Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ON
Prepared by
Page 15
Page 16
UNIT I
SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORS
Electrical Machines-III Synchronous Generators
UNIT I
1. SYNCHRONOUS GeneratoRS
1. Electrical Machine:
It is a device, which converts one form of energy into another form of energy by
utilizing the force as motion of electric charge is called known as electrical machine.
1.1.1. Synchronism:
Achieved a coincidence within a point of time is known as synchronism.
1.1.2. Introduction:
AC system has a number of advantages over dc system. Now-a-days the three phase AC
system is being used for generation, transmission and distribution of power.
The machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy at particular voltage
with a fixed frequency is called an alternator or synchronous generator or AC generator or
a machine for generating alternating currents is referred to as an alternator.
The term AC Generator is also frequently used, in place of alternator and this is often
contracted to just generator.
The frequency is an important property of AC electrical energy. Frequency is depends on
speed, therefore to achieve fixed frequency the machine must be always runs only at one
speed called synchronous speed. Thats the reason the alternator is called Synchronous
Generator.
Alternators are the primary source of till the electrical energy which we consumed. These
machines are the largest energy converters in the world.
The prime mover which is used for generation purpose is turbines. For commercial and
industrial purpose the four-stroke engines are used as prime movers to give mechanical
power to the alternators.
In dc generator, the field poles are stationary and the armature conductors rotate. The
alternating induced emf in armature conductors are converted to a dc voltage at the brushes by means
of the commutator.
In alternators, there is no commutator required to supply electrical energy with an alternating
voltage. Therefore, it is not necessary that armature be the rotating one. The alternator also has an
armature winding and a field winding. But the important difference between the two is,
For an alternator, armature winding is placed or housed in a stator instead of rotor in a dc
generator. The field winding is housed in a rotor poles. It is more usually convenient, advantageous
to place the field winding on rotating part (rotor) and armature winding on stationary part (stator).
DC GENERATOR ALTERNATOR
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.
Large size of brushes and brush gear required Small size of brushes and brush gear
for rotor because armature current is high equal arrangement required for rotor because field
to the load. current is small.
Prime mover as IC engine or fly wheels. Prime mover as Turbines.
The armature winding is always connected in star and the neutral is connected to the load because,
for star connection,
Vl
Vph =
3
Since the emf is proportional to number of turns, so that it requires less number of turns than
Delta. Neutral protects the system in case of ground faults.
1.3.2. Rotor:
The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct current (dc) through two slip
rings by a separate dc source.
Depending on the construction of rotor the alternators are classified into two types.
i. Salient or projecting pole type.
ii. Non-Salient or Cylindrical or Wound type.
120*f 1
NS = NS =
P P
N*P
F =
120
Where, N = speed of rotor (rpm)
P = number of rotor poles.
The above figure shows star-connected armature winding and dc field winding. When the
rotor is rotated, a 3- voltage is induced in the armature winding. The magnitude of the
induced depends upon the speed of rotation and the dc exiting current.
The magnitude of emf in each phase of the armature winding is the same. However, they
differ in phase by 1200 electrical as shown in the phasor diagram.
This means that one complete cycle of emf is generated in the conductor as a pair of poles passes it.
i.e., one N-pole and the adjacent following S-pole. The same is true for every other armature
conductor.
We know that from graphical representation of graphical plot, the rotating field travels a distance
covered by 2-poles.
P
Number of cycles for one revolution = for P pole machine.
2
N
Number of revolution /second = (sec)
60
P N
= *
2 60
But number of cycles / second is its emfs frequency.
PN
F = Frequency =
120
It may be noted that N is the synchronous speed. For a given alternator, the number
of rotor poles is fixed and therefore, the alternator must be run at synchronous speed to give an
output of desired frequency. For this reason, an alternator is sometimes called synchronous
generator.
Note:-
In other words, the synchronous machines doubly excited energy-conversion devices. In
general, the generated induced emf is depends on the relative motive between the field flux lines and
armature conductors.
