FLUID MECHANICS

DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME, SPECIFIC For a thin Newtonian fluid film and a linear velocity profile,
WEIGHT, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY v(y) = vy/; dv/dy = v/, where
The definitions of density, specific volume, specific weight, v = velocity of plate on film and
and specific gravity follow:
= thickness of fluid film.
t = limit Dm DV For a power law (non-Newtonian) fluid
DV " 0
c = limit DW DV t = K (dv/dy)n, where
DV " 0
K = consistency index, and
c = limit g : D m D V = tg
DV " 0 n = power law index.
also SG = /w = /w , where n < 1 pseudo plastic
t = density (also mass density), n > 1 dilatant
m = mass of infinitesimal volume,
V = volume of infinitesimal object considered, SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY
Surface tension is the force per unit contact length
= specific weight,
= F/L, where
= g,
= surface tension, force/length,
W = weight of an infinitesimal volume, F = surface force at the interface, and
SG = specific gravity, L = length of interface.
tw = mass density of water at standard conditions The capillary rise h is approximated by
= 1,000 kg/m3 (62.43 lbm/ft3), and
h = 4 cos /(d), where
w = specific weight of water at standard conditions, h = the height of the liquid in the vertical tube,
= 9,810 N/m3 (62.4 lbf/ft3), and = the surface tension,
= 9,810 kg/(m2s2). = the angle made by the liquid with the wetted tube
wall,
STRESS, PRESSURE, AND VISCOSITY = specific weight of the liquid, and
Stress is defined as d = the diameter of the capillary tube.
x ]1g = limit DF/DA, where THE PRESSURE FIELD IN A STATIC LIQUID
DA " 0

x ]1g = surface stress vector at point 1,

F = force acting on infinitesimal area A, and

A = infinitesimal area at point 1.
n = P
t = (dv/dy) (one-dimensional; i.e., y), where
n and t = the normal and tangential stress components at
point 1,
P = the pressure at point 1,
= absolute dynamic viscosity of the fluid
Ns/m2 [lbm/(ft-sec)], The difference in pressure between two different points is
dv = differential velocity, P2 P1 = (z2 z1) = h = gh
dy = differential distance, normal to boundary. For a simple manometer,
v = velocity at boundary condition, and Po = P2 + 2z2 1z1
y = normal distance, measured from boundary. Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + gage pressure
v = /, where reading
= kinematic viscosity; m2/s (ft2/sec). Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure vacuum gage
pressure reading
Bober, W. & R.A. Kenyon, Fluid Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1980. Diagrams reprinted by permission
of William Bober & Richard A. Kenyon.

62 FLUID MECHANICS
FORCES ON SUBMERGED SURFACES AND THE The force on a rectangular plate can be computed as
CENTER OF PRESSURE F = [p1Av + (p2 p1) Av /2]i + Vf f j, where

p F = force on the plate,

p1 = pressure at the top edge of the plate area,
p2 = pressure at the bottom edge of the plate area,
Av = vertical projection of the plate area,
Vf = volume of column of fluid above plate, and
f = specific weight of the fluid.

ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE AND BUOYANCY

1. The buoyant force exerted on a submerged or floating
The pressure on a point at a distance Z below the surface is
body is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
p = po + Z, for Z 0 body.
If the tank were open to the atmosphere, the effects of po could 2. A floating body displaces a weight of fluid equal to its
be ignored. own weight; i.e., a floating body is in equilibrium.
The coordinates of the center of pressure (CP) are The center of buoyancy is located at the centroid of the
y* = (I yc zc sin)/(pc A) and displaced fluid volume.
z* = (I ycsin )/(pc A), where In the case of a body lying at the interface of two immiscible
fluids, the buoyant force equals the sum of the weights of the
y* = the y-distance from the centroid (C) of area (A) to the fluids displaced by the body.
center of pressure,
z* = the z-distance from the centroid (C) of area (A) to the ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOWS
center of pressure, The Continuity Equation
So long as the flow Q is continuous, the continuity equation,
I yc and I yc zc = the moment and product of inertia of the area,
as applied to one-dimensional flows, states that the flow
pc = the pressure at the centroid of area (A), and passing two points (1 and 2) in a stream is equal at each point,
Zc = the slant distance from the water surface to the A1v1 = A2v2.
centroid (C) of area (A). Q = Av
mo = Q = Av, where

Q = volumetric flow rate,

p
mo = mass flow rate,
A = cross section of area of flow,
v = average flow velocity, and
= the fluid density.

