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ABSTRACT
The objective of this project deals with automatic railway platform opening
at a level crossing without human intervention. In the present work it is
proposed to substitute fully automated railway platform opening feature and
as well as automated platform bridge facility in the station which helps
peoples to move from one platform to another platform. Now a day all over
the world accidents are common because of lack of technology, human
carelessness at right time. And these accidental barriers cannot be
completely avoidable but some fruitful steps definitely reduced to some
extent, in account of this the initiative steps is required to avoid many
humans death at any place and time by introducing new technologies, this
effort has been taken in this work by adopting automatic railway platform
opening without platform operator. The above said system works on
microcontroller based technique and rack and pinion mechanism which is
employed to operate Platform Bridge.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The term Level Crossing dealt with the place where railway line or path crosses a road
path at same level. In an India the transportation mode been highly depends on train. The
reason behind this is its economical and bulky in nature, however Level Crossing is the
steps towards safety concern internationally. It is evident from the daily newspapers and
TV channels that mishaps at level crossing is more often and its accounts 40% of train
accidents this is due to use of manned gate opening and carelessness of travellers or
deploying a unskilled railway gate operator, the train couldnt be stop at level crossing
because it has massive mass relative to the braking distance so it is essential to clear the
pedestrian and vehicles well in advance. By considering above said possibilities of
collisions and fatalities, in this work effective measure should be taken by implementing
microcontroller and read switch sensor based unmanned gate opening and also deploying
a rack and pinion operated automated platform bridge. The read sensors senses and send
a signal to the microcontroller when train come across it, And also in rest condition, then
microcontroller take action in two different situations to drive the driving motor to
operate opening of gate and form a platform bridge when the train leaves the station.
Normally the mobile platform connects the two platforms, through which the passengers
can walk on the platform to reach the next platform.
Fig. People are running on the Railway Track because of train coming on it
Fig. Todays scenario of railway crossing in rural areas
Indian railway network is the one of the biggest rail network in the Asia. Railways are
recognized as a one of the safest mode of mass transportation and Safety has been
recognized as the key issue for the railways networks. To make it a safe and reliable
system is an enormous challenge. Unmanageable platform crossings are one of the
problem areas for the Indian Railways, and one of the major issues of death. In spite of
various measures taken by the Indian Railways, platform crossing deaths have continued
to occur, that too frequently. Crossing the railway track inside the railway station is very
tedious especially for handicapped and disabled person. They find it quite difficult to
walk over the over bridge for crossing the platform. To solve this problem we use a new
approach called Automatic Railway Bridge System. This can be installed in major
subway stations and stations where the distance between the station platforms is
increased due to curve.
They conclude that Thus the tracking of train is sensed continuously,which automatically
close/open the mobile platform is partially automated which is beneficial for passengers
to crossthe rail grade crossing.The system into a fully automated instead of climbing the
staircase.This efficient method will be more compact for scheduling the train timings for
reaching the particular destination and also for crossing the suitable platforms.
They conclude that the accidents are avoided at places where there is no person managing
the railway crossing gates.
Here we use the stepper motor to open and close the gates automatically when it is
rotated clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
When the train arrives in a particular direction the transmitter IR senses and generates
appropriate signal, then at the same time the receiver IR receives the signal and generates
an interrupt.
When the interrupt is generated the stepper motor rotates in clockwise direction. When
the interrupt ends the stepper motor rotates in anti clock wise direction
C.M.Arun Kumar invented it and works on the Primary objective of Automatic Railway
Bridge System is to help the physically Challenged Passenger to move from one Platform
to another. Crossing the railway track inside the railway station is very difficult. But it is
quite difficult to the handicapped and aged persons to cross the railway track without the
help of others. In this paper the agents make use of a set of resources - train
characteristics, driving rules and information about other trains - to generate their action
policy. The proposed system uses the train time for opening and closing of bridges. It
also confirms the presence of the train using a sensor which is placed at a certain distance
away from the platform. The RUNE technical solution is based on GNSS receivers:
navigation data will come from GPS with differential EGNOS corrections (European
Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service) to enable autonomous and reliable
determination of train position, velocity under practically all environmental conditions.
While persons try to cross platform by avoiding the over bridge there is chance for the
accidents. This can be avoided by using this technique and very helpful for disabled
person.
