Purpose/Goal

Modern power systems have grown

larger with many interconnections
between neighbouring systems.
Elec4300- Power Systems & Proper planning, operation and
Reliability control of such large systems
requires advanced computer based
Course Coordinator and Lecturer: techniques. This course will provide
Professor Tapan K Saha (Room:47-
(Room:47-406) a strong foundation in classical
Telephone: 3365-
3365-3962 methods and modern techniques in
Email: saha@it
saha@itee.uq.edu.au
ee.uq.edu.au power systems engineering for senior
level electrical engineering students.

Objectives
The aim of this course is to expose students
to the concepts of power system
operation and control for various normal
and abnormal conditions. The students
Resources
Text Book any one from the list:
1. Hadi Saadat, Power System Analysis
Analysis, International Edition,
McGraw Hill, 1999.
2. J J Grainger and W D Stevenson, Power System Analysis
Analysis.
International Edition, McGraw Hill, 1994
Reference Books

3. J D Glover, M S Sharma, Power System analysis and design,

are also exposed to modern computer-
computer-
based techniques for solving a wide range
of power system operation and control
problems.
Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning, , 2002
4. B M Weedy and B J Cory, Electric Power Systems, Fourth Edition,
Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, 1998.
5. A. R. Bergen and V Vittal, Power Systems Analysis, Prentice-
Prentice-Hall,
Second Edition 2000
6. M E El-
El-Hawary, Electrical Power Systems, IEEE Press, 1995

1
 Consultation availability:
Specific time will be allocated for
personal consultation. This will be
decided during the first week of lecture.
Other than this scheduled time, students
can make an appointment with the
lecturer at any other mutually convenient
time through telephone or email.
RESOURCES
Distribution of Notices Mechanism
Normally any new information regarding class test,
tutorial submission, change of time table and of any
matters will be announced during the lecture/tutorial.
All new information will also be posted in the subject
home-
home-page
http://www.itee
http://www.itee.uq.edu.au/~e
.uq.edu.au/~elec4300
lec4300/index.html).
/index.html).
Mechanism for collection/distribution of submitted
material: All tutorials will be collected from the
students at the box # 44 marked ELEC4300
ELEC4300 kept at
the GP South building level-
level-1. All marked tutorials will
be returned to the students at the tutorial sessions only.

Tutorial Submission Policy: Practical Experiments:

Tutorial sheets will be handed out in advance of the
tutorial classes.
At the beginning of each tutorial session, directions will Each student will be required to perform
be given concerning submission of worked problems for
marking. two practical experiments
experiments on computer
Students will be required to submit the tutorial simulation (power system load flow and
problems designated as required for assessment by 10 short circuit analysis) using a software
am of the following Monday at the box #44 located in GP
South level 1. (Powerworld)
Powerworld) and will be required to
No tutorial submission will be accepted after this time. submit a report.
Only in special circumstances (approved medical
reasons) will tutorial submissions be accepted within a
very short period of time after this specified time.

2
 Assessment :
Assessment Criteria:
Final Examination 60%
One Class test (15
(15%)
%) Your final mark will be calculated from your marks for the
tutorial/practical submissions, your mark for the class test and
Tutorials and practical 25
25% (hand in problems-
problems-10% your mark for the final exam. You must pass the final exam
and practical experiments and report-
report-15%), and class test together (not individually) to pass the subject.
Standard breakpoints of grading will be used for assigning the
GP's.
The class test will be a 1-
1-hour examination. The date,
GP 7 High Distinction-
Distinction-Marks: 85-
85-100
time and place of the test will be announced at least two
weeks in advance of the test. GP 6 Distinction-
Distinction-Marks: 75-
75-84
Final Examination: This will be a 2-2-hour examination GP 5 Credit-
Credit-Marks: 65-
65-74
scheduled during the normal examination period GP 4 Pass-
Pass-Marks: 50-
50-64

COLLABORATION
Please read this note carefully as ignorance is not a
defence.
While students are encouraged to share
concepts and experiences related to the
understanding of the courses studied, care must
be taken not to exceed 'reasonable' boundaries
in relation to assessable material so that the
individuality of each solution is preserved.
Well-judged, high level discussions, pointers to
pages in lecture notes or texts, and working
through a similar tutorial problem with
colleagues, are certainly within the bounds of
'reasonable' co-operation.
PLAGIARISM
Individual assignments form a major part of
assessment and the work you hand in for these
assignments must be your own.
Copying the assignment work of other students,
allowing others to copy assignment work done by
you are regarded as plagiarism (a University
offence).
Collaboration to the point where a shared solution
is submitted is also plagiarism and is dealt with in
the section entitled 'Collaboration with Other
Students'.

3
 PLAGIARISM
Power System:
Copying material from any source should have the sole An electrical power system is a network of
purpose of assisting in the development of analysis or
debate. In such cases the reference(s) should be stated
interconnected components designed to convert
clearly and the use of the material presented in such a non-electrical energy continuously into the
manner the reader can clearly distinguish the original from electrical form; transport the electrical energy
the critical use of the material. Not to do so is professionally
professionally over potentially great distances; transform the
reprehensible.
electrical energy into a specific form subject to
Where plagiarism is detected, no credit will be given for the
component of assessment involved. This may include all or close tolerances; and convert the electrical
part of the credit for an assignment. A formal allegation of energy into a usable non-electrical form.
misconduct will be made.

Such a Power System must be: Simple power system

Safe
Reliable
Economical
Benign to the environment
Socially acceptable

4
 Queensland: (Source: ESAA
Voltage levels
Electricity Australia-2004)
Generator: 11-25 kV Installed capacity (2002) 10,700MW
Transmission: 132, 220, 275, 500 and 750 Customer 1,655,507
kV Consumption GWH 39,544
Sub-transmission: 33, 66, 110 kV Most of the power plants in Qld are
Distribution: 33, 22, 11, 6.6 kV. 19 & 12.7 Thermal (steam) power plants, a smaller
kV SWER proportion Hydro.
Reticulation: 415/240, 220/110 V

Some more information Transmission: overhead (2002 data)

Transmission lines are: Overhead and 275/220kV: 5,825 circuit km

underground cables. 132 kV: 6,6726 km
Overhead conductors are bare (not 110 kV 1,282km
insulated) and therefore supported by 66 kV 7,027 km
insulated mechanical connections to the
towers. They are exposed to weather, and in 33 kV 6,360 km
particular to lightning, and their design must 22 kV 11,981 km
account for these factors. 50,122 km

5
Underground cables (2002 data):
Installed capacity by fuel type 2002

132 kV 11km
110 kV 74 km
66 kV 7 km
33 kV 532km
22 kV 52 km
11kV 3,131 km

Generation plant at 30 June 2002 Electricity generation by fuel type

6
Electricity consumption to 2020 is projected at 2.6 percent per annum with business
growth at 3.2 percent, residential growth at 2.1 percent and light metals at 1.6 percent
(but with prospect for more rapid growth). Queensland and the Northern Territory
have the greatest projected growth of 3.4 percent per year over the period and

Tasmania the lowest at 1.5 percent.

7
Total sales projections are given in figure with Figure below shows emissions growth (from 129 Mt
sales increasing from 181 TWh in 2003 to 218 in 1990 to 181 Mt in 2000, 193 Mt in 2010 and 230
TWh in 2010 and 282 TWh in 2020. Mt in 2020. Emissions on a state basis are provided.

figure indicating the continued dominance of coal

(both black and brown) in electricity generation, but
with a significantly growing gas share.

8
The user typically desires the power system
to appear at his bus as an ideal ac voltage
source.
Constancy of the voltage magnitude
Steady state condition: studied by load flow
Abnormal condition: Fault analysis
Constancy of the voltage frequency (stability
studies)
Adherence to an ideal sinusoidal wave shape.
(power quality study)

Three Phase Circuits

A circuit that contains a source that produces
sinusoidal voltages with different phases is
called a polyphase system.
Most of the generation and distribution of
electric power is accomplished with polyphase
system.
The most common polyphase system is the
balanced three-
three-phase system, which has the
property that it supplies constant instantaneous
power.

9
A Wye connected three phase
Operator a
source
a
Vcn

Van

n Van
Vcn Vbn
Positive
Sequence-abc
Vbn
c b
Vbn

Van
Negative
sequence-acb
Vcn

Three-
Three-Phase Wye Source Phase Sequence
Terminals a, b and c are called line terminals Two Cases are possible to satisfy above
or lines and n is called the neutral terminal. conditions.
The source is said to be balanced if the voltages Case 1 : Van= Vm0o Vbn= Vm-120o
Van, Vbn and Vcn called phase voltages, have the Vcn= Vm-240o
same magnitude and sum to zero that is if : Case 2 : Van= Vm0o Vbn= Vm-240o
Vcn= Vm-120o
| Van |= | Vbn | = | Vcn |
Case 1: Van leads Vbn by 120 degrees and Vbn
and Van+ Vbn + Vcn = 0 leads Vcn by 120 degrees. It is called positive
phase sequence or abc phase sequence.

10
 Line-
Line-Line and Phase
Line-
Line-line and per phase voltage
relationship
Case 2: Van leads Vcn by 120 degrees and Vcn leads Thus, the line to line voltage has a
Vbn by 120 degrees. It is called negative phase magnitude equal to 3 times the
sequence or acb phase sequence.
magnitude of the phase voltage and it
We can easily calculate line to line voltages based
on line to neutral or per phase voltage leads the corresponding phase voltage by
From Figure 1: Vab= Van +Vnb = Van -Vbn = Vm0o - 30o
Vm-120o =3 Vm30o VL=3 Vp30o
Similarly: Vbc= Vbn +Vnc = Vbn -Vcn = Vm-120o - It can be observed that the line currents are
Vm-240o =3 Vm-90o identical to the corresponding phase currents.
Similarly: Vca= Vcn +Vna = Vcn -Van = Vm-240o - |IL|=|Ip |
Vm0o =3 Vm-210o =3 Vm150o

Phasor diagram relating phase

and line voltages
Vcn Vab= Van-Vbn
Vca=Vcn-Van

Van

Vbn

V bc= Vbn-Vcn

11
Balanced Y Connected Three Balanced Y-
Y-Y Connected three
Phase Load phase circuit
a A IAN= Van/Z, IBN= Vbn/Z, ICN= Vcn/Z
By KCL: IAN+ IBN+ ICN=(Van+ Vbn+ Vcn)/Z = 0
Van Z
There is no current in the neutral wire (the
n short circuit between terminals n and N).
N
Vcn Vbn
Neutral wire can be removed without affecting
Z Z
the voltage and currents.
b
c If the lines all have the same impedance, the
B
C effective load is still balanced and so the
neutral current is zero, and the neutral wire
Balanced Y-Y
connected three-phase can be again removed.
circuit

Delta Connected Load

Ia

Ica
Iab Z
Z

Ib Ibc

Ic

Vca Ica

Vab
30o Iab

Ibc

-Ica
Vbc Ia

12
 Delta Connected Load
It is assumed that balanced abc phase
sequence voltages are applied and Vab=V 0o
The phase currents will be:
)= (V/Z)
Iab= Vab/(Z -
=I-