For steady, one-dimensional flow, mo is a constant. If, in

addition, the density is constant, then Q is constant.

If the free surface is open to the atmosphere, then

po = 0 and pc = Zc sin. Bober, W. & R.A. Kenyon, Fluid Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1980. Diagrams reprinted by permission
of William Bober & Richard A. Kenyon.
y* = Iyc zc /(AZc) and z* = Iyc /(AZc)

FLUID MECHANICS 63
The Field Equation is derived when the energy equation is For flat plates placed parallel with the flow
applied to one-dimensional flows. Assuming no friction losses CD = 1.33/Re0.5 (104 < Re < 5 105)
and that no pump or turbine exists between sections 1 and 2 in CD = 0.031/Re1/7 (106 < Re < 109)
the system,
The characteristic length in the Reynolds Number (Re) is the
P2 v 22 P1 v12 length of the plate parallel with the flow. For blunt objects, the
+ + z = + z or
c 2g 2 c 2g + 1 characteristic length is the largest linear dimension (diameter
P2 v 22 P1 v12 of cylinder, sphere, disk, etc.) which is perpendicular to the
+ + z g = + z g, where flow.
t 2 2 t 2 + 1
P1, P2 = pressure at sections 1 and 2,
AERODYNAMICS
v1, v2 = average velocity of the fluid at the sections,
Airfoil Theory
z1, z2 = the vertical distance from a datum to the sections
The lift force on an airfoil is given by
(the potential energy),
= the specific weight of the fluid (g), and CL tv 2AP
FL =
2
g = the acceleration of gravity.
CL = the lift coefficient
FLUID FLOW v = velocity (m/s) of the undisturbed fluid and
The velocity distribution for laminar flow in circular tubes AP = the projected area of the airfoil as seen from above
or between planes is (plan area). This same area is used in defining the drag
coefficient for an airfoil.
v ]r g = vmax =1 - b r l G, where
2

R The lift coefficient can be approximated by the equation

r = the distance (m) from the centerline, CL = 2k1sin( + ) which is valid for small values of
R = the radius (m) of the tube or half the distance between and .
the parallel planes, k1 = a constant of proportionality
v = the local velocity (m/s) at r, and = angle of attack (angle between chord of airfoil and
vmax = the velocity (m/s) at the centerline of the duct. direction of flow)
vmax = 1.18v, for fully turbulent flow = negative of angle of attack for zero lift.
vmax = 2v, for circular tubes in laminar flow and The drag coefficient may be approximated by
vmax = 1.5v, for parallel planes in laminar flow, where C2
v = the average velocity (m/s) in the duct. CD = CD3 + L
rAR
The shear stress distribution is CD = infinite span drag coefficient
x r 2 Ap
xw = R , where AR = b = 2
Ap c
and w are the shear stresses at radii r and R respectively. The aerodynamic moment is given by
CM tv 2Apc
M=
The drag force FD on objects immersed in a large body of 2
flowing fluid or objects moving through a stagnant fluid is where the moment is taken about the front quarter point of the
CD tv A 2 airfoil.
FD = , where CM = moment coefficient
2
Ap = plan area
CD = the drag coefficient,
c = chord length
v = the velocity (m/s) of the flowing fluid or moving AERODYNAMIC MOMENT CENTER
object, and
CAMBER LINE
A = the projected area (m2) of blunt objects such as
V
spheres, ellipsoids, disks, and plates, cylinders, c
ellipses, and air foils with axes perpendicular to the 4
CHORD
flow. c

