CE 501

STRUCTURAL DESIGN 2
Steel and Timber Design
PRELIM

A REPORT ON

Steel

SUBMITTED BY
DELA CRUZ, SASHEEN T.

DATE REQUIRED: June 20, 2017

DATE SUBMITTED: June 20, 2017

MENTOR: ENGR. JOAQUIN VALLADAREZ

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 Table of Contents

1. What is STEEL? ........................................................................................................2

2. What are the different parts of the stress strain diagram? ..........................................3
2.1 Proportionality Limit ...........................................................................................3
2.2 Elastic Limit .........................................................................................................3
2.3 Yield Point ..........................................................................................................3
2.4 Yield Plateau ........................................................................................................4
3. Strain Hardening ........................................................................................................4
4. Necking and Failure ...................................................................................................5
5. Ductile Steel ...............................................................................................................5
5.1 Measure of Ductility ............................................................................................6
6. Ultimate Tensile Strength ..........................................................................................8
7. Youngs Modulus.......................................................................................................8
8. Three Main Group of Steel According to Composition ............................................9
9. Standard Cross sectional shapes and corresponding designation ..............................10
10. What is slenderness limitation ...................................................................................11
10.1 Standard Slenderness Limitation ......................................................................11
10.2 Tensile Strength .................................................................................................11
10.3 Methods of Area Determination ........................................................................11
References ........................................................................................................................12

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1. What is STEEL?
Steel has been produced for many years from iron ore removing the ores naturally occurring
impurities. The material has high strength in tension and compression and is able to undergo large
deformation without fracture. It is a ductile material.

Structural Steel is usually hot rolled, welded from flat plates or cold formed from flat plates to form
structural sections (CHSs)

The yield strength is about 15 times the compressive strength of common structural material
concrete and well over 100 times its tensile strength.

Steel is used in two different ways in concrete structures as reinforcing steel and as a prestressing
steel. Reinforcing steel is placed in the forms prior to casting of the concrete. Stresses in the steel as
in hardened concrete are caused by only the loads on the structure except for possible parasitic
stresses from shrinkage or similar causes. In contrast, in prestressed concrete structures large tension
forces are applied to the reinforcement prior to letting it act jointly with the concrete in resisting
external loads. The steels for these two used are very different.

2. Stress Strain Diagram?

The relationship between the stress and strain that a particular material displays is known as that
particular material's stressstrain curve. It is unique for each material and is found by recording the
amount of deformation (strain) at distinct intervals of tensile or compressive loading (stress). These
curves reveal many of the properties of a material (including data to establish the Modulus of
Elasticity, E).

2.1 Proportional Limit Stress above which stress is not longer proportional to strain. It is
the point on the stress-strain curve, up to which the plot is a straight line and stress is
proportional to strain. Up to proportional limit, the material remains elastic and strictly
follows Hookes Law.
2.2 Elastic Limit - The maximum stress that can be applied without resulting in permanent
deformation when unloaded. In the stress-strain curve, it is the point just beyond proportional
limit. From proportional limit to elastic limit, the material remains elastic but does not follow
Hookes Law and so, stress and strain are not proportional.
2.3 Yield Point Stress at which there are large increases in strain with little or no increase
in stress. Among common structural materials, only steel exhibits this type of response.

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 Upper Yield Point and Lower Yield Point
Sometimes this yielding is accompanied by an abrupt reduction of load and thereby stress. In this
case the upper and lower limits of stress are called upper yield point or stress and lower yield
point or stress, respectively.
Lower yield stress is normally considered as yield stress y of material, because upper yield stress is
affected by speed of testing, form of specimen and shape of cross-section.
UPPER YIELD POINT Upper yield point is the max load at which deformation starts, starting of
deformation means dislocations are started moving in the material.
LOWER YIELD POINT - is the minimum stress required to maintain the deformation in the
material. And at the lower yield point for the low carbon steels (mild steels) the stress strain
cure is in some wave nature, this is because to break bonds with impurities while dislocations
are moving out of the material, hence resistance increases and decreases periodically after that
strain hardening takes place which increases resistance slowly by increasing of dislocations in
the material
2.4 Yield Plateau a horizontal portion of the curve where strain continues to increase at
constant stress.