)= (V/Z)
Ibc=Vbc/(Z (-
-120) =I
(-
-120)
)= (V/Z)
Ica= Vca/(Z (-
-240) =I
(-
-240)

Delta Connected Load

Iab-Ica= 3Iab
Line currents: Ia= Iab- 3Iab-30o= 3I
3I(- -30o)
Ibc-Iab= 3Ibc
Ib= Ibc- 3Ibc-30o= 3I
3I(- -150o)
Ica-Ibc= 3Ica
Ic= Ica- 3Ica-30o= 3I
3I(- -270o)
It may be concluded that line to line voltages are
identical to the phase voltages for delta connected loads
VL= VP
Delta connected load may be transformed into an
equivalent Wye connected load so that the terminal
behaviour of the two configurations will be identical.
That is corresponding line to line voltages and line
currents will be the same.
For balanced load: ZY=(Z)/3

13
 Instantaneous and Average 1
Pav =
T
P (t )dt
Power: T 0

Let v(t) = Vm cos ( (t+

t+) Average power is defined as the mean
and i(t) = Im cos ((t+
t+) value of P(t) over an interval of T
Then P(t)=v
P(t)=v(t)i
(t)i(t) seconds. T is the the period of voltage/
= Vm Im cos ((t+
t+) cos (
(t+
t+) current.
(2t+
Vm Im[cos (2 t++) + Vm Im cos(
cos(-)]/2 -
Pav= [Vm Im cos( )]/2=Vrms Irms cos(
-
)
Vm Im[cos (2 (2t+
t++)]/2: Time varying at 2 -
is the phase difference between the
time signal frequency. voltage and the current. cos( -
) is
cos(-)]/2: Constant at all times.
[Vm Im cos( known as the power factor.
When: P(t): + Power received by the box
P(t): - Power delivered by the box

APPARENT POWER POWER FACTOR

The average power calculated in the
previous section is called the real power.
Resistors transform the absorbed real
power into heat.
The product Vrms Irms is the apparent
power. The ratio of the real power to
apparent power is called the power
factor, denoted by pf.
Average power = Apparent power
Power factor, Where, power factor =
cos(-)
cos(
Clearly the value of pf lies between 0 and
1.
When current lags the voltage the power
factor is lagging & when current leads
the voltage the power factor is leading.

14

POWER FACTOR AND VA
In ac circuits: the apparent power does
not measure the true power (except the
case of a purely resistive load)
The unit of apparent power is called volt
ampere, abbreviated a VA.
The unit VA is used in the rating of large
machines, e.g. transformer, generator
and motor etc.
Power in a Balanced Three
Phase System
The total average power absorbed by a
three phase balanced load or delivered by
a three phase generator, is equal to the
sum of the powers in each phase. The
voltage and currents in each phase are
equal.
Vp=Van=Vbn=Vcn, Ip=Ian=Ibn=Icn,
Therefore the total three-
three-phase power is
3|Vp||Ip|cosp, where p is the
PT=3Pp= 3|Vp||Ip|cos
phase angle between the voltage and the

Power in a Balanced Three Instantaneous Power in

Phase System Balanced Three Phase System
For a three phase wye-
wye-connected load or generator For a balanced three phase load, the total
|=3|Vp|,
|VL|= 3|Vp|, |IL|= | Ip|, instantaneous power is equal to the sum of the
individual power s of the three phases.
For a three phase Delta-
Delta-connected load or
|=|Vp|, |IL|= 3 | Ip|,
generator |VL|=| pT= pa+pb+pc = van ia + vbn ib + vcn ic
Hence P & Q equation becomes same as below Assuming abc phase sequence: pT= Vm Im cos cost cos(
cos(t-
P) + Vm Im cos(
cos(t-120o) cos(
cos(t-P- 120o) + Vm Im
(irrespective of type of load or generator)
cos(t-240 ) cos(
cos( o cos(t-P- 240 )
o
cosp = 3 |V
PT=3Pp= 3|Vp||Ip| cos cosp,
|VL||IL| cos Where Vm and Im are the peak values of the phase
QT=3Qp= 3|Vp||Ip| sinsinp = 3 |V sinp,
|VL||IL| sin voltages and currents respectively and P is the phase
ST= 3|Vp||Ip| = 3 |V
|VL||IL| angle by which the current lags the voltage in each
phase.

15
 Instantaneous Power in
Balanced Three Phase System
cos(P) ]/2+ Vm Im [cos(2
pT=3[Vm Im cos( [cos(2t-P)
cos(2t- P +120o) +cos(2
+cos(2 t-P- 120o)]/2
+cos(2
Since the second term on the right hand side
cos(P) ]/2
is identically zero, pT=3[Vm Im cos(
This demonstrates an important property of
a balanced three-
three-phase system: the total
instantaneous power is time invariant.

16
 PER UNIT QUANTITIES:
Very often power, voltage and current are
Elec4300- Power Systems & expressed as a percent or per unit of a base or
Reliability reference value specified for each.
The per unit value of any quantity is defined as
Course Coordinator and Lecturer: Prof. Tapan K Saha the ratio of he quantity to its base expressed as
Telephone: 3365-
3365-3962 a decimal.
Email: saha@it
saha@itee.uq.edu.au
ee.uq.edu.au
The ratio in percent is 100 times the value in
per unit.

Per Unit Quantities Important points:

Base current, A =(base kVA1 )/ base voltage kV1n
Base impedance, =(base voltage V1n )/base current A
Base impedance, = (Base voltage kV1n)2 * 1000/ base
kVA1
Base impedance, =(Base voltage kV1n)2/MVA1
Per unit impedance of an element =(Actual impedance,
)/Base
)/Base impedance,
The per unit value of a line-to-neutral voltage on
the line-to-neutral voltage base is equal to the per
unit value of the line-to-line voltage at the same
point on the line-line voltage base if the system is
balanced.
The per unit value of the three-phase kVA on
the three phase kVA base is identical to the per
unit value of the kVA per phase on the kVA per
phase base.

1
 Important points:
Unless otherwise specified, a given value
of base voltage in a three phase system is
a line-
line-to-
to-line voltage, and a given value of
base kVA or MVA is the total 3 phase base.
Base impedance and base current can be
computed directly from three phase
values of base kilovolts and base kVA
kVAs.
Changing the base of per unit
quantities:
Sometimes the per-unit impedance of a component of a
system is expressed on a base other than the one selected
as base for the part of the system in which the component
is located.
We can convert per unit impedance of one base to another
base by the formula:
Per unit impedance = [(actual Z, )base kVA]/[(base
voltage kV)2 1000]
Per unit Znew =Per unit Z given [(base kVgiven)2 (base
kVAnew)]/ [ (base kVnew)2(base KVAgiven)
Useful definition
Base current, A =base kVA3/3base voltage kVll
Base impedance = (base voltage, kVll)2/base
MVA3
We must remember:
Use line-to-line kV with three phase kVA or
MVA
Use line-to-neutral kV with kVA or MVA per phase.
Per Unit impedance of Single
phase Transformer:
The ohmic values of R and X of a
transformer depend on whether they are
measured on high or low voltage side of the
transformer.
The per unit impedance of a transformer is
the same regardless of whether it is
determined from the ohmic values refereed
to the high voltage or low voltage sides of the
transformer.
2
 Types of Conductors:
Transmission Lines
Transmission line has four parameters: In early days electric power conductors
Resistance were usually copper.
Inductance Aluminium conductors have completely
Capacitance replaced copper because of :
Conductance lower cost
Conductance accounts for the leakage current at the lighter weight
insulators of overhead lines and through the insulation lower voltage gradient at the conductor surface
of cables. Since leakage at insulators of overhead lines less tendency to ionise the air (corona) around
is negligible, the conductance between conductors of an the conductor
overhead line is usually neglected.

Different types of aluminium

conductors: RESISTANCE:
AAC all-
all-aluminium conductors Most important cause of power loss in
AAAC all-
all-aluminium-
aluminium-alloy conductors: transmission line.
have higher tensile strength The effective resistance of a conductor is given
ACSR aluminium conductor, steel by:
reinforced: central core of steel strands Power loss in conductor
surrounded by layers of aluminium R = ---------------------------------------
strands. | I |2
ACAR aluminium conductor, alloy Where the power is in watts and I is the rms
reinforced current in the conductor in amperes.

3
Direct current resistance is R=

Resistance A
l
given by the formula:

= resistivity of conductor
l = length of the conductor

R=
A= cross section

l The variation of resistance of metallic

conductors with temperature is practically

A linear over the normal range of operation.

T + t2
From the geometry R2/R1 = --------- Inductance of a single phase
T + t1 two wire line:
t
r1 r2
T=228 for hard-drawn
t2 aluminium of 61% D
t1 conductivity

T
R1 R2 R 1 2

r1 and r2 are the internal radii of the

conductors.

4
 L = 2 10 7 ln
D
The total inductance :H/m (r 1' r 2 ' )

L=4107ln D
where r1 = r1 e-1/4 and r2 = r2 e-1/4

L = Inductance per conductor H/m

(r1'r2') D = Distance of separation between the
conductors.

c
Inductance of composite b c

conductor lines: a n
b
a
m

Conductor X Conductor Y
Conductors composed of two or more elements
or strands electrically in parallel. Inductance of Conductor X is:
We assume strands are identical and share the
currents equally. LX = 2 107 ln Dm H/m
Next Figure shows that a single phase line Ds
composed of two conductors. Each conductor Inductance of Conductor Y is
forming one side of the line is shown as an
arbitrary arrangement of an indefinite number
LY = 2 107 ln Dm H/m
of conductors. Distance between them is D. Ds

5
 Interpretation of Dm and Ds
Where Dm = is called the mutual
geometric mean distance (GMD) between
the two conductors. The mn th root of the
product of the mn distances is called the
geometric mean distance between
conductor X and Y
Ds is different for conductor X and
conductor Y.
Dm = mn root of {(Daa Dab Dac Dam)
(Dba Dbb Dbc Dbm) (Dna Dnb
Dnc Dnm)}
Ds for conductor X: n2 root of {(Daa Dab
Dac Dan) (Dba Dbb Dbc Dbn) (Dna
Dnb Dnc Dnn)}
Ds for conductor Y: m2 root of (Daa D ab D
a c D a m) (D b a D b b D b c D b m)
(Dma Dmb Dmc Dmm)
Where Daa = distance from filament a to itself
= ra
The inductance of the line is L = LX + LY
Interpretation of Dm and Ds
Ds is called the self geometric mean
distance or geometric mean radius (GMR).
n2 root of the product of the distances from
every filament in the conductor to itself and
to every other filament is known as GMR of
conductor X.
m2 root of the product of the distances from
every filament in the conductor to itself and
to every other filament is known as GMR of
conductor Y.
INDUCTANCE OF THREE PHASE LINE WITH
EQUILATERAL SPACING
b
D D
a D c
The inductance per phase of three-phase line is given by
La = Lb = Lc = 2 107 ln D H/m
Ds
6
 Transposition:
INDUCTANCE OF THREE PHASE LINE WITH
UNSYMMETRICAL SPACING a c b
Pos. 1
D12
When the conductors of a three phase line are not
b a c
spaced equilaterally, the problem of finding the
D31 Pos 2
inductance becomes more difficult. The flux linkages
and inductance of each phase are not the same. A
different inductance in each phase results an D23
unbalanced circuit. c b a
Balance of the three phase can be restored by Pos 3
exchanging the positions of the conductors at regular
intervals along the line so that each conductor occupies Transposition cycle
the original position of every other conductor over an
equal distance.
Such an exchange of conductor positions is called
transposition.