64 FLUID MECHANICS
Reynolds Number COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
Re = vDt/n = vD/y See MECHANICAL ENGINEERING section.
^ h
v 2 - n Dn t The Darcy-Weisbach equation is
Rel = , where
Kb l8
n
3 n + 1 ^ n - 1h
2
4n h f = f L v , where
D 2g
= the mass density,
D = the diameter of the pipe, dimension of the fluid f = f(Re, e/D), the Moody or Darcy friction factor,
streamline, or characteristic length. D = diameter of the pipe,
= the dynamic viscosity, L = length over which the pressure drop occurs,
y = the kinematic viscosity, e = roughness factor for the pipe, and all other symbols
are defined as before.
Re = the Reynolds number (Newtonian fluid),
An alternative formulation employed by chemical engineers is
Re = the Reynolds number (Power law fluid), and
2 2f Lv 2
K and n are defined in the Stress, Pressure, and Viscosity h f = ` 4f Fanningj Lv = Fanning
section. D2g Dg
f
The critical Reynolds number (Re)c is defined to be the Fanning friction factor, fFanning =
4
minimum Reynolds number at which a flow will turn A chart that gives f versus Re for various values of e/D, known
turbulent. as a Moody or Stanton diagram, is available at the end of this
Flow through a pipe is generally characterized as laminar section.
for Re < 2,100 and fully turbulent for Re > 10,000, and
Friction Factor for Laminar Flow
transitional flow for 2,100 < Re < 10,000.
The equation for Q in terms of the pressure drop pf is the
Hydraulic Gradient (Grade Line) Hagen-Poiseuille equation. This relation is valid only for flow
The hydraulic gradient (grade line) is defined as an imaginary in the laminar region.
line above a pipe so that the vertical distance from the pipe rR 4 D p f rD 4 D p f
axis to the line represents the pressure head at that point. If a Q=
8nL = 128nL
row of piezometers were placed at intervals along the pipe, the
grade line would join the water levels in the piezometer water
Flow in Noncircular Conduits
columns.
Analysis of flow in conduits having a noncircular cross section
Energy Line (Bernoulli Equation) uses the hydraulic diameter DH, or the hydraulic radius RH, as
The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the pressure, follows
D
velocity, and elevation heads is constant. The energy line is RH = cross -sectional area = H
this sum or the total head line above a horizontal datum. The wetted perimeter 4
difference between the hydraulic grade line and the energy
line is the v2/2g term. Minor Losses in Pipe Fittings, Contractions, and
Expansions
Head losses also occur as the fluid flows through pipe
STEADY, INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN CONDUITS
fittings (i.e., elbows, valves, couplings, etc.) and sudden pipe
AND PIPES
contractions and expansions.
The energy equation for incompressible flow is
p1 v12 p2 v 22
p1 v12 p2 v 22 c + z1 + 2g = c + z2 + h h
2g + f + f, fitting
+ z + = + z + h or
c 1
2g c 2
2g + f
p1 v12 p2 v 22
p1 v12 p2 v 22 tg + z1 + 2g = tg + z2 + h h
2g + f + f, fitting
, where
+ z + = + z + h
tg 1
2g tg 2
2g + f 2 2
hf = the head loss, considered a friction effect, and all h f, fitting = C v , and v = 1 velocity head
2g 2g
remaining terms are defined above.
Specific fittings have characteristic values of C, which will
If the cross-sectional area and the elevation of the pipe are the be provided in the problem statement. A generally accepted
same at both sections (1 and 2), then z1 = z2 and v1 = v2. nominal value for head loss in well-streamlined gradual
The pressure drop p1 p2 is given by the following: contractions is
hf, fitting = 0.04 v2/ 2g
p1 p2 = hf = ghf

FLUID MECHANICS 65
The head loss at either an entrance or exit of a pipe from or to p = the internal pressure in the pipe line,
a reservoir is also given by the hf, fitting equation. Values for C A = the cross-sectional area of the pipe line,
for various cases are shown as follows. W = the weight of the fluid,

v = the velocity of the fluid flow,

= the angle the pipe bend makes with the horizontal,
= the density of the fluid, and
Q = the quantity of fluid flow.
Jet Propulsion

PUMP POWER EQUATION
v
Wo = Qch/h = Qtgh/h, where
Q = volumetric flow (m3/s or cfs), v
h = head (m or ft) the fluid has to be lifted,
= efficiency, and
Wo = power (watts or ft-lbf/sec). v