3 Strain Hardening with further strains the stress begins to increase again though at a slower rate.
Strain hardening is generally defined as heating at a relatively low temperature after cold-working. During
strain hardening the strenth of the metal is increased and ductility decreased.

To go a step further in explaining, if a low-carbon steel is cold-worked, or strained passed the yield point,
then aged for several days at room temperature, it will have a higher yield stress after the aging. This
happens because during the aging carbon or nitrogen atoms diffuse to dislocations, reanchoring them.

Strain Hardening is when a metal is strained beyond the yield point. An increasing stress is required to
produce additional plastic deformation and the metal apparently becomes stronger and more difficult to
deform.

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 Strain hardening is closely related to fatigue. Example, bending the thin steel rod becomes more difficult the
farther the rod is bent. This is the result of work or strain hardening. Strain hardening reduces ductility,
which increases the chances of brittle failure.

4 Necking and Failure

In the stress- strain diagram, beyond the tensile strength, the load carrying capacity reduces and the test
specimen goes through a localized elongation called necking. There will not be constant strain in this region
and the elongation occurs in one small segment of the specimen. The stress measured just before failure is
known as the fracture stress.
The amount of strain that the material sustain before failure is an important property in mechanical
engineering, which is used specially in manufacturing. This property is called ductility and is measured in
terms of elongation or area reduction.

Failure- In engineering there are multiple types of failure based upon the application of the material. In
many machine applications any change in the part due to yielding will result in the machine piece
needing to be replaced. Although this deformation or weakening of the material is not the technical
definition of ultimate failure, the piece has failed. In most technical applications pieces are rarely
allowed to reach their ultimate failure or breakage point, instead for safety factors they are removed at
the first signs of significant wear.

There are two different types of fracture: brittle and ductile. Each of these types of failure occur based
on the material's ductility. Brittle failure occurs with little to no plastic deformation before fracture. An
example of this would be stretching a clay pot or rod, when it is stretched it will not neck or elongate,
but merely break into two or more pieces. While applying a tensile stress to a ductile material, instead of
immediately breaking the material will instead elongate. The material will begin by elongating
uniformly until it reaches the yield (engineering) point, then the material will begin to neck. When
necking occurs the material will begin to stretch more in the middle and the radius will decrease. Once
this begins the material has entered a stage called plastic deformation. Once the material has reached its
ultimate tensile strength it will elongate more easily until it reaches ultimate failure and breaks.

5 Ductile Steel
Ductile Material Materials that are capable of undergoing large strains (at normal temperature) before
failure. An advantage of ductile materials is that visible distortions may occur if the loads before too
large. Ductile materials are also capable of absorbing large amounts of energy prior to failure. Ductile
materials include mild steel, aluminum and some of its alloys, copper, magnesium, nickel, brass, bronze
and many others.
This kind of material obeys Hookes law in the elastic region and begins to flow at its yield point.
During cold working, most of the ductile material behave in this manner.

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Ductile materials usually fail on planes that correspond to the maximum shear stresses (45). A cup and cone
failure is typical for ductile materials with the sides of cup and cone inclined at approximately 45 to the
specimen axis.

Ductility is a measure of the degree to which a material can strain or elongate between the onset of yield and
eventual fracture under tensile loading as demonstrated in the figure below. The designer relies on ductility for a
number of aspects of design, including redistribution of stress at the ultimate limit state, bolt group design,
reduced risk of fatigue crack propagation and in the fabrication processes of welding, bending and
straightening. The various standards for the grades of steel in the above table insist on a minimum value for
ductility so the design assumptions are valid and if these are specified correctly the designer can be assured of
their adequate performance.

