State Secret Privilege Freedom Info Privacy and Transparency Act

Conflict of Interest administered by self eh?

Some say or was it Confucius ... He who is responsibly accountable to investigate self is BS - Bloody Stupid if
find self guilty!!!

State Secret Privilege

Bush 9/11 Cover - up

The state secrets privilege is an evidentiary rule created by United States legal precedent. Application of the
privilege results in exclusion of evidence from a legal case based solely on affidavits submitted by the
government stating that court proceedings might disclose sensitive information which might endanger national
security.[1][2][3][4][5][6] United States v. Reynolds,[7] which involved military secrets, was the first case that saw
formal recognition of the privilege.

Following a claim of "state secrets privilege", the court rarely conducts an in camera examination of the
evidence to evaluate whether there is sufficient cause to support the use of this doctrine. This results in court
rulings in which even the judge has not verified the veracity of the assertion.[1] The privileged material is
completely removed from the litigation, and the court must determine how the unavailability of the privileged
information affects the case.[3][5]

[edit] Function
The purpose of the state secrets privilege is to prevent courts from revealing state secrets in the course of civil
litigation (in criminal cases, the Classified Information Procedures Act serves the same purpose). The
government may intervene in any civil suit, including when it is not a party to the litigation, to ask the court to
exclude state secrets evidence. While the courts may examine such evidence closely, in practice they generally
defer to the Executive Branch. Once the court has agreed that evidence is subject to the state secrets privilege, it
is excluded from the litigation. Often, as a practical matter, the plaintiff cannot continue the suit without the
privileged information, and drops the case. Recently, courts have been more inclined to dismiss cases outright,
if the subject matter of the case is a state secret.

[edit] Distinguished from other legal doctrines

The state secrets privilege is related to, but distinct from, several other legal doctrines: the principle of non-
justiciability in certain cases involving state secrets (the so-called "Totten Rule");[8] certain prohibitions on the
publication of classified information (as in New York Times Co. v. United States, the Pentagon Papers case); and
the use of classified information in criminal cases (governed by the Classified Information Procedures Act).

[edit] History
[edit] Origins

The doctrine was effectively imported from British law which has a similar privilege.[1][2] It is debatable whether
the state secrets privilege is based upon the President's powers as commander-in-chief and leader of foreign
affairs (as suggested in United States v. Nixon) or derived from the idea of separation of powers (as suggested in
United States v. Reynolds)[1] It seems that the US privilege "has its initial roots in Aaron Burr's trial for treason."
In this case, it was alleged that a letter from General James Wilkinson to President Thomas Jefferson might
contain state secrets and could therefore not be divulged without risk to national security.[1]
1
[edit] Supreme Court recognition in United States v. Reynolds

The privilege was first officially recognized by the Supreme Court of the United States in the 1953 decision
United States v. Reynolds (345 U.S. 1). A military airplane, a B-29 Superfortress bomber, crashed. The widows
of three civilian crew members sought accident reports on the crash but were told that to release such details
would threaten national security by revealing the bomber's top-secret mission.[1][2][3][4][5][6][9][10] The court held that
only the government can claim or waive the privilege, and it is not to be lightly invoked, and last there must
be a formal claim of privilege, lodged by the head of the department which has control over the matter, after
actual personal consideration by that officer.[1] The court stressed that the decision to withhold evidence is to
be made by the presiding judge and not the executive.[1]

In 2000, the accident reports were declassified and released, and it was found that the assertion that they
contained secret information was fraudulent. The reports did, however, contain information about the poor
condition of the aircraft itself, which would have been very compromising to the Air Force's case. Many
commentators have alleged government misuse of secrecy in this landmark case.[11]

Despite this ruling, a case might still be subject to judicial review since the privilege was intended to prevent
certain, but not all, information to be precluded.[1]

[edit] Recent use

According to former White House Counsel, John Dean:

While precise numbers are hard to come by (because not all cases are reported), a recent study reports that the
"Bush administration has invoked the state secrets privilege in 23 cases since 2001." By way of comparison,
"between 1953 and 1976, the government invoked the privilege in only four cases."[9]

While Henry Lanman reports in Slate:

"... the Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press reported that while the government asserted the privilege
approximately 55 times in total between 1954 (the privilege was first recognized in 1953) and 2001, it's asserted
it 23 times in the four years after Sept. 11."[10][12]

However, at least one article has retracted these figures, finding they were based on erroneous information:

"Correction: In this article, we incorrectly reported that the government invoked the state secrets privilege in 23
cases since 2001. The figure came from the 2005 Secrecy Report Card published by OpenTheGovernment.org.
The privilege was actually invoked seven times from 2001 to 2005, according to the corrected 2005 report card,
which is not an increase from previous decades"[13]

Lanman continues to cite two political science professors at the University of Texas-El Paso who concluded that

"courts have examined the documents' underlying claims of state secrecy fewer than one-third of the times it has
been invoked. And, ..., courts have only actually rejected the assertion of the privilege four times since 1953."[10]

Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, the privilege is increasingly used to dismiss entire court cases,
instead of only withholding the sensitive information from a case.[1] Also in 2001, George W. Bush issued
Executive Order 13233 extending the accessibility of the state secrets privilege to also allow former presidents,
their designated representatives, or representatives designated by their families, to invoke it to bar records from
their tenure.[5]

2
An article in the NYT, in August 2007, on a lawsuit involving Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial
Telecommunication concludes that it would seem that the unprecedented frequency with which the Bush
administration invoked and invokes this principle has made judges more skeptical and willing to ask the
government to validate its claims. In the words of Tom Blanton, director of the National Security Archive at
George Washington University

"What seems clear is that until a year or two ago, the judges rarely even questioned it when the government
raised the 'state secrets' claim. It was a neutron bomb no plaintiffs left standing. But we're now seeing that
judges are starting to actually look behind the government's secrecy claims and see what's really there."[14]

[edit] Criticism

Since 2001, there has been mounting criticism of the state secrets privilege. Such criticism generally falls into
four categories:

[edit] Weak external validation of executive assertion of privilege

Many commentators have expressed concern that the courts never effectively scrutinize executive claims of
privilege.[1] Lacking independent national security expertise, judges frequently defer to the judgment of the
executive and never subject executive claims to meaningful scrutiny.

[edit] Executive abuse of the privilege to conceal embarrassing facts

Commentators have suggested that the state secrets privilege might be used as often to prevent disclosure of
embarrassing facts as to protect legitimate secrets.[1][2][3][4][5][10][15][16] Or, in the words of Professors William G.
Weaver and Robert M. Pallitto in an article in the Political Science Quarterly:

"[T]he incentive on the part of administrators is to use the privilege to avoid embarrassment, handicap political
enemies, and to prevent criminal investigation of administrative action."[13][17]

In several prominent cases, the evidence that the government successfully excluded was later revealed to
contain no state secrets. i.e. United States v. Reynolds, Sterling v. Tenet, Edmonds v. Department of Justice and
the Pentagon Papers.

