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pubs.acs.org/IECR

Compressor Heuristics for Conceptual Process Design

William L. Luyben
Department of Chemical Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 18015, United States

ABSTRACT: Multiple compressors in series with intermediate heat exchangers are frequently used to reduce compressor energy
consumption or to limit compressor discharge temperatures when the overall compression ratio (initial suction pressure divided by
the required nal pressure) is large. The optimum number of stages can be xed by economics (trade-o between capital investment
and energy cost) or by equipment and/or process compressor discharge temperature limitations. The chemical engineering design
literature contains several conicting heuristics for designing multistage gas compression systems, and little information about the
rationale behind these heuristics is provided. This paper explores several aspects of multistage compression systems including
economics, equipment temperature limitations, and process temperature limitations. New heuristics are presented that give either
the economic optimum or the temperature-limited number of stages as a function of the overall compression ratio.

1. INTRODUCTION provided an explanation of this heuristic. The basis is a discharge

Compression of gas streams is important in many chemical
processes. The capital and operating costs of compressors are
typically a very signicant part of the economics of the plant.
Gaseous fresh feed streams, gas recycles, and gas products can
require the use of compressors. A wide range of overall compression
ratios (nal required downstream pressure divided by the initial
upstream pressure) occurs in a variety of industrial applications.
Most compressors operate adiabatically. If compressors could be
operated isothermally, their energy consumption would be mini-
mized. The practical approach to approximate isothermal compres-
sion is to use a series of adiabatic compressors with interstage
cooling. Figure 1 shows four dierent compressor systems with the
number of compressor stages varying from one to four. Total energy
consumption decreases as more stages are used, but capital invest-
ment in equipment (compressors and heat exchangers) increases.
The optimum design from an economic standpoint can be deter-
mined by balancing energy and capital costs using total annual cost.
Section 2 presents this analysis for a wide range of total compression
ratios.
Another important eect of increasing the number of stages is
a reduction in compressor discharge temperature. Maximum
temperature limitations for the materials of construction (blades
and seals) can often make it necessary to use multiple stages. The
temperature limitation (Ross1) for some elastomer O-ring seal
materials with hydrocarbon gases is about 477 K (400 F) and
with air is about 533 K (500 F). More stages may be required
if there are process temperature limitations due to potential
polymerization or detonation of the gas being compressed.
Temperatures in the compression of ethylene must be kept below
about 422 K (300 F) to prevent polymerization of the ethylene.1
Lower temperatures can also decrease maintenance problems.
Some of the classical chemical engineering design textbooks
give heuristics for selecting the number of compressor stages.
Turton et al.2 suggest simply restricting per-stage compression
ratios to less than 3. No explanation of the basis for this heuristic
is provided. Seider et al.3 give a table of suggested optimum number
of stages for dierent overall compression ratios that is equivalent
to using a maximum per-stage compression ratio of 4. Seader4
temperature of 463 K (375 F) for the adiabatic reversible com-
pression of a gas with a ratio of heat capacities of 1.4 and an inlet
compressor suction temperature of 311 K (100 F). Walas5 sug-
gests a discharge temperature limit of 450
477 K (350
400 F),
which corresponds to a per-stage compression ratio of 4 (for
diatomic gases with a ratio of heat capacities of 1.4).
All of the references recommend the heuristic of using the
same compression ratio in each stage. For an N-stage system with
an initial upstream pressure of P1 and a nal downstream pres-
sure of PN, the per-stage compression ratio is (PN/P1)1/N.
None of these textbooks appears to consider economic issues.
These are quantitatively explored in section 2.
2. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
2.1. Alternative Multistage Systems. Figure 1 shows four
alternative gas compression systems for 100 kmol/h methane gas
supplied at 1 atm and 323 K and compressed to 50 atm. Aspen
simulation software is used assuming polytropic compression with
an efficiency of 80% and using Chao
Seader physical properties for
methane. Results for other gases are discussed later in this paper.
A single-stage design requires only a compressor if the high
exit gas temperature does not have to be reduced for downstream
process concerns. With this high overall compression ratio (50),
the discharge temperature is 760 K, which may exceed compres-
sor equipment temperature limitations. The compressor work is
also high (593 kW).
A two-stage system requires less total compressor work (236
and 238 kW in the two compressors, totaling 474 kW). However,
two compressors and a heat exchanger are required. Note that
compressor discharge temperatures are reduced to about 456 K,
which may be below equipment temperature constraints. Three-
and four-stage systems drop the total work to 438 and 421 kW,
Received: September 5, 2011
Accepted: November 13, 2011
Revised: November 3, 2011
Published: November 14, 2011