If it is working as a motor, the field winding is energized from a dc source and its armature
winding is connected to ac source.
Finally the synchronous machine delivers or exports ac power.
1.5.1. Mechanical degrees: the degree of physical or mechanical rotation a single conductor in an
alternator.
1.5.2. Electrical degrees: the degree or the cycle of emf induced in a single conductor in an
alternator
Consider a 2- pole Alternator, when a conductor rotates in the field, the emf induced in the
conductor will be maximum when the conductor is at the center of the pole and the emf induced will
be minimum when the conductor is in the middle of the gap between the two poles.
For one complete rotation of the conductor in the field - One complete cycle of emf is generated in
the conductor (Positive half cycle at South Pole and negative half cycle at North Pole).
The same way when we consider a 4-pole alternator a single conductor when completing one
mechanical rotation will cross the four poles there by giving the induced emf graph with two positive
half cycles and two negative half cycles which gives us two complete cycles of induced emf.
So for One Mechanical rotation (360 degrees) the induced emf completes two cycles
i.e., 360 * 2 = 720 degrees in terms of the sine wave
So, the relation between Electrical and Mechanical degrees can be written as
S.No SALIENT POLE TYPE ROTOR NON SALIENT POLE TYPE ROTOR
This type of rotor is having large This type of rotor is having small diameters
1.
diameters and small axial length. and long axial length.
Poles are separately projected to the large Poles are in-built to the solid forged steel
2.
cylindrical steel frame. radial cylinder.
Simple in construction, N = 150 to
3. Robust in construction, N=1500 to 3000rpm
1500rpm
Low and medium operating speed.
4. High operating speed (1500, 3000rpm)
(120 to 400rpm)
Somewhat noisy operation due to air-gap
Noiseless operation and air friction is
5. between the poles, air friction is
minimum.
maximum.
These are employed with hydraulic
6. Employed with steam turbines i.e., turbo type.
turbines and diesel engines.
The emf wave form is not a exact one, Better emf wave form will obtained, small
7.
large diameter, short axial length. diameter & large axial length.
Poles are laminated to reduce the eddy
8. Less windage (air resistance) loss.
current loss.
Coil:
One coil consists of number of turns. One coil has one turn shown in fig. (a)
One coil has two turns shown in fig. (b)
Multi turn coil has shown in fig. (c) i.e. one coil has more than two turns.
Coil side:
One coil with any number of turns having two coil sides or conductors i.e. PQ is one coil side
one turn and ST is another will side.
Pitch:
The term pitch indicates a particular method of measurement in terms of coil sides and teeth.
Pole pitch:
A pole pitch is defined as the distance between two adjacent poles. Pole pitch is always 1800
electrical.
Full-pitched winding:
If pole pitch is equal to coil-span or coil-pitch then that type of winding is called full-pitched
winding.
Short-pitched winding:
If the winding has pole pitch is not equal to coil span (or) coil span is less than pole-pitch is
called known as short-pitch winding.
Back-pitch (YB):
The distance measured in between two coil sides of a turn is called known as back pitch. (YB)
Front pitch (YF):
The distance between the second conductor of one coil and first conductor of second coil is
called front pitch (YF)
Resultant Pitch (YR):
The distance between the beginnings of one will and the beginning of the next coil to which it
is connected called resultant pitch. (YR)
Armature Winding
Concentrated Winding
Distributed Winding
Advantages:
The following are the advantages of single layer winding.
Higher efficiency and quite operation because of narrow slot openings.
Space factor for slots is higher due to absence of inter layer separator.
The number of coils, the number of turns per coil, the coil pitch, the number of circuits and the
connection of the phases are give the desired emf wave form.
In case the slot contains even number of coil sides in two or double layers, than the winding
is called as double layer winding.
The winding may be arranged to be connected either Y or , with leads brought out from both
ends of each phase to make this possible.
Advantages:
Ease in manufacture of coils and lower cost of winding.
