ASM Specialty Handbook Cast Irons Copyright 1996 ASM International

J.R. Davis, Editor All rights reserved

www.asminternational.org

Classification and B!asic

Metallurgy of Cast Irons

THE TERM CAST IRON, like the term steel, carbon, silicon), minor (<0.1 %), and often alloy- iron exhibits a richer carbon phase than that of
identifies a large family of ferrous alloys. Cast ing (>0.1%) elements. Cast iron has higher car- steel. Depending primarily on composition, cool-
irons are multicomponent ferrous alloys, which bon and silicon contents than steel. Because of ing rate, and melt treatment, cast iron can solidify
solidify with a eutectic. They contain major (iron, the higher carbon content, the structure of cast according to the thennodynamically metastable

Pearlite + Graphite
(o:Fe + Fe 3 C)
Fa
Solid-state transformation Gray
'Y + Graphite cast
(cooling through iron

+
Graphite shape depends
on minor elements
eutectoid interval) Slo
Ferrite + Graphite
(uFe)

Flake
~ Compacted Spheroidal

Liquid Solidification
cast iron 'Y + Fe 3 C + Graphite Mottled cast iron
(iron. carbon- Graphitization
alloy) potential

Solid-state transformation
Pearlite + Fe,C .. White iron
(cooling through

l
eutectoid interval)
Reheat above
eutectoid interval

l
"' + Fe3 C--'Y + Graphite
Hold above

th~~:h
eutectoid
interval
eutectoid
interval

~
Pearlite + Temper graphite Ferrite + Temper graphite

Malleable iron

Fig. 1 Basic microstructures and processing for obtaining common commercial cast irons
4 I Introduction

cleation potential of the liquid, chemical compo-

sition, and cooling rate. The first two factors
determine the graphitization potential of the iron.
Classification by A high graphitization potential will result in irons
commercial name f-------------' with graphite as the rich carbon phase, while a
or application
low graphitization potential will result in irons
with iron carbide. A schematic of the structure of
the common (unalloyed or low-alloy) types of
commercial cast irons, as weU as the processing
required to obtain them, is shown in Fig. 1.
The two basic types of eutectics, the stable
austenite-graphite and the metastable austenite-
iron carbide (Fe3C), have wide differences in
their mechanical properties, such as strength,
hardness, toughness, and ductility. Therefore, the
basic purpose of the metallurgical processing of
cast iron is to manipulate the type, amount, and
High-temperature
applications morphology of the eutectic in order to achieve the
desired mechanical properties.

Classification
Historically, the first classification of cast iron
was based on its fracture. Two types of iron were
initially recognized:

White iron exhibits a white, crystalline fracture

Flake (lamellar)
surface because fracture occurs along the iron
graphite carbide plates; it is the result of metastable
solidification (Fe3C eutectic).
Compacted
Gray iron exhibits a gray fracture surface be-
(vermicular) cause fracture occurs along the graphite plates
graphite (flakes); it is the result of stable solidification
(Gr eutectic),
Spheroidal
graphite With the advent of metallography, and as the body
of knowledge pertinent to cast iron increased, other
Temper classifications based on microstructural features be-
carbon
came possible:

Fig. 2 Classification of cast irons Graphite shape: Lamellar (flake) graphite

(FG), spheroidal (nodular) graphite (SG),
compacted (vermicular) graphite (CG), and
Table 1 Classification of cast iron by commercial designation, microstructure, and fracture temper graphite (fG). Temper graphite results
from a solid-state reaction (malleabilization).
Commercial designation Carbon-rich phase Matrix(a) Fracture Final structure after Matrix: Ferritic, pearlitic, austenitic, martensi-
Gray iron Lamellar graphite p Gray Solidification tic, and bainitic (austempered).
Ductile iron Spheroidal graphite F,P,A Silver-gray Solidification or heat treatment
Compacted graphite iron Compacted {vermicular) graphite P,P Gray Solidification Another common classification scheme di-
White iron P,M White Solidification and heat treatment(b)
Fc.1C vides cast irons into four basic types: white iron,
Mottled iron Lamellar Gr + Fe3C p Mottled Solidification
Malleable iron Temper graphite F,P Silver-gray Heat treaunent gray iron, ductile iron, and malleable iron. As
Austempercd ductile iron Spheroidal graphite At Silver-gray Heat treatment indicated above, white iron and gray iron derive
their names from the appearance of their respec-
(a) F, ferrite; P, pearlite; A, austenite; M, martensite; At, austempered (bainite). (b) White irons arc not usually heat treated, except for
tive fracture surfaces. Ductile iron derives its
stress relief and to continue austenite tmnsfonnation.
name from the fact that, in the as-cast form, it
exhibits measurable ductility. By contrast, neither
Fe-Fe3C system or the stable iron-graphite sys- tioned that silicon and other alloying elements white nor gray iron exhibits significant ductility
tem. When the metastable path is followed, the may considerably change the maximum solubil- in a standard tensile test. Malleable iron is cast as
rich carbon phase in the eutectic is the iron car- ity of carbon in austenite (y). Therefore, in excep- white iron, then "malleabilized" (i.e., heat treated
bide; when the stable solidification path is fol- tional cases, alloys with less than 2% C can solid- to impart ductility to an otherwise brittle mate-
lowed, the rich carbon phase is graphite. Refer- ify with a eutectic structure and therefore still rial).
ring only to the binary Fe-Fe3C or iron-graphite belong to the family of cast iron. Besides the four basic types, there are other
system, cast iron can be defined as an iron-carbon The fonnation of stable or metastable eutectic specific forms of cast iron to which special names
alloy with more than 2% C. The reader is cau- is a function of many factors, including the nu- have been applied.