They conclude that the aim of this paper was to develop a system that could help the
disabled person to cross the railway platform in far easy manner. The main contributions
this study has made were the establishment of driving rules to allow trains to travel
economically while giving priority to safety; the inclusion of additional trains travelling
in the same direction at a safe distance apart. This method helps in reducing the time and
area requirement. Further in future we can make the bridge as a rotating one for the
effortless crossing of railway track for disabled persons. Later in future a new recognition
method using stereo vision which calculates automatically volume of objects in bridge
can be used. Moreover, we consider other dangerous factors, such as safety accidents as
fall between a platform and a train, getting stuck between the bridges etc .Moreover; we
are considering an effective information transmission system for the controller.
Prashantha.B.Y, Harisha.S are invented it and work on the objective of this paper deals
with automatic railway gate opening at a level crossing without human intervention. In
the present work it is proposed to substitute fully automated railway gate opening feature
and as well as automated platform bridge facility in the station which helps peoples to
move from flat form to flat form. Now a day all over the world accidents are common
because of lack of technology, human carelessness at right time. And these accidental
barriers cannot be completely avoidable but some fruitful steps definitely reduced to
some extent, in account of this the initiative steps is required to avoid many humans death
at any place and time by introducing new technologies, this effort has been taken in this
work by adopting automatic railway gate opening without gate keeper near level crossing
and automated platform bridge. The above said system works on microcontroller based
technique and rack and pinion mechanism which is employed to operate Platform Bridge.
They conclude that the whole work took place in this paper heading towards trying to
avoid accidents and reduce the number of fatalities in the field of railway transportation
system. Thus basically paper concept through a stone to avoid a two barriers, those of
firstly,
Replacing manned type by adopting unmanned type i.e. fully automatic microcontroller
based system, this helps in preventing the death caused near level crossing, also decline
the time for which the people wait near the level crossing and completely prevent error
that has done by gate keeper.
Secondly, To help people those who are physically ill and aged because they are not
having enough stamina to climb and Cross the track with the aid of flyover, to keep in
mind that use of automated plat form bridge is predominant and did the same in this
work. This is the step towards help them and also effective method for those who dont
use flyover and cross the track along track itself.
2.5 LITERATURE REVIEW 5
Krishna Shashi Yadav and Nidhi invented it and they work on the objective of this paper
is to control the railway tracks by using anti-collision techniques. The model of railway
track controller is designed by using 8952 microcontroller to avoid railway accidents.
When we go through the daily newspapers we come across many railway accidents
occurring at unmanned railway crossings. This is mainly due to the carelessness in
manual operations or lack of workers. And also the collision of two trains is due to the
same track. This model is implemented using sensor technique. We placed the sensors at
a certain distance from the gate detects the approaching train and accordingly controls the
operation of the gate. Also an indicator light has been provided to alert the motorists
about the approaching train.
They conclude that this paper is suitably fulfilled the basic things such as avoidance of
accidents inside the gate and the avoidable of a gatekeeper. It avoids the railway
accidents and provides safety. We have seen little improvement in railway accidents. We
also observed stronger safety records in certain areas and believe they are the result of
constant efforts to improve safety. We demonstrate that it is possible to improve the
overall safety of the railway system in India. We believe that success depends on both the
railway industry and the regulator working together to achieve that common goal. The
proposed system provide the means for real time inspection, review and data collection
for the purpose of maintenance on the movable and fixed facilities for the guarantee of
operation safety and maintenance efficiency as well as the safety appraisal decision-
making system based on the share of safety data.
2.6 LITERATURE REVIEW 6
Acy M. Kottalil, Abhijith S., Ajmal M. M., Abhilash L. J., Ajith Babu are invented it and
they work on the objective of this paper is to provide an automatic railway gate at a level
crossing replacing the gates operated by the gatekeeper. The system reduces the time for
which the gate remains closed. This type of gates can be employed in an unmanned level
crossing where the chances of accidents are higher and reliable operation is required.
Since, the operation is automatic; error due to manual operation is prevented. The system
works on a microcontroller based control. The proposed system uses AT mega 16A
micro-controller. With the help of IR sensors .The arrival and leaving of the system is
monitored and the gate is operated accordingly.
They conclude that the circuit for our project was designed and set up in a breadboard. It
is found to be very reliable and stable. The circuit was able to control the railway gate
precisely. The circuit was tested in both direction and worked perfectly. By using
ATMEGA 16 we were able to achieve a fast response. Our project is a necessary tool for
todays railway crossings due to the increased number of accidents and also due to the
problems occurring to the road passengers while waiting a longer time during the
passage of train unnecessarily.
Ahmed Salih Mahdi. Al-Zuhairi are invented it and work on Railroad related accidents
are more dangerous than other transportation accidents in terms of severity and death rate
etc. Therefore more efforts are necessary for improving safety. There are many railways
crossing which are unmanned due to lock of manpower needed to fulfill the demands.