[edit] Expansion into a justiciability doctrine

Some academics and practitioners have criticized the expansion of the state secrets privilege from an
evidentiary privilege (designed to exclude certain pieces of evidence) to a justiciability doctrine (designed to
exclude entire lawsuits). Under its original formulation, the state secrets privilege was meant only to exclude a
very narrow class of evidence whose revelation would harm national security. However, in a large percentage of
recent cases, courts have gone a step further, dismissing entire cases in which the government asserts the
privilege, in essence converting an evidentiary rule into a justiciability rule. The government response has been
that in certain cases, the subject of the case is itself privileged. In these cases, the government argues, there is no
plausible way to respond to a complaint without revealing state secrets.

[edit] Elimination of judicial check on executive power

Glenn Greenwald alleges that the Bush administration attempted to expand executive power, as evidenced by
the unitary executive theory propagated by John Yoo. The theory suggests that the President, as Commander-in-
Chief, cannot be bound by Congress or any law, national or international. By invoking the state secrets privilege
3
in cases involving actions taken in the war on terror (i.e. extraordinary rendition, allegations of torture, allegedly
violating the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act)[18] Greenwald opines the administration tried to evade
judicial review of these claims of exceptional war powers. In effect, this is preventing a judicial ruling
determining whether there is a legal basis for such expansive executive power.[12][19] With that in mind, applying
this privilege makes impeachment the only possible means left for Congress to exercise their duty to uphold the
checks and balances constitutionally intended to prevent abuse of power.[2][13][16]

[edit] Calls for reform

See also: State Secrets Protection Act

In recent years, a number of commentators have called for legislative reforms to the state secrets
privilege.[20][21][22] These reforms center around several ideas:

1. Requiring judges to review each piece of evidence that the executive claims is subject to the
privilege.[20][23][24]
2. Requiring the executive to craft alternative evidence that is not subject to the privilege, for the opposing
party to use in place of the original, privileged evidence.[23] Such substitute evidence should only be
required when it is possible to do so without harming national security.
3. Prohibiting courts from dismissing claims on the basis of the state secrets privilege until after they have
reviewed all available evidence.
4. Permitting the court to appoint an outside expert to scrutinize the evidence for national security
content.[21]
5. Excluding illegal government action from the definition of "state secrets," or otherwise allowing the
court to address the legality (instead of just the secrecy) of government conduct. This would prevent the
government from using the state secrets privilege to conceal its illegal conduct.[21]

On January 22, 2008, Senators Edward Kennedy and Arlen Specter introduced S. 2533, the State Secrets
Protection Act.[25]

[edit] Court cases

[edit] United States v. Reynolds
Main article: United States v. Reynolds

In United States v. Reynolds (1953), the widows of three crew members of a B-29 Superfortress bomber that had crashed in
1948 sought accident reports on the crash, but were told the release such details would threaten national security by revealing
the nature of the bomber's top-secret mission. The Supreme Court ruled that the executive branch could bar evidence from
the court if it deemed that its release would impair national security. In 1996, the accident reports in question were declassified
and released, and when discovered in 2000 were found to contain no secret information. They did, however, contain
information about the poor condition of the aircraft itself, which would have been very compromising to the Air Force's case.
Many legal experts have alleged government abuse of secrecy in this landmark case. [2][3][5][9][10]

[edit] Richard Horn

Main articles: Richard Horn and Horn v. Albright

Former DEA agent Richard Horn brought a suit against the CIA for bugging his home. The case was dismissed because of the
privilege.[1][6]

Richard Horn's case was reinstated on July 20, 2009 by USDC Judge Royce C. Lambreth on the basis that the CIA had
engaged in fraud on the court.

4
On 30 March 2010, as a result of a multi-million dollar settlement agreement between Horn and the government, Lamberth
dismissed the underlying case with prejudice. Subsequently, later that same year, in a 22 September order, Lamberth issued a
final order vacating his earlier opinions and orders finding that CIA lawyers, Tenet, and Brown had committed fraud on the
court. Lamberth also specifically ordered that a sentence be removed from his 30 March 2010 Memorandum. The removed
sentence had stated that "allegations of wrongdoing by the government attorneys in this case are not only credible, they are
admitted."

[edit] Notra Trulock

In February 2002 it was invoked in the case of Notra Trulock, who launched a defamation suit against Los Alamos scientist
Wen Ho Lee, charged with stealing nuclear secrets; President Bush stated that national security would be compromised if
Trulock were allowed to seek damages from Lee; though it resulted in the case being dismissed, another suit was launched
directly attacking then-FBI Director Louis Freeh for interfering and falsely invoking the state secrets privilege.

[edit] Sibel Edmonds

Main article: Sibel Edmonds

The privilege was invoked twice against Sibel Edmonds. [1][2][6] The first invocation was to prevent her from testifying that the
Federal Government had foreknowledge that Al-Qaeda intended to use airliners to attack the United States on September 11,
2001; the case was a $100 trillion action filed in 2002 by six hundred 9/11 victims' families against officials of the Saudi
government and prominent Saudi citizens. The second invocation was in an attempt to derail her personal lawsuit regarding
her dismissal from the FBI, where she had worked as a post-9/11 translator and had been a whistleblower.

[edit] Thomas Burnett

The privilege was invoked in Thomas Burnett vs. Al Barka Investment & Development Corporation (Civil No. 04ms203) a
motion to quash a subpoena for the testimony of Sibel Edmonds. The government's motion to quash based on state secrets
privilege was granted in part.

[edit] Sterling v. Tenet

Main articles: Sterling v. Tenet and Jeffrey Alexander Sterling

Jeffrey Sterling was a black CIA agent who started a racial discrimination suit. It was thrown out on account of this
privilege.[1][6]

[edit] Nira Schwartz

The privilege was invoked in Schwartz vs. TRW (Civil No. 96-3065, Central District, Cal) a Qui-Tam claim by Schwartz.
Intervention and assertion of the state secrets privilege, by the government, resulted in case dismissal.

[edit] Crater Corporation

The privilege was invoked in the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit case of Crater Corporation vs. Lucent
Technologies Inc. and AT&T Company, (Crater Corp. v. Lucent Technologies, September 7, 2005). Crater was prevented
from proceeding with discovery in its patent infringement case (U.S. Patent No. 5,286,129) by the United States' assertion that
discovery could cause "extremely grave damage to national security". The infringement case centered on WetMate
underwater fiber optic coupling devices beneath the sea.

[edit] ACLU vs. NSA/CIA

On May 26, 2006, the U.S. Justice Department filed a motion to dismiss ACLU v. NSA, the ACLU's lawsuit against the NSA
by invoking the state secrets privilege. On July 26, 2006, the case was dismissed. In a different case in Michigan, brought by
the ACLU against the NSA on behalf of various scholars, journalists, attorneys, and national non-profit organizations, Judge
Anna Diggs Taylor ruled on August 17, 2006, that the program was unconstitutional and should be halted. She upheld the
5
doctrine, but ruled that the government's public statements concerning the operation were admissible and constituted
sufficient proof for the case to continue without any privileged evidence or discovery. On July 6, 2007, the Sixth Circuit Court
of Appeals threw out Taylor's decision, ruling 2-1 that the ACLU could not produce evidence to prove that the ACLU had
been wrongfully wiretapped by the NSA, and therefore did not have the standing to bring such a case to court, regardless of
the legality question. On February 19, 2008, the Supreme Court declined to hear the ACLU's appeal. See ACLU v. NSA.