Graphite free
Pearlitic Martensitic High-chromium iron
white iron white iron (11-28% Cr)
(Ni-Hard)
Wear Wear Wear, corrosion,
resistant resistant and heat resistant
ASTM A532
5o/o Si iron (Silal),
heat resistant
Fig. 3 Classification of special high-alloy cast irons. Source: Ref 1
Chilled iron is white iron that has been pro-
duced by cooling very rapidly through the so-
lidification temperature range.
Mottled iron is an area of the casting that so-
lidifies at a rate intermediate between those for
chiHed and gray iron, and which exhibits
microstructural and fracture-surface features
of both types.
Compacted graphite cast iron (also known as
vermicular iron) is characterized by graphite
that is interconnected within eutectic cells, as
is the flake graphite in gray iron. Compared
with the graphite in gray iron, however, the
graphite in CG iron is coarser and more
rounded, i.e., its structure is intermediate be-
tween the structures of gray iron and ductile
iron.
High-alloy graphitic irons are used primarily
for applications requiring corrosion resistance
or a combination of strength and oxidation
resistance. They are produced in both flake
graphite (gray iron) or spheroidal graphite
(ductile iron).
Figure 2 classifies cast irons according to their com-
mercial names, applications, and structures.
Lastly, a classification used frequently by the
floor foundry worker divides cast irons intO two
categories:
Common cast irons: For general-purpose ap-
plications, unalloyed or low alloy
Special cast irons: For special applications,
generally high alloy
Table 1 gives the correspondence between
commercial and microstructural classification, as
well as the final processing stage in obtaining
common cast irons. Special cast irons differ from
Graphite bearing
Ferritic Austenitic Acicular
High strength
wear resistant
18% Ni 18% Ni, 5% Si
Ni-resist Nicrosilal
Corrosion and Heat and
heat resistant corrosion resistant
ASTM A439
High (15%) silicon iron,
corrosion resistant
ASTM A 518 or A 518 M (metric)
common cast irons mainly in the higher content
of alloying elements (>3%), which promote
microstructures having special properties for ele-
vated-temperature applications, corrosion resis-
tance, and wear resistance. A classification of the
main types of special high-alloy cast irons is
shown in Fig. 3.
Fe-C-Si system increases, the carbon contents of
The Iron-Carbon-Silicon System
The metallurgy of cast irons has many similari-
ties to that of steel, but the differences are impor-
tant to the metallurgist who works with cast irons
(Ref 2). The amount of alloying elements present
in the most common grades of steel is relatively
low, so these steels can basically be considered as
binary iron-carbon alloys. Thus the iron-carbon
diagram (Fig. 4) can be used to interpret their
structures under conditions of slow or near-equi-
librium transformation. The cast irons, however,
contain appreciable amounts of silicon in addi-
tion to higher carbon contents, and they must be
considered ternary Fe-C-Si alloys (Fig. 5). The
introduction of this additional constituent; sili-
con, changes the iron-carbon diagram.
A section through the ternary Fe-Fe3C-Si dia-
gram at 2% Si (which approximates the silicon
content of many cast irons) provides a convenient
reference for discussing the metallurgy of cast
iron. The diagram in Fig. 5 resembles the binary
Fe-Fe3C diagram in Fig. 4, but it exhibits impor-
tant differences characteristic of ternary systems.
Eutectic and eutectoid temperatures change from
single values in the Fe-Fe3C system to tempera-
ture ranges in the Fe-Fe3C-Si system; the eutectic
Classification and Basic Metallurgy I 5
and eutectoid points shift to lower carbon con-
tents.
Figure 5 represents the metastable equilibrium
between iron and iron carbide (cementite), a me-
tastable system. The silicon that is present re-
mains in solid solution in the iron, in both ferrite
and austenite, so it affects only the conditions and
the kinetics of carbide formation on cooling, not
the composition of the carbide phase. The desig-
nations a,"(, and Fe3C, therefore, are used in the
ternary system to identify the same phases that
occur in the Fe-Fc3C binary system. Some of the
silicon may precipitate along with the carbide,
but it cannot be distinguished as a different phase.
The solidification of certain compositions occurs
not in the metastable system. but rather in the
stable system, where the products are iron and
graphite rather than iron and carbide. These com-
positions encompass the gray, ductile, and com-
pacted graphite cast irons,
To justify the usc of the ternary diagram at 2%
Si to trace phase changes, it must be assumed that
the silicon concentration remains at 2% in all
parts of the alloy under all conditions. This obvi-
ously is not strictly true, but there is little evi-
dence that silicon segregates to any marked de-.
gree in cast iron. Thus it is only slightly
inaccurate to use the constant-silicon section
through the ternary diagram in the same manner
as one would apply the Fe-Fe3C diagram to car-
bon steel.
In summary, the addition of silicon to a binary
iron-carbon alloy decreases the stability of Fe3C,
which is already metastable, and increases the
stability of ferrite (the a field is enlarged, and the
"{ is constricted). The equilibrium diagrams in
Fig. 6 show that as the silicon content in the
the eutectic and eutectoid decrease, while the
eutectic and eutectoid temperatures increase.
Carbon Equivalent (Ref 2)
The upper dashed line in Fig. 7 indicates the
eutectic composition for Fe-C-Si alloys. Without
silicon the eutectic is at 4.3%. As the silicon
content of iron is increased, the carbon content of
the eutectic is decreased. This is a linear relation
and can be expressed as a simple equation:
%C+ 1(~%Si=4.3 (Eq 1)
It is convenient to combine the effect of the
silicon with that of the carbon into a single factor,
which is called the carbon equivalent (CE):
(Eq2)
The CE of a cast iron describes how close a
given analysis is to that of the eutectic composi-
tion. When the CE is 4.3, the alloy is eutectic. A
CE of 3. 9 represents an alloy of lower carbon and
silicon content (hypoeutectic) than the eutectic
composition, and aCE of 4.6 represents an alloy
6 I Introduction

