ACD2505-03 - Eqns of Fluid Flow

PEMP
ACD2505
Governing Equations of Fluid Flow
Session delivered by:

M.
M Sivapragasam
M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 1

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Session Objectives
-- At the end of this session the delegate would have
understood
The principle of conservation laws
Different principles involved in simplifying
approximations
The equations governing the fluid flow
Thee role
o e of
o non-dimensional
o d e s o a equations
equa o s
Various simplified equations

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S i Topics
Session T i
1. Conservation Laws
2. Simplifying Approximations
3. Equations of Fluid Flow
4. The Stress at a Point
5
5. The Role of Non
Non-dimensional
dimensional Equations
6. Various Simplified Equations
7. Bernoulli Equation and Examples of
Pressure Distribution
i ib i

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Conservation Laws
To derive the equations of motion for fluid particles

we rely on various conservation principles. These
principles are entirely intuitive. They are a statement
of the fact that the rate of change of mass,
mass momentum,
momentum
or energy in a certain volume is equal to the rate at
which it enters the borders of the volume plus the rate
at which it is created inside. The first two of these will
be used extensively here.

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These integral
Th i l expressions
i are combined
bi d withi h the
h
divergence theorem and the fact that they hold over
arbitraryy volumes to obtain the differential form of the
equations: ..

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We can use the

W h momentum theorem
h by
b itself
i lf to obtain
b i useful
f l
results. In this example, we apply the momentum theorem to
relate the force on a bodyy to the pproperties
p of the flow some
distance from the body. This technique is useful in wind
tunnel tests and is the basis of several fundamental theorems
related to lift and induced drag of wings.
wings
We take the control volume shown below, bounded by the

single
i l surface,
f S which
hi h we divide
di id into
i 3 parts: the
h outer
surface (Souter), the inner surface (Sinner), and the pieces of the
surface connectingg the two ((S*).) We can write the integral
g
form of the momentum equation for steady flow with no body
forces as shown.

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Note that the contribution from the part of the surface

connecting Sinner and Souter to the integrals is zero because as the
t pieces
two i off S* are made
d close
l together,
t th the th unitit normals
l point
i t
in opposite directions while p and V are equal.

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Simplifying Approximations
The equations of motion for a general fluid are

extremely complex and even if the problem could be
formulated it would be impractical to solve. Thus,
from the outset,
outset certain simplifying approximations
that are often very accurate, are made. These may
include the following assumptions.

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Continuity and Homogeneity of the Fluid
We assume that the fluid is composed of particles which are

so smallll andd plentiful
l tif l that
th t the
th statistically-averaged
t ti ti ll d
properties of interest are the same at any scale. This works
well for gases and fluids under most conditions. It does not
work for studying the flow of sand. It does not work when
the fluid is so rarefied that the mean free path is of the same
order as the dimensions of interest in the problem.
problem The mean
free path varies with altitude as shown in the next plot.
Variation of temperature, pressure and density with altitude
i also
is l shown.
h We
W further
f th assume thatth t the
th medium
di can be
b
treated as a single type of fluid -- no suspensions of oil and
water.

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Variations of temperature, pressure and density with altitude.

F
From: K
Kuethe
th & Ch
Chow.
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Variations of mean free path with altitude. From: Kuethe

& Chow)

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I i id Flow
Inviscid Fl
The effect of viscosityy mayy sometimes be neglected

g or
modelled indirectly. For many aerodynamic flows of
interest, the region of high shear and vorticity is
confined to a thin layer of fluid.
fluid Outside this layer,
layer the
fluid behaves as if it were inviscid. Thus the simpler
equations of an inviscid fluid are often solved outside
off the
h shear
h layers.
l
There are some fluids which seem to be almost

completely inviscid. Tests in superfluid helium have
given results similar to inviscid calculations.