Hence many accidents occur at such crossing since there is no one to take care of the
functioning of the railway gate when a train approaches the crossing. The main objective
of this paper is to manage the control system of railway gate using microcontroller. The
proposed model has been designed using 8052 microcontroller to avoid railway accidents
occurring at unattended railway gates if implemented detection of train approaching the
gate can be sensed by means of two sensors placed on either side of the gate. This work
utilizes the two sensors placed on either side of the gate. This work utilizes two powerful
magnetic sensors is fixed at upside and similarly the other magnetic sensor is fixed at
down side of the train direction. Sensors are fixed on both sides of the gate. We call the
sensors along the train direction as foreside sensor and the other as after side sensor.
When foreside sensor gets activated the sensed signal is sent to the microcontroller and
the gate is closed and stays closed until the train crosses the gate and reaches after side
sensors. When the side sensor activated and the signal about the departure is sent to the
microcontroller motor turns in opposite direction and gate opens and motor stops
automatically.
They conclude that a new approach for improving safety at LCs and train collision on IR
has been suggested. Formats have been given to maintain records of LC inventories
accident/incident reports. A regular assessment of safety performance should be done.
This approach should be able to bring down the rising trend in accidents at LCs and train
collision accident. This project uses the present infrastructure of railways e.g. present
signaling method and meets all the requirements to have an automatic controlling of the
railway traffic. It provides the supervision and control system provide the mean for real
time inspection review and data collection for the purpose of maintenance on the
movable and fixed facilities for the guarantee of operation safety and maintenance
efficiency as well as the safety appraisal decision-making system based on the share of
safety data. The great achievement of modern technologies in each relevant field and the
technological development of the railway industry itself have provided railway with
feasibility to win higher service quality and faster speed.
2.8 LITERATURE REVIEW 8
Hnin Ngwe Yee Pwint, Zaw Myo Tun, Hla Myo Tun are invented it and work on
everywhere at level crossing between railroad and highway there are so many railway
accidents happening due to the carelessness in manual operations or lack of workers. So,
this paper describes the automatic railway gate control system using PIC microcontroller
for saving precious human lives and preventing major disasters in railway track. Railway
gate may be saved for the road users to prevent accidents in terms of train speed at level
crossing. This system uses PIC 16F877A microcontroller with the help of sensors. It can
divide into two parts. The first part is concern on the hardware development where all
electronic components have included. IR sensors, inductive sensors are the input
components while buzzer, light indicator, DC motor and LCD display are the output
components. These are controlled by the controller circuit. The microcontroller forms the
main unit of the system. It receives input signal from the sensors and sends information to
the gate motor driver for opening and closing the gate. Besides, the input signal will
active LCD display and alarm and indication light circuit was provided as additional part
of this system. The first inductive sensor and IR sensor are fixed at a certain distance
from the gate and the second sensors are fixed at the same certain distance after the gate.
The gate is closed, when the train crosses the first IR sensor and the gate is opened, when
the train crosses the second IR sensor. This system deals about one of the efficient
methods to avoid train accidents. The second part is based on software programming to
operate the hardware structure. Program for railway gate control system is based on PIC
microcontroller with PIC basic Pro language.
They conclude that automatic gate control system offer an effective way to reduce the
occurrence of railway accidents. This system can contribute a lot of benefit either to the
road users or to the railway management. Since the design is completely automated it can
be used in remote villages where no station master or line man is present. Railway
sensors are placed at two sides of gate. It is used to sense the arrival and departure of the
train. This system uses the DC motor to open and close the gates automatically when it is
rotated clockwise or anticlockwise direction. The LCD display shows the status of the
railway gate control system. The system can also generate buzzer and light indicators
while the train passing through the level crossing. In this system, this is controlled by
using PIC 16F877A microcontroller. Now a days automatic system occupies each and
every sector of applications as it is reliable and accurate.
Atul Kumar Dewangan, Meenu Gupta, Pratibha Patel are invented it and work on there
are many railway crossings which are unmanned due to lack of manpower, needed to
fulfill the demands. Hence, many accidents occur at such crossings, since there is no one
to take care of the functioning of the railway gate when a train approaches the crossing.
