Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2012) 93:1729
DOI 10.1007/s00253-011-3651-2
MINI-REVIEW
Efficient use of shrimp waste: present and future trends
Prameela Kandra & Murali Mohan Challa &
Hemalatha Kalangi Padma Jyothi
Received: 27 July 2011 / Revised: 30 September 2011 / Accepted: 17 October 2011 / Published online: 4 November 2011
# Springer-Verlag 2011
Abstract The production of shrimp waste from shrimp
processing industries has undergone a dramatic increase in
recent years. Continued production of this biomaterial
without corresponding development of utilizing technology
has resulted in waste collection, disposal, and pollution
problems. Currently used chemical process releases toxic
chemicals such as HCl, acetic acid, and NaOH into aquatic
ecosystem as byproducts which will spoil the aquatic flora
and fauna. Environmental protection regulations have
become stricter. Now, there is a need to treat and utilize
the waste in most efficient manner. The shrimp waste
contains several bioactive compounds such as chitin,
pigments, amino acids, and fatty acids. These bioactive
compounds have a wide range of applications including
medical, therapies, cosmetics, paper, pulp and textile
industries, biotechnology, and food applications. This
current review article present the utilization of shrimp
waste as well as an alternative technology to replace
hazardous chemical method that address the future trends
in total utilization of shrimp waste for recovery of bioactive
compounds.
P. Kandra (*) : M. M. Challa
Department of Biotechnology, GITAM Institute of Technology,
GITAM University,
Visakhapatnam 530045 Andhra Pradesh, India
e-mail: chprameela5@gmail.com
M. M. Challa
e-mail: drmurali@gitam.edu
H. Kalangi Padma Jyothi
Department of Biochemistry, College of Science & Technology,
Andhra University,
Visakhapatnam 530045 Andhra Pradesh, India
e-mail: hemalathakpj@gmail.com
Keywords Shrimp waste . Toxic chemicals . Chitin .
Pigments . Therapies
Introduction
Aquaculture is the world's fastest growing food-production
sector in the recent years, providing an acceptable, protein
rich supplement to, and substitute for, wild aquatic animals
and plants. Asia plays a leading role in shrimp farming,
accounting for almost 80% of world shrimp production
(Fuchs et al. 1999; Rosenberry 1998). Shrimp is a high-
value aquacultural product, and is processed for the meat,
leaving the carapace and head as waste products (Omum
1992; Knorr 1991). Shrimp landed by large trawlers are,
however, deheaded at sea or supplied to processing
industries. The main unutilized source of marine protein
and oils is heads of shrimp from packaging and processing
industry. Heads are usually removed in peeling sheds near
the landing or at packing plants. Generally, shrimp is
exported in frozen form without exoskeleton. About 45
48% by weight of shrimp raw material is discarded as waste
depending on species (Sachindra et al. 2005).
An inevitable increase in waste produced by the
processing industry is of no use (Subasinghe 1999).The
biomaterial or biowaste contains many valuable compounds
that after appropriate processing can add substantially to
overall profitability. This shrimp biomaterial can be
valorized without fractionation. Usually, it is applied as
such for feeding in veterinary practice and aquaculture.
Medium- and large-scale processing has been developed to
dry the waste and to mix it with other agricultural raw
materials to produce animal feed. The most common
technique for shrimp waste utilization is the artisan practice
18
of sun drying. This procedure has low hygienic control and
the products are limited for animal consumption. Shrimp
waste is then considered in landfills, soil dumping, and
discarded in sea water resulting in the major surface
pollution, unpleasant smell in coastal areas, and constituting
an important concern of environmental pollution. Usually,
shrimp waste is dried on the beaches which encourage
environmental problems (Mathew and Nair 2006).
In particular, discarding of shrimp waste is a serious
environmental problem because valuable living resources are
wasted. Populations of endangered species are threatened due
to environmental pollution (Morgan and Chuenpagdue 2003).
In any case, it is widely accepted that ecological impact is
significant by discarding shrimp waste (Kelleher 2005).
Coastal aquaculture is diverse in terms of the resources used;
the scale and nature of the practices adopted and varied
environmental characteristics. A major problem with shrimp
biomaterial valorization is the high perishability of the
material (Anonymous 1997). Under tropical climatic con-
ditions, decay starts within an hour after processing and leads
to the production of biogenic amines with a very offensive
smell. If this decay is unavoidable or not prevented, the
biomaterial turns into real waste, and due to its high protein
content, it becomes a real threat to the environment and a
financial burden if not discarded properly.