Steel derives its mechanical properties from a combination of chemical composition, heat treatment and
manufacturing processes. While the major constituent of steel is iron, the addition of very small quantities of
other elements can have a marked effect upon the properties of the steel. The strength of steel can be increased
by the addition of alloys such as manganese, niobium and vanadium. However, these alloy additions can also
adversely affect other properties, such as ductility, toughness and weldability.

Minimizing the sulphur level can enhance ductility, and toughness can be improved by the addition of nickel.
The chemical composition for each steel specification is therefore carefully balanced and tested during its
production to ensure that the appropriate properties are achieved.

5.1 Measure of Ductility

Ductility is the capacity of a material to deform permanently in response to stress. Most common
steels, for example, are quite ductile and hence can accommodate local stress concentrations.
Brittle materials, such as glass, cannot accommodate concentrations of stress because they lack
ductility; they, therefore, fracture rather easily.

When a material specimen is stressed, it deforms elastically (i.e., recoverably) at first; thereafter,
deformation becomes permanent. A cylinder of steel, for example, may neck (assume an
hourglass shape) in response to stress. If the material is ductile, this local deformation is
permanent, and the test piece does not assume its former shape if the stress is removed. With
sufficiently high stress, fracture occurs.

Ductility can be expressed as strain, reduction in area, or toughness. Strain, or change in length
per unit length, was explained earlier. Reduction in area (change in area per unit area) may be
measured, for example, in the test section of a steel bar that necks when stressed. Toughness
measures the amount of energy required to deform a piece of material permanently. Toughness is
a desirable material property in that it permits a component to deform plastically, rather than
crack and perhaps fracture.

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Hardness testing
Based on the idea that a materials response to a load placed at one small point is related to its
ability to deform permanently (yield), the hardness test is performed by pressing a hardened steel
ball (Brinell test) or a steel or diamond cone (Rockwell test) into the surface of the test piece.
Most hardness tests are performed on commercial machines that register arbitrary values in
inverse relation to the depth of penetration of the ball or cone. Similar indentation tests are
performed on wood. Hardness tests of materials such as rubber or plastic do not have the same
connotation as those performed on metals. Penetration is measured, of course, but deformation
caused by testing such materials may be entirely temporary.
Some hardness tests, particularly those designed to provide a measure of wear or abrasion, are
performed dynamically with a weight of given magnitude that falls from a prescribed height.
Sometimes a hammer is used, falling vertically on the test piece or in a pendulum motion.
Impact test
Many materials, sensitive to the presence of flaws, cracks, and notches, fail suddenly under
impact. The most common impact tests (Charpy and Izod) employ a swinging pendulum to strike
a notched bar; heights before and after impact are used to compute the energy required to
fracture the bar and, consequently, the bars impact strength. In the Charpy test, the test piece is
held horizontally between two vertical bars, much like the lintel over a door. In the Izod test, the
specimen stands erect, like a fence post. Shape and size of the specimen, mode of support, notch
shape and geometry, and velocities at impact are all varied to produce specific test conditions.
Nonmetals such as wood may be tested as supported beams, similar to the Charpy test. In
nonmetal tests, however, the striking hammer falls vertically in a guide column, and the test is
repeated from increasing heights until failure occurs.
Some materials vary in impact strength at different temperatures, becoming very brittle when
cold. Tests have shown that the decrease in material strength and elasticity is often quite abrupt
at a certain temperature, which is called the transition temperature for that material. Designers
always specify a material that possesses a transition temperature well below the range of heat
and cold to which the structure or machine is exposed. Thus, even a building in the tropics,
which will doubtless never be exposed to freezing weather, employs materials with transition
temperatures slightly below freezing.
Fracture toughness tests
stringent materials-reliability requirements of the space programs undertaken since the early
1960s brought about substantial changes in design philosophy. Designers asked materials
engineers to devise quantitative tests capable of measuring the propensity of a material to
propagate a crack. Conventional methods of stress analysis and materials-property tests were
retained, but interpretation of results changed. The criterion for failure became sudden
propagation of a crack rather than fracture. Tests have shown that cracks occur by opening, when
two pieces of material part in vertical plane, one piece going up, the other down; by edge sliding,
where the material splits in horizontal plane, one piece moving left, the other right; and by
tearing, where the material splits with one piece moving diagonally upward to the left, the other
moving diagonally downward to the right.
Creep test
Creep is the slow change in the dimensions of a material due to prolonged stress; most common
metals exhibit creep behaviour. In the creep test, loads below those necessary to cause
instantaneous fracture are applied to the material, and the deformation over a period of time
(creep strain) under constant load is measured, usually with an extensometer or strain gauge. In
the same test, time to failure is also measured against level of stress; the resulting curve is called
stress rupture or creep rupture. Once creep strain versus time is plotted, a variety of mathematical
techniques is available for extrapolating creep behaviour of materials beyond the test times so
that designers can utilize thousand-hour test data, for example, to predict ten-thousand-hour
behaviour.
A material that yields continually under stress and then returns to its original shape when the
stress is released is said to be viscoelastic; this type of response is measured by the stress-
relaxation test. A prescribed displacement or strain is induced in the specimen and the load drop-
off as a function of time is measured. Various viscoelastic theories are available that permit the