1800
I
3270 eration, as well as knowledge of the factors that
affect the structure. When discussing the metal-
1700
/ 3090 Iurgy of cast iron, the main factors of influence on
I
the structure that one needs to address are:
1600 2910
1538 "C___....-1495 "C I
I Chemical composition
1500 Liquid
Solubility of
- 2730 Cooling rate
~ graphite in

13~~
Liquid treatment
{8-~

1400
I-- 1'--- liquid iron
2550
Heat treatment
I
~ I In addition, the following aspects of combined car-
12:r "C
1300 --------- 2370 bon in cast irons should be considered:
--------- ~~4.26%
---
f--t-
I
-r---
1200

1100
t----- (y-Fe)
Austenite
""1/ 2.08",{
"2.11%
1154 "C
1148 ".C

I
w
4.30%
- --~
6.69%
--
2190

2010
In the original cooling or through subsequent
heat treatment, a matrix can be intemaJiy de-
carburized or carburized by depositing graph-
ite on existing sites or by dissolving carbon

";; 1000 Cementite_ 1830 \;1- from them.

Austenite (Fe,C) Depending on the silicon content and the cool-
~
0 912 .I +
ing rate, the pearlite in iron can vary in carbon
y-3
900 cementite

~ Oi6B% 17\.A,m content. This is a ternary system, and the car-

E
~ bon content of pearlite can be as low as 0.50%
BOO
b?o 'C :J:j 738 "C
--
with 2.5% Si.
The measured hardness of graphitic irons is
700 t---0.77% 1290
influenced by the graphite, especially in gray
A; (727 'C)
iron. Martensite microhardness may be as high
600 1110
as 66 HRC or as low as 54 HRC in gray iron
(58 HRC in ductile).
500 930
The critical temperature of iron is influenced
1-- (a-Fe)
Ferrite (raised) by silicon content, not carbon content.
400 Ferrite
750
+ The following sections in this article discuss
300
cementite
570 some of the basic principles of cast iron metal-
lurgy. More detailed descriptions of the metal-
200 390 lurgy of cast irons are available in the articles in
! 210
this Volume that describe specific types of cast
irons.
100

0 i
Fe 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
fig. 4 Iron-carbon diagram, where solid curves represent the metastable system Fe-Fe 3C and dashed curves represent the
stable system iron-graphite
of greater carbon and silicon content (hypereutec-
tic) than the eutectic composition. Irons of the
same CE value may be obtained with different
carbon and silicon values.
Other values representing the CE of cast irons
have also been suggested. When appreciable
amounts of phosphorus are present in the iron, the
phosphorus content of the iron is included:
-CE=%C+ %Si+%P
3 common cast irons as compared with steel. It is
Thus, an iron with 3.2% C. 2% Si, and 0.4% P has
aCE value of 4.0 and is hypoeutectic. An iron with
3.2% C, 2% Si, and I .3% P has a CE value of 4.3
and is eutectic. An iron with 3.2% C, 2.9% Si, and
1.3% P has aCE value of 4.6 and is hypereutectic.
The total carbon and silicon contents of the
a11oy, as related in the CE value, not only estab-
lish the solidification temperature range of the
alloy, but are also related to the foundry charac-
teristics of the alloy and its properties. It should
2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
Carbon, wt%
be noted, however, that irons of constant CE, but
with appreciably different carbon and silicon
contents, will not have similar casting properties.
For example, carbon is more than twice as effec-
tive in preventing solidification shrinkage than
the CE equation indicates. However, silicon is
more effective in keeping thin sections from be-
coming hard. There are similar differences in
some of the use properties, and these limit the
value of CE in specifications.
(Eq3)
Principles of the Metallurgy
of Cast Irons
The goal of the metallurgist is to design a
process that will produce a structure that will
yield the expected mechanical properties. This
requires knowledge of the structure-properties
correlation for the particular alloy under consid-
~
6.0 6.5 7.0
Gray Iron (Flake Graphite Iron)
The composition of gray iron must be se-
lected in such a way as to satisfy three basic
structural requirements:
The required graphite shape and distribution
The carbide-free (chill-free) structure
The required matrix
For common cast iron, the main elements of the
chemical compOsition are carbon and silicon.
Ftgure 7 shows the range of carbon and silicon for
apparent that irons have carbon in excess of the
maximum solubility of carbon in austenite, which
is shown by the lower dashed line. A high carbon
content increases the amount of graphite or Fe3C.
ffigh carbon and silicon contents increase the
graphitization potential of the iron as well as its
castability. Although increasing the carbon and
silicon contents improves the graphitization po-
tential and therefore decreases the chilling ten-
dency, the strength is adversely affected (Fig. 8).
This is due to ferrite promotion and the coarsen-
ing of pearlite.
 Classification and Basic Metallurgy I 7