Transposition cycle 3 (D12 D23 D31)

Modern power lines are not transposed at
regular intervals although an interchange in

La = Lb = Lc = 2 107 ln
the position of the conductors may be done at Deq
switching stations in order to balance the
inductance of the phases more closely. Ds
The average inductance per phase in H/m is
given by the formula in next page.
Deq=cubic root of the three distances.

7
 Inductance Calculations for
bundled conductors BUNDLE CONDUCTORS
For extra voltage above 230 kV: problems with one
conductor per phase:
d
Corona power loss
d d
interference with communication lines
High voltage gradient at the conductor in EHV is
d d d
reduced by: d d
having two or more conductors per phase in close
proximity compared with space between phases. Bundle Arrangement
Such a line is said to be composed of bundle conductors
Reduced reactance is other advantage

CAPACITANCE OF TRANSMISION
F o r a tw o -str a n d b u n d le : LINES
A. Capacitance of a two-wire line:
4 ( D s d ) 2 ( D s d )
D sb = =
ra rb
D
a b
F o r a th r e e -str a n d b u n d le :
The capacitance between conductors is

( D s d d ) 3 3 ( D s d 2
D sb =
9
=
Cab = F/m
ln( D / r )
F o r a fo u r -s tr a n d b u n d le : Where = o r

1 6 ( D s d d d 2) 4 4 ( D s d 3 o = 8.854 * 10-12 F/m permittivity of free space

D sb = = 1 .0 9 r = relative permittivity of the dielectric

8
 Capacitance of a Three Phase Line With
equilateral Spacing
2
The three identical conductors of radius r of a three phase
ln( D / r ) line with equilateral spacing are shown here.

If the line is supplied by a transformer having b

a grounded centre tap, the potential difference
between each conductor and ground is half the D D
potential difference between the two
conductors and the capacitance to ground or
capacitance to neutral is: a D c

Cn = Can = Cbn and is given by the above

equation in F/m to neutral. The capacitance to neutral is given by:

2
Cn = F/m to neutral
ln( D / r )

Capacitance of a Three Phase Line with

C a p a c it a n c e C a lc u la t io n s f o r b u n d le d
unsymmetrical spacing
co n d u c to rs
a c b
Pos. 1 2
D12 C n = F /m to n e u tr a l
b a c ln( D / D eq scb )
D31 Pos 2
F o r a t w o - s t r a n d b u n d le :

D23 4 (rd ) 2 (rd )

c b D scb = =
a
Pos 3
F o r a t h r e e - s t r a n d b u n d le :
Transposition cycle

The capacitance to neutral is given by:

9 (rd d ) 3 3 (rd 2
D scb = =
2
Cn = F/m to neutral
ln( D / r )
eq

F o r a fo u r -s tr a n d b u n d le :
3 (D12 D23 D31)
Where Deq = 16 (rd d d 2) 4 4 (r d 3)
D scb = = 1 .0 9

9
 Voltage and current relationship
in a transmission line
Representation of lines:
Elec4300- Power Systems & Lines are classifieds based on length of the
Reliability lines:
Short Transmission lines: length up to 80 km
Subject Coordinator and Lecturer: Medium transmission line: length between 80
Prof. Tapan K Saha (Room:47
(Room:47--406)
406) and 240 km
Telephone: 3365-
3365-3962 Long transmission line: length above 240 km
Email: saha@it
saha@itee.uq.edu.au
ee.uq.edu.au

Short Line
Here we can write
Is = IR
Vs = VR + IR Z
Power factor of the load strongly affects
the regulation of the line:
Regulation is defines as:
V V
RNL RFL
Percent regulation = V 100
RFL

1
Lagging power factor Unity power factor
VS
VS
jIRX

VR
j IRX
IR VR IRR

IR IRR

Medium Length Transmission

Leading Power factor Line:

Shunt admittance usually pure

capacitance is included in the calculations
VS jIRX for a line of medium length. If the total
IR shunt admittance is divided into two
equal parts placed at the sending and
IRR
VR
receiving ends of the line, the circuit is
called nominal model.

2
 Medium Length Pi Model Long Length transmission line
Neither nominal T or nominal exactly
Y represent the actual line, so the exact solution
VS = (VR + IR )Z + VR with distributed parameters will be described
2 now for long transmission lines. When line is
more than approximately 240km long, the
Y assumption that the line parameters are
Y
IS = (VS + VR 2 ) + IR lumped must be changed and it should be
2 considered that the parameters are distributed
uniformly throughout the length of the line.

Long Length transmission line Long Length transmission line

Let us consider a very small element in the line
Is
I+dI
I IR and calculate the difference in voltage and the
difference in current between the ends of the
Vs
Gen
load element. Let x be the distance measured from the
AC

V+dv V VR
receiving end of the line to the small element of the
line and let the length of the small element be dx.
dx x Then z.dx is the series impedance of the elemental
length of line and y.dx is the shunt admittance. The
voltage to neutral at the end of the element toward
the load is V. The voltage at the end of the element
toward the generator is V+dV.

3
 Long Length transmission line
The rise in voltage over the elemental length of line in the
direction of increasing x is dV.
dv
The rise in voltage in the direction of increasing x is also
the product of the current in the element owing opposite to = Iz
the direction of increasing x and the impedance of the
element, or I. z.dx.
dx
Thus: dV = Iz dx
dI
= Vy
Similarly the current going out of the element toward the
load is I. The magnitude and phase of the current I vary
with distance along the line, because of the distributed
shunt admittance along the line. The current owing into the
dx
element from the ground is I+dI.
The current entering in the shunt admittance of the element
is Vy.dx. Thus dI = V y dx

Both and Zc are complex quantities. The real part of the

propagation constant is called the attenuation constant and
After Simplifications, Substituting Zc=Characteristic
is measured in nepers per unit length. The quadrature part is
impedance of the transmission line= (z/y) and
called the phase constant and is measured in radians per
=(yz)=propagation constant
unit length.
= + j

V +I Z V I Z
V= R
e + R
e c x R R c x

V +I Z V I Z
2 2 V= R
e e + R
e ec x j x R R c x j x

2 2
V V
+I R
I
R
R

R
V V
I=
Z
e
c
Z
e x c x +IR
I
R
R

R
Z Z
2 2 I= e e
c
e e x j x c x j x

2 2

4
 Interpretation
The term ex changes in magnitude as x
changes, but ejx always has a magnitude of 1
and causes a shift in phase of radians per unit
length of line.
The 1st term of equation 5 increases in
magnitude and advances in phase as distance
from the receiving end increases. This is the
characteristic of a travelling wave. The first
term is called the incident voltage.
Interpretation
If a line is terminated in its characteristic
impedance Zc, the receiving end voltage
VR = IR Zc, then from Equation 3 and 4, it is
seen that there is no reflected wave of either
voltage or current. A line terminated in its
characteristic impedance is called a flat line
or an infinite line. Usually power lines are not
terminated on their characteristic impedance,
but communication lines are terminated in
order to eliminate the reflected wave.
wave
Interpretation
The second term diminishes in magnitude and
is retarded in phase from the receiving end
toward the sending end. It is called the
reflected voltage. At any point along the line
the voltage is the sum of the component
incident and reflected voltage at that point.
Since the equation for the current is similar to
the equation for voltage, the current may be
considered to be composed of incident and
reflected currents.
Interpretation
In power systems, characteristic impedance is some
time called surge impedance. The term surge
impedance is, usually reserved for a special case of
loss less line. If a line is loss less, its resistance and
conductance are zero and the characteristic
impedance reduces to Zc = (z/y) = [(R + j L)/(g
C)] = (L/C) a pure resistance.
+ j
When dealing with high frequencies, or with surges
due to lightning, losses are often neglected and the
surge impedance becomes important. Surge
impedance loading (SIL) of a line is the power
delivered by a line to a purely resistive load equal
to the surge impedance.
5
 Surge impedance loading (SIL) Wavelength
When so loaded A wave length is the distance along a line
[(3) (L/C) ]
IL = |VL|\[( between two points of a wave which differ in
Where |VL| is the line to line voltage at the load. phase by 360o or 22 radians. If is the phase
Since the load is a pure resistance: shift in radians per km, the wave length in km
SIL=(3) |VL| [|VL| \[(
SIL=( [(3) (L/C)] is =2
=2/
Power system Engineers sometimes find it
convenient to express the power transmitted by The velocity of propagation of a wave in km
a line in terms of per unit SIL-
SIL- that is, as the per second is the product of the wavelength in
ratio of the power transmitted to the surge
km and the frequency in cycles per second.
impedance loading.

GENERALISED CIRCUIT
SPECIAL CASE CONSTNATS

If there is no load on a line, IR=0. The incident

and reflected voltages are equal in magnitude
and in phase at the receiving end (x=0). In case
of current wave, the incident and reflected
currents are equal in magnitude but 180 degree
out of phase at the receiving end. Thus the
incident and reflected currents cancel each
other at the receiving end of an open line but
not any other point unless the line is entirely
loss-less so that the attenuation = 0.
loss-

6
7
 CONVENTION:
+Ve sign of reactive power to indicate lagging VARS,
the Vars taken by an inductive load. A capacitor
receives -Ve Vars from the lines or supplying +Ve
Vars to the line.
In the Figure 2 (R) is the phase angle of the voltage
minus the phase angle of the current and this is the
angle of the complex impedance at the receiving end.
R) =+ve when current lags the voltage and -ve
So (
when current leads. So the alteration is required in
the power diagram is the interchanging of the points
above and below the horizontal axis by rotating the
whole diagram about the horizontal axis.

(1)) Now let us determine some points on the

power diagram for various loads; with
fixed values of |VS| and |VR|,
Point n is not dependent on the current IR and will
not change as long as |VR| is constant. Further we
note that the distance from point n to point k is
constant for fixed values of |VS| and |VR|. Therefore
as the distance from o to k changes with changing
load, the point k, since it must remains at a
constant distance from the fixed point n, is
constrained to move in a circle whose centre is at n.
Thus all the points representing loads on a
network with a fixed values of |VS| and |VR| lie on
the circle determined by the values of the fixed
voltages.
If a different value of |VS| is held constant with
same value of |VR|, the location of point n remains
unchanged but a new circle of different radius is
found.
The point n may be located by
measuring A|VR|2/|B|, from the origin at
(-) with the horizontal axis
an angle of (
in the third quadrant. By computing
vertical and horizontal component a
better accuracy is obtained.