The objective of this paper is to manage the control system of railway gate using the
microcontroller. The proposed model has been designed using 8052 microcontroller to
avoid railway accidents occurring at unattended railway gates, if implemented detection
of train approaching the gate can be sensed by means of two sensors placed on either side
of the gate. This work utilizes two powerful magnetic sensors; one of these magnetic
sensors is fixed at upside (from where the train comes) and similarly the other magnetic
sensor is fixed at down side of the train direction. Sensors are fixed on both sides of the
gate. We call the sensor along the train direction as foreside sensor and the other as after
side sensor. When foreside sensor gets activated, the sensed signal is sent to the
microcontroller and the gate motor is turned on in one direction by relay driver and the
gate is closed and stays closed until the train crosses the gate and reaches after side
sensors. When after side sensor gets activated and the signal about the departure is sent to
the microcontroller, motor turns in opposite direction and gate opens and motor stops.
They conclude that a new approach for improving safety at LCs and train collision on IR
has been suggested. Formats have been given to maintain records of LC inventories,
accident / incident reports. Each LC should be assigned a hazard rating and the priority of
safety enhancement works be decided accordingly. A regular assessment of safety
performance should be done. This approach should be able to bring down the rising trend
in accidents at LCs and train collision accident. This project uses the present
infrastructure of railways, e.g. present signaling methods and meet all the requirements to
have an automatic controlling of the railway traffic. It provides the supervision and
control systems for the crossing and station. The proposed system provide the means for
real time inspection, review and data collection for the purpose of maintenance on the
movable and fixed facilities for the guarantee of operation safety and maintenance
efficiency as well as the safety appraisal decision-making system based on the share of
safety data. The great achievement of modern technologies is in each relevant field and
the technological development of the railway industry.
Whenever the train is arriving the transmitter sensor gets disturbed due to the interruption
of the train. Thus the sensor senses the arriving of the train. Before making the platform
move backward the circuit gives siren (buzzer) to alert the people who are on the track.
After certain time the circuit controller moves the platform backward by rotating the DC
motor with gear in clockwise direction.
For making the bridge move forward the circuit should know whether the train has left or
not. For this the second sensor pair is used. Whenever the second sensor senses the train
i.e.; Ehen the transmitter is disturbed then the circuit waits for the last compartment to
leave.
Fig. Railway Bridge
Then the circuit output is given to the DC gear motor which makes the DC motor move
in anticlockwise direction making the bridge move forward thereby making a way for the
pedestrians.
a. Make initial settings of the signals for the train and platform users.
b. Check for the arrival of the train in either direction by the sensors. If the train is
sensed go to 3 otherwise go to step 2.
c. Make the warning signal for the platform users and set the signal for the train.
d. Check for the presence of any obstacle using sensors. If no obstacle, go to step 5
otherwise repeat step 4.
i. Go to STEP 3.
CHAPTER 4
COMPONENTS
4.1 COMPONENTS USED IN THIS PROJECT
1. Mechanical Bridge
2. 12V DC Gear Motor
3. Buzzer
4. IR sensor
5. Support beam for Bridge
6. Microcontroller
7. Rack and Pinion Mechanism
8. Battery
Fig. A collapsed span of this bridge was reopened with a temporary bridge
Fig. A railway bridge in Leflore County, Mississippi
Most bridges are fixed bridges, meaning they have no moving parts and stay in one place
until they fail or are demolished. Temporary bridges, such as Bailey bridges, are designed
to be assembled, and taken apart, transported to a different site, and re-used. They are
important in military engineering, and are also used to carry traffic while an old bridge is
being rebuilt. Movable bridges are designed to move out of the way of boats or other
kinds of traffic, which would otherwise be too tall to fit. These are generally electrically
powered.
Double-decked bridges
Double-decked (or double-decker) bridges have two levels, such as the George
Washington Bridge, connecting New York City to Bergen County, New Jersey, USA, as
the world's busiest bridge, carrying 102 million vehicles annually;[1][2] truss work
between the roadway levels provided stiffness to the roadways and reduced movement of
the upper level when the lower level was installed three decades following the upper
level. The Tsing Ma Bridge and Kap Shui Mun Bridge in Hong Kong have six lanes on
their upper decks, and on their lower decks there are two lanes and a pair of tracks
for MTR metro trains. Some double-decked bridges only use one level for street traffic;
the Washington Avenue Bridge in Minneapolisreserves its lower level for automobile
traffic and its upper level for pedestrian and bicycle traffic (predominantly students at
the University of Minnesota). Likewise, in Toronto, the Prince Edward Viaduct has five
lanes of motor traffic, bicycle lanes, and sidewalks on its upper deck; and a pair of tracks
for the BloorDanforth subway line on its lower deck. The western span of the San
Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge also has two levels.
