpe, Assistant Director General for Culture, UNESCO
Representative of the Director General
Cultural Performances
Official Opening by H E the President
Presentation of Delegates
End of Ceremony
10h 30 - 11h00 Tea/Coffee Break
11h00 - 12h00
Election of Bureau
Adoption of Programme
Adoption of Rules of Procedure
13h00 - 15h00 Reception by the Minister of Higher Education Monomotapa Hotel,
Pool Deck
15h00 - 16h30 Presentation of the Experts' Report
16h30 - 17h00 Tea/Coffee Break
17h00 - 18h00 Discussion of the Experts' Report

Friday 21 March 1997

09h30 - 11h00 Discussion of the Experts' Report (cont'd)

112
12h30 - 15h00 Lunch Break
15h00 - 16h30 Adoption of the Final Report and Resolutions
16h30 - 17h00 Tea/Coffee Break
17h00 - 18h00 Closing Ceremony
Chairman:Member of Bureau
Adoption of the Harare Declaration
Remarks by the ACCT Representative: Mr Doumbia, Programme Specialist
Remarks by the Chairman of the Africa Group of Ambassadors at UNESCO Paris: HE.
Dr E. O. Akinluyi (Ambassador/Permanent Delegate for Nigeria)
Remarks by the OAU Representative: Mr M. Diouf, Director,
Ministry of Education, Science and Culture
Statement by Dr. A. B. Shankanga, UNESCO Sub-regional Office for Southern Africa
Vote of Thanks
Official Closing by Honourable Dr W. P. Mangwende, MP, Minister of Sports, Recreation
and Culture
Cultural Performance

19h00 Reception by His Worship, the Mayor of Harare, Mr S. Tawengwa

at the Town House

113
CLT-96/CONF 202/I. I Agenda Exp.
Original: French
Paris, 4 December 1996
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC
AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION

Intergovernmental Conference on Language Policies in Africa

Harare (Zimbabwe)
(17-21 March 1997)

DRAFT PROVISIONAL AGENDA

OF THE GOVERNMENTAL EXPERTS CONFERENCE
(17-19 March 1997)
I. Opening of the Conference

II. Organization of work

- Election of Bureau
- Adoption of agenda and timetable of work

III. Overview of the present use of African languages

1. Multilingualism in Africa today: some typologies and their uses (health, justice,
education, communication, politics, and so forth)
2. Critical evaluation of language policies and practices
3. Presentation of experiences of some multilingual countries, outside Africa

IV. Strategies and prospects: The smooth, integrated management of multilingualism

1. Dimensions of African languages in the development process
2. Towards the use of African languages in all paths of national life : political, technical
and institutional
3. Regional and sub-regional co-operation to prepare language prospects
4. Specific proposals to put language projects into effect

V. Adoption of Final Report and Recommendations

VI. Closure of the conference

114
CLT-96/CONF202/I. 2AgendaMin.
Original : French
Paris, 4th December 1996

UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC

AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION

Intergovernmental Conference on Language policies in Africa

Harare (Zimbabwe)
(17-21 March 1997)

PROVISIONAL AGENDA OF THE MINISTERS CONFERENCE

(20 - 21 March 1997)

1. Opening of the Conference

2. Organisation of work.
3. Adoption of the rules of procedure
4. Examination and adoption of the Report prepared by the governmental experts
5. Adoption of the Harare Declaration
6. Closure of the Conference

115
 CULTURAL ENTERTAINMENT FOR THE OFFICIAL PROGRAMMES,
INTERGOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE ON LANGUAGE POLICIES IN AFRICA

1. 17 March 1997 : RECEPTION BY UNESCO

Savuka Dance Drama Troupe Isitshikitsha Dance - a celebratory dance performed for
thanksgiving for good rains and good harvests.
The dance is performed in the Matabeleland area in Western
Zimbabwe.
Mhembero Traditional Dance Group
Mbira music and dance - performed to placate the ancestors. The
dance is dominant in the Mashonaland Central Province of
Zimbabwe.
Mbakumba Dance - a harvest dance performed for thanksgiving for a
good harvest. The dance originates in the Masvingo Province of
Zimbabwe.

2. 20 March 1997 OFFICIAL OPENING CEREMONY

a) Frontline institute choir (The choir is composed of students from Angola, Mozambique,
Guinea Bissau, Malawi, Zambia, South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe
and Danemark).
- National Anthem of Zimbabwe
- Song Sinto me orgulhoso ( I am proud to be African).
Poem - Language- by Chirikure Chirikure, an acclaimed dub-poet.

3. 20 March l997 RECEPTION BY MINISTER OF HIGHER EDUCATION

Ethnomusicology Programme Marimba group
-Marimba (Xylophone) music.

4. 21 March 1997 CLOSING CEREMONY

Ihawu Lesizwe Cultural Group
Imbube Traditional folk music performed for recreational purposes.
This is dominant in Matabeleland North and South Provinces.

116