8
 Circle diagram-
diagram-Explanation
(4) If the receiving end voltage is held constant and
receiving end circles are drawn for different values
of sending end voltage, the resulting circles are
concentric, because the location of the centre is
independent of the sending end voltage.
(5) If the sending end voltage is fixed, the receiving
end power circles for different receiving end
voltages are not concentric. The centres of the
circle are at different points for different values of
|VR|. But they all lie in a straight line, because the
angle ( -
) remains constant. The radii of the
circles also changes for different values of |VR|.

Power transmitted over a transmission line: REACTIVE COMPENSATION OF

From the receiving end circle diagram TRANSMISSION LINES

Performance of transmission line can be improved by:

Series compensation
Shunt compensation
Series Compensation: Capacitor bank placed in
series with each phase conductor of the line.
Series compensation reduces the series impedance of the
line (XL - XC ) and thus reduces the voltage drop and
improves the maximum power transmission. We have seen
that maximum power transmission is dependent on the
reciprocal of the circuit constant B which is Z for medium
length transmission line.

9
 Series compensation
The desired reactance of the capacitor bank is
calculated by compensator factor
factor = XC/XL
Where XC is the capacitive reactance of the
capacitor bank per phase, and XL is the total
inductive reactance of the line per phase.
If series compensation can reduce B to about
one third of its value for the uncompensated
line without affecting the A and C constant
appreciably, maximum power can be
transmitted is increased by about 300%.
SHUNT COMPENSATION
Shunt compensation: refers to the placement of
inductors from each line to neutral to reduce
partially or completely the shunt susceptance of
a high voltage line.
Charging current is an important factor to be
considered and should not be allowed to exceed
the rated full load current of the line.
Charging current is = Bc V
If we connect inductors from line to neutral at
various points along the line so that total
susceptance is BL.

Shunt compensation
The charging current becomes:
Ichg = (Bc-
(Bc- BL) V = Bc V (1-
(1- BL/ BC).
The shunt compensator factor is BL/ BC .
Other benefit of shunt compensator is
reduction of the receiving end voltage at no or
light load for long high voltage lines.
Ideally the series and shunt elements should be
placed at intervals along the line.
Series capacitors can be bypassed and shunt
inductors can be switched off when desirable.

10
 Lecture Overview
Load Flow Objective
Applications of Load Flow Basic Line & Bus Equations
Analysis Newton-
Newton-Raphson Method
Decoupled & Fast Decoupled Method
Professor Tapan K Saha
School of Information Technology & Electrical Application: Design and Operation
Engineering
The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Qld-4072 Conclusions

Load flow: Objectives Load Flow: Objectives

Flow of real and reactive powers in the
branches of the network
Busbar (Node) voltages
Power system augmentation studies to
plan expansion to the network to meet
future requirements
Effect of temporary loss of generation and
transmission circuits on system loading
Effect of injecting in-phase and quadrature
boost voltages on system loading
Optimum system running conditions and load
distribution
Generator scheduling and reactive scheduling to
minimizes losses
Optimum rating and tap-range of transformers
Optional placement of reactive compensation
Improvements from change of conductor size and
system voltage
Starting point of other studies such as fault
analysis and stability analysis
 A Simple 3 Bus Power System Network Performance Equation

1 2 Y11 = (y12+ y13+ y12/2+ y13/2) and

AC
AC

y =y
(- y12)= Y12 , (-y13 ) = Y13
12 21
y12'
y12'
2 y13 = y31
3
y23=y32
2
I1 Y 11 Y 12 Y 13 V 1
y13' y13' y23' y23' I 2 = Y 21 Y 22 Y 23 V 2
2 2 2 2

I3 Y 31 Y 32 Y 33 V 3

Effect of Shunt Elements Tap-changing and Regulating Transformers

System power flow can be controlled by Equivalent Circuit

switching of shunt capacitor banks, shunt
reactors, and static VAR systems. If there is a a Yeq
shunt capacitor of Y at bus 1, the self-admittance i j
at bus 1 changes to Y11 = (y12+ y13+ y12/2+
y13/2) + Y and no other elements will be affected.
Both tap-changing and regulating transformers (1-a)Yeq (a 2-a) Yeq
are modelled by a transformer with off nominal
turns ratio a and equivalent series admittance Yeq
Ground
(as shown in Figure 2). Then the corresponding
elements in the YBus (Yii, Yij and Yjj) need to be
changed.
 Line Flow Equations Bus Loading Equation
The real and reactive power flow from bus i to
bus j is given by: Pij -jQij = Vi* [yij(Vi-Vj)+ Vi (yij/2) N
Similarly at bus j the power flow from j to i P - jQ = V * VnYin
will be given by:Pji -jQji = Vj* [yij(Vj-Vi)+ Vj (yij/2)
i i i n=1
The algebraic sum of above two equations gives
N
the line loss over line i-j
Pi = | Vi || Vn || Yin | cos(in + n i)
yij
i j n=1
N
Qi = | Vi || Vn || Yin |sin(in + n i)
y' ij/2 y' ij/2

Ground

n=1

BUS TYPES
Power Mismatch Equations
Definition of mismatch Pi as the scheduled value Pi, sch
minus the calculate value Pi, calc. Bus Type No of Bus Quantities No. of available No of state
Specified Equations variables
Pi = Pi, sch - Pi, calc.= (Pgi - Pdi )- Pi, calc
i and Vi
Qi = Qi, sch - Qi, calc.= (Qgi - Qdi )- Qi, calc
Slack i=1 1 1 V1 0 0
Two above Equations are the power-balance equations.
Voltage Ng Pi |Vi | Ng (only P Ng
Four potentially unknown quantities (Pi, Qi, voltage angle i,
and voltage magnitude |Vi |) are associated with each bus i.
Controlled Equations)
Load Bus N- Ng -1 Pi QI 2(N- Ng -1) 2(N- Ng -1)
At most there are two equations available for each bus. So we
must consider how the number of unknown quantities can Total N 2N 2N- Ng -2 2N- Ng -2
be reduced to agree with the number of available equations
before beginning to solve the load flow problem.
 NEWTON RAPHSON LOAD FLOW
METHOD NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD
Let us consider a three bus system: Bus 1-slack bus ( |V1|
and angle 1 are known). All other buses (2 and 3) are load

P 2 P 2 |V 2 | P2 |V 3 | P2
bus and hence, P and Q are known for load buses. Voltage

2
magnitudes and their corresponding angles are to be found
out. For other buses (Bus 2 and 3), we assume initial 2 3 |V 2 | |V 3 |
P 3 P 2 3
|V 2 | P3 |V 3 | P3
0.
estimates for the voltages as V2(0), V3(0) = 1
|V 2 | P2
Then we calculate Pi, calc and Qi, calc . Next step is to
solve the power balance equations for Pi and Qi. If 2 3 |V 2 | |V 3 | =
P3
Pi and Qi are very small, e.g. 0.001 , or 0.0001, then initial Q 2 Q 2 |V 2 | Q 2 |V 3 | Q 2
|V 2 | Q 2
estimates are the solution.
2 3 |V 2 | |V 3 | |V 3 | Q 3
If not then we can write Pi and Qi in the form of
Taylors Series expansion. Each non-slack bus in the Q 3 Q 3 |V 2 | Q3 |V 3 | Q3 |V 3 |
system has two equations: for Pi and Qi , collecting all 2 3 |V 2 | |V 3 |
mismatches we can write:

Iterative Technique-1
Iterative Technique-2
(a) Estimate: i(o) and |Vi(o)| for the each PQ or load
bus. Normally assume flat start: 1 0 Use these
estimates to calculate Pi, calc and Qi, calc. Then Use new value of i(1) and | Vi(1)| as starting
Calculate power mismatches . values for the second iteration and continue
until the correction vector is smaller than
(b) Calculate the elements of the Jacobian matrix
the predefined residual value (say 10-4).
(c) Solve the last Equation for correction vectors i(o)
and |Vi|(o)/ |Vi|(o) In general: Update formulas for starting
(d) Add the solved corrections to initial estimates values of the state variables:
i(1) = i(o) + i(o i(k+1) = i(k) + i(k)
|Vi(1)| = |Vi(o)| + |Vi|(o) Vi(k+1)| =|Vi(k)| [1+ |Vi|(k) |/Vi(k)| ]
|Vi(o)| [1+ |Vi|(o) |/Vi(o)|]
 Newton Raphson Load Flow
PV BUS in NR METHOD
Method:
In the polar form of the power flow equation, it is
very easy to include a PV bus. If bus 3 is a PV

P
bus, |V3| |/V3| must always be zero.
Consequently 4th column of Jacobian matrix is
multiplied by |V3| |/V3| and hence may be
removed.
J1 J 2 = =
Since Q3 is not specified the mismatch Q3
can not be defined, So we must omit the 4th
row of the Jacobian equation.
J3 J4 V Q
Of course Q3 can be calculated after the power
flow solution become available.

DLF Method DLF Method

J1: first derivative of P wrt voltage angle
J2: first derivative of P wrt voltage magnitude.
J3: first derivative of Q wrt voltage angle