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Incompressible (constant density) Flow
When the fluid density does not change with changes in pressure, the
fluid is incompressible. Water density changes very little with changes
in pressure and is generally treated as an incompressible fluid. Air is
compressible, but if pressure changes are small in comparison with
some nominal value,, the corresponding
p g changes
g in densityy are small
also and incompressible equations work quite well in describing the
flow. The degree to which the fluid density changes with pressure is
related to the speed of sound in the fluid.
fluid Thus,
Thus assuming that the flow
is incompressible is equivalent to assuming that the speed of sound is
infinite. When the local Mach number is less than 0.2 to 0.5
compressibility effects can often be ignored. The reason for this is
discussed further in the chapter on compressibility, but one can see
qqualitativelyy that in order to make an appreciable
pp change
g to the
nominal 1 bar air pressure at sea level, substantial speeds are required.
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Irrotational Flow ACD2505
Circulation is defined as:
It is a measure of the rotation of an area of fluid. As the integration

contour is shrunk down to a point, the ratio of circulation to the area
enclosed by the curve is called the vorticity.
Fluid
Fl id that
th t starts
t t outt without
ith t rotational
t ti l motion
ti willill nott develop
d l it unless
l
there has been some shear stress acting on it.
Some important exceptions to the idea that without viscosity irrotational
flow remains irrotational: Vorticity can be created in a gravitational
field when density gradients exist or in a rotating system (such as the
earth) due to Coriolis forces. These are important sources of vorticity in
meteorology.
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And
A d if the
th shear
h is i confined
fi d to
t a smallll region,
i theth vorticity
ti it will
ill be
b
also. Thus, for many cases, especially in inviscid flow, much of the
flow field may be treated as irrotational: curl V = 0
When this is the case, the vector field, V, may be written as the
gradient of a scalar field, :
V = grad
where is the called the potential. This simplifies many of the

equations discussed in subsequent sections. The velocity
components are then: u = d / dx and v = d / dy

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Steady Flow
When the variables describingg the fluid pproperties
p at a given
g point
p do
not change in time, the flow may be treated as steady and the time
derivatives in the equations of motion are zero. This condition depends
on the chosen coordinate system.
system If the system is at rest with respect to
a body in uniform motion through a fluid the equations in that system
are steady, but expressed in a system fixed with respect to the
undisturbed
di b d fl fluid,
id the
h flow
fl isi unsteady.
d It is
i often
f convenient i to
transform the coordinate system to one in which the flow is steady.
This is,, of course,, not always
y ppossible. We will assume that the flow is
steady in most of the discussions in this course but unsteady effects are
often important in the study of bird flight, propellers, aircraft gust
response dynamics
response, dynamics, and aeroelasticity as well as in the study of
turbulence.
We will always apply the first of these assumptions and will sometimes
adopt
d one or more off theh latter
l in
i the
h following
f ll i discussions.
di i
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Equations of Fluid Flow
The conservation laws may be used to derive the equations of

fl id flow.
fluid fl These
Th are supplemented
l t d with
ith constitutive
tit ti relations
l ti
such as the perfect gas law:
p=RT
or the isentropic relation between pressure and density:
p2 / p1 = (2 / 1)
We start with the Navier-Stokes equations and show how non-

dimensionalising these equations
eq ations leads to the non-dimensional
non dimensional
parameters like Re and M. We then identify some of the most
commonly-solved equations along with the corresponding
assumptions.
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The Navier-Stokes Equations
The Navier-Stokes equations describe the flow of a

continuous, Newtonian fluid. They may be derived from the
principal of conservation of momentum applied for a field
for an identified fluid particle.
p
Hence we use the substantial derivative D( ) / Dt given

by
D( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) r
= +u +v +w = + V .( )
Dt t x y z t
(For more details see Kuethe and Chow Appendix B, or,
Moran Ch. 6,, or,, Anderson Ch. 15).
)

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Here X, Y, Z are the body forces per unit mass in each

direction and Tau is the stress tensor. X,Y, and Z are often
associated
ssoc ed w with ggravitational
v o forces
o ces and
d aree ooften
e neglected.
eg ec ed.

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The equations contain unknown stress terms xy and

hence cannot be solved (not closed). They can be
closed when the stress tensor is expressed in terms of
viscosity, pressure and velocity (derivatives). Then the
N-S equations simplify.