It is obvious for both environmental and economic
reasons that, wherever possible, appropriate technology
should be applied to prevent decay and to convert the
biomaterial into valuable products. Technology should
provide systems for the delay or prevention of decay and
procedures for fractionation. Therefore, there is a signifi-
cant interest regarding recycling of shrimp waste. This
review focuses on present utilization and recent findings;
well-known biotechnologies commonly used for the treat-
ment of shrimp waste that address the future trends in total
utilization of shrimp waste for recovery of bioactive
compounds. However, before presenting the specific features
of selected technologies, it is first necessary to briefly
summarize the existing chemical method for degradation of
shrimp waste.
Present utilization of shrimp waste
The higher protein content used in Asian diets fits with the
more carnivorous feeding habits of the main shrimp species
cultured. Moreover, carnivorous shrimp species are less
able to harness the natural pond biota than their more
omnivorous or detrivorous counterparts (Tacon and
Akiyama 1997). Shrimp for human food represents around
78% both in developed and developing countries, leaving
about 22% for non-food uses (Vannuccini 2004). Therefore,
shrimp and it's derived byproducts are considered important
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2012) 93:1729
from the nutritional point of view. The amount of shrimp
waste (4048%) contains head and body carapace (Sachin-
dra et al. 2005). Only 5% of shrimp waste is used mostly
for animal feed. The shrimp waste composed mainly of
protein (40%), minerals (35%) and chitin (1430%)
(Synowiecki and Al-Khateeb 2000) and is very rich in
carotenoid pigments mainly Astaxanthin (Britton 1997;
Gimeno et al. 2007). In efficient utilization of these marine
shrimp waste becomes an accumulation from processing
plants.
Shrimp head waste fermented in the presence of sugar
molasses by using Lactobacillus plantarum was co-dried
with 15% feather meal is used as silage meal. Fermented
shrimp head waste meal can be used to replace fish meal
(30%) for feeding to African catfish Clarias gariepinus
(Nwanna and Daramola 2001). Use of fish silage for partial
or complete replacement of fish meal in diets of Nile tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus) and African catfish (C. gariepinus)
(Al-Azab 2005; Soltan et al. 2008). Shrimp head waste is
also currently used in the preparation of prawn head soup
(B.B.C. Food recipes).
Chitin
Chitin is one of the most abundant renewable biopolymers
on earth that can be obtained as a cheap biopolymer from
marine sources (Muzzarelli 1997). After cellulose, chitin is
the most abundant polysaccharide in nature and is primarily
present in the exoskeletons of crustaceans (such as crabs,
shrimp, lobsters, etc.) and also in various insects, worms,
fungi, and mushrooms in varying amount (Arcidiacono and
Kaplan 1992). It is biocompatible, biodegradable, and bio-
absorbable, with antibacterial and wound-healing abilities
with low immunogenicity. Therefore, there have been many
reports on its biomedical applications (Jolls and Muzzarelli
1999). Accordingly, a very broad range of applications in
different fields such as food technology, material science,
microbiology, agriculture, wastewater treatment, drug delivery
systems, tissue engineering, and bionanotechnology have
been reported (Feisal and Montarop 2010).
Henri Braconnot, a French professor of natural history,
discovered chitin in 1811 after the discovery of a material
particularly resistant to usual chemicals by Hachett, an
English scientist in 1799. In 1843, Lassaigne demonstrated
the presence of nitrogen in chitin (Jeuniaux 1996). Henri
Braconnot named it as fungine. In 1823, Odier found the
same material in insects and plants and named it as chitine
(Muzzarelli and Mozzarelli 2009). Chitin is not only an
essential component of invertebrates but may also be
present in vertebrates. Unlike cellulose, chitin can be a
source of nitrogen as well as carbon (C:N=8:1) (Struszczyk
2006).