Robert Stephenson's High Level Bridge across the River Tyne in Newcastle upon Tyne,
completed in 1849, is an early example of a double-decked bridge. The upper level
carries a railway, and the lower level is used for road traffic. Other examples
include Britannia Bridge over the Menai Strait and Craigavon Bridge in Derry, Northern
Ireland. The Oresund Bridge between Copenhagen and Malm consists of a four-lane
highway on the upper level and a pair of railway tracks at the lower level. The Tower
Bridge is different example of a double-decked bridge, with the central section consisting
of a low level bascule span and a high level footbridge.
Viaducts
A viaduct is made up of multiple bridges connected into one longer structure. The longest
and some of the highest bridges are viaducts, such as the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway
and Millau Viaduct.
Three-way bridges
A three-way bridge has three separate spans which meet near the center of the bridge.
The bridge appears as a "T" or "Y" when viewed from above. Three-way bridges are
extremely rare. The Tridge, Margaret Bridge, and Zanesville Y-Bridge are examples.
Bridge types by use
Some bridges accommodate other purposes, such as the tower of Nov Most Bridge in
Bratislava, which features a restaurant, or a bridge-restaurant which is a bridge built to
serve as a restaurant. Other suspension bridge towers carry transmission antennas.
Bridges are subject to unplanned uses as well. The areas underneath some bridges have
become makeshift shelters and homes to homeless people, and the undersides of bridges
all around the world are spots of prevalent graffiti. Some bridges attract people
attempting suicide, and become known as suicide bridges.[citation needed]
The Iron Bridge completed in 1779 was the first cast iron bridge.
The materials used to build the structure are also used to categorize bridges. Until the end
of the 18th Century, bridges were made out of timber, stone and masonry. Modern
bridges are currently built in concrete, steel, fiber reinforced polymers (FRP), stainless
steel or combinations of those materials. Living bridges have been constructed of live
plants such as tree roots in India and vines in Japan.
4.3 12V DC GEAR MOTOR
An electric motor is used for the conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy.
This conversion of electrical power to mechanical energy takes place in the rotating part
of the motor. A D.C. Motor is called as Conduction motor, but an D.C Motor is called as
Induction Motor.
We all know that an electric motor is used for the conversion of electrical energy into
mechanical energy. This mechanical energy may be used for the pumping of liquid from
one place to other by using pumps or even to blow air by blowers or ceiling fans. The
conversion of electrical power to mechanical energy takes place in the rotating part of the
motor. In D.C. Motors, the electric power is conducted directly to the armature (the
rotating part) through brushes & commutator. Thus we can say a D.C. Motor as a
conduction motor. But in case of an D.C Motor, the rotor does not receive electric power
by conduction, but by Induction. Thus they are called as induction motors. This can be
compared with the secondary winding of a transformer. These induction motors are also
called as rotating transformers. Of all motors, it is generally a 3-phase or a poly-phase
induction motor is used in a larger extent in many industries
The Direction of rotation of an Electric motor is given by Fleming's Left Hand rule:
Also other important Law is the Faraday's Law Of Electro Magnetic Induction. There are
3 important rules/laws of electromagnetic induction. They are as follows:
1. An EMF is induced in a coil whenever the flux through the coil changes with time.
2. The magnitude of induced EMF is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux.
3. The direction of the EMF is such as to oppose the change in flux.
If a 3-phase supply is fed to the stator windings of a 3-phase motor, a magnetic flux of
constant magnitude, rotating at synchronous speed is set up. At this point, the rotor is
stationary. The rotating magnetic flux passes through the air gap between the stator &
rotor and sweeps past the stationary rotor conductors. This rotating flux, as it sweeps,
cuts the rotor conductors, thus causing an e.m.f to be induced in the rotor conductors. As
per the Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, it is this relative motion between the
rotating magnetic flux and the stationary rotor conductors, which induces an e.m.f on the
rotor conductors. Since the rotor conductors are shorted and form a closed circuit, the
induced e.m.f produces a rotor current whose direction is given by Lenzs Law, is such as
to oppose the cause producing it. In this case, the cause which produces the rotor current
is the relative motion between the rotating magnetic flux and the stationary rotor
conductors. Thus to reduce the relative speed, the rotor starts to rotate in the same
direction as that of the rotating flux on the stator windings, trying to catch it up. The
frequency of the induced e.m.f is same as the supply frequency.
Cogging Of Induction Motors
Sometimes, when the supply voltage is low, the squirrel cage induction motor refuses to
start. This happens when the number of stator teeth and the number of the rotor teeth is
equal, thus causing a magnetic locking between the stator and the rotor. This
phenomenon is other-wise called as teeth-locking or Magnetic locking. This problem can
be overcome by having the number of rotor slots prime to the stator slots.