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The stress at a point
xy is the stress acting on the x-plane in the y-direction. Pressure is

a normal compressive
p stress. ((shear viscosityy relatingg stresses to
rate of strain) and (bulk viscosity relating stresses to div V) are
the two viscosity coefficients. ). If pressure is a function only of
density and not of the rate of change of density,
density then: = - (2/3).
(2/3)
Normal stresses:

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See that
S h now pressure iin a moving
i fluid
fl id is
i the
h average off
three normal stresses.
Shear stresses depend only on :

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S
Stress T
Tensor iin a Newtonian
N i fluid
fl id
r u v u
xx = (.V ) + 2 ; xy = yx = +
x x y
r v u w
yy = (.V ) + 2 ; xz = zx = +
y z x
r w v w
zz = (.V ) + 2 ; yz = zy = +
z z y

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The Navier-Stokes equations for an incompressible fluid

simplify to
And the continuity equation for the incompressible flow

(unsteady also) is
u v w
+ + =0
x y z
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The Navier-Stokes
Navier Stokes equations in cylindrical coordinates (r,
(r ,
z)
are:

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The Role of Non-Dimensional Equations
The order of terms in the equations can be conveniently

estimated by non-dimensionalising the equations. The
procedure
d iis demonstrated
d d with
i h simple
i l incompressible
i ibl
equations. In the energy equation is the viscous dissipation
function. We start with the dimensional equations:
q

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The equations are non-dimensionalised by non-

di
dimensionalising
i li i independent
i d d andd dependent
d d variables
i bl
through characteristic variables like V, L, 1, a1, T1 etc. Here
subscript
p 1 indicates some reference undisturbed flow
conditions like at infinity. The new variables indicated by a
prime are nondimensional.

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Non-Dimensional Equations
See how Reynolds number, Mach number and Prandtl number originate in
the equations. It is clear from the momentum equation, for example, that
when Re increases,
increases the relative magnitude of the viscous term decreases.
decreases
It is possible to infer this now since all the terms are scaled and it is
possible to estimate. For details see Kuethe & Chow (Appendix B).
Note ( / 1 ) is non-D
non D in this notation.
notation

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Solutions of the full Navier-Stokes equations

q show the onset
of turbulence, the interaction of shear layers, and almost all of
the interesting aerodynamic phenomena (with the exception of
interacting or rarefied gas flows).
flows)
Unfortunately, the equations are very difficult to solve. As the

Reynolds
ld numberb is
i increased,
i d the
h scale
l off the
h interesting
i i
dynamics gets smaller so that most solutions of the full N-S
equations
q are done at Reynolds
y numbers of 1 to 10,000
, and for
simple geometries.
One of the most recent solutions of a flat plate boundary layer

pushed the calculations to a Reynolds number of 1410 based
on boundary layer thickness. These calculations took hundreds
off hours
h on the
h Cray
C computer at NASA A Ames.
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Even at very small

E ll Reynolds
R ld numbers,
b the
h geometries i
which can be analyzed using the full N-S equations
are qquite simple
p and it currentlyy does not make sense
to consider solving these equations for realistic
aircraft configurations. One reason that this is the case
is that many of the approximate equations work quite
well in such cases and are much more easily solved.

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When the
Wh h time
i averagedd Navier-Stokes
N i S k equations i are
not a sufficient description of the problem, one may
resort to "large
g eddyy simulations". This is a numerical
solution of the time-dependent Navier-Stokes
equations, with only the smaller scales of turbulence
modeled in an averaged way.
way Larger scale turbulent
motion can be included in this way. While this is
faster than solving the full equations, it is still very
slow.
l The
Th figure
fi below
b l shows
h results
l from
f a large
l
eddy simulation of the flow over a 2D circular
cylinder.
y Each simulation required
q approximately
pp y 300
CPU hours and about 10 megawords of core memory
on the Cray C-90. Figure from NASA / Parviz Moin.

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Flow around a Cylinder

y simulated usingg Large
g Eddyy
Simulation (LES). From: NASA

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R
Reynolds
ld AAveraged
dNNavier-Stokes
i S k E Equations
i
One of the most ppopular

p simplifications
p made to the Navier-
Stokes Equations is "Reynolds Averaging". This simplification to
the full Navier-Stokes equations involves taking time averages of
the velocity terms in the equations.
equations
Writing: u = <u> + u ', v = <v> + v', etc.

( h < > represents a time
(where i average))
with the fluctuations having zero mean value: <u'> = 0
we have: <u2> = <u>2 + <u'2>, <uv> = <u><v> + <u'v'>

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R
Reynolds
ld AAveraged
dNNavier-Stokes
i S k E Equations
i (C
(Contd)
d)
This allows us to write the time-averaged

g NS equations
q as:
and similarly for the y and z components.