J1 P
=
J4: first derivative of Q wrt voltage magnitude
0
Change in voltage at a bus primarily affects the flow of
=
J4 V Q
real power P in the transmission lines and leaves the flow
of reactive power Q relatively unchanged.
Change in Voltage magnitude |V| at a bus primarily affects
0
the flow of reactive power Q and leaves the flow of real
power flow P relatively unchanged
 Fast Decoupled Load Flow
The angular difference (i-
j) between typical
i-
buses is usually small. So cos ( j)= 1 and
i-
sin( j)= (
i-
j)
The line susceptances Bij are many times larger
i-
than the line conductance Gij. Then Gij sin( j)
i-
will be many times smaller than Bij Cos ( j).
The reactive power Qi injected into any bus (i)
during normal operation is much smaller than
the reactive power, which would flow if all lines
from that bus were short, circuited to reference. i.e,
Qi much smaller than |Vi|2Bii.
FINAL COMMENTS
Comparing the computational burden of the
basic two methods, each Newton-Raphson
iteration takes longer than the corresponding
Gauss-Seidel iteration.
Convergence is obtained with fewer iterations
with NR method, and hence there is usually a
saving in computation with NR method.
For computations involving large power systems,
a modified Newton-Raphson algorithm known as
Decoupled Load Flow method is frequently
recommended.
FDLF TECHNIQUE
Pi] /| Vi | = [Bij] [
[ i]
Qi] /| Vi | = [Bij][ Vi/|Vi|]
[
These Equations are known as the
Fast Decoupled Load Flow model.
Here B and B are the two real
and constant matrices. Once it is
inverted, they can be used for
successive iterations.
Final Comments
DLF: It still requires the updating of Jacobian
matrices for each iteration, but the dimensionality
of the computation is reduced.
Another modification is called Fast Decoupled
Load Flow method. In this case, the updating of
matrices is no longer required and the
computational burden is greatly reduced. For
large networks the fast decoupled load flow
method is preferable. Many commercial software
packages are available for load flow analysis.
LOAD FLOW STUDIES IN SYSTEM DESIGN
& OPERATION
To evaluate the adequacy of a complex
interconnected network.
Important information can be obtained concerning the
design and operation of systems that have not yet
been built and the effects of changes on existing
systems.
Any abnormal condition such as a generator or a
transmission line outage will change the power flow
and bus voltages.
The comparison of contingency condition with the
base case will provide opportunity to the planning
engineer to upgrade the existing system.
LOAD FLOW STUDIES IN SYSTEM DESIGN
& OPERATION
Load flow programs are very useful to study
abnormal/disturbance conditions.
One important disturbance condition is the voltage
collapse phenomenon. This involves
uncontrollable drops in system voltages following
large disturbance such as a sharp rise in system
load or a major outage.
Voltage collapse is usually studied as a steady state
problem using conventional or extended power flow
programs.
For simplicity, voltage collapse power flow
simulations usually assumes constant power loads.
For classical voltage stability, a point in time one to five
minutes following a major disturbance is simulated.
LOAD FLOW STUDIES IN SYSTEM DESIGN
& OPERATION
The planning engineer can find system
weaknesses such as low voltages, line overloads,
or excessive loading conditions.
These weaknesses can be removed by making
design studies involving changes to the base
case system.
The system can be studied with different possible
contingency conditions.
Interaction between the design engineer and the
computer based load flow program should be
continued until system performance satisfies
local and regional planning and operational
criteria.
More on Load Flow Applications
Short circuit analysis provide fault current
levels, fault capacity and post fault voltages.
severe, Fault studies give a best estimate for the
calculation of relay settings, breaker
requirements, fuse selection, series reactor
placement, stability assessment, and other
parameters related to circuit interruption.
To calculate post-fault voltages in different
buses, pre-fault conditions are required and are
usually obtained by base-case load flow
analysis.
 Application: Load Flow
Ideally, the loads must be fed at constant voltage and
frequency at all times. In practical terms this means that
both voltage and frequency must be constant with close
tolerances so that the consumers equipment may
operate satisfactorily.
The first requirement of reliable service is to keep the
synchronous generators running in parallel and with
adequate capacity to meet the demand.
The synchronization problem is studied by stability
analysis, where as the outage of a generator can be
studied by the load flow analysis.
A second requirement of reliable electric supply is to
maintain the integrity of the power system.
Application: Load Flow
Load flow methods normally solve the power system
steady state condition.
In real sense, random changes in load are taking place at
all times, with subsequent adjustments of generation.
Changes: a fault on a network, failure in an equipment,
sudden application of a major load, or loss of a line or a
transformer, line switching, lightning surges and faults.
Any of these may change the system from equilibrium to an
unstable state.
The fast transient phenomena are studied by stability
analysis, while slower phenomena are virtually studied
by load flow analysis.
Practically if the load flow study converges to an
acceptable solution, questions of stability are not
raised.

CONCLUSIONS QUESTIONS
In this lecture a brief review of different load flow Thanks for your attention.
algorithms has been presented.
In general Newton-Raphson method will
converge in a few iterations and for large
interconnected system the Fast Decoupled
Load Flow method is found to be suitable to
reduce computational efforts.
Although load flow analysis provides the steady
state solution of a balance power system, it is
significantly useful for design and operation of
power system under normal and abnormal
conditions.
1
2
3
4
5
 FAULT ANALYSIS
Elec4300- Power Systems &
Reliability -Fault Analysis When a fault occurs in a power system
network, the currents which flow in the
components is an essential item to be
Subject Coordinator and Lecturer: known by the design Engineers.
Prof. Tapan K Saha (Room:47
(Room:47--406)
406) The magnitude of the fault currents give
Telephone: 3365-
3365-3962 the Engineer the current settings for the
Email: saha@it
saha@ ee.uq.edu.au
itee.uq.edu.au protection to be used and the ratings of
the circuit breaker.

Common Power System Faults Fault analysis

Most common of this is single line to ground
fault. Three phase faults are the most severe
single line to
line-line
fault
double line to
ground fault
faults. Overhead lines are most vulnerable to
ground fault
faults. In a typical system in UK:
Type No of faults %
3 phase 3 phase to O/H 289 61
fault ground fault
Cables 67 14
single line to ground fault Switch-gear 56 12
through a resistor
Transformers 59 13

1
 I

Fault Analysis Z
E

Lightning is the cause of most of the faults

Consider an initially unloaded generator
occur in the 66 kV and more overhead
transmission lines. with a short circuit across three
The calculation of fault currents can be divided
terminals as in Figure above.
into the following two main types. The generated voltage per phase is E and
(i)Three phase short circuits: network remains therefore the short circuit current is E/Z
balanced electrically. Normal single phase Ampere, where Z is either the transient
equivalent circuits may be used. or sub-transient reactance (impedance).
(ii) Faults other than 3 phase short circuit, the
network is electrically unbalanced.
Symmetrical component theory is used for this.

Per unit values are defined on full load.

If Z is expressed in per unit If IFL = Full load rated current as base current
E = base value of voltage
notation.

Zpu = I FLZ ()
Z () = EZpu
E IFL

2
The short circuit current is The short circuit current is:

ISC = E ISC = EI FL
Z () EZpu

The short circuit current is: Short Circuit Level

Three phase short circuit volt-ampere =

ISC = I FL
3 V Isc = 3 V IFL/Zpu
= Base volt ampere/ Zpu
Hence the short circuit level is

Zpu
immediately obtained if the impedance
from the source of the voltage to the point
of fault is known.

3
 EXAMPLE Solution:
An 11.8 kV Busbar is fed from three synchronous
generator (as shown in Figure having the following
ratings and reactances:20 MVA, X=0.08 pu, 20 MVA, short
X=0.09 pu,60 MVA, X=0.1 pu 0.27 0.1 circuit
0.24
F
Calculate the fault current and MVA if a (I)
3 phase symmetrical fault occurs on the F
(II)
busbars. The voltage base = 11.8 kV and
0.24 0.27 0.01 0.054
MVA base = 60 MVA.

(III) (IV)

First we have to convert the Bus Impedance and Admittance

impedances into same base. Matrix
0.08pu for 20 MVA; becomes 0.24 pu on 60 MVA [I] = [YBus] [V]
0.09pu for 20 MVA; becomes 0.27 pu on 60 MVA
All generators emf are equal, they can be converted
Inverting [Y] matrix we get ZBus
into one source. [ZBus ] = [YBus ]-1
Xe = parallel combination of 0.24, 0.1 and 0.27 =0.056
pu
Here [ZBus ] is a n n matrix for a n bus
Fault MVA= Base volt-
volt-ampere/ Z pu=60/0.056=1071.42
power system.
MVA
Fault current = 1071.42
*1000000/(1.732*11.8*1000)=52,423 A

4
 We can write: for a three bus
system Bus Impedance Matrix

The impedance elements of ZBus on the

principal diagonal are called driving
V1 Z 11 Z 12 Z 13 I 1 point impedance of the nodes and the off

V 2 = Z 21 Z 22 Z 23 I 2 diagonal elements are called the transfer

impedance's of the nodes.
Bus impedance matrix is important and
V3 Z 31 Z 32 Z 33 I 3 very useful in making fault calculations.

Let us investigate the node equations for a So the self admittance of a particular node could be
THREE bus system. measured by shorting all other nodes to the reference
node and then finding the ratio of the current injected at
the node to the voltage resulting at that node.

We have seen previously:Current at node 1

2
2: I2= V1 Y21 +V2 Y22 + V3 Y23
Here Y11 ,Y22 , Y33 are called self +
admittances 3
I1 V2
AC

Here Y12 ,Y23 , Y31 etc. are called mutual I3

admittances.
-
Y22= I2/V2 when: V1 and V3 are zero.
Reference

5
We can also write:
I1= V1 Y11 +V2 Y12 + V3 Y13
Y12 =I1 /V2 when: V1 and V3 are zero.
Thus the mutual admittance is measured by shorting
all nodes except node 2 to the reference node and
injecting a current I2 at node 2, Then Y12 is the ratio of
the negative of the current leaving the network in the
short circuit at node 1 to the voltage V2.
[ The -ve of the current leaving node 1 is used since I1 is
defined as the current entering the network. THE
RESULTANT ADMITTANCE IS THE NEGATIVE
OF THE ADMITTANCE DIRECTLY CONNECTED
between nodes 1 and 2].
NODE ELIMINATION BY
MATRIX ALGEBRA:
Nodes at which current does not enter or leave
the network can be eliminated.
[I] = [YBus ][V]
Where [I] and [V] are column matrices and
[YBus] is a symmetrical square matrix.
The column matrices must be so arranged that
elements associated with nodes to be eliminated
are in the lower rows of matrices.

Where IX is the sub-matrix composed of the

Matrix elimination currents entering the nodes to be eliminated, VX
is the sub-matrix composed of the voltages of
Elements of the square admittance matrices are these nodes.
located accordingly.

IA K L VA
= T
The column matrices are partitioned so that the
elements associated with node to be eliminated
are separated from the other elements.
The admittance matrix is partitioned so that
elements identified only with nodes to be
eliminated are separated from the other
IX L M VX
elements by horizontal and vertical lines.

6
 Matrix elimination
IX : all elements to be zero
K: with nodes to be retained (with self
and mutual admittances)
M: With nodes to be eliminated.
L and LT are composed of only those
mutual admittances common to a node
to bee retained and to one to be
eliminated.
Matrix elimination
Which is the node equation, having the
admittance matrix [ K -LM-1 LT ].
This admittance matrix enables us to
construct the circuit with the unwanted
nodes eliminated.
When a large number of nodes are
eliminated the matrix M whose inverse
must be found is large.
Matrix elimination
IA = K VA +L VX.(E)
.(E)
IX = LT VA +M VX(F)Since all elements of IX
are zero:
- LT VA = M VX
Multiplying both sides by M-1
-M-1 LT VA =M-1 M VX = VX..(G)
Substituting (G) in (E),
IA = K VA -LM-1 LT VA
IA =[ K -LM-1 LT ] VA
Matrix elimination
Inverting a matrix is avoided by
eliminating one node at a time, and the
process is very simple.
The node to be eliminated must be the
highest numbered node and renumbering
may be required.
The matrix M becomes a single element
and M-1 is the reciprocal of the element.
7
 Partitioning of the matrix
[Ybus]=Y11 . Y1j
Yk1Ykj
L=Y1n
Ykn
M=Ynn
The original admittance matrix is
partitioned into symmetrical K, L, LT and
M as above.
Modification of an existing Bus
impedance matrix:
How an existing Bus impedance matrix
may be modified to add new buses or
connect new lines to established buses. In
our analysis buses will be identified by
numbers or letters h,i,j and k. The letter
p will designate a new bus to be added to
the network to convert Z original to an
(n+1) by (n+1) matrix.
Matrix Elimination
Then The reduced matrix is K-
LM-1 LT
The new matrix becomes:
Ykj(new)=Ykj(orig)- (YknYnj)/Ynn
Each element in the original
matrix K must be modified.
Ip
p
Zb
Ref
CASE 1: Adding Zb from a new bus p to
the reference bus:
The addition of the new bus p connected
to the reference bus through Zb without a
connection to any of the buses of the
original network cannot alter the original
bus voltage. when a current Ip is injected
at the new bus. The voltage at the new
bus is Vp= Ip Zb
8
 Vorig Zorig 0 Iorig
=
Vp 0 Zb Ip
The new row in Z matrix =[0 0 0 . Zb]
The new element in the voltage vector
=[ Vp]
The new element in the current vector
=[ Ip]
Case -II Adding Zb from a new
bus p to an existing bus k
The addition of a new bus p connected
through Zb to an existing bus k with Ip
injected at bus p will cause the current
entering the original network at bus k to
become the sum of Ik which is injected at
bus k plus the current Ip coming through Zb
The current Ip flowing into bus k will
increase the original Vk by the voltage Ip
Zkk.
CASE II: Adding Zb from a
new bus p to an existing bus k
Ik Ik+Ip
original
k network
Ip
Ref
p
Zb
Adding Zb from a new bus p
to an existing bus k
Vk (new) = Vk (orig)+ Ip Zkk
Vp will be larger than the new Vk by the
voltage Ip Zb .
Vp = Vk (orig)+ Ip Zkk + Ip Zb .
Vp = Vk (orig)+ Ip (Zkk + Zb )
We now see that the new row which must
be added to Zorig in order to find Vp is
[Zk1 Zk2 .. Zkn . , (Zkk + Zb )]
9
 k