[edit] Center for Constitutional Rights et al. v. Bush et al.

On May 27, 2006 the Justice Department moved to preempt the Center for Constitutional Rights (CCR) challenge to
warrantless domestic surveillance by invoking the state secrets privilege. The Bush Administration is arguing that CCR's case
could reveal secrets regarding U.S. national security, and thus the presiding judge must dismiss it without reviewing the
evidence.

[edit] AT&T and NSA wire-tap case

Main articles: NSA call database, NSA warrantless surveillance controversy, and Hepting v. AT&T

In April 2006, the Bush administration took initial steps to use the state secrets rule to block a lawsuit against AT&T and the
National Security Agency brought by the Electronic Frontier Foundation. The EFF alleged that the government has secret
computer rooms conducting broad, illegal surveillance of U.S. citizens. [5][10] Testifying at a January 29, 2008 House Judiciary
Committee hearing on reform of the state secrets privilege, EFF attorney Kevin Bankston contended that the administration's
interpretation of the privilege was overly broad, and failed to properly consider the evidentiary procedures provided for by
Section 1806(f) of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act.[26] However, the case was dismissed on June 3, 2009,[27] citing
retroactive legislation (section 802 of FISA) stating that in the case of a covered civil action, the assistance alleged to have been
provided by the electronic communication service provider was in connection with an intelligence activity involving
communications that was authorized by the President during the period beginning on September 11, 2001, and ending on
January 17, 2007; designed to detect or prevent a terrorist attack, or activities in preparation for a terrorist attack, against the
United States; and the subject of a written request or directive, or a series of written requests or directives, from the Attorney
General or the head of an element of the intelligence community (or the deputy of such person) to the electronic
communication service provider indicating that the activity was authorized by the President; and determined to be lawful.

[28]

[edit] Khalid El-Masri

Main articles: Khalid El-Masri and Extraordinary rendition

In May 2006, the illegal detention case of Khalid El-Masri was dismissed based on the privilege, which was invoked by the
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Khalid El-Masri alleged that he was falsely held by the CIA for several months (which the
CIA acknowledges) and was beaten, drugged, and subjected to various other inhumane activity while in captivity. He was
ultimately released by the CIA with no charge ever being brought against him by the United States government. Judge T.S.
Ellis, III of the U.S. District Court dismissed the case because, according to the court, the simple fact of holding proceedings
would jeopardize state secrets, as claimed by the CIA.[3] [2]. On March 2, 2007, the United States Court of Appeals for the
Fourth Circuit affirmed. [3] On October 9, 2007, the Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal of the Fourth Circuit's
decision, letting the doctrine of state secrets privilege stand. [29]

[edit] Maher Arar

Main articles: Maher Arar and Extraordinary rendition

The privilege was invoked against a case where Maher Arar, a wrongfully-accused and tortured victim, sought to sue Attorney
General John Ashcroft for his role in deporting Arar to Syria to face torture and extract false confessions. It was formally
invoked by Deputy Attorney General James B. Comey in legal papers filed in the United States District Court for the Eastern
District of New York. The invocation read, "Litigating [the] plaintiff's complaint would necessitate disclosure of classified

6
information", which it later stated included disclosure of the basis for detaining him in the first place, the basis for refusing to
deport him to Canada as he had requested, and the basis for sending him to Syria.

[edit] Jane and John Doe

On January 4, 2007 District Court Judge Laura Taylor Swain ordered the dismissal of Jane Doe et al. v. CIA, 05 Civ. 7939
based on the state secrets privilege. Jane Doe and her children sued the CIA for money damages after her husband's covert
employment with the CIA was "terminated immediately for unspecified reasons".[4].

[edit] Quotes
"Because it is so powerful and can trample legitimate claims against the government, the state secrets privilege is not to be
lightly invoked" (United States v. Reynolds, 345 U.S. 1, 7 (1953)) [5]

"The state secrets privilege is a common law evidentiary rule that allows the government to withhold information from
discovery when disclosure would be inimical to national security." Zuckerbraun v. General Dynamics Corp., 935 F.2d
544, 546 (2d Cir. 1991).

[edit] See also

Espionage Act of 1917
Executive privilege
Extraordinary rendition by the United States
Mosaic theory
Unitary executive theory
Whistleblower
Federal Tort Claims Act
Classified Information Procedures Act, Silent witness rule
State Secrets Protection Act
Silent witness rule

[edit] External links

In The Name Of National Security: Unchecked Presidential Power And The Reynolds Case, Louis Fisher. Lawrence:
University Press of Kansas, 2006, ISBN 0700614648.
State Secrets and the Limits of National Security Litigation Robert Chesney, Wake Forest University School of Law
The State Secrets Privilege and Separation of Powers AMANDA FROST, American University Washington College
of Law
Selected Case Files Involving "State Secrets" Project on Government Secrecy, Federation of American Scientists