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2012) 93:1729
Chitin is a poly-beta-1, 4-N-acetylglucosamine (Roberts
1992). Chitosan is a modified, natural carbohydrate
polymer derived by deacetylation of chitin. Chitin is
insoluble in water due to its intermolecular hydrogen bonds
(Minke and Blackwell 1978), but water-soluble chitin-
based derivatives such as chitosan or carboxymethyl chitin
can be obtained. One of their most important features is the
ability (flexibility) to be shaped into different forms such as
fibers, hydrogels, beads, sponges, and membranes (Mano et
al. 2007). The origin of chitin affects its crystallinity, purity,
polymer chain arrangement, and dictates its properties
(Rinaudo 2006). Chitin contains 67% nitrogen and in its
deacetylated form, chitosan contains 79.5% nitrogen. In
chitosan, 60% to 80% of the acetyl groups available in
chitin are removed (Mathur and Narang 1990). There are
three forms of chitin: , , and chitin. The -form, which
is mainly obtained from crab and shrimp shells, is widely
distributed. Both and chitin/chitosan are commercially
available. The -chitin chains are aligned in anti-parallel
fashion. The anti-parallel arrangement in -chitin gives rise
to strong hydrogen bonding and consequently makes it
more stable (Sikorski et al. 2009). According to Synowiecki
and Al-khateeb (2003), shrimp waste contains approxi-
mately 1430% chitin on dry weight basis depending on
the processing method. The traditional sources of chitin are
from shrimp, Antarctic krill, crab, and lobster processing
(Muzzarelli 1997; Shahidi and Synowiecki 1991). Chitin is
an environmentally friendly material (Mahmoud et al.
2007). Controlled deacetylation produce chitosan with
approximately 50% free amine (Knorr 1991).
The various technologies that can be used in shrimp
waste bioremediation are summarized along with the
existing chemical method for degradation of shrimp waste.
Chemical process
Several researchers have reported a chemical process for
demineralization and deproteinization by treatment with
acid and alkali to remove calcium carbonate and protein. In
traditional chemical methods for isolating chitin from
shrimp waste 4% NaOH is used for deproteinization and
4% HCl for demineralization. Using of strong acid results
in detrimental effects on molecular weight and negatively
effect on intrinsic properties of the purified chitin (Percot
and Viton Domard 2003). Although traditional chitin
production methods are efficient in recovering chitin, they
render other biomolecules like proteins and lipids including
carotenoids useless, during protein removal and demineral-
ization (Healy et al. 2003; Rao and Stevens 2005). Acid
ensilage with milder organic acids has been reported to
stabilize carotenoids and their further recovery (Sachindra
et al. 2007).
19
Deproteination
In the first step, the waste is treated with 4% sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) at elevated temperatures 70120C
(Yang et al. 2000; Rao et al. 2000). Under these conditions,
the protein becomes detached from the solid component of
the shrimp waste. To prevent oxidation of the products, the
process is usually carried out in a nitrogen atmosphere and
in the presence of sodium borohydride (NaBH4). After
completion of the deproteination step, the protein hydroly-
sate is removed easily by separation of the solids from the
protein slurry by filtration. The protein hydrolysate can be
dried and used in the form of a cake or powder as a protein
supplement in feed. This protein hydrolysate also contains
most of the shrimp flavor. The solid fraction consists
mainly of chitin and calcium carbonate. It also contains
most of the pigment. This process may not be considered as
a good recovery option because it is expensive and non-
environmental friendly process (Rao et al. 2002).
Demineralization
In the next step, the solid fraction is treated with 4%
hydrochloric acid (HCl) which converts the insoluble
calcium carbonate into soluble calcium chloride that can
subsequently be removed by washing. With appropriate
deproteinization and demineralization, the remaining product
consists mainly of chitin with minor amounts of protein and
calcium that can be judged from a weak Biuret reaction and a
low weight after ashing, respectively. The use of acids harms
physical and chemical properties of chitin results in harmful
effluent wastewater and increase the cost of chitin-purifying
process (Mahmoud et al. 2007). The chitin product should be
white. It is insoluble in alkali and in most acids and organic
solvents. Due to its low reactivity, chitin is usually
deacetylated to chitosan.
Deacetylation
Deacetylation of chitin into chitosan requires strong
chemical conditions, 50% NaOH, and elevated temper-
atures as high as 7090C. The highest degree of
deacetylation possible is desired, and several treatments
are usually required to reach a sufficient degree to obtain a
marketable product. Chitin deacetylated by 7090% (also
referred to as 3010% acetylated chitosan) is considered to
be a good end product (Fig. 1). The material should be low
in protein and ash. Chitosan can be dissolved in 12%
acetic acid, and high viscosity of this solution is indicative
of a well-prepared chitosan. If too rigorous conditions are
applied during deacetylation, the main chain of the chitin
breaks and this result in low viscosity of chitosan dissolved
in acetic acid. In addition, the broken molecules cause
20
Shrimp head waste
Homogenization
Deproteinization
(4%NaOH, 900C, 1 hour)
Deproteinized Flake
Decalcification
(4% HCl)
Chitin
Deacetylation
(50% NaOH)
Chitosan
Fig. 1 Production of chitin and chitosan by the chemical method
discoloration and condensation, resulting in reduced trans-
parency and solubility. A good chitosan preparation has a
low ash content (<1%) and dissolves well in acetic acid
giving high transparency (>90% transmission).