Plugging of Motor
The Induction motor can be stopped immediately by just interchanging any two of the
stator leads. When an induction motor is rotating at a high speed, during emergency if
situation arises that the motor has to be stopped immediately, can be done by
interchanging any 2 leads of the stator supply. By doing this, it reverses the direction of
the revolving flux, which produces a torque in the reverse direction, thus causing a
breaking effect on the rotor. This breaking period is called the Plugging period.
Analogy with the Mechanical Clutch
Output= T* 2
But 2 = 1*(1-s)
So output = T* 1*(1-s)
Loss = T* 1 T* 2
Loss = T* 1 T 1*(1-s)
Loss = s * T 1
Thus
1. It has a simple design, low initial cost, rugged construction almost unbreakable
2. The operation is very simple with almost very less maintenance as there are no
brushes.
3. The efficiency of these motors is very high, as there are no frictional losses, with
reasonably good power factor.
4. The control gear for the starting purpose of these motors is minimum and thus simple
and reliable operation.
1. The speed control of these motors is not easy without some loss in efficiency.
Fig. IR Sensor
Sensors senses are the train and give the signal to the circuit to up and down the
Bridge.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
IR Proximity Sensor
This sensor can be used to measure the speed of object moving at a very high speed, like
in industry.
One of the most useful sensor find its application while detecting object/hurdles, edges of
surface etc. With a long range of 20 cm, TLL interface and ambient light protection
makes it easy and reliable to use.
Features:
Range: 20 cm Ambient light protection Easy interface with microcontroller.
Here we have use the IR proximity sensor to check the bottle detection at the particular
place where the liquid filling system is planted. If the IR sensor detect the bottle on the
conveyer belt than the IR sensor gives it output to the controller and controller stops the
movement of the bottle.
This beam is need when the Bridge is down then support is required to withstand
the load of the Bridge and people moving on the Bridge.
Here, we uses supporting beam for withstand the load of mechanical bridge as well
as the people moving on the bridge with his luggage.
4.6 MICROCONTROLLER
Circuit is used for received signal of sensors and transmits it to Bridge and Buzzer.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
The Flash program memory supports both parallel programming and in serial In-System
Programming (ISP). Parallel programming mode offers gang-programming at high speed,
reducing programming costs and time to market. ISP allows a device to be reprogrammed
in the end product under software control. The capability to field/update the application
firmware makes a wide range of applications possible. The P89V51RD2 is also In-
Application Programmable (IAP), allowing the Flash program memory to be
reconfigured even while the application is running.
FEATURES:
80C51 Central Processing Unit
V Operating voltage from 0 to 40 MHz
64 KB of on-chip Flash program memory with ISP (In-System Programming) and
IAP (In-Application Programming).
Like other gear arrangements, a worm drive can reduce rotational speed or transmit
higher torque. A worm is an example of a screw, one of the six simple machines.
Explanation[edit]
A gearbox designed using a worm and worm-wheel is considerably smaller than one made from
plain spur gears, and has its drive axes at 90 to each other. With a single start worm, for each
360 turn of the worm, the worm-gear advances only one tooth of the gear. Therefore, regardless
of the worm's size (sensible engineering limits notwithstanding), the gear ratio is the "size of the
worm gear - to - 1". Given a single start worm, a 20 tooth worm gear reduces the speed by the
ratio of 20:1. With spur gears, a gear of 12 teeth must match with a 240 tooth gear to achieve the
same 20:1 ratio. Therefore, if the diametrical pitch (DP) of each gear is the same, then, in terms
of the physical size of the 240 tooth gear to that of the 20 tooth gear, the worm arrangement is
considerably smaller in volume.
A double bass features worm gears as tuning mechanisms
Types
There are three different types of gears that can be used in a worm drive.
The first are non-throated worm gears. These don't have a throat, or groove, machined around
the circumference of either the worm or worm wheel. The second are single-throated worm
gears, in which the worm wheel is throated. The final type are double-throated worm gears,
which have both gears throated. This type of gearing can support the highest loading.[1]
An enveloping (hourglass) worm has one or more teeth and increases in diameter from its middle
portion toward both ends.[2]
Direction of transmission
Unlike with ordinary gear trains, the direction of transmission (input shaft vs output shaft) is not
reversible when using large reduction ratios, due to the greater friction involved between the
worm and worm-wheel, when usually a single start (one spiral) worm is used. This can be an
advantage when it is desired to eliminate any possibility of the output driving the input. If a
multistart worm (multiple spirals) is used then the ratio reduces accordingly and the braking
effect of a worm and worm-gear may need to be discounted, as the gear may be able to drive the
worm.