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 translation of stress-relaxation test data into predictions about the creep behaviour of the
material.

6 Ultimate Tensile Strength

.Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), often shortened to tensile strength (TS) or ultimate strength, is the
capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to elongate, as opposed to compressive
strength, which withstands loads tending to reduce size. In other words, tensile strength resists
tension (being pulled apart), whereas compressive strength resists compression (being pushed
together). Ultimate tensile strength is measured by the maximum stress that a material can withstand
while being stretched or pulled before breaking. In the study of strength of materials, tensile
strength, compressive strength, and shear strength can be analyzed independently.

Some materials break very sharply, without plastic deformation, in what is called a brittle failure.
Others, which are more ductile, including most metals, experience some plastic deformation and
possibly necking before fracture.

The UTS is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the engineering stress versus
strain. The highest point of the stressstrain curve (see point 1 on the engineering stress-strain
diagrams below) is the UTS. It is an intensive property; therefore its value does not depend on the
size of the test specimen. However, it is dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the
specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the test environment
and material.

For ductile materials, such as steel, deformations are plastic. A plastically deformed specimen does
not completely return to its original size and shape when unloaded. For many applications, plastic
deformation is unacceptable, and is used as the design limitation.
After the yield point, ductile metals undergo a period of strain hardening, in which the stress
increases again with increasing strain, and they begin to neck, as the cross-sectional area of the
specimen decreases due to plastic flow. In a sufficiently ductile material, when necking becomes
substantial, it causes a reversal of the engineering stressstrain curve (curve A, right figure); this is
because the engineering stress is calculated assuming the original cross-sectional area before
necking. The reversal point is the maximum stress on the engineering stressstrain curve, and the
engineering stress coordinate of this point is the ultimate tensile strength, given by point 1.
The UTS is not used in the design of ductile static members because design practices dictate the use
of the yield stress. It is, however, used for quality control, because of the ease of testing. It is also
used to roughly determine material types for unknown samples .
The UTS is a common engineering parameter to design members made of brittle material because
such materials have no yield point.

7 Youngs Modulus - The slope of the straight-line portion of the stress-strain diagram is called the Modulus
of Elasticity or Youngs Modulus.
E= Youngs modulus, MPa
The value of E varies form one material to other which mainly indicates the stiffness of the material.
Young's modulus, also known as the elastic modulus, is a measure of the stiffness of a solid material. It is a
mechanical property of linear elastic solid materials. It defines the relationship between stress (force per unit
area) and strain (proportional deformation) in a material. Young's modulus is named after the 19th-century
British scientist Thomas Young. However, the concept was developed in 1727 by Leonhard Euler, and the
first experiments that used the concept of Young's modulus in its current form were performed by the Italian
scientist Giordano Riccati in 1782, pre-dating Young's work by 25 years. The term modulus is
the diminutive of the Latin term modus which means measure.