Adding Zb from a new bus p
to an existing bus k
Since Zbus must be square matrix around
the diagonal; we must add a new column
which is the transpose of the new row.
The new row in Z matrix =[Zk1 Zk2 .. Zkn .
, (Zkk + Zb )]
The new element in the voltage vector =[ Vp]
The new element in the current vector
=[ Ip]
Zb
CASE III: Adding Zb from an existing
bus k to the reference bus.
This is the modification of Case II. Let
us first create a new bus p then short
circuit p to reference.
We assume that Zb is connected from the
existing bus k to a new bus p, then we
short circuit bus p to the reference bus by
letting Vp = 0

CASE III: Adding Zb from an CASE IV: Adding Zb between two

existing bus k to the reference bus. existing bus j and k
So we can have the same matrix as in Ij Ij+Ib
case II. Then we can eliminate (n+1) row
j
and (n+1) column matrix by matrix
Ib
elimination. Original
netwwork
Zhi is the new matrix.
k
Zhi(new) = Zhi(orig) - [Zh(n+1) Z(n+1)i ] / (Zkk
Ik Ik-Ib
+ Zb ) Where h=row, i column
Ref

10
 CASE IV: Adding Zb between two CASE IV: Adding Zb between two
existing bus j and k existing bus j and k
V1 = I1 Z11 + + Z1j ( Ij + Ib ) + Z1k We now need one more equation: Since Ib
( Ik - Ib ), rearranging: is also unknown:
V1 = I1 Z11 + + Z1j Ij + Z1k Ik + Vk - Vj =Ib Zb, 0= Ib Zb +Vj -Vk
Ib(Z1j -Z1k ), similarly Substituting Vj and Vk from the above
Vj = I1 Zj1 + + Zjj Ij + Zjk Ik + equation
Ib(Zjj -Zjk ) 0 = Ib Zb + I 1(Zj1 -Zk1 ) + ..+ Ij(Zjj -Zkj )
Vk = I1 Zk1 + + Zkj Ij + Zkk Ik + + Ik(Zki -Zkk ) +(Zjj + Zkk - 2 Zjk )Ib
Ib(Zkj -Zkk )

CASE IV: Adding Zb between two

existing bus j and k
Collecting the coefficients of Ib and renaming
them as Zbb , Zbb = Zjj + Zkk - 2 Zjk + Zb
The new column is column j minus column k of
original with Zbb in the (n+1) the row. The
new row is the transpose of the new column. As
there is no new bus we want to eliminate it, we
will be eliminating (n+1) row and (n+1)column
as before.
Zhi(new) = Zhi(orig) - [Zh(n+1) Z(n+1)i ] / (Zjj + Zkk
- 2 Zjk + Zb) Where h=row, i column

11
 The method of symmetrical components, first
developed by C.L. Fortescue in 1918, is a powerful
technique for analysing unbalanced three-phase
systems.
According to Fortescues theorem: Three
unbalanced phasors of a three-phase system can be
resolved into three balanced systems of phasors.
Elec4300- Power Systems & Reliability The balanced sets of components are:
Unbalanced Fault Analysis Positive sequence components consisting of three
phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each
other by 120o in phase, and having the same phase
sequence as the original phasors.
Subject Coordinator and Lecturer: Negative sequence components consisting of three
Prof. Tapan K Saha (Room:47
(Room:47--406)
406) phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each
Telephone: 3365-
3365-3962 other by 120o in phase, and having the phase
sequence opposite to that of the original phasors.
Email: saha@it
saha@itee.uq.edu.au
ee.uq.edu.au
Zero sequence components consisting of three
phasors equal in magnitude and with zero phase
displacement from each other.

From previous figure

Va = Va0 +Va1 + Va2
Vb = Vb0 +Vb1 + Vb2 (A)
Vc = Vc0 +Vc1 + Vc2

The number of unknown can be reduced by expressing each

component of Vb and Vc as the product of a component of Va
and some function of the operator a =1120o
Vb0 = Va0, Vc0 = Va0
Vb1 = a2 Va1 Vc1 = a Va1 ..(B)
Vb2 = aVa2 Vc2 = a2 Va2

Substituting (B) into equations (A)
Va = Va0 +Va1 + Va2
Vb = Va0 + a2 Va1 + aVa2 (C)
Vc = Va0 +aVa1 + a2 Va2

1
 Va 1 1 1 Va 0 Va 0 SEQUENCE NETWORKS:
Vb = 1 a 2 a Va1 = A Va1 Synchronous Machines:
Vc 1 a a 2 Va 2 Va 2 a
Z1
Ia1
Z1
Ia1
+

+
+ Va1
Ean
Where - Ean
1 1 1 n
Ebn
Reference
1 1 1 Ecn
+ +
- -

A = 1 a2 a 11
A = 1 a a2
Z1 Z1 Va1 = Ean - Ia1Z1
b
Ib1
1 a a2 3 c

1 a2 a Ic1
Positive seqience
network Ia2
a +
Ia2
Z2 Z 2 Va2
Hence Positive, Negative and Zero sequence components reference
-

can be represented by their phasor components. Z2 Z2

b
Va2 = -Ia2 Z 2

Ib2
Negative sequence
c
Ic2 network

Va0 = 1/3(Va +Vb + Vc ) a

Ia0 a
+
Zgo Ia0
Va1 = 1/3(Va + a Vb + a2Vc ) (D) Zn Zg0

Va2 = 1/3(Va + a2 Vb + aVc ) 3Ia0

Z go Zgo
Va0
3Zn
c b
Ib0
-
reference
Ic0 Va0 = -Ia0Z 0
Where Z0 =3Z n+Zg0

Zero Sequence network

SEQUENCE NETWORKS: Sequence networks of

Synchronous Machines:
Since a three-phase synchronous generator is designed to produce
balanced internal phase voltages Ea, Eb and EC with only a positive
sequence component, a source voltage Ea1 is included only in the
positive sequence network.
Ina three phase Y connected system the neutral current In is the sum
of three line currents. In=Ia + Ib+Ic=3Ia0
Hence the voltage drop in the generator neutral impedance is Zn In,
which is 3 Zn Ia0. Since this voltage drop is due only to zero-
sequence current, an impedance 3 Zn is placed in the zero
sequence network in series with the generator zero sequence
impedance Zg0
Under steady state conditions, the positive sequence generator
impedance is called the synchronous impedance.
Negative sequence impedance of a Synchronous machine is less
than the positive sequence impedance.
Transmission Lines:
Perfect balance between phases is often assumed especially if
the lines are transposed along their lengths.
In deriving the inductance and capacitance of transposed
transmission lines, we assumed balanced three phase currents
and did not specify phase order.
The resulting parameters are therefore valid for both positive
and negative sequence impedances.
When only zero-sequence current flows in a transmission line,
the current in each phase is identical. The current return
through the ground, through overhead ground wires, or
through both.
The magnetic field due to zero sequence current is very
different from the magnetic field caused by either positive or
negative sequence current.
The zero sequence reactance is 2.5 to 3 times as large as the
positive sequence reactance.

2
 Sequence Circuits of delta-Wye Five possible types of connections are shown below

Transformers for the zero-sequence networks

P Q P Z0 Q

The sequence equivalent circuits of three-phase re fe re nce

transformer depend on the connections of primary

and secondary windings. P Q
P
Z0 Q

No current flows in the primary of a transformer reference

unless current flows in the secondary, if we neglect

the relatively small magnetising current. P Q P
Z0
Q

Z0=Z+3ZN+3Zn re fe re nce

Where primary side of transformer is grounded ZN Zn

through ZN and secondary side of the transformer is P Q P Z0 Q

grounded through Zn. The usual per phase reference bus

equivalent circuit of the transformer applies when ZN

positive and negative sequence voltage and currents P Q P Z0 Q

are present.

A Problem

3
SINGLE LINE TO GROUND SINGLE LINE TO GROUND
FAULT FAULT
Ifa Suppose a line-to ground fault occurs on phase a through
+ impedance Zf. Assuming the generator is initially on no-load,
the boundary conditions at the fault point are:
Va
Zf Va= Zf Ifa
Ic = Ib =0
Ea
Substituting the values of currents we have:
Eb
Ia

Zn
Ec I fa 0 1 1 1 I fa
1
Ib=0
I fa1 = 1 a a2 0
3
Ic=0 I fa 2 1 a2 a 0

4
 SINGLE LINE TO GROUND SINGLE LINE TO GROUND
FAULT FAULT
From the above equation: Ifa0= Ifa1 = Ifa2 = Ifa /3
Phase a voltage in terms of symmetrical components is:
Va = Va0 +Va1 + Va2
Substituting Va0, Va1 and Va2 from Figure We get: Ifa1
Va=Ea- Ifa0(Z1+Z2+Z0) Z1 Z2 Ifa2 Z0 Ifa0
Where Z0= Zs+3Zn, and noting Ifa= 3 Ifa0
We get: 3 Zf Ifa0 = Ea- Ifa0(Z1+Z2+Z0) V a0
Va2
Or: Ifa0 = (Ea)/(Z1+Z2+Z+3 Zf) Ea Va1
So the fault current is: Ifa = 3 Ifa0 =(3Ea)/(Z1+Z2+Z+3 Zf) 3Zf
The current and voltage equations satisfy that the sequence
networks should be connected in series. Thus for line to Reference
ground faults, the Theremin's impedance to the point of fault is
obtained for each sequence network, and the three-sequence
networks are placed in series. If the generator neutral is solidly
grounded, Zn=0 and for bolted faults Zf=0.