[edit] References
1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o The state secrets privilege: Expanding Its Scope Through Government Misuse by Carrie
Newton Lyons, the Lewis & Clark Law Review, published by Lewis & Clark Law School, Volume 11 / Number 1 /
Spring 2007.
2. ^ a b c d e f g The State Secrets Privilege and executive Misconduct by Shayana Kadidal, one of the lead
attorneys on the Center for Constitutional Rights, JURIST, May 30, 2006
3. ^ a b c d e f Dangerous Discretion: State Secrets and the El-Masri Rendition Case by Aziz Huq, Director of the
Liberty and National Security Project at the Brennan Center for Justice at NYU School of Law, JURIST, March 12,
2007
4. ^ a b c The Suit Challenging the NSA's Warrantless Wiretapping Can Proceed, Despite the State Secrets
Privilege
The Suit Challenging the NSA's Warrantless Wiretapping Can Proceed, Despite the State Secrets
Privilege: Why The Judge Made the Right Call By JULIE HILDEN, FIndLaw, August 15, 2006
7
 Examining Two Recent Rulings Allowing Suits Against the NSA's Warrantless Wiretapping To
Proceed, Despite the State Secrets Privilege: Part Two in a Series By JULIE HILDEN, FindLaw, August 23,
2006
5. ^ a b c d e f g Building the Secrecy Wall higher and higher by Glenn Greenwald, Unclaimed Territory, April 29,
2006
6. ^ a b c d e Bush Wielding Secrecy Privilege to End Suits By Andrew Zajac, The Chicago Tribune, March 3,
2005
7. ^ United States v. Reynolds, 345 U.S. 1, paragraph 8 (1953) (the privilege against revealing military secrets, a
privilege which is well established in the law of evidence). Text
8. ^ Tenet v. Doe, 544 U.S. 1 (2005)
9. ^ a b c ACLU v. National Security Agency: Why the "State Secrets Privilege" Shouldn't Stop the Lawsuit
Challenging Warrantless Telephone Surveillance of Americans By JOHN W. DEAN, FindLaw, June 16, 2006
10. ^ a b c d e f Secret GuardingThe new secrecy doctrine so secret you don't even know about it By Henry
Lanman, Slate, May 22, 2006,
11. ^ Stephens, Hampton. Supreme Court Filing claims Air Force, government fraud in 1953 case: Case could
affect 'state secrets' privilege Inside the Air Force March 14, 2003. Retrieved May 3, 2007.
12. ^ a b Rechecking the Balance of Powers The Bush administration has finally been rebuked for its repeated
efforts to evade judicial review By Glenn Greenwald, In These Times, July 21, 2006
13. ^ a b c [1] By Susan Burgess, The News Media and the Law, Fall 2005
14. ^ Lichtblau, Eric (August 31, 2007). "U.S. Cites Secrets Privilege as It Tries to Stop Suit on Banking
Records". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/31/us/nationalspecial3/31swift.html?ref=us.
Retrieved 2009-07-09.
15. ^ Congress and Judges Gagged Arlen Specter and a CIA torture victim know Only the Oval Office decides
what the law is by Nat Hentoff, Village Voice, June 19th, 2006
16. ^ a b Closing Our Courts Crying 'state secrets,' the administration seals the courts to avoid scrutiny by Nat
Hentoff, Village Voice, June 9th, 2006
17. ^ House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform Whistleblower Protection Enhancement Act of
2007 Testimony of William G. Weaver, J.D., Ph.D. Senior Advisor, National Security Whistleblowers Coalition and
Associate Professor University of Texas at El Paso, Inst. for Policy and Econ. Development and Dept. of Political
Science, February 13, 2007
18. ^ Secrecy and Foreign Policy by Robert Pallitto, Foreign Policy In Focus (FPIF), December 8, 2006
19. ^ Snapshots of the U.S. under the Bush administration by Glenn Greenwald, Unclaimed Territory, May 23,
2006
20. ^ a b Florence, Justin and Gerke, Matthew: "State Your Secrets: The smart way around telecom immunity."
http://www.slate.com/id/2177962/
21. ^ a b c "State Secrets and the Limits of National Security Legislation" by Robert Chesney. George Washington
Law Review (2007).
22. ^ "The State Secrets Privilege: Expanding Its Scope Through Government Misuse" by Carrie Newton Lyons,
11 Lewis & Clark L. Rev. 99 (2007).
23. ^ a b Report on Reforming the State Secrets Privilege, American Bar Association, 2007.
24. ^ "State Your Secrets" by Lou Fisher. Legal Times, 2006.
25. ^ "Introduction of the State Secrets Protection Act". Federation of American Scientists. 2008-01-22.
http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2008_cr/statesec.html. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
26. ^ "Statement of Kevin S. Bankston, Senior Staff Attorney Electronic Frontier Foundation" (PDF). Oversight
Hearing on Reform of the State Secrets Privilege by the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on the Judiciary,
Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, and Civil Liberties. 2008-01-29.
http://www.eff.org/files/EFF_HJC_SSP_written_testimony_Final.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
27. ^ Hepting v. AT&T, U.S. District Court (U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California 3 June
2009). Text
28. ^ Bazan, Elizabeth B. (7 July 2008). "The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act: An Overview of Selected
Issues" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/intel/RL34279.pdf.
29. ^ Greenhouse, Linda (2007-10-10). "Supreme Court Refuses to Hear Torture Appeal". The New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/10/washington/10scotus.html?ref=us. Retrieved 2007-10-10.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_secrets_privilege"

Categories: United States government secrecy | Evidence law | George W. Bush administration controversies | Executive
branch of the United States government | Classified information

8
 This page was last modified on 20 May 2011 at 06:09.

Political Corruption
Political corruption is the use of legislated powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. Misuse of government
power for other purposes, such as repression of political opponents and general police brutality, is not considered political
corruption. Neither are illegal acts by private persons or corporations not directly involved with the government. An illegal act
by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is directly related to their official duties.

Forms of corruption vary, but include bribery, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, patronage, graft, and embezzlement. While
corruption may facilitate criminal enterprise such as drug trafficking, money laundering, and human trafficking, it is not
restricted to these activities.

The activities that constitute illegal corruption differ depending on the country or jurisdiction. For instance, certain political
funding practices that are legal in one place may be illegal in another. In some cases, government officials have broad or
poorly defined powers, which make it difficult to distinguish between legal and illegal actions. Worldwide, bribery alone is
estimated to involve over 1 trillion US dollars annually. [1] A state of unrestrained political corruption is known as a
kleptocracy, literally meaning "rule by thieves".

Political corruption

Corruption Perceptions Index, 2010

Concepts

Electoral fraud Economics of corruption

Nepotism Bribery Cronyism Slush fund
Corruption by country

Angola Armenia Canada

Chile China (PRC) Colombia
Cuba Ghana India Iran Kenya
Ireland Nigeria Pakistan
Paraguay Philippines Russia
South Africa Venezuela United States
This box: view talk edit

Contents
[hide]

1 Effects

9
 o 1.1 Effects on politics, administration, and institutions
o 1.2 Economic effects
o 1.3 Environmental and social effects
o 1.4 Effects on Humanitarian Aid
o 1.5 Other areas: health, public safety, education, trade unions, etc.
2 Types
o 2.1 Bribery
o 2.2 Trading in influence
o 2.3 Patronage
o 2.4 Nepotism and cronyism
o 2.5 Electoral fraud
o 2.6 Embezzlement
o 2.7 Kickbacks
o 2.8 Unholy alliance
o 2.9 Involvement in organized crime
3 Conditions favorable for corruption
o 3.1 Size of public sector
4 Governmental corruption
5 Fighting corruption
6 Whistleblowers
7 Campaign contributions
8 Measuring corruption
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links

[edit] Effects

[edit] Effects on politics, administration, and institutions

Detail from Corrupt Legislation (1896) by Elihu Vedder. Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.

Corruption poses a serious development challenge. In the political realm, it undermines democracy and good governance by flouting
or even subverting formal processes. Corruption in elections and in legislative bodies reduces accountability and distorts
representation in policymaking; corruption in the judiciary compromises the rule of law; and corruption in public administration

10
results in the inefficient provision of services. It violates a basic principle of republicanism regarding the centrality of civic virtue.
More generally, corruption erodes the institutional capacity of government as procedures are disregarded, resources are siphoned off,
and public offices are bought and sold. At the same time, corruption undermines the legitimacy of government and such democratic
values as trust and tolerance.