Steel, carbon fiber and glass among others are usually considered linear materials, while other materials
such as rubber and soils are non-linear. However, this is not an absolute classification: if very small stresses
or strains are applied to a non-linear material, the response will be linear, but if very high stress or strain is
applied to a linear material, the linear theory will not be enough. For example, as the linear theory
implies reversibility, it would be absurd to use the linear theory to describe the failure of a steel bridge under
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 a high load; although steel is a linear material for most applications, it is not in such a case of catastrophic
failure.
8 Main Group of Steel According to Composition
According to the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), steel can be broadly categorized into four
groups based on their chemical compositions:

1. Carbon Steels
2. Alloy Steels
3. Stainless Steels
4. Tool Steels

Carbon Steels

Carbon steels contain trace amounts of alloying elements and account for 90% of total steel production. Carbon
steels can be further categorized into three groups depending on their carbon content:

Low Carbon Steels/Mild Steels contain up to 0.3% carbon

Medium Carbon Steels contain 0.3 0.6% carbon

High Carbon Steels contain more than 0.6% carbon

Alloy Steels

Alloy steels contain alloying elements (e.g. manganese, silicon, nickel, titanium, copper, chromium,
and aluminum) in varying proportions in order to manipulate the steel's properties, such as
its hardenability, corrosion resistance, strength, formability, weldability or ductility.

Applications for alloys steel include pipelines, auto parts, transformers, power generators and electric motors.

Stainless Steels

Stainless steels generally contain between 10-20% chromium as the main alloying element and are valued for
high corrosion resistance. With over 11% chromium, steel is about 200 times more resistant to corrosion than
mild steel. These steels can be divided into three groups based on their crystalline structure:

Austenitic: Austenitic steels are non-magnetic and non heat-treatable, and generally contain 18%
chromium, 8% nickel and less than 0.8% carbon. Austenitic steels form the largest portion of the global
stainless steel market and are often used in food processing equipment, kitchen utensils, and piping.
Ferritic: Ferritic steels contain trace amounts of nickel, 12-17% chromium, less than 0.1% carbon, along
with other alloying elements, such as molybdenum, aluminum or titanium. These magnetic steels cannot
be hardened by heat treatment but can be strengthened by cold working.
Martensitic: Martensitic steels contain 11-17% chromium, less than 0.4% nickel, and up to 1.2% carbon.
These magnetic and heat-treatable steels are used in knives, cutting tools, as well as dental and surgical
equipment.

Tool Steels

Tool steels contain tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt and vanadium in varying quantities to increase heat resistance
and durability, making them ideal for cutting and drilling equipment.

Steel products can also be divided by their shapes and related applications:

Long/Tubular Products include bars and rods, rails, wires, angles, pipes, and shapes and sections. These
products are commonly used in the automotive and construction sectors.
Flat Products include plates, sheets, coils, and strips. These materials are mainly used in automotive
parts, appliances, packaging, shipbuilding, and construction.
Other Products include valves, fittings, and flanges and are mainly used as piping materials.

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9 Standard Cross-sectional Shapes Under Corresponding Designation

DESC. NOMEN. NOTES

Wide Flange W12x36 Flange surfaces are parallel; flange thickness is not necessarily equal
to the web thickness.

Bearing Pile HP14x73 Flange surfaces are parallel; flange and web have equal thicknesses.

American Standard S15x50 The inner flange surface is sloped.

Beam

Channel C12x30 Standard AISC flanges have sloped inner flange surfaces.

Tee WT12x38 WT shapes are cut from a wide flange.

ST12x38 ST shapes are cut from American Standard Beams.

MT12x38 MT shapes are cut from non-standard I-shapes.

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 Hollow Steel Section HSS12x6x0.5 Either nomenclature is acceptable; however, HSS is more common.

Steel Tube TS12x6x0.5

Angle L2x2x0.5 Angles come in equal leg or unequal leg sizes.The diagram at left
shows an unequal leg.
L6x3x0.5

Pipe Pipe 4 STD

Plate PL Very small plates can also be called bars.