Alternative technology to replace hazardous chemical
method
Enzymatic method for recovery of protein and chitin
A new process for deproteinization of chitin from shrimp
head was studied (Maryam Mizani and Mahmood Aminlari
2007). Recovery of the protein fraction of the shrimp waste
has been widely studied by enzymatic hydrolysis method
(Simpson and Haard 1985; Cano-Lopez et al. 1987).
Certain proteolytic enzymes such as alcalase (Maryam et
al. 2005; Guerard et al. 2007) and trypsin (Synowiecki and
Al-Khateeb 2000) have been used to extract the proteins
from shrimp waste. Application of sodium sulfite, Alcalase
(a commercial proteinase), Triton X-100, and combination
of these reagents in association with mild chemical
treatment improved quality and quantity of the protein as
well as chitin. The enzymatic deproteinization process has
limited value due to residual small peptides directly
attached to chitin molecules ranging from 4.4% to 7.9%
of total weight (Synowiecki and Al- Khateeb 2000).
However, in this method, using chemical agents in
combination with proteolytic enzyme significantly reduced
proteinaceous fraction of precipitate (Maryam Mizani and
Mahmood Aminlari 2007). This method is described in
Fig. 2. As these processes are costly because of the use of
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2012) 93:1729
commercial enzymes, there is now a need to develop an
efficient and economical method for extracting proteins
from shrimp head waste.
Microbial fermentation method
One interesting new technology for extraction of chitin that
offers an alternative to the more harsh chemical methods is
fermentation by using microorganisms. Fermentation has
been envisaged as one of the most eco-friendly, safe,
technologically flexible, and economically viable alterna-
tive methods (Rao et al. 2000; Shirai et al. 2001; Healy et
al. 2003; Bhaskar et al. 2007; Prameela et al. 2010a, c, d).
Fermentation of shrimp waste with lactic acid bacteria
results in production of a solid portion of chitin and a liquor
containing shrimp proteins, minerals, pigments, and
nutrients (Rao and Stevens 2005; Prameela et al. 2010a).
Deproteinization of the biowaste occurs mainly by proteo-
lytic enzyme produced by Lactobacillus (Woods 1998).
This process results in clean chitin fraction and liquor with
high content of soluble peptides and free amino acids
(Fagberno 1996). Ensilation can also be conducted by
addition of organic acids combined with Lactobacillus
treatment (Dapkevicius et al. 1998). The efficiency of lactic
acid bacteria depends on the quality of inoculums, glucose,
initial pH, and pH during fermentation (Mathew and Nair
2006). Lactic acid produced by the process of break down
of glucose, creating the low pH condition of ensilation;
suppress the growth of microorganisms involved in
spoilage of shrimp waste (Legarrenta et al. 1996). The
lactic acid reacts with calcium carbonate component in the
chitin fraction leading to the fermentation of calcium
lactate, which gets precipitated and can be removed by
washing.
Deproteinization of shrimp head waste also occurs by
autolysis phenomenon. The phenomenon of autolysis was
found in many fishes and shrimp waste. The endogenous
enzymes such as phosphorylases, lipases, cathepsins, and
gut enzymes would degrade the tissues when they were
dead (Mukundan et al. 1986). Autolysis of shrimp head
waste occurs at different temperatures (40C, 50C, 60C,
and gradual temperature) with a protein recovery of 43.6%,
73.6%, 50.3%, and 87.4%, respectively, at its initial pH.
Autolysis of shrimp head waste served best for the
preparation of hydrolysate with the maximum degree of
hydrolysis 48.6% and the maximum protein recovery of
87.4% (Wenhong et al. 2009). However, there is little
information available about the autolysis of shrimp head
waste.