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Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes Equations (Contd)
This looks just like the more general Navier Stokes equations for
incompressible flow which hold for steady, laminar flow except
that there are additional terms that act as additional stresses on
the right hand side. These terms represent the effect of
turbulence on the mean flow. They are called "Reynolds stresses"
and are sometimes said to be caused by "eddy viscosity". These
terms are generally much larger than the normal viscous terms.

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The business
Th b i off predicting
di i these
h stresses andd relating
l i
them to the computed mean flow properties is called
turbulence modeling. g This is usually
y accomplished
p
empirically or by using the results of detailed time-
dependent simulations.
Reynolds averaged NS solvers are appropriate for the

analysis of viscous, compressible flows and have been
applied
li d to rather
h generall configurations,
fi i but
b one must
be careful that the assumptions of the turbulence
model are compatible
p with the characteristics of the
flow of interest.

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From NAS Technical Summaries, High-Lift Configuration CFD,

Karlin Roth, NASA Ames Research Center
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Euler Equations
The momentum equation is sometimes called Euler's equation.

((There are lots of equations
q called Euler equations!)
q ) But when
people talk of solving the Euler equations these days, they are
referring to the inviscid equations of motion given by:
With some work*, the equation in the x direction becomes:
or in vector notation:

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These are combined

Th bi d withi h the
h equations
i off energy andd
continuity.
The equations
q are often solved byy finite differences
whereby the values of each velocity component, the
density, and the internal energy are computed at each
point in the flow.
flow From these quantities constitutive
relations such as the perfect gas law or the isentropic
pressure relation are used to find pressure. Since Euler
equations
i permiti rotational
i l flow
fl andd enthalpy
h l losses
l
(through shock waves), they are very useful in solving
transonic flow pproblems, ppropeller
p or rotor
aerodynamics, and flows with vortical structures in
the field.

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Mach number ((Velocityy magnitude

g ?)) contours by
y Euler equations.
q
NOTE: Surface velocity is not zero.
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Full Potential Equation
The full potential equation is derived from the assumption of

irrotational flow and the equations of continuity and
momentum. The pressure and density terms in the Euler
equations
q can be combined when use is made of the pperfect ggas
law and the isentropic relation between pressure and density.
Ashley and Landahl show how we may derive the following
vector form of the unsteady full potential equation:

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Full Potential Equation (Contd)
This may be simplified for the case of steady flow in 2-D to:
About the notation:
When flow is irrotational curl V = 0 and by definition of curl and

gradient: curl (grad ) = 0
where
h is i a scalar
l field.
fi ld

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Full Potential Equation (Contd)
Thus we can define a nonphysical scalar potential, , that

d
describes
ib the
th velocity
l it field.
fi ld is
i related
l t d to
t the
th velocities
l iti by b the
th
relation:
V = grad
The equations can thus be written in terms of the unknown scalar
rather than the 3 components of the velocity. This simplifies their
solution.
solution
In the above expressions: a is the local speed of sound, x is the
streamwise coordinate, and V is the vector velocity. Subscripts
d t partial
denote ti l derivatives
d i ti with
ith respectt to
t the
th subscripted
b i t d variables
i bl
(e.g. Ux = du/dx)

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Mach contours (yellow = high; dark green = low) from

TRANAIR analysis of a 747-200 at Mach 0.84. From NAS
Technical Summaries 1994, Multipoint Aerodynamic Design,
F
Forrester
t T.T Johnson,
J h Boeing
B i Commercial
C i l Airplane
Ai l Group
G .
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Transonic Small Disturbance Equation