[edit] Economic effects

See also: Corporate crime

Corruption undermines economic development by generating considerable distortions and inefficiency. In the private sector,
corruption increases the cost of business through the price of illicit payments themselves, the management cost of negotiating with
officials, and the risk of breached agreements or detection. Although some claim corruption reduces costs by cutting bureaucracy, the
availability of bribes can also induce officials to contrive new rules and delays. Openly removing costly and lengthy regulations are
better than covertly allowing them to be bypassed by using bribes. Where corruption inflates the cost of business, it also distorts the
playing field, shielding firms with connections from competition and thereby sustaining inefficient firms. [2]

Corruption also generates economic distortions in the public sector by diverting public investment into capital projects where bribes
and kickbacks are more plentiful. Officials may increase the technical complexity of public sector projects to conceal or pave the way
for such dealings, thus further distorting investment. Corruption also lowers compliance with construction, environmental, or other
regulations, reduces the quality of government services and infrastructure, and increases budgetary pressures on government.

Economists argue that one of the factors behind the differing economic development in Africa and Asia is that in the former,
corruption has primarily taken the form of rent extraction with the resulting financial capital moved overseas rather than invested at
home (hence the stereotypical, but often accurate, image of African dictators having Swiss bank accounts). In Nigeria, for example,
more than $400 billion was stolen from the treasury by Nigeria's leaders between 1960 and 1999. [3] University of Massachusetts
researchers estimated that from 1970 to 1996, capital flight from 30 sub-Saharan countries totaled $187bn, exceeding those nations'
external debts.[4] (The results, expressed in retarded or suppressed development, have been modeled in theory by economist Mancur
Olson.) In the case of Africa, one of the factors for this behavior was political instability, and the fact that new governments often
confiscated previous government's corruptly-obtained assets. This encouraged officials to stash their wealth abroad, out of reach of
any future expropriation. In contrast, Asian administrations such as Suharto's New Order often took a cut on business transactions or
provided conditions for development, through infrastructure investment, law and order, etc.

[edit] Environmental and social effects

Corruption facilitates environmental destruction. Corrupt countries may formally have legislation to protect the environment, it cannot
be enforced if officials can easily be bribed. The same applies to social rights worker protection,unionization prevention, and child
labor. Violation of these laws rights enables corrupt countries to gain illegitimate economic advantage in the international market.

The Nobel Prize-winning economist Amartya Sen has observed that "there is no such thing as an apolitical food problem." While
drought and other naturally occurring events may trigger famine conditions, it is government action or inaction that determines its
severity, and often even whether or not a famine will occur. Governments with strong tendencies towards kleptocracy can undermine
food security even when harvests are good. Officials often steal state property. In Bihar, India, more than 80% of the subsidized food
aid to poor is stolen by corrupt officials.[5] Similarly, food aid is often robbed at gunpoint by governments, criminals, and warlords
alike, and sold for a profit. The 20th century is full of many examples of governments undermining the food security of their own
nations sometimes intentionally.[6]

[edit] Effects on Humanitarian Aid

The scale of humanitarian aid to the poor and unstable regions of the world grows, but it is highly vulnerable to corruption, with food
aid, construction and other highly valued assistance as the most at risk.[7] Food aid can be directly and physically diverted from its
intended destination, or indirectly through the manipulation of assessments, targeting, registration and distributions to favour certain
groups or individuals.[7] Elsewhere, in construction and shelter, there are numerous opportunities for diversion and profit through
substandard workmanship, kickbacks for contracts and favouritism in the provision of valuable shelter material. [7] Thus while
humanitarian aid agencies are usually most concerned about aid being diverted by including too many, recipients themselves are most
concerned about exclusion.[7] Access to aid may be limited to those with connections, to those who pay bribes or are forced to give
sexual favours.[7] Equally, those able to do so may manipulate statistics to inflate the number beneficiaries and syphon of the
additional assistance.[7]

11
[edit] Other areas: health, public safety, education, trade unions, etc.
See also: Police corruption

Corruption is not specific to poor, developing, or transition countries. In western countries, there have been cases of bribery and other
forms of corruption in all possible fields: under-the-table payments made to reputed surgeons by patients willing to be on top of the
list of forthcoming surgeries,[8] bribes paid by suppliers to the automotive industry in order to sell poor quality connectors used for
instance in safety equipment such as airbags, bribes paid by suppliers to manufacturers of defibrillators (to sell poor quality
capacitors), contributions paid by wealthy parents to the "social and culture fund" of a prestigious university in exchange for it to
accept their children, bribes paid to obtain diplomas, financial and other advantages granted to unionists by members of the executive
board of a car manufacturer in exchange for employer-friendly positions and votes, etc. Examples are endless. These various
manifestations of corruption can ultimately present a danger for the public health; they can discredit certain essential institutions or
social relationships.

Corruption can also affect the various components of sports activities (referees, players, medical and laboratory staff involved in anti-
doping controls, members of national sport federation and international committees deciding about the allocation of contracts and
competition places).

There have also been cases against (members of) various types of non-profit and non-government organisations, as well as religious
organisations.

Ultimately, the distinction between public and private sector corruption sometimes appears rather artificial and national anti-
corruption initiatives may need to avoid legal and other loopholes in the coverage of the instruments.

[edit] Types
[edit] Bribery
Main article: Bribery

A bribe is a payment given personally to a government official in exchange of his use of official powers. Bribery requires two
participants: one to give the bribe, and one to take it. Either may initiate the corrupt offering; for example, a customs official may
demand bribes to let through allowed (or disallowed) goods, or a smuggler might offer bribes to gain passage. In some countries the
culture of corruption extends to every aspect of public life, making it extremely difficult for individuals to stay in business without
resorting to bribes. Bribes may be demanded in order for an official to do something he is already paid to do. They may also be
demanded in order to bypass laws and regulations. In addition to using bribery for private financial gain, they are also used to
intentionally and maliciously cause harm to another (i.e. no financial incentive). In some developing nations, up to half of the
population has paid bribes during the past 12 months.[9]

In recent years, efforts have been made by the international community to encourage countries to dissociate and incriminate as
separate offences, active and passive bribery. Active bribery can be defined for instance as the promising, offering or giving by any
person, directly or indirectly, of any undue advantage [to any public official], for himself or herself or for anyone else, for him or her
to act or refrain from acting in the exercise of his or her functions.(article 2 of the Criminal Law Convention on Corruption (ETS 173)
of the Council of Europe). Passive bribery can be defined as the request or receipt [by any public official], directly or indirectly, of
any undue advantage, for himself or herself or for anyone else, or the acceptance of an offer or a promise of such an advantage, to act
or refrain from acting in the exercise of his or her functions (article 3 of the Criminal Law Convention on Corruption (ETS 173)). The
reason for this dissociation is to make the early steps (offering, promising, requesting an advantage) of a corrupt deal already an
offence and, thus, to give a clear signal (from a criminal policy point of view) that bribery is not acceptable. Besides, such a
dissociation makes the prosecution of bribery offences easier since it can be very difficult to prove that two parties (the bribe-giver
and the bribe-taker) have formally agreed upon a corrupt deal. Besides, there is often no such formal deal but only a mutual
understanding, for instance when it is common knowledge in a municipality that to obtain a building permit one has to pay a "fee" to
the decision maker to obtain a favourable decision. A working definition of corruption is also provided as follows in article 3 of the
Civil Law Convention on Corruption (ETS 174): For the purpose of this Convention, "corruption" means requesting, offering, giving
or accepting, directly or indirectly, a bribe or any other undue advantage or prospect thereof, which distorts the proper performance
of any duty or behavior required of the recipient of the bribe, the undue advantage or the prospect thereof.
12
[edit] Trading in influence