Worm gear configurations in which the gear cannot drive the worm are called self-locking.
Whether a worm and gear is self-locking depends on the lead angle, the pressure angle, and the
coefficient of friction.
Applications
A worm drive controlling a gate. The position of the gate does not change once set
In early 20th century automobiles prior to the introduction of power steering, the effect of a flat
or blowout on one of the front wheels tended to pull the steering mechanism toward the side with
the flat tire. The use of a worm screw reduced this effect. Further worm drive development led
to recirculating ball bearings to reduce frictional forces, which transmitted some steering force to
the wheel. This aids vehicle control and reduces wear that could cause difficulties in steering
precisely.
Worm drives are a compact means of substantially decreasing speed and increasing torque.
Small electric motors are generally high-speed and low-torque; the addition of a worm drive
increases the range of applications that it may be suitable for, especially when the worm drive's
compactness is considered.
Worm drives are used in presses, rolling mills, conveying engineering, mining industry
machines, on rudders, and worm drive saws. In addition, milling heads and rotary tables are
positioned using high-precision duplex worm drives with adjustable backlash. Worm gears are
used on many lift/elevator and escalator-drive applications due to their compact size and the non-
reversibility of the gear.
In the era of sailing ships, the introduction of a worm drive to control the rudder was a
significant advance. Prior to its introduction, a rope drum drive controlled the rudder. Rough seas
could apply substantial force to the rudder, often requiring several men to steer the vesselsome
drives had two large-diameter wheels so up to four crewmen could operate the rudder.
Worm drives have been used in a few automotive rear-axle final drives (though not
the differential itself). They took advantage of the location of the gear being at either the very top
or very bottom of the differential crown wheel. In the 1910s they were common on trucks; to
gain the most clearance on muddy roads the worm gear was placed on top. In the 1920s
the Stutz firm used them on its cars; to have a lower floor than its competitors, the gear was
located on the bottom. An example from around 1960 was the Peugeot 404. The worm gear
carries the differential gearing, which protects the vehicle against rollback. This ability has
largely fallen from favour due to the higher-than-necessary reduction ratios.
A more recent exception to this is the Torsen differential, which uses worms and planetary worm
gears in place of the bevel gearing of conventional open differentials. Torsen differentials are
most prominently featured in the HMMWV and some commercial Hummer vehicles, and as a
centre differential in some all wheel drive systems, such as Audi's quattro. Very heavy trucks,
such as those used to carry aggregates, often use a worm gear differential for strength. The worm
drive is not as efficient as a hypoid gear, and such trucks invariably have a very large differential
housing, with a correspondingly large volume of gear oil, to absorb and dissipate the heat
created.
Worm drives are used as the tuning mechanism for many musical instruments,
including guitars, double-basses, mandolins, bouzoukis, and many banjos (although most high-
end banjos use planetary gears or friction pegs). A worm drive tuning device is called a machine
head.
Plastic worm drives are often used on small battery-operated electric motors, to provide an
output with a lower angular velocity (fewer revolutions per minute) than that of the motor, which
operates best at a fairly high speed. This motor-worm-gear drive system is often used in toys and
other small electrical devices.
A worm drive is used on jubilee-type hose clamps or jubilee clamps. The tightening screw's
worm thread engages with the slots on the clamp band.
Occasionally a worm gear is designed to run in reverse, resulting in the output shaft turning
much faster than the input. Examples of this may be seen in some hand-cranked centrifuges or
the wind governor in a musical box.
A right hand helical gear or right hand worm is one in which the teeth twist clockwise as they
recede from an observer looking along the axis. The designations, right hand and left hand, are
the same as in the long established practice for screw threads, both external and internal. Two
external helical gears operating on parallel axes must be of opposite hand. An internal helical
gear and its pinion must be of the same hand.
A left hand helical gear or left hand worm is one in which the teeth twist anticlockwise as they
recede from an observer looking along the axis
Battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored
chemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery (or "voltaic
pile") in 1800 by Alessandro Volta and especially since the technically improved Daniel
cell in 1836, batteries have become a common power source for many household and
industrial applications.