When the full potential equation is simplified by assuming that
perturbation velocities are small and we relate the local speed of
soundd to
t the
th freestream
f t value
l byb making
ki use off the
th isentropic
i t i
relations we obtain the small disturbance equation
When we let the freestream Mach number go to one and ignore the
last term
term, the equation becomes the classic transonic small
disturbance equation:
A greatt deal
d l has
h been
b written
itt about
b t this
thi nonlinear
li equation
ti andd its
it
variants. (See Nixon.) It is used less frequently these days since
finite difference methods can be used to solve the full potential
equation directly..
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Prandtl-Glauert Equation
The Prandtl-Glauert equation is a linearized form of the full
potential equation.
Full potential:
If the velocity perturbations are much smaller than the freestream

velocity, this expression becomes:
or in the unsteady case:
The 3-D version is easily constructed with the addition of z

derivatives corresponding to the y derivatives shown here.
here

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Note that this linearized form of the equation does not hold near
the nose of an airfoil where the velocity perturbation is of the
same order as the freestream, unless the freestream Mach
number
b isi itself
it lf small.
ll Also
Al notet that
th t this
thi expression
i holds
h ld forf
subsonic and supersonic flow (but not transonic flow). It forms
the basis for many aerodynamic analysis methods.
Analysis of P51 Mustang from Analytical Methods, Inc. using

VSAERO, a code that solves the Prandtl-Glauert equations.
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Acoustic Equation
The acoustic equation may be obtained from the full potential
equation by assuming that there is no freestream velocity, and
that all perturbation velocities are small.
Or, by changing from a coordinate system fixed to the body to

Or
one fixed with respect to the undisturbed fluid, the Prandtl-
Glauert equation may be transformed to the acoustic equation.
This equation is often used in the study of sound propagation

y
and sometimes for rotor aerodynamics; ; thus the name.

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Laplace's Equation
Laplace's equation is the Prandtl-Glauert equation in the limit
as the freestream Mach number goes to zero. It was actually
first derived by Euler. The derivation is very simple, requiring
only the equation of continuity, and the assumptions of
irrotational and constant densityy flow.
The continuity equation becomes then:
Since the flow is irrotational:
Substitution into the continuity equation yields:

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Laplace's Equation (Contd)
It is interesting to note that Laplace's equation does not require

the assumption of small perturbations, while the Prandtl-
Glauert equation does. In fact, near the stagnation point of an
airfoil where velocities become small,, the full ppotential
equation reduces to Laplace's equation, not the Prandtl-Glauert
equation.
Note also that all of the time dependent terms in the full
potential equation are multiplied by 1/a2 so that this form of the
equation holds for unsteady phenomena as well.

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B
Bernoulli
lli Equations
E i
Some of the equations

q we have discussed are pposed in terms of
state variables that do not include pressures. In these cases (e.g.
the potential flow equations) the differential equations and
boundary conditions allow one to compute the local velocities
velocities,
but not the pressures.
Once the
O h velocities
l i i are known,
k however,
h the
h momentum
equation can be used to find the local pressure. Such equations
are known as Bernoulli equations
q and they
y come in various
forms, depending on the assumptions that can be made about the
flow.

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B
Bernoulli
lli Equations
E i (Contd)
(C d)
The conservation of momentum pprinciple

p is the source of the
relation between pressure and velocity. It can be used very
simply to derive the Bernoulli equation.
To illustrate the basic physics behind the Bernoulli equations, we

can derive a simple form: that for steady, incompressible flow.
In this case we show that along a streamline:

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When the flow is not steady, the Euler equations can be

integrated to obtain a more general form of this result:
Kelvin's equation, the Bernoulli equation for irrotational

flow.
where f is a body force per unit mass (such as gravity) and F

is an arbitrary function of time.

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If we do
d not assume thath theh flow
fl is
i irrotational,
i i l we
cannot introduce the potential and the expression is
not so nicelyy integrable.
g If,, however,, we assume that
the flow is steady with no "body forces", but not
necessarily irrotational we can write the following
expression that holds along a streamline:
While the above equations hold for steady flows along

a streamline, for irrotational flows theyy hold
throughout the fluid.

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We can derive a more useful form of the Bernoulli equation

by starting with the expression for steady flow without body
forces shown just above.
If the flow is assumed to be isentropic flow (no entropy

change ) p = constant *
g or heat addition):
Substitution yields the compressible Bernoulli equation:
This actually works for adiabatic flows as well as isentropic

flows.

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IIn summary, we often

f ddeall with
i h one off two simple
i l
forms of the Bernoulli equation shown below.

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The Pressures
In both the incompressible and compressible forms of
Bernoulli's equation shown above there are 3 terms. The
quantity pT is the total or stagnation pressure.
pressure It is the pressure
that would be measured at points in the flow where V = 0. The
other p in the above expressions is the static pressure.
Note that in incompressible flow, the speed is directly related to

the difference in total and static ppressure. This can be measured
directly with a pitot-static probe shown below.