Trading in influence, or influence peddling in certain countries, refers to the situation where a person is selling his/her influence over
the decision process involving a third party (person or institution). The difference with bribery is that this is a tri-lateral relation. From
a legal point of view, the role of the third party (who is the target of the influence) does not really matter although he/she can be an
accessory in some instances. It can be difficult to make a distinction between this form of corruption and certain forms of extreme and
poorly regulated lobbying where for instance law- or decision-makers can freely "sell" their vote, decision power or influence to those
lobbyists who offer the highest retribution, including where for instance the latter act on behalf of powerful clients such as industrial
groups who want to avoid the passing of certain environmental, social, or other regulations perceived as too stringent, etc. Where
lobbying is (sufficiently) regulated, it becomes possible to provide for a distinctive criteria and to consider that trading in influence
involves the use of "improper influence", as in article 12 of the Criminal Law Convention on Corruption (ETS 173) of the Council of
Europe.

[edit] Patronage
Main article: Patronage

Patronage refers to favoring supporters, for example with government employment. This may be legitimate, as when a newly elected
government changes the top officials in the administration in order to effectively implement its policy. It can be seen as corruption if
this means that incompetent persons, as a payment for supporting the regime, are selected before more able ones. In nondemocracies
many government officials are often selected for loyalty rather than ability. They may be almost exclusively selected from a particular
group (for example, Sunni Arabs in Saddam Hussein's Iraq, the nomenklatura in the Soviet Union, or the Junkers in Imperial
Germany) that support the regime in return for such favors. A similar problem can also be seen in Eastern Europe, for example in
Romania, where the government is often accused of patronage (when a new government comes to power it rapidly changes most of
the officials in the public sector).

[edit] Nepotism and cronyism

Main articles: Nepotism and Cronyism

Favoring relatives (nepotism) or personal friends (cronyism) of an official is a form of illegitimate private gain. This may be combined
with bribery, for example demanding that a business should employ a relative of an official controlling regulations affecting the
business. The most extreme example is when the entire state is inherited, as in North Korea or Syria. A milder form of cronyism is an
"old boy network", in which appointees to official positions are selected only from a closed and exclusive social network such as the
alumni of particular universities instead of appointing the most competent candidate.

Seeking to harm enemies becomes corruption when official powers are illegitimately used as means to this end. For example,
trumped-up charges are often brought up against journalists or writers who bring up politically sensitive issues, such as a politician's
acceptance of bribes.

In the Indian political system, leadership of national and regional parties are passed from generation to generation creating a system in
which a family holds the center of power, some examples are most of the Dravidian parties of south India and also the largest party in
India Congress.

[edit] Electoral fraud

Main article: Electoral fraud

13
Electoral fraud is illegal interference with the process of an election. Acts of fraud affect vote counts to bring about an election result,
whether by increasing the vote share of the favored candidate, depressing the vote share of the rival candidates, or both. Also called
voter fraud, the mechanisms involved include illegal voter registration, intimidation at polls, and improper vote counting.

[edit] Embezzlement
Main article: Embezzlement

Embezzlement is outright theft of entrusted funds. It is a misappropriation of property.

Another common type of embezzlement is that of entrusted government resources; for example, when a director of a public enterprise
employs company workers to build or renovate his own house.

[edit] Kickbacks
See also: Anti-competitive practices and Bid rigging

A kickback is an official's share of misappropriated funds allocated from his or her organization to an organization involved in corrupt
bidding. For example, suppose that a politician is in charge of choosing how to spend some public funds. He can give a contract to a
company that is not the best bidder, or allocate more than they deserve. In this case, the company benefits, and in exchange for
betraying the public, the official receives a kickback payment, which is a portion of the sum the company received. This sum itself
may be all or a portion of the difference between the actual (inflated) payment to the company and the (lower) market-based price that
would have been paid had the bidding been competitive. Kickbacks are not limited to government officials; any situation in which
people are entrusted to spend funds that do not belong to them are susceptible to this kind of corruption. Kickbacks are also common
in the pharmaceutical industry, as many doctors and physicians receive pay in return for added promotion and prescription of the drug
these pharmaceutical companies are marketing.

[edit] Unholy alliance

An unholy alliance is a coalition among seemingly antagonistic groups, especially if one is religious,[10] for ad hoc or hidden gain. Like
patronage, unholy alliances are not necessarily illegal, but unlike patronage, by its deceptive nature and often great financial resources,
an unholy alliance can be much more dangerous to the public interest. An early, well-known use of the term was by Theodore
Roosevelt (TR):

"To destroy this invisible Government, to dissolve the unholy alliance between corrupt business and corrupt politics is the
first task of the statesmanship of the day." 1912 Progressive Party Platform, attributed to TR[11] and quoted again in his
autobiography[12] where he connects trusts and monopolies (sugar interests, Standard Oil, etc.) to Woodrow Wilson, Howard
Taft, and consequently both major political parties.

[edit] Involvement in organized crime

An illustrative example of official involvement in organized crime can be found from 1920s and 1930s Shanghai, where Huang
Jinrong was a police chief in the French concession, while simultaneously being a gang boss and co-operating with Du Yuesheng, the
local gang ringleader. The relationship kept the flow of profits from the gang's gambling dens, prostitution, and protection rackets
undisturbed.

The United States accused Manuel Noriega's government in Panama of being a "narcokleptocracy", a corrupt government profiting on
illegal drug trade. Later the U.S. invaded Panama and captured Noriega.

[edit] Conditions favorable for corruption

It is argued that the following conditions are favorable for corruption:

Information deficits

14
 o Lacking freedom of information legislation. The Indian Right to Information Act 2005 has "already engendered
mass movements in the country that is bringing the lethargic, often corrupt bureaucracy to its knees and changing
power equations completely."[13]
o Lack of investigative reporting in the local media.
o Contempt for or negligence of exercising freedom of speech and freedom of the press.
o Weak accounting practices, including lack of timely financial management.
o Lack of measurement of corruption. For example, using regular surveys of households and businesses in order to
quantify the degree of perception of corruption in different parts of a nation or in different government institutions
may increase awareness of corruption and create pressure to combat it. This will also enable an evaluation of the
officials who are fighting corruption and the methods used.
o Tax havens which tax their own citizens and companies but not those from other nations and refuse to disclose
information necessary for foreign taxation. This enables large scale political corruption in the foreign
nations.[14][citation needed]

Lacking control of the government.