Less number of coils is required as spare in the case of winding repairs.
Fractional slot windings, pitch coils are employed.
Lower leakage reactance and therefore better performance and more economical.
Modern practice all over the world favors use of double layer windings. Single layer winding is
only employed for small rating ac machines and where as double layer windings are more common
above 5KW machines.
(iv). Full-pitch and short-pitch or chorded windings:
If the coil-span or coil-pitch is equal to the pole-pitch then the winding is termed as full-
pitch winding shown in figure.
If the coil-span or coil-pitch is less than the pole-
pitch (1800) then the winding is termed as short-pitch
/ chorded winding as shown in fig.
If there are S slots (or teeths) and P poles, then
S
pole pitch = P slots per pole = 1800 electrical
= Short-Pitch angle
S
If Coil-Pitch = P , it results in full-pitch winding
S
If Coil-Pitch < P , then it results in Short-pitch winding
Upper coil-side in slot-2 must be connected to bottom coil-side in slot-8 (2+6 = 8). The
winding is further completed for phase-R only shown in figure.
For a 3- machine, from the above figure the slots 7, 8, 13, 14 contain coil sides belonging to
the same phase-R. In general, it can be stated that for full-pitch integral slot winding, each
slot contains coil-sides belonging to the same phase.
S/3
Where, SK = K
P
PK = K
The ratio of Sk / Pk is called the characteristic ratio of the fractional slot winding.
Let Es be the induced emf in each side of the coil. If the coil were full-pitched i.e., its two
coil sides were one-pole pitch (1800 ) apart.
If it is short pitched by 300 (), their resultant Er which is the vector sum of two
voltages with 300 electrical (ES)
Er = OR = OS + SR
300 300
= OQ cos + QR cos
2 2
= Es cos 150 + Es cos 150
In general, if the coil span falls short of full pitch by angle i.e., short-pitch angle is denoted
(electrical).
KP or KC = cos
2
If the 3-coils are bunched in one slot (concentrated winding), then the total induced emf
induced in the three coil sides of the coil is arithmetic sum of three emfs. Let ES be magnitude of
each coil side.
i.e., 3ES .. (1)
For distributed winding the three coils are displaced
200 in three different slots. Then the vector sum is,
OC = Er = OE cos 200 + ED + DC cos 200
= Es cos 200 + Es + Es cos 200
= 2Es cos 200 + Es
= 2Es 0.9397 + Es
Er = 2.88Es (2)
2.88 Es
=
3Es
Kd = 0.96 1
General case:
Let be angular displacement between the slots.
Its value,
1800 1800
= =
no. of slots / pole n
m = no. of slots/pole/phase.
m = spread angle.
Then the resultant emf in one polar group is
mES
(i.e., m AE)
ES = voltage induced in one coil side.
The method for finding the vector sum of m voltages each of value Es and having mutual
phase difference of . (If m is large, then the curve ABCDE will become part of a circle of radius
r)
AB = ES = 2r sin
2
Arithmetic sum = mES = m 2r sin .(1)
2
m
Vector sum = AE = Er = 2r sin ..(2)
2
m
sin 2
Kd =
m sin 2
m
sin 2
Kd =Distribution factor=
m sin 2
KP = Pitch factor = cos 2
d P NP
= = = Average induced emf / conductor (1)
dt 60 60
N
Now,
PN 120 f
we know that, f = N= (2)
120 P
(2) in (1) as
NP
Avg. emf per conductor =
60
P 120 f
= .
60 P
= 2f (volts)
If there are z conductors in series / phase,
Then average induced emf/conductor = 2fz = 2f(2T) = 4fT
We know,
rms
Form factor = Kf = = 1.11
avg
Then,
RMS value of emf/ph = 1.11 avg.
= 1.11 4fT
Eg(rms) = 4.44fT volts.
But the above equation is not being so, the actual available voltage is reduced in the ratio of
two factors i.e., KP and Kd.