For additonal information on pumps refer to the F = Q(v2 0)

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING section of this handbook.
F = 2hA2, where
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW F = the propulsive force,
See the MECHANICAL ENGINEERING section
= the specific weight of the fluid,
for compressible flow and machinery associated with
compressible flow (compressors, turbines, fans). h = the height of the fluid above the outlet,
A2 = the area of the nozzle tip,
THE IMPULSE-MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE
The resultant force in a given direction acting on the fluid Q = A2 2gh , and
equals the rate of change of momentum of the fluid. v2 = 2gh .
F = Q22v2 Q11v1, where Deflectors and Blades
F = the resultant of all external forces acting on the Fixed Blade
control volume, v

v
Q11v1 = the rate of momentum of the fluid flow entering the v
v v

control volume in the same direction of the force, v

and
Q22v2 = the rate of momentum of the fluid flow leaving the
Fx = Q(v2cos v1)
control volume in the same direction of the force.
Fy = Q(v2sin 0)
Pipe Bends, Enlargements, and Contractions
The force exerted by a flowing fluid on a bend, enlargement, Moving Blade
or contraction in a pipe line may be computed using the
v v
impulse-momentum principle. v
v v
v
v
v v v v v v
v v v
v
v v v

v
Fx = Q(v2x v1x)
= Q(v1 v)(1 cos )
p1A1 p2A2cos Fx = Q (v2cos v1)
Fy = Q(v2y v1y)
Fy W p2A2sin = Q (v2sin 0), where = + Q(v1 v) sin , where
F = the force exerted by the bend on the fluid (the force
v = the velocity of the blade.
exerted by the fluid on the bend is equal in magnitude and
opposite in sign), Fx and Fy are the x-component and
Bober, W. & R.A. Kenyon, Fluid Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1980. Diagram
y-component of the force, reprinted by permission of William Bober & Richard A. Kenyon.
Vennard, J.K., Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed., J.K. Vennard, 1954.
66 FLUID MECHANICS
Impulse Turbine Hazen-Williams Equation
v = k1CR0.63S0.54, where
v C = roughness coefficient,
W
k1 = 0.849 for SI units, and

W
k1 = 1.318 for USCS units.
Other terms defined as above.
v v v v
v
v
WEIR FORMULAS
v v v See the CIVIL ENGINEERING section.
Wo = Qt ^v1 - vh ^1 - cos ah v, where FLOW THROUGH A PACKED BED
Wo = power of the turbine. A porous, fixed bed of solid particles can be characterized by

Wo max = Qt ` v12/4j ^1 - cos ah

L = length of particle bed (m)

When a = 180c, Dp = average particle diameter (m)

s = sphericity of particles, dimensionless (01)
Wo max = `Qtv12j /2 = `Qcv12j /2g
= porosity or void fraction of the particle bed,
MULTIPATH PIPELINE PROBLEMS dimensionless (01)
The Ergun equation can be used to estimate pressure loss
p
through a packed bed under laminar and turbulent flow
conditions.
Dp 150vo n ^1 - fh 1.75t v o ^1 - fh
p 2 2
L
v
L = 2 +
v v
2
Us D p f 3
UsDp f3
L
p = pressure loss across packed bed (Pa)
vo = superficial (flow through empty vessel)
The same head loss occurs in each branch as in the fluid velocity b m s
l
combination of the two. The following equations may be
= fluid density d n
kg
solved simultaneously for vA and vB:
m3
L A v A2 L v2
= fluid viscosity c m : s m
hL = fA = fB B B kg
DA 2g DB 2g
_rD 2/4i v = `rD A2 /4j v A + `rDB2 /4j vB
FLUID MEASUREMENTS
The flow Q can be divided into QA and QB when the pipe The Pitot Tube From the stagnation pressure equation for
characteristics are known. an incompressible fluid,
v = _ 2 ti _ p0 - psi = 2g _ p0 - psi /c, where
OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW AND/OR PIPE FLOW
Mannings Equation v = the velocity of the fluid,
v = (k/n)R2/3S1/2, where p0 = the stagnation pressure, and
k = 1 for SI units, ps = the static pressure of the fluid at the elevation where
k = 1.486 for USCS units, the measurement is taken.

v = velocity (m/s, ft/sec),
n = roughness coefficient, V2
R = hydraulic radius (m, ft), and 2g

S = slope of energy grade line (m/m, ft/ft).