o Lacking civic society and non-governmental organizations which monitor the government.
o An individual voter may have a rational ignorance regarding politics, especially in nationwide elections, since each
vote has little weight.
o Weak civil service, and slow pace of reform.
o Weak rule of law.
o Weak legal profession.
o Weak judicial independence.
o Lacking protection of whistleblowers.
o Lack of benchmarking, that is continual detailed evaluation of procedures and comparison to others who do similar
things, in the same government or others, in particular comparison to those who do the best work. The Peruvian
organization Ciudadanos al Dia has started to measure and compare transparency, costs, and efficiency in different
government departments in Peru. It annually awards the best practices which has received widespread media
attention. This has created competition among government agencies in order to improve. [15]

Opportunities and incentives

o Individual officials routinely handle cash, instead of handling payments by giro or on a separate cash desk
illegitimate withdrawals from supervised bank accounts are much more difficult to conceal.
o Public funds are centralized rather than distributed. For example, if $1,000 is embezzled from a local agency that has
$2,000 funds, it is easier to notice than from a national agency with $2,000,000 funds. See the principle of
subsidiarity.
o Large, unsupervised public investments.
o Sale of state-owned property and privatization.[citation needed]
o Poorly-paid government officials.
o Government licenses needed to conduct business, e.g., import licenses, encourage bribing and kickbacks.
o Long-time work in the same position may create relationships inside and outside the government which encourage
and help conceal corruption and favoritism. Rotating government officials to different positions and geographic
areas may help prevent this; for instance certain high rank officials in French government services (e.g. treasurer-
paymasters general) must rotate every few years.
o Costly political campaigns, with expenses exceeding normal sources of political funding, especially when funded
with taxpayer money.
o Less interaction with officials reduces the opportunities for corruption. For example, using the Internet for sending
in required information, like applications and tax forms, and then processing this with automated computer systems.
This may also speed up the processing and reduce unintentional human errors. See e-Government.
o A windfall from exporting abundant natural resources may encourage corruption. [16] (See Resource curse)
o War and other forms of conflict correlate with a breakdown of public security.
Social conditions
o Self-interested closed cliques and "old boy networks".
o Family-, and clan-centered social structure, with a tradition of nepotism/favouritism being acceptable.
o A gift economy, such as the Soviet blat system, emerges in a Communist centrally planned economy.
o Lacking literacy and education among the population.
o Frequent discrimination and bullying among the population.
o Tribal solidarity, giving benefits to certain ethnic groups

According to a study of the conservative think tank The Heritage Foundation, lack of economic freedom explains 71% of corruption[17]

15
[edit] Size of public sector
It is a controversial issue whether the size of the public sector per se results in corruption. As mentioned above, low degree of
economic freedom explains 71% of corruption. The actual share may be even greater, as also past regulation affects the current level
of corruption due to the slowing of cultural changes (e.g., it takes time for corrupted officials to adjust to changes in economic
freedom).[18] The size of the public sector in terms of taxation is only one component of economic un-freedom, so the empirical studies
on economic freedom do not directly answer this question.

Extensive and diverse public spending is, in itself, inherently at risk of cronyism, kickbacks, and embezzlement. Complicated
regulations and arbitrary, unsupervised official conduct exacerbate the problem. This is one argument forprivatization and
deregulation. Opponents of privatization see the argument as ideological. The argument that corruption necessarily follows from the
opportunity is weakened by the existence of countries with low to non-existent corruption but large public sectors, like the Nordic
countries.[19] However, these countries score high on the Ease of Doing Business Index, due to good and often simple regulations, and
have rule of law firmly established. Therefore, due to their lack of corruption in the first place, they can run large public sectors
without inducing political corruption.

Like other governmental economic activities, also privatization, such as in the sale of government-owned property, is particularly at
the risk of cronyism. Privatizations in Russia, Latin America, and East Germany were accompanied by large scale corruption during
the sale of the state owned companies. Those with political connections unfairly gained large wealth, which has discredited
privatization in these regions. While media have reported widely the grand corruption that accompanied the sales, studies have argued
that in addition to increased operating efficiency, daily petty corruption is, or would be, larger without privatization, and that
corruption is more prevalent in non-privatized sectors. Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that extralegal and unofficial
activities are more prevalent in countries that privatized less. [20]

There is the counter point, however, that oligarchy industries can be quite corrupt ( "competition" like collusive price-fixing,
pressuring dependent businesses, etc. ), and only by having a portion of the market owned by someone other than that oligarchy, i.e.
public sector, can keep them in line ( if the public sector gas company is making money & selling gas for 1/2 of the price of the private
sector companies... the private sector companies won't be able to simultaneously gouge to that degree & keep their customers: the
competition keeps them in line ). Private sector corruption can increase the poverty/helplessness of the population, so it can affect
government corruption, in the long-term.

In the European Union, the principle of subsidiarity is applied: a government service should be provided by the lowest, most local
authority that can competently provide it. An effect is that distribution of funds into multiple instances discourages embezzlement,
because even small sums missing will be noticed. In contrast, in a centralized authority, even minute proportions of public funds can
be large sums of money.

[edit] Governmental corruption

If the highest echelons of the governments also take advantage from corruption or embezzlement from the state's treasury, it is
sometimes referred with the neologism kleptocracy. Members of the government can take advantage of thenatural resources (e.g.,
diamonds and oil in a few prominent cases) or state-owned productive industries. A number of corrupt governments have enriched
themselves via foreign aid, which is often spent on showy buildings and armaments.

A corrupt dictatorship typically results in many years of general hardship and suffering for the vast majority of citizens as civil society
and the rule of law disintegrate. In addition, corrupt dictators routinely ignore economic and socialproblems in their quest to amass
ever more wealth and power.

The classic case of a corrupt, exploitive dictator often given is the regime of Marshal Mobutu Sese Seko, who ruled the Democratic
Republic of the Congo (which he renamed Zaire) from 1965 to 1997. It is said that usage of the termkleptocracy gained popularity
largely in response to a need to accurately describe Mobutu's regime. Another classic case is Nigeria, especially under the rule of
General Sani Abacha who was de facto president of Nigeria from 1993 until his death in 1998. He is reputed to have stolen some
US$34 billion. He and his relatives are often mentioned in Nigerian 419 letter scams claiming to offer vast fortunes for "help" in
laundering his stolen "fortunes", which in reality turn out not to exist. [21] More than $400 billion was stolen from the treasury by
Nigeria's leaders between 1960 and 1999.[22]

More recently, articles in various financial periodicals, most notably Forbes magazine, have pointed to Fidel Castro, General
Secretary of the Republic of Cuba since 1959, of likely being the beneficiary of up to $900 million, based on "his control" of state-
owned companies.[23] Opponents of his regime claim that he has used money amassed through weapons sales, narcotics, international
16
loans, and confiscation of private property to enrich himself and his political cronies who hold his dictatorship together, and that the
$900 million published by Forbes is merely a portion of his assets, although that needs to be proven.[24]

[edit] Fighting corruption

Mobile telecommunications and radio broadcasting help to fight corruption, especially in developing regions like Africa,[25] where
other forms of communications are limited.