1.13. Harmonics:
The distortion in an output or input Voltage or Current wave form is called known as
harmonics.
The ripples due to slotting of armature are always opposite to slots and a tooths which are
causing them. Thus the harmonics which is generated in the emf is due tom slotting called slot
harmonics.
The air-gap offers maximum reluctance to the flux path, if made to vary sinusoidal around the
machine the field form and would be sinusoidal
Thus in general it can be seen that ideal sinusoidal field form is very difficult to obtain whether
the machine is salient pole type or cylindrical type rotor construction.
1800 1800
i.e., = = = 200
n 9
The resultant emf per phase would be the
phasor sum of the induced emfs in the three
coils which may be obtained by adding the
ordinates of three emfs waves.
The resultant emf per phase for a fractional or short-pitch winding will be more nearly sinusoidal
than for full-pitch winding.
In cylindrical rotor machines, the length of air-gap is uniform throughout, therefore the
sinusoidal field wave form is obtained, and the mmf of the field winding is made to vary as
nearly sinusoidal as possible.
Now if we consider that an amount of saturation in iron parts, the sinusoidal field form cannot be
obtained in salient pole machines even if the air-gap length is varied sinusoidal.
In cylindrical rotor machines even if the mmf distribution in air-gap is made sinusoidal because
air-gap around the outer periphery should be uniform. An ideal sinusoidal wave form is very
difficult to achieve, and therefore harmonics developed in induced emf.
The harmonics can be easily eliminated from the alternator generated induced emf wave form by
properly designing the windings. The various methods for elimination of harmonics from the
output voltage are,
1) Distributing the armature winding properly.
2) Short-chording or fractionally pitched the armature winding by making the coil-span or
coil-pitch less than a full pole-pitch. (i.e., short-pitch winding)
3) Skewing the pole faces usually through one slot-pitch.
4) In case of salient pole, if we maintain small air-gap at the pole centre and large air-gap
towards the pole ends tends to make the field flux sinusoidal as shown in above figure.
5) Skewing the armature slots, only tooth or slot harmonics can be eliminated.
6) Fractional slot winding: Higher order harmonics can be drastically reduced by using
fractional slot winding. The flux pulsations can be reduced by having number of slots per
pole arc as an integer plus 1/2.
7) Larger air-gap length causes the increases in reluctance which will reduce the harmonics.
8) By making the alternator connections i.e., star or delta connections of alternators suppress
triplen harmonics (multiples of three) from appearing across lines.
The prime mover which drives the alternator, have a rating independent of power factor and it
depends on kW output.
Finally we can say that the alternators are rated in kVA or kW at specified power factor.
Other name plate details include:
1. Voltage 2. Current
3. Frequency 4. Speed
5. Number of Poles 6. Field current & Voltage
7. Maximum Temperature rise 8. Number of Phases
1.17. Leakage Reactance or armature leakage reactance (XL):
Leakage reactance is an inductive reactance formed due to air-gap in between armature
conductors and field poles
In an a.c. machine, any flux set up by the
load current which does not contribute to
the useful flux or main flux of the machine
is a leakage flux.
This leakage fluxes may be classified as
1. Slot leakage
2. Tooth head leakage
3. Coil-end or overhang leakage
When a current flow through the armature
conductors or stator conductors, the flux is set up a
portion of this flux does not cross the air-gap, but
completes its path in stator as shown in figure.
Such a flux is known as leakage flux.
This effect gives the armature a reactance which is numerically equal to 2 f L. L, in henries, is
the leakage inductance of winding
This leakage flux is proportional to stator or armature current, since the magnetic path it covers is
not normally saturated. It also depends on the phase angle between the stator current and voltage
applied across the stator.
The leakage flux sets up an emf of self inductance leading the load current I by and
2
This causes the distortion of the flux due to main field and asymmetrical distribution of the flux
density under the pole shoe. The flux density under the trailing pole tips increases somewhat,
while under the leading pole lips it decreases.