150 0 %Mn= 1.7 (% S)+O.l5 (Eq4)

~
-r
(l:i-Fe

1'..
+ -y-Fe + L) .

I
'600
Other minor elements, such as aluminum, antimony,
arsenic, bismuth, lead, magnesium, cerium, and cal-
cium, can significantly alter both the graphite mor-
phology and the microstructure of the matrix.
1400
The range of composition for typical unalloyed

1\~(li-Fe)
~ L
common cast irons is given in Table 2. The typi-
cal composition range for low- and high-grade
unalloyed gray iron (flake graphite iron) cast in
- '400
Delta
sand molds is given in Table 3.

"
ferrite
1300 Both major and minor elements have a direct
\

\ ~
influence on the morphology of flake graphite.
The typical graphite shapes for flake graphite are
shown in Fig. 9. Type A graphite is found in
inoculated irons cooled with moderate rates. In
t\. / general, it is associated with the best mechanical
' 200
v
1200
properties, and cast irons with this type of graph-

(7-Fe)
Austenite
\ ite exhibit moderate undercooling during solidifi-
cation (Fig. 10). Type B graphite is found in irons
of near-eutectic composition, solidifying on a

1100
I -!'
fr-Fe + Fe 3 C + L)

' 000
limited number of nuclei. Large eutectic cell size
and low undercoolings arc common in cast irons
exhibiting this type of graphite. Type C gmphite

1000
I1/ 1800
occurs in hypereutectic irons as a result of solidi-
fication with minimum undercooling. Type D
graphite is found in hypoeutectic or eutectic irons
solidified at rather high cooling rates, while type
E graphite is characteristic for strongly hypoeu-
tectic irons. Types D and E are both associated
with high undercoolings during solidification.
Not only graphite shape but also graphite size is
important, because it is directly related to
900 strength (Fig. 11 ).
Alloying elements can be added in common

~1
\I - -- ~
600 cast iron to enhance some mechanical properties.
They influence both the graphitization potential
and the structure and properties of the matrix. The
main elements are listed below in terms of their
800 graphitization potential:
v ~e +-y-F~Fe3Cl 1400 High positive graphitization potential (decreasing positive

~{o:-Fe) potential.from top to bottom)

Carbon
Ferrite
T'm
700 Phosphorus
Silicon
Aluminum
1200 Copper
Nickel
Neutral
600 kon
0 4
Carbon content, wt % High negative graphitization potential (increa<;ing negative
potential from top to bottom)
Fig. 5 Section through the Fe-Fe 3C-Si ternary equilibrium diagram at 2% Si Manganese
Chromium
Molybdenum
Vanadium
The manganese content varies as a function of pacted graphite iron. The effect of sulfur must be
the desired matrix. Typically, it can be as low as balanced by the effect of manganese. Without This classification is based on the thermody-
0.1% for ferritic irons and as high as 1.2% for manganese in the iron, undesired iron sulfide namic analysis of the influence of a third element
pearlitic irons, because manganese is a strong (FeS) will form at grain boundaries. If the sulfur on carbon solubility in the Fe-C-X system, where
pearlite promoter. content is balanced by manganese, manganese X is a third element (Ref 6). Although phosphorus
From the minor elements, phosphorus and sul- sulfide (MnS) will form, but this is hannless is listed as a graphitizer (which may be true ther-
fur are the most common and are always present because it is distributed within the grains. The modynamically), it also acts as a matrix hardener.
in the composition. They can be as high as 0.15% optimum ratio between manganese and sulfur for Above its solubility level (probably about
for low-quality iron and are considerably less for an FeS-free structure and maximum amount of 0.08%), phosphorus forms a very hard ternary
high-quality iron, such as ductile iron or com- ferrite is: eutectic. The above classification should also in-
8 I Introduction

1500

0
1200
~
0
:;;
0
~
E
0
r-

a a+ Fe 3 C
600
0 2 3 4
(a) Carbon content,%

6+L 6.0%Si /
1500~ ~-

~ 10:<+y+L L /
0
y
\ ~~/L+Fe,C 0

1200H~,-t'-"-+""''-l-+---i ~

:;;~
0
\j ~ 1300H---~~----~'----+-----4
1i

!"~ 900~~~$:a~+2y~+~F~e~,~c~~~~~
E
!"
~
; aFe'jc~ /

y +C,
600!;----~--+--~------o 11001J_-~-L---;':---7------o
0 2 3 4 0 2 3 4
(b) Carbon content,% (c) Carbon, content,% (d) Carbon content, wt%