In the 1990s, initiatives were taken at an international level (in particular by the European Community, the Council of Europe, the
OECD) to put a ban on corruption: in 1996, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe, for instance, adopted a
comprehensive Programme of Action against Corruption and, subsequently, issued a series of anti-corruption standard-setting
instruments:

the Criminal Law Convention on Corruption (ETS 173);

the Civil Law Convention on Corruption (ETS 174);
the Additional Protocol to the Criminal Law Convention on Corruption (ETS 191);
the Twenty Guiding Principles for the Fight against Corruption (Resolution (97) 24);
the Recommendation on Codes of Conduct for Public Officials (Recommendation No. R (2000) 10); and
the Recommendation on Common Rules against Corruption in the Funding of Political Parties and Electoral Campaigns
(Rec(2003)4)

The purpose of these instruments was to address the various forms of corruption (involving the public sector, the private sector, the
financing of political activities, etc.) whether they had a strictly domestic or also a transnational dimension. To monitor the
implementation at national level of the requirements and principles provided in those texts, a monitoring mechanism the Group of
States Against Corruption (also known as GRECO) was created.

Further conventions were adopted at the regional level under the aegis of the Organization of American States (OAS or OEA), the
African Union, and in 2003, at the universal level under that of the United Nations.

[edit] Whistleblowers
Main article: Whistleblower

[edit] Campaign contributions

In the political arena, it is difficult to prove corruption. For this reason, there are often unproven rumors about many politicians,
sometimes part of a smear campaign.

Politicians are placed in apparently compromising positions because of their need to solicit financial contributions for their campaign
finance. If they then appear to be acting in the interests of those parties that funded them, it could be considered corruption. Though
donations may be coincidental, the question asked is, why are they funding politicians at all, if they get nothing for their money.

Laws regulating campaign finance in the United States require that all contributions and their use should be publicly disclosed. Many
companies, especially larger ones, fund both the Democratic and Republican parties. Certain countries, such as France, ban altogether
the corporate funding of political parties. Because of the possible circumvention of this ban with respect to the funding of political
campaigns, France also imposes maximum spending caps on campaigning; candidates that have exceeded those limits, or that have
handed in misleading accounting reports, risk having their candidacy ruled invalid, or even being prevented from running in future
elections. In addition, the government funds political parties according to their successes in elections.

In some countries, political parties are run solely off subscriptions (membership fees).

Even legal measures such as these have been argued to be legalized corruption, in that they often favor the political status quo. Minor
parties and independents often argue that efforts to rein in the influence of contributions do little more than protect the major parties
with guaranteed public funding while constraining the possibility of private funding by outsiders. In these instances, officials are

17
legally taking money from the public coffers for their election campaigns to guarantee that they will continue to hold their influential
and often well-paid positions.

As indicated above, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe recognised in 1996 the importance of links between
corruption and political financing. It adopted in 1837 the Recommendation on Common Rules against Corruption in the Funding of
Political Parties and Electoral Campaigns (Rec(2003)4). This text is quite unique at international levels as it aims i.a. at increasing
transparency in the funding of political parties and election campaigns (these two areas are difficult to dissociate since parties are also
involved in campaigning and in many countries, parties do not have the monopoly over the presentation of candidates for elections),
ensuring a certain level of control over the funding and spending connected with political activities, and making sure infringements are
subject to effective, proportionate, and dissuasive sanctions. In the context of its monitoring activities, the Group of States Against
Corruption has identified a great variety of possible improvements in those areas (see the country reports adopted under the Third
Evaluation Round).

[edit] Measuring corruption

Measuring corruption statistically is difficult if not impossible due to the illicit nature of the transaction and imprecise definitions of
corruption.[26] While "corruption" indices first appeared in 1995 with the Corruption Perceptions Index, all of these metrics address
different proxies for corruption, such as public perceptions of the extent of the problem.[27]

Transparency International, an anti-corruption NGO, pioneered this field with the Corruption Perceptions Index, first released in 1995.
This work is often credited with breaking a taboo and forcing the issue of corruption into high level development policy discourse.
Transparency International currently publishes three measures, updated annually: a Corruption Perceptions Index(CPI) (based on
aggregating third-party polling of public perceptions of how corrupt different countries are); a Global Corruption Barometer (based on
a survey of general public attitudes toward and experience of corruption); and a Bribe Payers Index, looking at the willingness of
foreign firms to pay bribes. The Corruption Perceptions Index is the best known of these metrics, though it has drawn much
criticism[27][28][29] and may be declining in influence.[30]

The World Bank collects a range of data on corruption, including survey responses from over 100,000 firms worldwide and a set of
indicators of governance and institutional quality. Moreover, one of the six dimensions of governance measured by the Worldwide
Governance Indicators is Control of Corruption, which is defined as "the extent to which power is exercised for private gain, including
both petty and grand forms of corruption, as well as 'capture' of the state by elites and private interests." [31] While the definition itself is
fairly precise, the data aggregated into the Worldwide Governance Indicators is based on any available polling: questions range from
"is corruption a serious problem?" to measures of public access to information, and not consistent across countries. Despite these
weaknesses, the global coverage of these datasets has led to their widespread adoption, most notably by the Millennium Challenge
Corporation.[26]

In part in response to these criticisms, a second wave of corruption metrics has been created by Global Integrity, the International
Budget Partnership, and many lesser known local groups, starting with the Global Integrity Index, first published in 2004. These
second wave projects aim not to create awareness, but to create policy change via targeting resources more effectively and creating
checklists toward incremental reform. Global Integrity and the International Budget Partnership each dispense with public surveys and
instead uses in-country experts to evaluate "the opposite of corruption" which Global Integrity defines as the public policies that
prevent, discourage, or expose corruption.[32] These approaches compliment the first wave, awareness-raising tools by giving
governments facing public outcry a checklist which measures concrete steps toward improved governance. [26]

Typical second wave corruption metrics do not offer the worldwide coverage found in first wave projects, and instead focus on
localizing information gathered to specific problems and creating deep, "unpackable" content that matches quantitative and qualitative
data. Meanwhile, alternative approaches such as the British aid agency's Drivers of Change research skips numbers entirely and favors
understanding corruption via political economy analysis of who controls power in a given society. [26]

Rule of Law
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_law
The Rule of law in its most basic form is no one is above the law.
Perhaps the most important application of the rule of law is the principle that governmental authority is
legitimately exercised only in accordance with,
publicly disclosed laws,
adopted and enforced in accordance with established procedural steps that are referred to as due process.
The rule of law is hostile to dictatorship and to anarchy.
18
According to modern Anglo-American thinking, hallmarks of adherence to the rule of law commonly include a
clear separation of powers,
legal certainty,
the principle of legitimate expectation
and equality of all before the law.
The concept is not without controversy, and it has been said that
"the phrase the rule of law has become meaningless thanks to ideological abuse and general
over- use"

www.OJtask.DamageControl13.com
Obstruct Justice truth and source kill

19