Also see Hydraulic Elements Graph for Circular Sewers in the ps
CIVIL ENGINEERING section.
V, ps
po

For a compressible fluid, use the above incompressible fluid

equation if the Mach number 0.3.
Vennard, J.K., Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed., J.K. Vennard, 1954.

FLUID MECHANICS 67
MANOMETERS Orifices The cross-sectional area at the vena contracta A2 is
characterized by a coefficient of contraction Cc and given by
p Cc A.
0

Q = CA0 2g d c1 + z1 - c2 - z2 n
p p

For a simple manometer,

p0 = p2 + 2h2 1h1 = p2 + g (2 h2 1 h1) where C, the coefficient of the meter (orifice coefficient), is
given by
If h1 = h2 = h
CvCc
p0 = p2 + (2 1)h = p2 + (2 1)gh C=
1 - Cc2 _ A0 A1i
2
Note that the difference between the two densities is used.
Another device that works on the same principle as the
manometer is the simple barometer.
patm = pA = pv + h = pB + h = pB + gh

For incompressible flow through a horizontal orifice meter

installation
pv = vapor pressure of the barometer fluid Q = CA0 2t _ p1 - p 2i
Venturi Meters
Submerged Orifice operating under steady-flow conditions:

2g d c1 + z1 - c2 - z2 n , where
CvA2 p p
Q=
1 - ^ A2/A1h
2

Cv = the coefficient of velocity, and

= g.

The above equation is for incompressible fluids.

A1
{ }A 2
Q = A2v2 = CcCv A 2g ^h1 - h2h
= CA 2g ^h1 - h2h
in which the product of Cc and Cv is defined as the coefficient
of discharge of the orifice.

Bober, W. & R.A. Kenyon, Fluid Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1980. Diagram
reprinted by permission of William Bober & Richard A. Kenyon.
Vennard, J.K., Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed., J.K. Vennard, 1954.

68 FLUID MECHANICS
Orifice Discharging Freely into Atmosphere SIMILITUDE
In order to use a model to simulate the conditions of the
Atm
prototype, the model must be geometrically, kinematically,
and dynamically similar to the prototype system.
To obtain dynamic similarity between two flow pictures, all
independent force ratios that can be written must be the same
in both the model and the prototype. Thus, dynamic similarity
between two flow pictures (when all possible forces are
acting) is expressed in the five simultaneous equations below.

[ FI
Fp ] p
=
[ FI
Fp ] m
=
[ v 2
p ] [ ] p
=
v 2
p m

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [] []
Q = CA0 2gh
FI FI vl vl
in which h is measured from the liquid surface to the centroid = = = = Re p = Re m
FV FV
of the orifice opening. p m p m

DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY AND

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
[ FI
FG ] p
=
[ FI
FG ] m
=
[ v2
lg ] [ ] [] []
p
=
v2
lg m
= Fr p = Fr m

Equations that are in a form that do not depend on the

fundamental units of measurement are called dimensionally
homogeneous equations. A special form of the dimensionally
[ FI
FE ] p
=
[ FI
FE ] m
=
[ v 2
Ev ] [ ] [] []
p
=
v 2
Ev m
= Ca p = Ca m

homogeneous equation is one that involves only dimensionless

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
2
FI FI lv lv 2
groups of terms. = = = = We p = We m
FT p
FT m
p
m
Buckinghams Theorem: The number of independent
dimensionless groups that may be employed to describe a
where
phenomenon known to involve n variables is equal to the
the subscripts p and m stand for prototype and model
number (n r ), where r is the number of basic dimensions
respectively, and
(i.e., M, L, T) needed to express the variables dimensionally.
FI = inertia force,
FP = pressure force,
FV = viscous force,
FG = gravity force,
FE = elastic force,
Vennard, J.K., Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed., J.K. Vennard, 1954. FT = surface tension force,
Re = Reynolds number,
We = Weber number,
Ca = Cauchy number,
Fr = Froude number,
l = characteristic length,
v = velocity,
= density,
= surface tension,
Ev = bulk modulus,
= dynamic viscosity,
p = pressure, and
g = acceleration of gravity.