1500 1500
5.2% Si 7.9%Si

1500
3.5% Si
140 0~ 1400

~~
a+'0 t:-..
1400 K 0
~ 130
a
0 '" ,..-- "
0

~
1300

~a+'(~
0
I t\+y+L"
1'\
0

I
0

~ a :;;
0 I ~+y y+~ I
:;;
0
\ a+L y+ L
0
E 1200
~
:;; 1300
I ~
E 1200
~
~ ".L
0
~
a+y !" I I y+L+C,.._ " !"
a
I a+y+Lj'X /
E
y y+ L I I y 1
!" I :--a+ y a+ y+ C 1
1200 110o I 1100
I
y + c,
\ y+L+C 1
I I
I
'I a+ C,
/a+ c,/ a+C,+Ic,
y+LJc, I
I
c,
a+ C 1
1100
I

2
y+
3
1000
0
a+ y + C 1
''
f-J I +c, 1000 1/ I I
3
I
0 4 2 3 4 0 2 4
(e) Carbon content, % (I) Carbon content, wt% (g) Carbon content, wt%

Fig. 6 Influence of silicon content on the solubility lines and equilibrium temperatures of the iron-carbon system. (a) to (c) Source: Ref 3. (d) to {g) Source: Ref4

elude sulfur as a carbide former, although manga-
nese and sulfur can combine and neutralize each
other. The resultant MnS also acts as nuclei for
flake graphite. In industrial processes, nudeation
phenomena may sometimes override solubility
considerations.
In general, alloying elements can be classified
into three categories, discussed below.
Silicon and aluminum increase the graphitiza-
tion potential for both the eutectic and eutectoid
transformations and increase the number of
graphite particles. They form solid solutions in
the matrix. Because they increase the fenite-pear-
lite ratio, they lower strength and hardness.
Nickel, copper, and tin increase the graphitiza-
tion potential during the eutectic transformation
but decrease it during the eutectoid transforma-
tion. thus raising the pearlite-ferrite ratio. This
second effect is due to the retardation of carbon
diffusion. These elements form solid solution in
the matrix. Because they increase the amount of
pearlite, they raise strength and hardness.
Chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, and vana-
dium decrease the graphitization potential at both
stages. Thus, they increase the amount of car-
bides and pearlite. They principally concentrate
in the carbides, forming (FeX)nC-type carbides,
but also alloy the aFe solid solution. As long as
carbide formation does not occur, these elements
increase strength and hardness. Above a certain
 Classification and Basic Metallurgy I 9

400 Increase the chilling tendency; this may result

n.
350 ~/1/. 111
' 111;;)(~
50 . in higher hardness, but will decrease the

" strength
~
/ 1;;

"'
300 ~
a,
111
It/;
4.0 It/tit. 40 c
Consequently, composition must be tailored in such
~
c 250 ~

<!'
~

... 200
I tift
11t;
11
i'111;;
30
~
a way as to provide the correct graphitization poten-
tial for a given cooling rate. For a given chemical
c
3.0 c /;If;.
~ composition and as the section thickness increases,