0.5x12"x30"

10 According to the National Structural Code of the Philippines: Section 504 - Design of Members for
Tension

10.1 Standard Slenderness Limitation

There is no maximum slenderness limit for design of members in tension.
Note : For members designed on the basis of tension, the slenderness ratio L/r preferably should not
exceed 300. This suggestion does not apply to rods or hangers in tension.
10.2 Tensile Strength
The design tensile strength t Pn, and the allowable tensile strength, Pn / t, of tension members, shall
be the lower value obtained according to the limit states of tensile yielding in the gross section and tensile
rupture in the net section.
1. For tensile yielding in the gross section:
Pn = Fy Ag
t = 0.90 (LRFD) t = 1.67 (ASD)
2. For tensile rupture in the net section:
Pn = FuAe
t = 0.75 (LRFD) t = 2.00 (ASD)

Where:
Ae = effective net area, mm2
Ag = gross area of member, mm
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the type of steel being used, MPa
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the type of steel being used, MPa

When members without holes are fully connected by welds, the effective net area used in Equation
504.2-2 shall be as defined in Section 504. 3. When holes are present in a member with welded end
connections, or at the welded connection in the case of plug or welds, the effective net area through the holes
shall be used in Equation 504.2-2.
10.3 Methods of Area Determination
Gross Area
The gross area, Ag, of a member is the total cross-sectional area.

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 Net Area
The net area, An, of a member is the sum of the products of the thickness and the net width of
each element computed as follows:
In computing net area for tension and shear, the width of a boil hole shall be taken 2 mm greater
than the nominal dimension of the hole.
For a chain of holes extending across a part in any diagonal or zigzag line, the net width of the
pan shall be obtained by deducting from the gross width the sum of the diameters or slot dimensions as
provided in Section 510.3 .2, of all holes in the chain, and adding, for each gage space in the chain, the
quantity s2/4g.
Where
s = longitudinal center-to-center spacing (pitch) of any two consecutive holes, mm.
g = transverse center-to-center spacing (gage) between fastener gage lines, mm.
For angles, the gage for holes in opposite adjacent legs shall be the sum of the gages from the
back of the angles less the thickness.
For slotted HSS welded to a gusset plate, the net area, An , is the gross area minus the product of
the thickness and the total width of material that is removed to form the slot. In determining the net area
across plug or slot welds, the weld metal shall not be considered as adding to the net area.
Note :
Section 510.4.1 (2) limits An to a maximum of 0.85Ag, for splice plates withholes.
Effective Net Area
The effective area of tension members shall be determined as follows:
Ae = AnU
Where U, the shear lag factor, is determined as shown in table 504.3.1.
Members such as single angles, double angles and WT sections shall have connections
proportioned such that U is equal to or greater than 0.60. Alternatively, a lesser value of U is permitted if
these tension members arc designed for the effect of eccentricity in accordance with Section 508. 1.2 or
Section 508.2.
References
Luebkeman, C., & Peting, D. (2012, 04 28). Stressstrain curves. Retrieved from
http://pages.uoregon.edu/struct/courseware/461/461_lectures/461_lecture24/461_lecture24.html
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-upper-yield-point-and-lower-yield-point-of-a-stress-strain-curve-
for-mild-steel
World Steel Association. Website: www.worldsteel.org
Street, Arthur & Alexander, W.O. 1944. Metals in the Service of Man. 11th Edition (1998).
Efunda.com. General Properties of Steels. Website: www.efunda.com
The American Iron & Steel Institute. www.steel.org
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials Fifth Edition
http://www.steelconstruction.info/Steel_material_properties#Ductility
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_tensile_strength
The Rational Mechanics of Flexible or Elastic Bodies, 16381788: Introduction to Leonhardi Euleri Opera Omnia, vol. X
and XI, Seriei Secundae. Orell Fussli.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young%27s_modulus
http://www.engineering.com/Ask@/qactid/1/qaqid/1783.aspx
National Structural Code of the Philippines 2010, 6th Edition, Volume 1
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