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Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research ARTICLE

Figure 1. Multistage compression system.

respectively, and compressor discharge temperatures are lower small compared to compressor energy cost and is neglected in this
(about 456 and 420 K, respectively). analysis.
2.2. Economic and Sizing Basis. Given the flow rate, inlet 2.3. Effect of Overall Compression Ratio. Figure 2 gives
temperature, inlet pressure, compressor efficiency, compression process results for a multistage compressor system for overall
type (polytropic), and required discharge pressure, Aspen calcu- compression ratios (CRs) of 6, 25, and 50. Total compressor
lates the required work. The cost of electric energy in the work, per-stage compression ratio, and discharge temperatures
compressor motor is assumed to be $16.8/GJ as given by Turton all decrease as more stages are used and as the overall compres-
et al.2 The capital cost depends on the horsepower (hp) require- sion ratio decreases. However, the total heat exchanger area
ment and is calculated from eq 1 as given by Turton et al.2 increases.
Figure 3 gives economic results for the same system. The top
compressor capital cost 1293517:33:11hp0:82 =280 two graphs show that, as expected, compressor capital and energy
1 costs increase for larger overall compression ratios and decrease
as more stages are used. The bottom left graph gives the capital
Heat exchangers are sized by assuming that the exit gas is cost of the heat exchangers as a function of the number of stages
cooled from the upstream compressor discharge temperature to and overall compression ratio. The bottom right graph gives total
an outlet temperature of 323 K. The Aspen HeatX model gives capital investment. Note that the capital cost of the compressors
the heat-transfer rate. An overall heat-transfer coecient of is much larger than capital cost of the heat exchangers (dierent
0.28 kW m
2 K
1 is assumed for this gas system. ordinate scales).
Cooling water at 305 K is fed to each heat exchanger in The total capital investment curves for the higher compres-
countercurrent ow. The exit temperature of the cooling water is sion ratios are not monotonic. There is a minimum in the curve
specied to be 323 K. An Aspen Flowsheet design specication is of capital cost versus number of stages. Although a one-stage
used to adjust the ow rate of cooling through each heat exchanger compressor system does not require a heat exchanger, the power
to give the specied 323 K exit cooling water temperature for the requirement is large, so the compressor cost is high. Using two
known heat-transfer rate. Aspen then calculates the required heat- stages requires a heat exchanger, but the power requirements in
transfer area using a log-mean dierential temperature driving force. the two compressors are much smaller, which results in lower
The capital cost of each heat exchanger (area in m2) is calculated compressor capital investment. However, as more stages are
from eq 2 based on Douglas.6 added, more exchangers are needed, and the reduction in com-
capital cost 7296area0:65 2 pressor power as more stages are added begins to level out.
The eect of these economic variables on total annual cost
A pressure drop of 0.1 atm is assumed through each heat (TAC) is shown in Figure 4. Total annual cost is the annual cost
exchanger. The cost of providing cooling water is typically very of compressor energy plus the annual capital cost (total capital
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Figure 2. Eect on process variables of overall compression ratio and number of stages.

Figure 3. Eect on economic variables of overall compression ratio and number of stages.