The axis of the resultant field is displaced under the action of armature reaction mmf in a
direction opposite to that of rotation of the rotor.
Hence armature reaction at unity power factor has got distorting effect.
The distribution of currents and fluxes with phase angle = +2 radians i.e., for a purely
inductive load is shown above. The current maximum will be shifted in space by an angle 900 from
the emf maximum, which coincides with the centre of the poles. This shift will be opposite to
direction of rotation, because the fundamental armature reaction wave rotates in step with the field
poles.
While when = +2, current wave lags behind the emf wave by an angle 900. The field created by the
armature reaction mmf will be in opposite to main field flux and will,
Therefore, have a wholly de-magnetizing effect.
shown below.
The maximum current will be shifted to the right from the maximum emf, which remains as before
under the pole centres and the armature reaction will,
Therefore have a wholly magnetizing effect on the main field.
For any power factor cos of load, the armature reaction has cross-magnetizing component
proportional I cos and demagnetizing component proportional to I sin, and is taken +ve for
lagging power and ve for leading power factor.
The phasor sum of the fundamental armature winding and field winding mmf waves constitutes,
in a synchronous machine, the mmf creating the resultant magnetic flux.
The emf set up due to armature reaction mmf is always quadrature with load current IL and is
proportional to it. Thus it is equivalent to an emf induced in an inductive coil and the effect of
armature reaction can, therefore, be considered equivalent to reactance drop IXa. Where Xa
which takes care of the armature reaction effect.
The armature winding possess a certain leakage reactance (XL) already discussed. The sum of
XL and Xa is called the synchronous reactance.
XS = XL + Xa
i.e., ZS = Re + jXS
Armature winding effective resistance (Re) in alternators usually very small in comparison to
synchronous reactance (XS) and therefore ZS may be assumed to XS.
D
E0
Ia Xa
From the Phasor diagram of
lagging power factor,
Ia XS
Ia is taken as reference vector
Ia Xl
OD2 = OB2 + BD2
V sin
E0 = (V cos + IaRe )2 +(V sin + Ia Xs )2
O Ia A B
V cos Ia Re
Ia
D
From the Phasor diagram of leading power
factor,
E0 C
V is taken as reference vector E
OC2 = OD2 + DC2
E02 = OC2 = (OE + ED)2 + (BD - BC)2
B
2 V
E0 = (V cos + Ia Re )2 + V sin - Ia Xs
O A
Leading Power Factor
D
E0 From the Phasor diagram of unity
Ia Xa
power factor,
OD2 = OC2 + CD2
Ia XS
Ia V Ia Re
O E0 = ( V +Ia Re)2 +(Ia Xs )2
A B C
Unity Power Factor
Each phase generates an emf E0 per phase as shown. The equivalent circuit of an alternator for
one phase is shown.
At no-load, the terminal voltage V per phase is equal to excitation (or) generated emf E0 per phase
i.e., V = E0
1.24. Load characteristics:
Already we know that if the exciting current and speed remain constant, the terminal voltage
of an alternator changes with the change in the load (or) armature current.
The relation-ship between the terminal voltage (V) and load current (I) of an alternator is known as
its Load characteristics.
The curves showing the variation of terminal voltage V with load current I for constant
excitation for different power factor loads are given. The curves are plotted in terms of percentage
values general operating conditions can be marked better in this way.
0.8 Leading PF
100
0.8 Lagging PF
Vt (Volts)
0 220
Isc (Amps)
(Percent Load Current)
Normally the terminal voltage falls with increase in load current, but when the power factor is
leading one, the load characteristic may rise at first due to armature reaction effect (i.e.,
magnetization). Each curve is nearly straight line at the beginning but trends to droop because,
with the increase in load current, the angle of lag between current and emf, owing to the original
field increases.
The highest current is obtained when the alternator terminals are short-circuited, the value being
given as
E0
Isc = (A)
Zs
where, E0 is non-load terminal voltage and Zs is the synchronous impedance.