Improvement of lactic acid fermentation has been
generally accomplished by testing one variable at a time
(Meraz et al. 1992). The fermentation of shrimp heads was
tested in modified aeration conditions in presence of
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2012) 93:1729
Fig. 2 Two-stage method for
chitin production (enzymatic
method for deproteinization)
Mild alkali treatment
Acetone
Drying (60 oC, 1h)
constant sugar and inoculum levels. In this case, the
selection criteria used was low pH (Fagberno 1996;
Prameela et al. 2010a, b). Many researchers have studied
the lactic acid fermentation combined with chemical treat-
ments (Healy et al. 1994; Shirai et al. 1997; Zakaria et al.
1998) and with different carbon sources as a natural energy
source as well (Hall and Silva 1992; Fagberno 1996;
Prameela et al. 2010b). Treatment of minced scampi waste
by culture of Lactobacillus paracasei strain A3 was
investigated by Zakaria et al. 1998. All these studies were
on deproteinization of raw material and how demineraliza-
tion was affected by various inoculum amounts (Meraz et
al. 1992; Shirai et al. 2001; Rao et al. 2002; Prameela et al.
2010c).
Srinivas et al. (2006) studied fermentable shrimp waste
under different salt concentrations with amylolytic and non-
amylolytic Lactobacillus strains for chitin production.
Mahmoud et al. (2007) found unconventional approaches
21
Shrimp head waste
Tris Buffer pH 8 (1:1, w/v) with or without
Homogenization
Alcalase &/ or Triton x- 100
Hydrolysis (T=40 oC, t=1 h, pH=8)
Enzyme inactivation PMSF (1 mmol/L)
Centrifugation (10000xg, 45 min)
Precipitate Supernatant
Lyophylisation
Decoloration Protein hydrolysate
Chitin
for demineralization of deproteinized crustacean shells for
chitin production. Synowiecki and Al-Khatab (2003)
studied the essential amino acids index and protein
efficiency ratio value of an Alcalase 2.4 L digestion of
shrimp waste discards. The removal of protein and calcium
from shells is by a combination of enzymatic activity and
mineral solubilization by organic acid produced in bacterial
growth (Luis et al. 2003; Prameela et al. 2010a). Growth
and temperature of microorganisms in culture medium has
an effect on chitin and astaxanthin recovery from shrimp
waste (Carr et al. 2002; Neith et al. 2009). Microorganisms
studied include Lactobacillus plantarum (Rao et al. 2000;
Prameela et al. 2010a, b), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Wang
and Chio 1998), Pseudomonas maltophilia (Wang and Chio
1998), Bacillus subtilis (Yang et al. 2000; He et al. 2006),
L. paracasei (Shirai et al. 2001), Lecanicilecium fungicola
(Laura et al. 2006), Pencillium chrysogenum (Patidar et al.
2005), Pediococcus acidolactici (Bhaskar et al. 2007;
22
Prameela et al. 2010d). Homemade natural probiotic (curd)
was used in extraction of chitin and carotenoids from
shrimp waste (Prameela et al. 2010c). The composition of
natural probiotic was evaluated and found to be composed
of Lactobacillus acidophilus, L. plantarum, Lactobacillus
bulgaricus, Pediococcus acidilactici, and Streptococcus
thermophilus (unpublished data). Kyung-Taek et al.
(2007) studied demineralization of crab shell waste by P.
aeruginosa F 722. Deproteinization of the biowaste occurs
mainly by proteolytic enzymes produced by added micro-
organisms and protease present endogenously in the
biowaste (Bautista et al. 2001; Shirai et al. 2001; Cira et
al. 2002). An integrated bioconversion of shrimp was
proposed, whereby protein, pigment, and main biopolymer
chitin can be isolated for industrial for common use. In this
context, a process which involves the total utilization of
shell waste is highly valuable (Fig. 3).
Shrimp head waste
Grinding
(Shrimp waste: distilled water 1:1 w/v)
Mixing
(5% inoculum, 15% carbon source, 2% salt)
Incubation at 370C 10C in an orbital shaker at 100rpm
Fermentation for 72h
Filtration
(Cheese cloth)
Filtrate Protein
Residue
Washing with distilled water (1:10 w/v)
Chitin
Fig. 3 Flow chart indicating fermentation of shrimp waste by using
microorganisms
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2012) 93:1729
Chitin has an interesting property of converting itself to
oligosaccharides because oligosaccharides are water soluble
and possess versatile functional properties such as anti-
tumor activity and antimicrobial activity (Suzuki et al.