investment divided by a 3-year payback period). A one-stage
compressor system gives the minimum TAC for a compression
ratio of 6 (marked with a star in Figure 4). A two-stage com-
pressor system gives the minimum TAC for a compression ratio
of 25. A three-stage compressor system gives the minimum TAC
for a compression ratio of 50 A four-stage compressor system
gives the minimum TAC for a compression ratio of 120.
Results for a wide range of overall compression ratios are
summarized in Figure 5. The ordinate is the economic optimum
number of stages. The abscissa is the overall compression ratio.
Figure 5 provides a simple heuristic relationship for estimating
the optimum number of stages at the conceptual design stage,
based on only economics (minimum total annual cost) with no
consideration of temperature limitations. A single-stage system
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can be used up to an overall compression ratio of 6. A two-stage
system is recommended up to an overall compression ratio of 35.
A three-stage system should be used for overall compression
ratios up to 110. Higher compression ratios require four stages.
Note that these compression ratios are much higher than those
given in design textbooks. But remember that they do not consider
temperature limitations. This aspect is discussed in section 3.
3. TEMPERATURE LIMITATIONS
The economics results presented in section 2 do not consider
temperature limitations. For example, the compressor discharge
temperature of the one-stage compressor in a system with an
overall compression ratio of 6 is 507 K, as shown in the upper
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right graph in Figure 2. If equipment or process temperature
limitations are lower than 507 K, a two-stage system may be
required, which would give discharge temperatures from the two
compressors of about 415 K. This is below the Seader4 heuristic
(463 K) and below the Ross1 heuristic (477 K).
Now consider the system with an overall compression ratio of
25. The compressor discharge temperature of the one-stage
compressor is very high (674 K), as shown in the upper right
graph in Figure 2. Using a two-stage system produces compressor
discharge temperatures from the two compressors of about
490 K. Using a three-stage system produces compressor dis-
charge temperature of about 430 K. Using a four-stage system
produces compressor discharge temperature of about 405 K.
Figure 6 shows how compressor discharge temperatures vary
with the overall compression ratio and the number of stages in
Figure 4. Number of stages for minimum TAC with dierent overall
compression ratios.
Figure 5. Economic optimum number of stages.
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the methane system. If the Ross temperature limitation of 477 K is
used (the horizontal dashed line in Figure 6), a single-stage system
would be limited to compression ratios of 3. A two-stage system
would be limited to compression ratios less than 20. A three-stage
system would be limited to compression ratios less than 100.
The proposed heuristic approach is to start with the economic
optimum number of stages for a given overall compression
ratio, and then check to see if temperature limitations require
additional stages. Table 1 compares several heuristics with
the economic optimum and the temperature-limited number
of stages.
4. OTHER GASES
All of the results presented above have used methane. Aspen
simulations with a number of other gases were performed
to determine compressor power and temperature conditions.
Table 2 gives results for methane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
ethylene, hydrogen, oxygen, and air. Gas ow rates are 100 kmol/h
and the overall compression ratio is 50 for all cases. The overall
compression ratio is 50, and a three-stage compressor system is
assumed.
The power and temperatures vary somewhat with the gas
being compressed because of dierences in the ratios of heat
capacities, but the dierences compared to methane are not large.
Therefore it should be possible to use the heuristics developed
from methane for other gases at the conceptual design stage.
5. OTHER FLOW RATES
Another important parameter is capacity. All of the results
presented above are based on a gas ow rate of 100 kmol/h. How
would the results be aected by changing throughput?
Compressor power scales in direct proportion with gas ow rate.
Energy cost would therefore change in direct ratio to throughput.
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Figure 6. Temperature limitations.