Ic
-e
0
2.0
r- 150
100
3.25 3.5 3.75 4.0 4.25 4.5
;;~
4.75
20
the graphite becomes coarser, and the pearlite/ferrite
ratio decreases, which results in lower strength and
hardness (Fig. 12). Higher CE has similar effects.
Carbon equivalent,%
i'l The liquid treatment of cast iron is of para-
Fig. 8 General influenceofcarbon equivalent on the ten- mount importance in the processing of this alloy
sile strength of gray iron. Source: Ref 2 because it can dramatically change the nucleation
and growth conditions during solidification. As a
where TS is the tensile strength and D is the bar result, graphite morphology, and therefore prop-
diameter (in inches). Equation 5 is valid for bar erties, can be significantly affected. In gray iron
diameters of 20 to 50 mm (Y8 to 2 in.) and compo- practice, the liquid treatment used, tenned inocu-
sitions within the following ranges: lation, consists of minute additions of minor ele-
Silicon content, %
ments before pouring. Typically, ferrosilicon with
Element Compooition, % additions of aluminum and calcium, or proprie-
Fig.7 Approximate ranges of carbon and silicon for steel tary alloys, are used as inoculants. The main
and various cast irons. Sourc-e: Ref 2 Carbon 3.04-3.29
Chromiwn 0.1-0.55 effects of inoculation are:
Molybdenum 0.03-0.78
Silicon 1.6-2.46 An increased graphitization potential because
level, any of these elements will determine the Nickel 0.07-1.62 of decreased undercooling during solidifica-
Sulfur 0.089-0.106
solidification of a structure with both Gr and Manganese 0.39-0.98
tion; as a result of this, the chilling tendency is
Fe3C (mottled structure), which will have lower Coppcr 0.07-0.85 diminished, and graphite shape changes from
strength but higher hardness. type D or E to type A
In moderately alloyed gray iron, the typical The cooling rate, like the chemical composi- A finer structure (i.e., higher number of eutec-
ranges for the elements discussed above are as tion, can significantly influence the as-cast struc- tic cells), with a subsequent increase in
follows: ture and therefore the mechanical properties. The strength
Element Composition,%
cooling rate of a casting is primarily a function of
its section size. The dependence of structure and As shown in Fig. 13, inoculation improves tensile
Chromium 0.2-0.6 properties on section size is tenned section sensi- strength. This influence is more pronounced for
Molybdenum 0.2-1 tivity. Increasing the cooling rate will: low-CE cast irons.
Vanadium 0.1-0.2 Heat treatment can considerably alter the ma-
Nickel 0.6-1
0.5-1.5
Refine both graphite size and matrix structure; trix structure, although graphite shape and size
Coppcr
Tin 0.04-0.08 this will result in increased strength and hard- remain basically unaffected. A rather low propor-
ness tion ofthe total gray iron produced is heat treated.
The influence of composition and cooling
rate on tensile strength can be estimated using Table 2 Range of compositions for typical unalloyed common cast irons
(Ref 5): Com ositiou, %
Typcofiron c ~ Mn p s
TS ~ 162.37 + 16.61/D- 21.78 (%C)
Grny 2.5-4.0 1.0-3.0 0.2-1.0 0.002-1.0 0.02-0.25
-61.29 (% Si)- 10.59 (% Mn- 1.7% S) Compacled graphite 2.5-4.0 1.0-3.0 0.2-1.0 0.01-0.1 O.Ql-O.Q3
+ 13.80 (% Cr) + 2.05 (% Ni) + 30.66 (% Cu) Ductile 3.0-4.0 1.8-2.8 0.1-1.0 0.01-0.1 0.01-0.03
+ 39.75 (% Mo) + 14.16 (% SiJ' White 1.8-3.6 0.5-1.9 0.25-0.8 0.06-0.2 0.06-0.2
Malleable 2.2-29 0.9-1.9 0.15-1.2 0.02-0.2 0.02-0.2
- 26.25 (% Cu) 2 - 23.83 (% Mo) 2
Source: Ref2
(Eq5)

Type A Type B Type D Type E

Uniform distribution, Rosette grouping, Superimposed flake size, lnterdendritic segregation, lnlerdendritic segregation,
random orientotion random orientation random orientation random orientation preferred orientation

Fig. 9 Types of graphite flakes in gray iron (AFS-ASTM). In the recommended practice (ASTM A247), these charts are shown at a magnification of lOOx. They have been reduced to one-
third size for reproduction here.
10 I Introduction

Section th'1ckness, in. 400 , - - , - - , - - - , , - - - - , - - - , - - - ,

56
0.5 1.0 1.5
500
70
450
~ -CI~"_I, AST~-
.. 52

t
~ A-48 60
:;; 400 ~ 508 -458 ~

~- ~ '-l.l. '
0, 350 40B 50 48
l7 t--
0,
0
0~ ~ 0

""
~
~ 30 ~
~ TE
..
t;
250
..... r- -, 40 t;


~
30
~
0 200 0
E
(". (".
1-
~
150 ~

-3TB 20
:;;
30B 258./
100 0,
5 10 15 w 25 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ 250 1--~-l-_:

{a)
Section thickness, mm
...
t;

c
Section thickness, in.
Fig. 10 Characteristic cooling curves associated with 05 10 15
(".
different flake graphite shapes. TE, equilibrium 300 I
eutectic temperature
1'ClassI ~ST~ A~B
ID 250 ' k
of@ ~ t-
I
,; 45B I /40B
~ 20

Ot-ti_ 3~r
Maximum flake length, in.
1'
0005 0010 0015 0020 0025 0030 0035 I 15 2;~
~5 50
-~
~
:;; 1\ ] 100 100 L _ l _ _ l _ _ L _ _ L _ _

\
345 50 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Carbon equivalent,%
~
0 l..n 40
~
0 Section thickness, mm

-
275
~
... 205
I~ ~
30
...~ Fig 12
{b)

Influence of section thickness of the casting on

Fig. 13 Influence of inoculation on tensile strength as a
fundion of carbonequivalentfor 30 mm (1.2 in.)
diam bars. Source: Ref 2
0
(". t-- o-
0

1- (a) tensile strength and (b) hardness for a series of

135 20 gray irons classified by their strength as-cast in 30 mm (1.2
0.125 0.25 0.375 0.50 0.635 0.75 0.90 in.) diam bars. Source: Ref 2

Maximum flake length, mm

Fig. 11 Effect of maximum graphite flake length on the graphite shapes can occur, as illustrated in Fig.
tensile strength of gray iron. Source: Ref 5
15. Graphite shape is the single most important
factor affecting the mechanical properties of cast
iron, as shown in Fig. 16. *,g
Common heat treatments are stress relieving or The generic influence of various elements on "
00
2.5

2.0~~~
mmealing to decrease hardness. graphite shape is given in Table 4. The elements
in the first group, the spheroidizing elements, can
change graphite shape from flake to compacted to
spheroidaL This is illustrated in Fig. 17 for mag-
Ductile Iron (Spheroidal nesium. The most widely used element for the
3.5 3.9
Graphite Iron) production of spheroidal graphite is magnesium. 3.6
Total carbon,%
3.8