1986; Wang et al. 2006, 2008; Liang et al. 2007). Chitin
and its derivatives have many properties that make them
attractive for a wide variety of applications, from food,
nutrition and cosmetics to biomedicine, aquaculture, and
the environment (Knapczyk and Brzozowski 1982; Lang
and Clausen 1985; Holland 1986). Chitin has many
applications including functional food ingredients, medi-
cines, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, textiles, fine chemicals,
for water treatment and biodegradable packaging films
(Park et al. 2005; Bautista et al. 2001; Yang et al. 2000).
Their antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral properties make
them particularly useful for biomedical applications such as
wound dressing, weight loss agent, blood cholesterol
control, surgical sutures and aid in cataract surgery and
periodontal disease treatment (Stanford 1987; Rockway
2000; Taha and Swailam 2002). In the present review, a
variety of applications are summarized in Table 1.
Future trends in total utilization of shrimp waste
It is clear that the shrimp waste and discards utilization
situation has changed dramatically since 1970s. Now, there
are more possibilities for enhancing returns by extraction
and utilization of shrimp byproducts (Gildberg 2002), but
there are still more to come. The existing hazardous
chemical method causes environmental pollution as well
as great loss to the bioactive compounds that can be
isolated from shrimp waste such as protein, pigments, and
fatty acids. The enzymatic processes of extraction of chitin
are costly for the high expenses in commercial enzymes.
There is now a need to develop an efficient, simpler, eco-
friendly, economical, and commercially viable method for
extracting all the possible bioactive compounds present in
shrimp head waste. Automation of the extraction process is
an essential future trend for the minimization of expenses
and safety of the labor involved in the process. In this
section, we mention some of these new components that
can be obtained from shrimp waste and could constitute an
incipient industry or possibility of becoming so.
Bioactive compounds
New biologically active compounds have been isolated
from shrimp discards. One discovery was antimicrobial
activity representing a defense mechanism of the shrimp
hemocyte histone proteins (Patat et al. 2004; Blanco et al.
2007).
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2012) 93:1729 23

Table 1 Applications of bioactive compound chitin and chitosan from shrimp waste

Application Product Mechanism Reference

Immunology Chitin Activation of complement and macrophages Minami et al. 1998;

Freier et al. 2005.
Hemostasis Chitin nano-fiber Activation of platelets Klokkevold et al. 1999
Wound healing Chitosan membrane Ability to protect skin by preventing bacterial invasion Mi et al. 2001; Ong et al.
2008
Medical Chitosan acetate bandage Antibacterial activity when applied to burnt skin Dai et al. 2009
contaminated with P. aeruginosa
Scaffold for the regeneration Chitin (1)Ability to form temporary matrix, (2) ability to form Brandl et al. 2007
of tissue porous structure for tissue to grow, (3) biodegradability,
and finally (4) non-toxic byproducts from the digestion
Nerve regeneration Chitooligosaccharide Used as neuroprotective material with an ability to Gong et al. 2009
improve injured peripheral nerve regeneration
Blood cholesterol control Chitosan It combines with bile acids in the digestive tract, and Maezaki et al. 1993
excretes them into the feces, thus decreasing the
resorption of bile acids, so that the cholesterol pool
in the body was decreased and the level of serum
cholesterol consequently decreased
Drug delivery carriers N-succinyl-chitosan, carboxymethyl These associated macromolecules have been shown to Janes et al. 2001
chitin, chitosan hydrogel, transport through mucosa and epithelia more efficiently
hydroxyethyl chitin
Cationic chitosan With other natural polymers. It has been shown to Haidar et al. 2008
enhance the drug encapsulation efficiency of liposomes
via the layer-by-layer (L-b-L) self-assembly technique
Nanoparticles of chitosan In association with polyethylene oxide have been used Calvo et al. 1997
as protein carrier
Chitosan and tripolyphosphate. Developed oral delivery system Bodmeier et al. 1989
Antioxidant Aminoethyl-chitin Antioxidant activity against free radicals such as 1,1- Je and Kim 2006
diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), hydroxyl,
superoxide, and peroxyl groups
Antimicrobial activity Chitosan Ability of chitin and its derivatives to activate defense El Ghaouth et al. 1992
mechanisms of the host organisms such as inducing
the accumulation of chitinases and other
pathogenesis-related proteins
Gene therapy Galactosylated chitosan Can condense DNA and forms small discrete particles Erbacher et al. 1998
in particular conditions; hence it has many potential
applications for gene delivery