Draw the open circuit characteristic curve (OCC curve) from the above readings. i.e., If on x-
axis and Eg on y-axis. The Ego which we obtained from voltmeter is line value that should be
Ego /line
representing in a graph as phase value. i.e., [For a star Ego/ph = ].
3
Eoc
Zs =
Isc
1.26. Determination of effective armature resistance: (Re)
The effective armature resistance (Re) per phase can be measured directly by Ammeter-
Voltmeter (A-V method) or by using Wheatstone bridge.
The above circuit is used to measure the effective armature resistance per phase. The DC supply
is connected to the any one phase of armature winding through rheostat, ammeter in series and
voltmeters to parallel.
Then the rheostat can be varied from maximum to minimum in steps the Va and Ia values are
Va
noted by voltmeter and ammeter respectively and taken average with gives Re. i.e. Ra = .
Ia
The Re value which we obtained is dc by converting it to AC value is multiplied 1.5 due to skin
effect.
i.e., RAC = 1.5 RDC
Finally, we obtained the synchronous impedance Zs from OC and SC test, Re obtained by A-V
method then Xs as,
3- alternators are invariably star-connected to eliminate 3rd and 9th harmonics (i.e. multiples of 3,
called triplen) from line emfs through 5th and 7th harmonic emfs of reduced magnitude are present
in the lines.
Already we know the emf equation of 3- alternator,
E
i.e. = 4.44 Kp Kd f T volts.
ph
From the above equation, the fundamental emf per phase is,
Ep1 = 4.44 * Kw1 * 1 * (1f) * T .. (1)
For 3rd harmonic, emf per phase is
Ep3 = 4.44 * Kw3 * 3 * (3f) * T .. (2)
In general, for hth harmonic, emf per phase is
Eph = 4.44 * Kwh * h * (hf) * T .. (3)
Here subscripts 1, 3 and h denotes fundamental, third and hth harmonics respectively.
From Eph and Ep1 expressions, the hth harmonic and fundamental rms phase emfs are related
Where,
B1 = peak value of fundamental component of flux density.
D = Air-gap diameter of armature.
L = Core Length of armature.
From equation 3a
Eph Kwh hh
= .
Ep1 Kw1 1
Eph Kwh 1 Bh
= .h. .
Ep1 Kw1 h B1
Eph Kwh Bh
= .
Ep1 Kw1 B1
UNIT II
2. REGULATION OF SYNCHRONOUS Generator
Voltage Regulation of an alternator is defined as the ratio of rise in voltage (E0-V) when full-
load is suddenly removed (field excitation and speed remaining the same) to the rated terminal voltage.
Rise in voltage = E0-V is the arithmetic difference not the vector difference.
E0 = Maximum no-load induced emf magnitude
V = Terminal voltage of an alternator.
Voltage regulation depends on power factor cos
E0 - V
% Regulation 'up' = 100
V
If we can change the load of an alternator, there is a change in terminal voltage (V). The
magnitude of terminal voltage change depends on,
i. load can changes, the terminal voltage magnitude changes and the power factor (cos )
also. [ since V = E - Ia (Re + j Xs) ]
ii. excitation can changes, the magnitude of terminal voltage changes (V).
In case of leading load power factor, terminal voltage (V) will fall on removing full-load. At
lower leading load power factor v rises with the increase of load, and hence the regulation is
-ve.
For unity and lagging power factors, there is always a voltage drop with increase of load.
The rise in voltage when full-load is removed is not same when full-load is applied.
Note:
1) V < E0, i.e., the voltage regulation is POSITIVE for LAGGING & UNITY power factor
loads.
2) V > E0, i.e., the voltage regulation is NEGATIVE for LEADING power factor loads.
3) A normal alternator has a regulation of about 8-10% at unity power factor (UPF), but the
voltage rise is considerably increased at lagging power factors. The regulation is about 23-
35%, or even more
E0 - V
% Voltage Regulation = 100
V
The connection for Open Circuit test or No-Load test is shown in above circuit diagram. The
armature winding i.e., load terminals are opened and machine should be run at rated or
synchronous speed. The field winding is connected to dc source in series with a field rheostat
and an ammeter.