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The Pitot-Static Probe
The Ventui Tube

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Th dynamic
The d i pressure is
i defined
d fi d as:
The static pressure coefficient is defined as:

where p is the freestream static pressure.
pressure
In incompressible flow, the expression for Cp is especially simple:
If the local velocityy is expressed

p as a small pperturbation in the
freestream:
Then the incompressible Cp relation can be written:

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The expression
Th i for
f Cp in
i compressibleibl isentropic
i i flow
fl
(sometimes called the isentropic pressure rule) is derived from
the compressible
p Bernoulli equation
q alongg with the expression
p
for the speed of sound in a perfect gas. In terms of the local
Mach number the expression is:

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We can tell if the flow is supersonic,

supersonic just by looking at the value
of Cp. The critical value of Cp, denoted Cp* is found by setting
M = 1 in the above expression (for gamma = 1.4):
Also, we see that there is a minimum value of Cp, corresponding

to a complete vacuum.
vacuum Setting the local Mach number to infinity
yields:
Cp cannot be any more negative than this. Experiments show

that airfoils can get to about 70% of vacuum Cp. This can limit
the maximum lift of supersonic wings.
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Simple Bernoulli Derivation
The momentum equation for this flow

can be
b written
itt in
i terms
t off the
th flow
fl through
th h a small
ll control
t l
volume. The change in momentum per unit time is:
S V (V+dV) - S V2 = S V dV
This change in momentum arises from the pressures acting

along the faces of the control volume:
pressure force (ends) = pS - (p+dp)(S+dS) = -p dS - S dp
pressure force (sides) = (p + dp/2) dS = p dS (to first order)
pressure (total) = -S dp
03
PEMP
ACD2505
Simple Bernoulli Derivation (Contd)
Equating the force due to pressure with the force required to

produce
d th
the momentumt change
h yields:
i ld
-S dp = S V dV
or dp = - V dV
This is a simple form of the Euler equation.
In the case that = constant, the above equation may be

integrated to produce the incompressible form of the Bernoulli
equation:
ti
p2 + /2 V22 = p1 + /2 V12
or: p + /2 V2 = pt
03
PEMP
ACD2505
Summary
The following topics were dealt in this session
Conservation laws
Different simplifying approximations and the
resulting
lti equations
ti
The role of non-dimensional equations
Bernoulli
Bernoulliss equation and eh pressure distribution

03
PEMP
ACD2505
Thank you

03

ACD2505-03 - Eqns of Fluid Flow

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PEMP

Governing Equations of Fluid Flow

Session delivered by:

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 1

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 2

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 3

To derive the equations of motion for fluid particles

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 4

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 5

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 6

We can use the

We take the control volume shown below, bounded by the

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 7

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Note that the contribution from the part of the surface

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 9

The equations of motion for a general fluid are

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 10

Continuity and Homogeneity of the Fluid

We assume that the fluid is composed of particles which are

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 11

Variations of temperature, pressure and density with altitude.

Variations of mean free path with altitude. From: Kuethe

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 13

The effect of viscosityy mayy sometimes be neglected

There are some fluids which seem to be almost

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 14

Incompressible (constant density) Flow

Circulation is defined as:

It is a measure of the rotation of an area of fluid. As the integration

where is the called the potential. This simplifies many of the

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 17

Equations of Fluid Flow

The conservation laws may be used to derive the equations of

We start with the Navier-Stokes equations and show how non-

The Navier-Stokes Equations

The Navier-Stokes equations describe the flow of a

Hence we use the substantial derivative D( ) / Dt given

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 20

Here X, Y, Z are the body forces per unit mass in each

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The equations contain unknown stress terms xy and

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 22

The stress at a point

xy is the stress acting on the x-plane in the y-direction. Pressure is

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 23

Shear stresses depend only on :

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The Navier-Stokes equations for an incompressible fluid

And the continuity equation for the incompressible flow

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The Role of Non-Dimensional Equations

The order of terms in the equations can be conveniently

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The equations are non-dimensionalised by non-

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Solutions of the full Navier-Stokes equations

Unfortunately, the equations are very difficult to solve. As the

One of the most recent solutions of a flat plate boundary layer

Even at very small

M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 32