Food technology Chitosan-based films To improve the preservation of vacuum-packaged Ouattara et al. 2000
processed meat and it could delay the growth of
Entrobacteriaceae, which are indigenous bacteria in
the food products
Agriculture Chitin oligosaccharides They could also promote carrot somatic embryos De Jong et al. 1993; Ito
survival, to boost the defense system in rice et al. 1997; Okada et
al. 2001
Chitin fragments Can desensitize the perception system of tomato, Felix et al. 1998
which can lead to improvement of the defense
mechanism in tomato cells
Lipo-chitin Can induce the formation of nodule in soybean root Minami et al. 1996
Bio-nanotechnology Graphitic carbon nanocapsules, The fabrication of bioinspired micro-electromechanical Cheng and Pisano 2008;
tungsten carbide and tungsten systems Wang et al. 2010
carbides/graphitic carbon
composites
Chitin whiskers 3D networks Gopalan and Dufresne
2003
Electrolyte Chitin and H2SO4 electrolyte High chargedischarge ability Yamazaki et al. 2009
Heavy metals and other Chitin phosphate Absorb uranium in the presence of sodium carbonate Sakaguchi et al. 1981
pollutants removal solution
Chitosan-based chelating resins Absorb mercury, Ti, Mo, W, U Hakim et al. 2008a, b;
Oshita et al. 2008
Chitin and chitosan Have copper removal capability which could help to Peiselt et al. 2004
obtain more stable diesel oil
Chitosan Adsorption of organic pollutants Aksu 2005
24 Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2012) 93:1729

Table 1 (continued)

Application Product Mechanism Reference

Intelligent materials or Chitin-based polyurethane Shape memory materials can remember and regain Zia et al. 2009
composites their original shape after the removal of the stimulus
Energy production Chitin Chitin has also been utilized by Clostridium Evvyernie et al. 2000;
paraputrificum M-21 to produce hydrogen gas. This Morimoto et al. 2005
gas is considered to be a potential source of
alternative energy

Pigments of Vitamin A and has a possible role in human health.

Valuable pigments have been found in a variety of shrimp
waste material. Various studies have reported the presence
and recovery of pigments such as astaxanthin and its esters,
-carotene (Shahidi et al. 1998). Carotenoids are a group of
fat soluble pigments that can be found in many plants,
algae, microorganisms, and animals. Carotenoids have been
extracted using shrimp waste from processing head and
shell of Penaeus indicus applying different organic solvents
(Sachindra et al. 2005).
The occurrence of carotenoids in crustaceans is mainly
due to the absorption of pigments from the diet, which they
deposit as such or transfer metabolically to keto or hydroxyl
derivatives (Davies 1985; Castillo et al. 1982). Carotenoids
were also extracted from fish eggs as reported by Li et al.
2005 and from sea food industry wastewater using fish
scales waste as an adsorbent (Stepnowski et al. 2004). The
principal carotenoid is astaxanthin formed from ingested
beta carotene through oxidative transformation (Katayama
et al. 1971; Latscha 1990). Astaxanthin and its esters have
been isolated as major pigments from temperate water,
shrimp Pandalus borealis and Penaeus japonicus (Negre-
Sadargues et al. 1993; Shahidi et al. 1998). The qualitative
and quantitative distribution of carotenoids in different
body components of four shrimp species Penaeus monodon,
P. indicus, Metapenaeus dobsonii, and Prapenalopsis
styliceru were studied (Sachindra et al. 2005). The highest
total carotenoid content was observed in head than in
carapace (Sachindra et al. 2005). These valuable pigments
would be a cheaper alternative, applicable to a wide variety
of industrial needs such as coloration of some surimi-based
products or aquaculture feed formulations.
Furthermore, these pigments are important in medical
and biomedical applications. Astaxanthin inhibits prostate
cancer and modulating immune responses against tumor
cells (Guerin et al. 2003). It also inhibits bladder carcino-
genesis (Tanaka et al. 1994). The antioxidant activity has
been reported to be ten times stronger than -carotene
(Naguib 2000). It has applications in functional food, feed
for crustaceans and Salmonidae, and cosmetic industries
(De Holanda and Netto 2006). This pigment is a precursor
Many studies have been conducted to extract astaxanthin
from shrimp waste using various methods such as enzy-
matic process (Gildberg and Stenberg 2001; Armenta-
Lpez et al. 2002; De Holanda and Netto 2006), fermen-
tation process (Sachindra et al. 2007), extraction using
organic solvents (Sachindra et al. 2006), and extraction
using vegetable oils (Sachindra and Mahendrakar 2005),
since astaxanthin is an oil soluble pigment. Several
vegetable oils such as sunflower oil, ground nut oil, ginger
oil, mustard oil, soybean oil, coconut oil, rice bran oil, and
cod liver oil have been used to extract this pigment from
crustaceans and fish waste (Chen and Meyers 1982; Shahidi
and Synowiecki 1991; Sachindra and Mahendrakar 2005).