The Lead Acid battery is made up of plates, lead, and lead oxide (various other elements
are used to change density, hardness, porosity, etc.) with a 35% sulfuric acid and 65%
water solution. This solution is called electrolyte, which causes a chemical reaction that
produce electrons. When you test a battery with a hydrometer, you are measuring the
amount of sulfuric acid in the electrolyte. If your reading is low, that means the chemistry
that makes electrons is lacking. So where did the sulfur go? It is resting on the battery
plates and when you recharge the battery, the sulfur returns to the electrolyte.
Basically there are two types of lead acid batteries (along with 3 sub categories); the two
main types are Starting (cranking), and Deep Cycle (marine/golf cart). The starting
battery (SLI starting lights ignition) is designed to deliver quick bursts of energy (such as
starting engines) and therefore has a greater plate count. The plates are thinner and have
somewhat different material composition. The deep cycle battery has less instant energy,
but greater long-term energy delivery. Deep cycle batteries have thicker plates and can
survive a number of discharge cycles. Starting batteries should not be used for deep cycle
applications because the thinner plates are more prone to warping and pitting when
discharged. Dual Purpose Battery is a compromise between the two types of batteries,
though it is better to be more specific if possible.
Wet Cell (flooded), Gel Cell, and Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) are various versions of the
lead acid battery. The Wet cell comes in two styles; Serviceable and Maintenance free.
Both are filled with electrolyte and are basically the same. I prefer one that I can add
water to and check the specific gravity of the electrolyte with a hydrometer. The Gel Cell
and the AGM batteries are specialty batteries that typically cost twice as much as a
premium wet cell. However they store very well and do not tend to sulfate or degrade as
easily as wet cell. There is little chance of a hydrogen gas explosion or corrosion when
using these batteries; these are the safest lead acid batteries you can use. Gel Cell and
some AGM batteries may require a special charging rate. If you want the best, most
versatile type, consideration should be given to the AGM battery for applications such as
Marine, RV, Solar, Audio, Power Sports and Stand-By Power just to name a few. If you
don't use or operate your equipment daily, AGM batteries will hold their charge better
that other types. If you must depend on top-notch battery performance, spend the extra
money. Gel Cell batteries still are being sold but AGM batteries are replacing them in
most applications. There is a some common confusion regarding AGM batteries because
different manufactures call them by different names; some of the more common names
are "sealed regulated valve", "dry cell", "non spill able", and "Valve Regulated Lead
Acid" batteries. In most cases AGM batteries will give greater life span and greater cycle
life than a wet cell battery.
SPECIAL NOTE about Gel Batteries: It is very common for individuals to use the term
GEL CELL when referring to sealed, maintenance free batteries, much like one would
use Kleenex when referring to facial tissue or "Xerox machine" when referring to a copy
machine. Be very careful when specifying a battery charger, many times we are told by
customer they are requiring a charger for a Gel Cell battery and in fact the battery is not a
Gel Cell.
AGM:
The Absorbed Glass Matt construction allows the electrolyte to be suspended in close
proximity with the plates active material. In theory, this enhances both the discharge and
recharge efficiency. Common manufacturer applications include high performance
engine starting, power sports, deep cycle, solar and storage battery. The larger AGM
batteries we sell are typically good deep cycle batteries and they deliver their best life
performance if recharged before allowed to drop below the 50% discharge rate. The
Scorpion motorcycle batteries we carry are a nice upgrade from your stock flooded
battery, and the Odyssey branded batteries are fantastic for holding their static charge
over long periods of non use. When Deep Cycle AGM batteries are discharged to a rate
of no less than 60% the cycle life will be 300 plus cycles.
GEL:
The Gel Cell is similar to the AGM style because the electrolyte is suspended, but
different because technically the AGM battery is still considered to be a wet cell. The
electrolyte in a Gel Cell has a silica additive that causes it to set up or stiffen. The
recharge voltage on this type of cell is lower than the other styles of lead acid battery.
This is probably the most sensitive cell in terms of adverse reactions to over-voltage
charging. Gel Batteries are best used in VERY DEEP cycle application and may last a bit
longer in hot weather applications. If the incorrect battery charger is used on a Gel Cell
and battery works poor performance.
CHAPTER 5
BLOCK DIAGRAM
mODEL IMAGE
CHAPTER 6
ADVANTAGES,
DISADVANTAGES
AND APPLICATIONS
6.1 ADVANTAGES
Easy to install
6.2 DISADVANTAGES
ESTIMATION AND
COSTING
7.1 ESTIMATION AND COSTING
http://www.slideshare.net/
http://www.engineersgallery.com/
http://www.slideshare.net/ellencarroll/presentation1-29246250
http://www.slideshare.net/mdoude/presentation-railway-platforms
http://www.wikipedia.com/
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