The amount of residual magnesium required to

Composition. The main effects of chemical Fig. 14
produce spheroidal graphite, Mgresid, is genera1ly Typical range for carbon and silicon contents in
composition are similar to those described for 0.03 to 0.05%. The precise level depends on the good-quality ductile iron. TC, total carbon.
gray iron. with quantitative differences in the cooling rate. A higher cooling rate requires less
Source: Ref 2
extent of these effects and qualitative differences magnesium. The amount of magnesium to be
in the influence on graphite morphology. The CE added in the iron is a function of the initial sulfur between the spheroidal graphite and the total
has only a mild influence on the properties and level, Sin. and the recovery of magnesium, 11 in amount of graphite in the structure). This in tum
structure of ductile iron, because it affects graph- the particular process used: results in a deterioration of the mechanical prop-
ite shape considerably less than in the case of erties of the iron, as illustrated in Fig. 18. If the
gray iron. Nevertheless, to prevent excessive 0.75 Sm + Mgresict magnesium content is too high, carbides are pro-
shrinkage, high chi11ing tendency, graphite flota- Mgaddcd (Eq6)
moted.
tion, or a high-impact transition temperature, op- The presence of antispheroidizing (deleterious)
timum amounts of carbon and silicon must be minor elements may result in graphite shape de-
selected. Figure 14 shows the basic guidelines for A residual magnesium level that is too low terioration, up to complete graphite degeneration.
the selection of appropriate compositions. results in insufficient nodularity (i.e., a low ratio Therefore, upper limits are set on the amount of
As mentioned previously, minor elements can
significantly alter the structure in terms of graph-
ite morphology, chilling tendency, and matrix Table 3 Compositions of unalloyed gray irons
structure. Minor elements can promote the
Carbon Com osition,%
spheroidization of graphite or can have an ad- ASTM A 48 class equivalent c Si Mn p s
verse effect on graphite shape. The minor ele-
ments that adversely affect graphite shape are 20B 45 3.1-3.4 2.5-2.8 0.5-0.7 0.9 0.15
said to degenerate graphite shape. A variety of 55B 3.6 .0.1 1.4-1.6 0.6-0.75 0.1 0.12
 Classification and Basic Metallurgy I 11

420 61

360
/
l:tl- 52

300
v - 43.5

~
:;
u)
~
240 I / Compicted
35
]
"
~-
~

..
t;
I I t;

///
.!!! 180 26 ~
c
c I / ~
~
120 17.5
Ill

60
(/;
'';. (;"\'...-
.. ~

-~,
~l
$
~ 0
0
If
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0

~
Strain,%
( .. ~ 4 Fig. 16 Jnfl~ence of graphite morp.hology on the stress-

-
stram curve of several cast trans
'\ ,.. (
t
100

v
80 ---~---
f \
I \
IV VI

;/!. 60
,g
~
0
Flake 1/ \ Sphemidl

~ 40 Compacted

0
o\
0
) ;:-..,..o
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Residual magnesium,%
Fig. 17 Influence of residual magnesium on graphite
VII shape

fig. 15 Typical graphite shapes after ASTM A 247. I, spheroidal graphite; II, imperfect spheroidal graphite; Ill, temper
graphite; IV, compacted graphite; V, crab graphite; VI, exploded graphite; VII, flake graphite

Table 4 Influence of various elements on

deleterious elements to be accepted in the compo- In general, alloying elements have the same graphite shape
sition of cast iron. Typical maximum limits are influence on structure and properties of ductile Element category Element
(Ref9, 10): iron as for gray iron. A better graphite morphol-
ogy allows more efficient use of the mechanical Spheroidizer Magnesium, calcium, rare earths (cerium,
lanthanum, etc.), yttrium
Element Composition, % properties of the matrix, so alloying is more com- Neutral Iron, carbon, alloying elements
mon in ductile iron than in gray iron. Antispheroidizer Aluminum, arsenic, bismuth, tellurium,
Almninum 0.05
Cooling Rate. When the cooling rate is (degenerate shape) titanium, lead, sulfur, antimony
Arsenic' 0.02
Bismuth 0.002 changed, effects similar to those discussed for
Cadmium O.ot gray iron occur in ductile iron, but the section
0.002 sensitivity of ductile iron is lower. This is because
""'
Antimony
Selenium
0.001
0.03
spheroidal graphite is less affected by cooling
nodule count. Increasing the nodule count is an
important goal, because a higher nodule count
Tellurium
rate than flake graphite. is associated with less chilling tendency (Fig.
0.02
Titanium O.o3 The liquid treatment of ductile iron is more 19) and a higher as-cast ferrite/pearlite ratio
Zirconium 0.10 complex than that of gray iron. The two stages for
the liquid treatment of ductile iron are: Heat treatment is extensively used in the
processing of ductile iron. Better advantage can
These values can be influenced by the combi- 1. Modification, which consists of magnesium or be taken of the matrix structure than for gray iron.
nation of various elements and by the presence of magnesium alloy treatment of the melt, with the The heat treatments usually applied are:
rare earths in the composition. Furthermore, purpose of changing graphite shape from flake
some of these elements can be deliberately added to spheroidal Stress relieving
during liquid processing in order to increase nod- 2. Inoculation (nonnally, postinoculation, i.e., af- Annealing to produce a ferritic matrix
ule count. ter the magnesium treatment) to increase the Nonnalizing to produce a pearlitic matrix
12 I Introduction