The amount of carotenoid present in P. monodon was 24%,
saturated fatty acids 7.8%, and unsaturated fatty acids
31.7% (Sachindra et al. 2005). Minerals in shell fish waste
usually consist of 90%, CaCo3/calcium phosphate and 10%
in krill waste (Anderson 1975).
Essential amino acids
The amino acid composition of original shrimp waste and
the powder obtained after lyophilization of fermented
shrimp waste is having all the essential amino acids except
tryptophan, which is absent in both original shrimp waste as
well as fermented liquor (Bhaskar et al. 2010). When
compared to different standard reference proteins, threonine
was found to be most limiting in both original shrimp waste
as well as fermented liquor. Barring tyrosine, the fermented
liquor retained all the amino acids present in original
shrimp waste, indicating the fact that fermentation had not
adversely affected the amino acid composition (Bhaskar et
al. 2010). Simpson and Haard (1985) studied the amino
acid composition of carateno proteins isolated from shrimp
waste by enzymatic methods and found to be dominated by
glutamic acid and aspartic acid. The composition of
fermented liquor is recommended for common carp
juveniles (NRC 1993) as well as that of the reference
protein recommended by FAO/WHO (1985). It can be used
as a growth enhancer and immuno stimulant in aquaculture
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol (2012) 93:1729
(Amar et al. 2000). Shrimp waste protein hydrolysates are
known to be nutritionally superior as feed ingredients due
to high amount of essential amino acids (Gildberg and
Stenberg 2001). The amino acid composition of the
fermented liquor obtained during degradation is also made
up of essential amino acids required by marine Penaeus
shrimp (Millamena et al. 1996a, b; 1997, 1998 and 1999).
Sachindra and Bhaskar (2008) have evaluated and reported
the in vitro antioxidant activities exhibited by the powder
obtained after lyophilization of fermented liquor from
fermented shrimp waste. These properties clearly indicate
the potential value of this material as a health-promoting
nutritional ingredient in the diets of juvenile fish and
penaeid shrimps.
Fatty acids
The fatty acid composition of shrimp waste indicates that
this product is rich in saturated fatty acids and also possess
considerable quantities of mono- and poly-unsaturated fatty
acids which account for 34% of total fatty acids. Guillou et
al. (1995) have reported that acid ensilaging has minimal
effect of fatty acid profile of shrimp waste, and the silage
can be a good source of lipids in aquacultural diets. The
fatty acid profile in marine organisms depends on the
temperature of water in which they live. The acetone extract
from the wastes and from the shrimps of tropical water of
India was found to be rich in saturated fatty acids
(Sachindra et al. 2005, 2006). The fatty acid composition
of penaied shrimps from Brazilian water was found to be
rich in unsaturated fatty acid (Bragagnolo and Rodriguez-
Amaya 2001), indicating that the fatty acid composition
varies with the species of shrimps.
Conclusion
Shrimp waste is usually dried on the beaches. It encourages
not only environmental pollution but also reduces the
recoverable components from their biowaste. Solid shrimp
waste undergoes rapid putrefaction because of its alkaline
nature (pH 7.58.0). Due to high perishability of shrimp
waste, implemented processing is needed. This leads to the
necessity to establish and implement protocols of byproduct
separation and storage as well as proposals for conservation
or pre-processing alternatives when possible, so as to
maintain the maturities in the appropriate processing
conditions. Improving the design and operation of biological
treatment process for shrimp waste in real life application
presents many challenges, including working within the
following constraints: selection of microorganisms, the need
for robust operation, environmental parameters, and low cost
25
operation. Therefore, extensive research should be carried out
to explore bioactive compounds and their activities from
shrimp waste.
Acknowledgements KP is grateful to Prof. K. Aruna Lakshmi and
Prof. R. Sinha for helpful discussion.
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