FLUID MECHANICS 69
 f
PROPERTIES OF WATER (SI METRIC UNITS)

Absolute Dynamic
Specific Weight a,

Vapor Pressuree ,
Temperature C

Viscosity ,

Viscosity a,
Density a , ,

Kinematic
a
, kN/m 3

p v , kPa
kg/m 3

m 2 /s
Pas
0 9.805 999.8 0.001781 0.000001785 0.61
5 9.807 1000.0 0.001518 0.000001518 0.87
10 9.804 999.7 0.001307 0.000001306 1.23
15 9.798 999.1 0.001139 0.000001139 1.70
20 9.789 998.2 0.001002 0.000001003 2.34
25 9.777 997.0 0.000890 0.000000893 3.17
30 9.764 995.7 0.000798 0.000000800 4.24
40 9.730 992.2 0.000653 0.000000658 7.38
50 9.689 988.0 0.000547 0.000000553 12.33
60 9.642 983.2 0.000466 0.000000474 19.92
70 9.589 977.8 0.000404 0.000000413 31.16
80 9.530 971.8 0.000354 0.000000364 47.34
90 9.466 965.3 0.000315 0.000000326 70.10
100 9.399 958.4 0.000282 0.000000294 101.33

PROPERTIES OF WATER (ENGLISH UNITS)

Specific Weight Mass Density Absolute Dynamic Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity Vapor Pressure
Temperature
pv
(F)
(lb/ft3) (lb sec 2/ft4 ) ( 10 5 lb sec/ft 2 ) ( 10 5 ft2 /sec) (psi)
32 62.42 1.940 3.746 1.931 0.09
40 62.43 1. 940 3.229 1.664 0.12
50 62.41 1.940 2.735 1.410 0.18
60 62.37 1.938 2.359 1.217 0.26
70 62.30 1.936 2.050 1.059 0.36
80 62.22 1.934 1.799 0.930 0.51
90 62.11 1.931 1.595 0.826 0.70
100 62.00 1.927 1.424 0.739 0.95
110 61.86 1.923 1.284 0.667 1.24
120 61.71 1.918 1.168 0.609 1.69
130 61.55 1.913 1.069 0.558 2.22
140 61.38 1.908 0.981 0.514 2.89
150 61.20 1.902 0.905 0.476 3.72
160 61.00 1.896 0.838 0.442 4.74
170 60.80 1.890 0.780 0.413 5.99
180 60.58 1.883 0.726 0.385 7.51
190 60.36 1.876 0.678 0.362 9.34
200 60.12 1.868 0.637 0.341 11.52
212 59.83 1.860 0.593 0.319 14.70

a
From "Hydraulic Models,"ASCE Manual of Engineering Practice, No. 25, ASCE, 1942.
e
From J.H. Keenan and F.G. Keyes, Thermodynamic Properties of Steam, John Wiley & Sons, 1936.
f
Compiled from many sources including those indicated: Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 54th ed.,
The CRC Press, 1973, and Handbook of Tables for Applied Engineering Science, The Chemical Rubber Co., 1970.
Vennard, J.K. and Robert L. Street, Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed., Wiley, New York, 1982.

70 FLUID MECHANICS
 MOODY (STANTON) DIAGRAM

Material e (ft) e (mm)

Riveted steel 10.0030.03 0.99.0
Concrete 0.0010.01 0.33.0
Cast iron 0.00085 0.25
Galvanized iron 0.0005 0.15
Commercial steel or wrought iron 0.00015 0.046
Drawn tubing 0.000005 0.0015

=
MOODY (STANTON) FRICTION FACTOR, f

REYNOLDS NUMBER, Re = Dv

From ASHRAE (The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.)

FLUID MECHANICS 71
72
DRAG COEFFICIENTS FOR SPHERES, DISKS, AND CYLINDERS

24
CD = , Re < 10
Re

FLUID MECHANICS
2FD
v 2A
CD
Dv

Note: Intermediate divisions are 2, 4, 6, and 8.