Table 1. Maximum Overall Compression Ratio Table 3. Eect of Gas Flow Rate (Methane, CR = 50)
minimum TAC Turton Seider and Seader Ross temperature gas ow rate (kmol/h)
criterion criterion criterion criterion (477 K)
100 1000
1 <6 <3 <4 <3
2 <35 <9 <16 <20 one stage work (kW) 592.9 5929
3 <110 <27 <64 <100 two stages work 1 (kW) 236.5 2365
4 work 2 (kW) 237.9 2379
area (m2) 11.15 111.5
three stages work 1 (kW) 145.1 1451
Table 2. Comparison of Gases (Three Stages, Overall Com- work 2 (kW) 148.4 1484
pression Ratio = 50) work 3 (kW) 144.5 1445
work per discharge area 1 (m2) 9.177 91.77
stage temperature area 2 (m2) 9.396 93.96
physical property (kW) (K) four stages work 1 (kW) 104.2 1042
work 2 (kW) 108.7 1087
methane Chao
Seader 145.1 454
work 3 (kW) 105.3 1053
nitrogen Peng
Robinson 154.7 523
work 4 (kW) 103.1 1031
carbon dioxide Peng
Robinson 143.8 450
area 1 (m2) 8.025 80.26
hydrogen Peng
Robinson 155.0 513
area 2 (m2) 8.225 82.25
ethylene Chao-Seader 139.3 423
area 3 (m2) 8.285 82.85
air Peng
Robinson 157.6 510.8
TAC ($106/year) one stage 0.9059 7.051
oxygen Peng
Robinson 158.7 516.4
two stages 0.8214 6.2548
three stages 0.8154 6.131
As eq 1 shows, compressor capital investment varies with energy four stages 0.8257 6.1516
consumption to the 0.82 power. Therefore, the capital cost of three-stage capital ($106) compressor 1.6878 11.1514
larger-capacity compressors would not increase in direct propor- heat exchangers 0.062059 0.27721
tion to throughput.
total 1.7493 11.429
Heat exchanger area also scales in direct proportion with gas
three-stage energy ($106/year) 0.23205 2.3205
ow rate because heat-transfer rates change directly with gas ow
rate and temperature dierential driving forces and overall heat-
transfer coecients are constant. Equation 2 shows that the capital Therefore the capital investments in both compressors and heat
cost of the heat exchanger varies with area to the 0.65 power. exchangers become relatively smaller compared to energy costs as
13988 dx.doi.org/10.1021/ie202027h |Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2011, 50, 1398413989
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Figure 7. Eect of energy cost.
gas ow rates are increased. This would tend to favor more stages.
However, the eect is not very large.
To illustrate this, the gas ow rate was increase by a factor of 10
from 100 to 1000 kmol/h. The case is for methane with an overall
compression ratio of 50. Table 3 compares results. Note that the
total energy cost scales linearly with the ow rate ($234,050/year
at 100 kmol/h to $2,340,500/year at 1000 kmol/h).
However, capital cost scales to the 0.815 power ($1,749,900 at
100 kmol/h to $11,429,000 at 1000 kmol/h). Capital investment
is dominated by the compressor cost, which scales to the 0.82
power as shown in eq 1.
The three-stage system gives the minimum TAC for both gas
ow rates.
6. ENERGY COST
Energy costs are a signicant portion of the total annual cost. A price
of $16.8/GJ has been used in the analysis. In these times when energy
markets are increasingly deregulated and volatile, it may be useful to
discuss the inuence of energy prices on the proposed heuristics.
Figure 7 shows how compressor energy costs and total annual
cost vary with the cost of electrical energy. Results are given for
three values of the energy cost: the base case of $16.8/GJ and
50% increase or decrease. An overall compression ratio of 50 and
methane are used in these calculations. Capital investments do
not change and are the same as those used in Figure 3.
The solid lines in Figure 7 are for the base case energy costs in
which a three-stage compression system gives the minimum total
annual cost. The dashed lines are when energy cost is increased by
50% up to $25.2/GJ. The three-stage compression system remains
the optimum. The dotted lines are when energy costs are reduced
50% to $8.4/GJ. Now the optimum system has only two stages.
Note that the dierence in TAC between the three-stage and two-
stage systems is quite small ($695,700/year versus $699,300/year).
These results indicate that the proposed heuristics are applic-
able over a very wide range of energy prices.
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7. CONCLUSION
An easy-to-use heuristic is developed for specifying the eco-
nomic optimum number of compression stages for a given overall
compression ratio, subject to temperature limitations. Compres-
sion ratios up to about 6 require only a single stage. Compression
ratios between 6 and about 35 require a two-stage system.
Compression ratios between 35 and about 110 require a three-
stage system. Above 110, a four-stage system is required. Overall
compression ratios greater than 150 have not been explored in
this work.
Discharge temperature limitations often require modication of
the number of stages. Equipment temperature limitations (blades
and seals) and process temperature limitations (polymerization)
can require more stages.
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
E-mail: WLL0@Lehigh.edu. Tel.: (610) 758-4256. Fax: (610)
758-5057.
REFERENCES
(1) Ross, Steven, Elliot Co. Private communication, Aug 18, 2011.
(2) Turton, R.; Bailie, R. C.; Whiting, W. B.; Shaelwitz, J. A. Analysis,
Synthesis and Design of Chemical Processes, 2nd ed.; Prentice Hall:
New York, 2003.
(3) Seider, W. D.; Seader, J. D.; Lewin, D. R. Product and Process
Design Principles, 2nd ed.; Wiley: New York, 2003; p 186.
(4) Seader, J. D. Private communication, Aug 18, 2011.
(5) Walas, S. M. Chemical Process Equipment, Selection and Design;
Butterworth-Heinemann: Woburn, MA, 1990.
(6) Douglas, J. M. Conceptual Design of Chemical Processes; McGraw-Hill:
New York, 1988.
dx.doi.org/10.1021/ie202027h |Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2011, 50, 1398413989