LINE TO LINE FAULTS LINE TO LINE FAULTS

k Assume a line to line fault involves phase
a
Ifa
b and c through an impedance Zf .
k The following relations must be satisfied at
b
the fault point.
Ifb Zf Ifa = 0
Ifb = Ifc (1)
k
c Vkb-Vkc = Ikb Zf
Since Ifb = Ifc and Ifa = 0, the symmetrical
Ifc components of currents are given by:

5
 I fa0 1 1 1 0
1
I fa1 = 1 a a 2 I fb
I fa2
3
1 a2 a I fb LINE TO LINE FAULTS
Simplifying this equation shows that: Equating equations 3 and 4 :
Ifa0 = 0, Ifa1 = - Ifa2 (2) (Vka1 - Vka2) = Ifa1 Zf (5)
The voltage throughout the zero sequence network must be
zero, since there are no zero sequence sources, and because Now we need to represent the equations 2 and 5
Ifa0 = 0, current is not injected into that network due to the fault. in circuit representation.
Hence, line-to-line fault calculations do not involve the zero
sequence network. If we connect the positive and negative
Let us now check the voltage relationship: sequences in parallel through the impedance Zf
Vkb-Vkc = Ikb Zf conditions given in equations 2 and 5 are
LH Side of the equation Vkb-Vkc = (Vkb1 +Vkb2)- (Vkc1 +Vkc2 )
Vkb-Vkc = (Vkb1 - Vkc1)+(Vkb2 - Vkc2 )
satisfied.
Vkb-Vkc = (a2-a) Vka1 +(a-a2) Vka2 = (a2-a) (Vka1 - Vka2 ) (3)
RH side of the equation: Ikb Zf = (Ikb1 + Ikb2) Zf = (a2 Ifa1 +a Ifa2 ) Zf The equation for the positive sequence current
From Equation 2: Ifa1 = - Ifa2 in the fault can be directly determined from the
Substituting into above equation Figure 6.
Ikb Zf = (a2-a) Ifa1 Zf (4)

Vf
I fa1 = I fa 2 = DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND
Z kk1 + Z kk 2 + Z f
FAULTS
k
a
Zkk1 k Zf k Zkk2 Ifa
k
b
Ifa1 Ifa2
Vf Vka1 Vka2 Ifb

k
c
Reference
Ifc Ifb+Ifc
Zf

6
DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULTS DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULTS
Assume a double line to ground fault involves phase b and c and Simplifying this equation shows that:
connected to ground through an impedance Zf . Ifa0 = 1/3 (Ifb +Ifc )
The following relations must be satisfied at the fault point. Hence, (Ifb +Ifc ) = 3 Ifa0 (2)
Hence, Vkb=Vkc= 3 Ifa0 Zf (3)
Ifa = 0 , Vkb=Vkc = (Ifb + Ifc ) Zf (1) We want to see the voltage relationship:
The second and third row of this equation gives
Vka1=Vka2
Since Ifa = 0 , the symmetrical components of currents are given by:
On the other hand, first row provides us, 3Vka0=Vka +2Vkb
3Vka0= (Vka0 +Vka1 +Vka2 )+2(3 Ifa0 Zf ),
Separating Vka0 and substituting Vka1=Vka2
I fa 0 1 1 1 0 We get, Vka1= Vka0 -3 Ifa0 Zf
1 So we have finally Vka1= Vka2= Vka0 -3 Ifa0 Zf (4)
I fa1 = 1 a a2 I fb
3 Ifa0 +Ifa1 +Ifa2 = 0= Ifa
I fa 2 1 a2 a I fc These equations in (4) are satisfied when all three-sequence networks
are connected in parallel as shown in the following Figure.

Calculate the subtransient fault current in per unit and in kA for a bolted
The equation for the positive sequence current in the fault single line to ground short circuit from phase a to ground at bus 2 in this
diagram. Also calculate the per unit line to ground voltages at faulted
can be directly determined from the Figure 4. bus 2. Result: If=24.65 kA, -j5.89pu, Vbg=1.17923.3o,
Vcg=1.179128.7o

Ifa1 Ifa2
Zkk1 Zkk2 Zkk0

Ifa0
Vka0
Vf Vka1 Vka2
3Zf

Reference

Vf
I fa1 =
Z kk 2 ( Z kk 0 + 3Z f )
Z kk1 +
( Z kk 2 + Z kk 0 + 3Z f )

7

Calculate the subtransient fault current in per unit and in kA for a bolted
line to line fault from phase b to c at bus 2 in this diagram. Result:
If=6.391 pu, 26.74 kA
Calculate (a) the subtransient fault current in each phase, (b) neutral
fault current, and contributions to the fault current from the motor and
from the transmission line, for a bolted double line to ground fault from
phase b to c to ground at bus 2. Neglect the Wye-delta transformer
phase shifts.
8

Elec4300-Power systems and
reliability-Lecture notes on
Stability
Prof. Tapan Saha
saha@itee.uq.edu.au
Axon-406
1 2
Transient stability:- Proper dynamic
performance of the system
This involves heavily interconnected
systems with hundreds of machines,
which can interact through the medium
of their high voltage and ultra high
voltage networks. These machines
have associated excitation systems
and turbine governor control systems,
which needs to be modelled as well to
study the dynamic performance of the
system.
3 4
INTRODUCTION
The tendency of a power system to
develop restoring forces equal to or
greater than the disturbing forces to
maintain the state of equilibrium is known
as stability.
Stability studies are of two types:
Transient stability
Steady state stability
Transient stability
Transient stability studies deal with the
effects of large, sudden disturbances
such as the occurrence of a fault, the
sudden outage of a line or the sudden
application of removal of loads.
Transient stability studies are needed
to ensure the system can withstand the
transient conditions following a major
disturbance. Such studies are
important when generating and
transmission facilities are planned.
1

Steady state stability
Steady state stability studies are less
extensive and often involve a single
machine operation into an infinite bus or
just a few machines undergoing one or
more small disturbances.
Steady state stability studies examine the
stability of the system under small
incremental variations in parameters or
operating conditions about a steady state
equilibrium point.
5 6
Swing Equation Derivation
If the generator armature resistance and leakage flux
are neglected, the angle between E and the terminal
voltage V, denoted by , is considered as power
angle.
Let us now consider a synchronous generator
developing an electromagnetic torque Te and
running at synchronous speed sm. If Tm is the
driving mechanical torque, then under steady state
operation with losses neglected we have
Tm = Te. Equation 1
A deviation from steady state due to disturbance
results in an accelerating (Tm > Te ) or decelerating
(Tm < Te ) torque Ta on the rotor
Ta = Tm - Te. Equation 2
7 8
SWING EQUATION (ROTOR
DYNAMICS)
Under normal operating conditions, the
relative positions of the rotor axis and the
resultant magnetic field axis is fixed. The
angle between the two is known as the power
angle or torque angle.
During any disturbance, rotor will decelerate
or accelerate with respect to the
synchronously rotating air gap mmf, and a
relative motion begins. The equation
describing this relative motion is known as
the swing equation.
d 2 m
J = Ta = Tm Te
dt 2
If J is the combined moment of inertia
of the prime mover and generator,
neglecting frictional and damping
toques, then accelerating torque is the
product of moment of inertia of the
rotor time its angular acceleration. In
MKS system of units we can write the
above equation.
2
 Where m is the angular displacement of the Taking the derivative of equation 4 we
rotor with respect to the stationary reference axis d m d
have: = m = sm + m
on the stator. Since we are interested in the rotor dt dt
speed relative to synchronous speed, the
angular reference is chosen relative to Equation 5
synchronously rotating reference frame moving
with constant angular velocity sm. d 2 m d 2 m
Where m = sm t + m Equation 4 And the rotor acceleration =
Where m is the rotor position before disturbance
Equation 6 dt 2 dt 2
at time t=0, measured from the synchronously
rotating reference frame.
9 10

The quantity Jm is called the inertia constant and

Substituting equation 6 in to equation 3, and
is denoted by M. It is related to kinetic energy of
multiplying by m we have the rotating masses Wk.

d 2 m Wk =
1 1
J m2 = M m
J m = m (Tm Te ) 2 2
dt 2
Equation 7
Equation 9
Angular velocity times torque is equal to
We can also write
the power, then we can write equation (8)
2Wk
d 2 m M =
J m
dt 2
= Pm Pe m
Equation 8 Equation 10

11 12

3
 Although M is called inertia constant, it is not Then the Swing equation in terms of
really a constant when the rotor speed deviates inertia constant becomes :
from the synchronous speed. However, since m
does not change by a very large amount before d 2 m
stability is lost, M is normally evaluated at the M = Pm Pe
synchronous speed and is considered to remain dt 2
constant. And then we can write: Equation 12
2Wk
M =
sm Equation 11

13 14

It is more convenient to write the Swing equation in Most of the calculations in power systems are
terms of the electrical power angle . If p is the
number of poles of a synchronous generator, the carried out in per unit, hence the Swing equation
electrical power angle is related to the mechanical is usually expressed in per unit as well.
power angle m by
= p m /2 If the base power is SB MVA and we substitute
Also, = p m /2 M from equation in 11, then the equation 13
Now the Swing equation can be written in becomes:
terms of electrical power angle:
2 2WK d
2
d 2 P P
2
= Pm Pe
= m e
p
M
dt 2 p sm S B dt 2 SB SB
Equation 14
Equation 13

15 16

4
 Now we will define the important quantity Known
as the H constant or per unit inertia constant.

kinetic energy in MJ at rated speed WK

Where Pm (pu) and Pe (pu) are the per unit
H= = mechanical power and electrical power
machine rating in MVA SB
respectively. The electrical angular velocity is
related to the mechanical angular velocity by
Equation 15
sm=(2/p)s and hence equation 16 becomes:
The unit of H is in seconds. The value of H ranges from
1 to 10 seconds, depending on the size and type of 2 H d 2
machine. Substituting the equation 15 into equation 14, = Pm ( pu ) Pe ( pu )
s dt 2
we get:
2 2H d
2
Equation 17
= Pm ( pu ) Pe ( pu)
p sm dt 2
Equation 16

17 18

Sometime this equation (17) is expressed Where is in electrical radian. If is

in terms of frequency f and to simplify the expressed in electrical degrees, the Swing
notation, the script pu is omitted and the equation becomes:
powers are understood to be in per unit.
H d
2

= Pm Pe
H d
2
180 f dt 2
= Pm Pe
f dt 2 Equation 19
Equation 18

19 20

5
 POWER ANGLE EQUATION
Electrical network disturbances resulting
In the Swing equation for the generator the input
mechanical power from the prime mover, Pm, will be from following causes may changes the
considered constant. Since Pm is constant, the generator output Pe to change rapidly and
electrical power output Pe will determine whether the
rotor accelerates, decelerates or remains constant at electromechanical transients exist.
synchronous speed.
When Pe equals Pm , the machine operates at steady Severe load changes
state synchronous speed
When Pe changes from this value, the rotor deviates Network faults
from synchronous speed.
Changes in Pe are determined by conditions on
Circuit breaker operations
Transmission and distribution network
Loads on the system to which the generator supplies power

21 22

Each synchronous machine is represented for transient Figure 2 schematically represents a generator
stability studies by transient internal voltage Ei in series
with the transient reactance Xd as shown in Figure 1 in
supplying power through a transmission system to
which Vt is the terminal voltage. a receiving end system at bus (1).