1600 Section thickness, in.

220 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.4 6

1400
200
500

.
~

1200 180 2
~ .s' 400
:; 160 ~
~
c
300
0, ~

... ~
~
c
1000
140 c

...~
,.
t;
200

~
c

0.05 0.06 0.07

...
c
BOO
120

.100
~
c
c

f- 100
Residual magnesium,%
f- 600
80
Ia)
Section thickness, mm
400 60
600 Fig. 22 Influence of section thickness on the tensile
strength of compacted graphite irons. Source:

f-T,nL""~
4{1
~
,. ,.
500 - Ref14
6 10 15 20

~ 400
v,. ~~ongation " c'
Elongation,%
25 0
:; 0
Fig.20 Properties of some standard and austempere

~
300
j/
-~
~
c
0
ductile irons. Source: Ref 12 '
'
E \
CE = clnstant
u; w 200

& ~Fatigue ~~rength

200 E

100
600
Spheroidal graphite (SNG 50017)
8
150
\_
1
I

""' ~
0
-~
-- a-" --1"-- -- -
500 72.5
20 40 60 80 100 /{' 'E.
o- ] IOD
Nodularity,% 2
..c:' 40 0
5

0, '~

(b) 0,
c '~- 1-"' ro- c E
- --o
0 --::--d) ~ 5o
~
t; Compacted graphite_ 43.5
t;
~ ""-...
Fig. 18 Influence of (a) residual magnesium and (b) ~ 300 ..... ~
;;;
modularity on some mechanical properties of
1'---- ~ 0

-
-~ c
ductile iron. Source: Ref?, 8 ~ 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
~ 200 29 C/Si ratio
llake raphil;:----. Fig 23 Influence of C/Si ratio on the number of temper
700 50 100 14.5 graphite clusters at constant carbon equivalent.
3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Source: Ref 14

'E 600 40 Carbon equivalent,%

~ Fig. 21 Effect of carbon equivalent on the tensile strength magnesium, Mg + Ti, Ce + Ca, and so on. Inocu-

'3 30 E
E of flake, compacted, and spheroidal graphite irons
lation must be kept at a low level to avoid exces-
~ 500 cast in 30 mm (1.2 in.) diam bars. Source: Ref13
0
c sive nodularity.
15_
i,
400 20

~ Heat treatment is not common for CG irons .
0
0
i' 15), and most of the properties ofCG irons lie in

'3
u
between those of gray and ductile iron.
Malleable Irons
~
0 300 10
z The chemical composition effects of CG Malleable cast irons differ from the types of
irons are similar to those described for ductile irons previously discussed in that they have an
200 iron. The CE influences strength less obviously initial as-cast white structure, that is, a structure
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 than for the case of gray iron, but more than for consisting of iron carbides in a pearlitic matrix.
75% FeSi added as postinoculant
ductile iron, as shown in Fig. 21. The graphite This white structure is then heat treated (anneal-
Fig 19 Influence of the amount of 75% fcrrosilicon shape is controlled, as in the case of ductile iron, ing at 800 to 970 C, or 1470 to 1780 F), which
' added as a postinoculant on the nodule count through the content of minor elements. When the results in the decomposition of Fe3C and the
and chill depth of 3 mm (0.12 in.) plates. Source: Ref 11
goal is to produce CO, it is easier from the stand- formation of temper graphite. The basic solid-
point of controlling the structure to combine state reaction is:

Hardening to produce tempering structures spheroidizing (magnesium, calcium, and/or rare

Austempering to produce a ferritic bainite
Austempering results in ductile irons with twice the
tensile strength for the same toughness. A compari-
son between some mechanical properties of austem-
pered ductile iron and standard ductile iron is shown
in Fig. 20.
Compacted Graphite Irons
Compacted graphite (CG) irons have a graphite
shape intermediate between spheroidal and flake.
Typically, CG looks like type IV graphite (Fig.
earths) and antispheroidizing (titanium and/or (Eq7)
aluminum) elements. Additional information is
available in the article "Foundry Practice for Cast The fmal structure consists of graphite and pearlite,
Irons" in this Volume. pearlite and ferrite, or ferrite. The structure of the
The cooling rate affects properties of CG matrix is a function of the cooling rate after anneal-
irons less for gray iron but more for ductile iron ing. Most of the malleable iron is produced by this
(Fig. 22). ln other words, CG iron is less section technique and is called blackheart malleable iron.
sensitive than gray iron. However, high cooling Some malleable iron, called whiteheart malleable
rates are to be avoided because of the high pro- iron, is produced in Europe by decarburization of
pensity of CO iron for chilling and high nodule the white as-cast iron.
count in thin sections. The composition of malleable irons must be
Liquid treatment can have two stages, as for selected in such a way as to produce a white
ductile iron. Modification can be achieved with as-cast structure and to allow for fast annealing