jxd' I

Ei
' 1 2
Vt

E1' E2'
transmission network
Ei'
jIX' d

Vt Figure 2

Reference
I
Figure 1 Phasor diagram of a synchronous machine for transient stability studies
23 24

6
 The rectangle represents the transmission systems of linear
passive components, such as transformers, transmission lines
Power equation can be written as
and capacitors and includes the transient reactance of the
generator. follows:
Therefore the voltage E1 represent the transient internal
N
voltage of the generator at bus (1). The voltage E2 at the
receiving end is regarded as that of the infinite bus or the Pk + jQk = E ' k (Ykn E ' n ) *
transient internal voltage of synchronous motor whose n =1
transient reactance is included in the network.
The bus admittance matrix for the network reduced to two Equation 21
nodes in addition to the reference node is given by:
Y11 Y12
Ybus =
Y21 Y22
Equation 20
Letting k=1 and N=2,we can write:
P1 + jQ1 = E1 (Y11 E1 ) * + E1 (Y12 E 2 ) *
' ' ' '

Equation 22

25 26

If we define
Then we can separate the real and
reactive powers from equation 22.
E =| E | 1
'
1
'
1
P1 =| E1 | 2 G11 + | E1 | Y12 | E 2 | cos( 1 2 12 )
' ' '
E 2' =| E 2' | 2
Q1 = | E1 | 2 B11 + | E1 | Y12 | E 2 | sin( 1 2 12 )
' ' '

Y11 = G11 + jB11 Equation 24

Y12 =| Y12 |= 12
Equation 23

27 28

7
 The real part P of equation 25 can
be written in more general form as
Pe = Pc + Pmax | sin( )
We can write similar equations for bus 2
Pc =| E1 | 2 G11
'

as well. If we now let = 1-2

Pmax =| E1 | Y12 | E 2 |
' '

And define a new angle = 12-/2, then P Equation 26

and Q equations from equation 24

Where Pe represent the electric power output of
becomes as follows: the generator (armature loss neglected) and this
equation 26 is known as power angle equation.
P1 =| E1 | 2 G11 + | E1 | Y12 | E 2 | sin( ) The parameters Pc, Pmax and are constants for
' ' '

Q1 = | E1 | 2 B11 | E1 | Y12 | E 2 | cos( )

' ' '
a given network configuration and constant
Equation 25 voltage magnitudes E1 and E2.

29 30

TRANSIENT STABILITY EQUAL AREA

CRITERION

When the network is considered without The transient stability studies involve the
resistances, all the elements of Ybus are determination of whether or not
susceptances, then G11 and are zero and synchronism is maintained after the
the equation of real power becomes: machine has been subjected to severe
disturbance. This may be due to:
Pe = Pmax | sin( ) Sudden application of load
Pmax =| E1 || E 2 | / X
' ' Loss of generation
Loss of large load
Equation 27
Fault on a system
Where X is the transfer reactance between E1 and E2.
31 32

8
 Consider a synchronous machine connected to an
infinite bus. The Swing equation with damping
neglected is given by:
In most disturbances, oscillations are of such
magnitude that linearization is not permissible and
H d
the non-linear Swing equation must be solved. 2
A method known as equal- area criterion can be = Pm Pe = Pa
used for a quick prediction of stability. f o dt 2
Equation 28
This method is based on the graphical interpretation
of the energy stored in the rotating mass as an aid to Where Pa is the accelerating power. From
determine if the machine maintains its stability after the above equation we can write:
disturbance.
d 2 f o
This is restricted to one machine system connected = ( Pm Pe )
to an infinite bus or a two-machine system. dt 2 H
Equation 29

33 34

Multiplying both sides of the equation by 2d/dt

and then after simplification and integrating both Consider the machine operating at the equilibrium
point o, corresponding to the mechanical power
sides we can get: input Pm0=Pe0 as shown in Figure 3.
d 2f o Consider a sudden step increase in input power
= ( Pm Pe )d represented by the horizontal line Pm1.
dt H o
Since Pm1> Pe0, the accelerating power on the rotor
Equation 30 is positive and the power angle increases.
The excess energy stored in the rotor during the
Equation 30 gives the relative speed of the machine with initial acceleration is:
respect to the synchronously revolving reference frame.
For stability, this speed must become zero at some time 1
after the disturbance. Therefore, we have for the stability ( Pm 1 Pe ) d = area abc = area A1
criterion: o

0 = ( Pm Pe ) d
o

Equation 31 Equation 32
35 36

9

Figure 3: Equal area criterion: sudden change in load
37
The result is that the rotor swings to point b and
the angle max, at which point
|Area A1|= |Area A2|
Equation 34
This is known as the equal-area criterion.
The rotor angle would then oscillate back and
forth between o and max at its natural frequency.
The damping present in the machine will cause
those oscillations to subside and the new steady
state operation would be established at point b.
39
With increase in , the electrical power increases, and when =1,
the electrical power matches the new input power Pm1.
Even though the accelerating power is zero at this point, the rotor is
running above synchronous speed; hence, and electrical power Pe
will continue to increase.
Now Pm< Pe , causing the to rotor to decelerate toward
synchronous speed until =max .
According to Equation 32, the rotor must swing past point b until an
equal amount of energy is given up by the rotating masses. The
energy given by the rotor as it decelerates back to synchronous
speed is given by
max1
( Pm 1 Pe )d = area bde = area A2
1
Equation 33
38
APPLICATION TO SUDDEN INCREASE IN
POWER INPUT
The equal area criterion can be applied to
determine the maximum additional power Pm
which can be applied for stability to be
maintained.
With a sudden increase in power input, the
stability is maintained only if area A2 at least
equal to A1 can be located above Pm.
If area A is less than A1, the accelerating
2
momentum can never be overcome.
The limit of stability occurs when max is at the
intersection of line Pm and the power angle curve
for 90o<<180o, as shown in Figure 4.
40
10
 Applying equal area criterion to
Figure 4
Figure 4:
1 max
Pm ( 1 o ) Pmax sin d = Pmax sin d Pm ( max 1 )
o 1o

Equation 35

After integration substituting for Pm=Pmax

sinmax in equation 35 we get
(max -o)sinmax+cosmax=coso
Equation 36
The above equation can be solved by an iterative technique for max. Once max is
obtained, the maximum possible power or the transient stability limit is found from:
1 Where 1=
Pm=Pmax sin -
max,
Newton Raphson method can be used to obtain the value of max.
41 42

Figure 5: One-machine system

APPLICATION TO THREE-
connected to infinite bus, three-phase
PHASE FAULT fault at F.
Let us consider a simple power system (as
shown in Figure 5) in which a generator is
connected to an infinite bus bar through two
parallel lines.
Assume that the input power Pm is constant and
the machine is running steadily and delivering
power to the system with a power angle of o, as
shown in Figure 6.
A temporary three-phase fault occurs at the
sending end of the line at bus 1.

43 44

11
 When the fault is at the sending end of the
line at the point F, no power transmitted to
the infinite bus. Hence Pe is zero and the
power angle curve corresponds to the
horizontal axis.
The machine accelerates with the total
input power as the accelerating power.
This increases the machine speed, and
stores added kinetic energy and increases
the torque angle .
45
Figure 6: Equal area criterion for a three-
phase fault at the sending end.
47
When the fault is cleared by circuit breaker
operation, both lines are assumed to be intact.
Now the fault is cleared at 1, which shifts the
operation to the original power angle curve at
point e.
The net power is now decelerating and the
previously stored kinetic energy will be reduced
to zero at point f when the shaded area defg,
shown by A2, equals the shaded area abcd
shown by A1.
The rotor angle would oscillate back and forth
around o at its natural frequency.
46
Because of the inherent damping, oscillation
subsides and the operating point returns to the
original power angle o.
The critical clearing angle is reached when any
further increase in 1 causes the area A2 to
become less than the area A1.
This occurs when max or point f is at the
intersection of line Pm and curve Pe as shown in
Figure 7.
48
12
 Figure 7: Equal area criterion for
critical clearing angle Applying Equal area criterion to figure 7:
we have
c max

Pm d = ( Pmax sin Pm )d
o c

Equation 37

Integrating both sides:

Pm (c -o)=Pmax(cosc- cosmax)- Pm (max-c)
Solving for c we get:
cosc =(Pm /Pmax)(max-o)+ cosmax
Equation 38
49 50

This equation can be solved iteratively. The

application of equal area criterion made it We can write
possible to find the critical clearing angle for the
machine to remain stable. d 2 f o
= Pm
To find the critical clearing time, we still need to dt 2 H
solve the non-linear Swing equation. Equation 40
For this particular case where the electrical Integrating twice we get:
power is zero, an analytical solution for critical
clearing time can be obtained. f o
= Pm t 2 + o
The Swing equation becomes 2H
H d
2
Equation 41
= Pm
f dt 2
o

Equation 39 51 52

13
 Let us now investigate what happens if the
fault location is some distance away from
Thus if c is the critical clearing angle, the the sending end as shown in Figure 8.
corresponding critical clearing time is

2 H ( c o )
tc =
f o Pm

Equation 42

Figure 8: One-machine system connected to infinite bus, three-phase fault at F.

53 54

Figure 9: Equal area criterion for a three-

. phase fault at the away from the sending
end.
Assume that the input power Pm is
constant and the machine is running
steadily and delivering power to the
system with a power angle of o, as shown
in Figure 8.
The power angle curve corresponding to
the pre-fault condition is given by curve A
as shown in Figure 9.

55 56

14
 When fault location at F, away from the sending end,
the equivalent transfer reactance between bus bars
is increased, lowering the power transfer capability
and the power angle curve is represented by curve
B.
Finally, curve C represents the post-fault power
angle curve, assume that the fault is removed. The
rotor angle would oscillate back and forth around e
at its natural frequency
When the fault occurs at the point F, the operating
point shifts immediately to point b on curve B. An
excess of the mechanical input over its electrical
output accelerates the rotor.
This increases the machine speed, and stores added
kinetic energy and increases the torque angle .
When the fault is cleared by circuit breaker
operation, both lines are assumed to be intact. Now
the fault is cleared at 1, which shifts the operation
to the original power angle curve at point e on curve
C.
The net power is now decelerating and the
previously stored kinetic energy will be reduced to
zero at point f when the shaded area defg, shown by
A2, equals the shaded area abcd.
Because of the inherent damping, oscillation
subsides and the new steady state operation will be
established at the intersection of Pm and curve C.

57 58

Figure 10: Equal area criterion for

The critical clearing angle is reached when
critical clearing angle
any further increase in 1 causes the area
A2 representing decelerating energy to
become less than the area A1,
representing the accelerating energy. This
occurs when max or point f is at the
intersection of line Pm and curve C as
shown in Figure 10.

59 60

15
 Applying equal area criterion to Figure 3: Equal area criterion:
Figure 10: sudden change in load
We have: c max
Pm ( c o ) P2 max sin d = ( P3 max sin d Pm ( max c )
o c
Equation 43
Integrating both sides and solving for c we get:
Pm ( max o ) + P3 max cos max P2 max cos o
cos c =
P3 max P2 max
Equation 44

In this case an analytical solution of the critical

clearing time is not possible.
61 62

16