By adjusting the field rheostat from maximum to minimum, the field current If is taken through
ammeter in steps minimum to maximum respectively. Then Ego or no-load generated emf is also
reads minimum to maximum taken from voltmeter in steps up to rated value.
Draw the Open Circuit Characteristic Curve (OCC Curve) from the above readings. i.e., If on
x-axis and Ego on y-axis. The Ego which we obtained from voltmeter is line value that should be
Ego /line
representing in a graph as phase value. i.e., [For a star connected armature, Ego/ph = ].
3
The connection for the short circuit test is shown in the above circuit diagram. In this test also
the machine should be maintained at constant speed by the prime mover.
All the 3- load terminals of 3- alternator as shorted. Rheostat of sufficiently high ohmic value is
inserted in the dc field circuit to keep the current in the circuit very low.
Now the field current If is adjusted to Isc or Irated of 3- alternator by varying the field rheostat.
From the If and Isc the SCC Curve (Short Circuit Characteristic) is obtained.
The OCC Curve and SCC Curve can be plotted with the common field current axis as shown
below. From these, the value of Synchronous Impedance (Zs) will be calculated.
The Synchronous Impedance Zs can be obtained by above graphical representation of OCC and
SCC Curve.
Eoc
Zs =
Isc
The effective armature resistance (Re) per phase can be measured directly by Ammeter-
Voltmeter method (AV-method) or by using Wheatstone bridge.
The above circuit is used to measure the effective armature resistance per phase. The DC supply
is connected to the any one phase of armature winding through rheostat, ammeter in series and
voltmeter to parallel.
Then the rheostat can be varied from maximum to minimum in steps the Va and Ia values are
Va
noted by voltmeter and ammeter respectively and taken average with gives Ra. i.e., Ra = .
Ia
Re = RAC
Finally, we obtained the Synchronous Impedance Zs from OC and SC test, Re obtained by A-
V method then Xs as,
Xs = Zs 2 - Re 2
This emf method is not accurate, because the value of Zs is always more than its actual value
under normal voltage and saturation condition.
From the above, the If is same for both OC and SC test. It is observed from the graph it cannot
cross the saturation of OCC curve. So that the Zs is also called as Unsaturated synchronous
impedance.
Eoc
i.e., Zs(unsaturated) = (If is at Isc or Ifl)
Isc
So that this method is also called as Unsaturated synchronous impedance method. Hence, the
value of regulation obtained is more than its actual value.
The value of Zs is not constant; it can be varied with saturation. At low saturation or un
saturation its value is larger because then the effect of a given ampere-turns is more than that
high saturation.
Under short circuit condition, saturation is very low, because armature mmf is directly
demagnetizing.
In this method, the value of Zs is usually obtained from full-load current in the short-circuit
test. Here, armature reactance Xa has not been treated separately but taken along with leakage
reactance XL.
2
E0 = (V cos + Ia Re)2 + V sin - Ia Xs
E0 - V
% Voltage regulation = 100 about 30%
V
Ift is the main field current which gives the maximum open circuit induced EMF
Ift , Ifm and Ifr are also represented in terms of fm , fr and ft respectively.
Ifm is required to compensate the armature reaction under various load conditions.
Ifr leads E by
= Load power factor angle
In this method, the field current is to overcome the armature reaction is measured from short
circuit condition where the field poles are active.
But under running condition or actual load condition more field current (Ifr1) required. Since
the field poles are little saturated. Therefore E0 is more.
So that actual regulation is less than mmf regulation. Thats why it is also named as
Optimistic method
2.5. Zero Power Factor (ZPF) or Potier Triangle or Power Triangle method:
It makes use of the first two methods to some extent.
Assumptions:
In this method the assumptions taken are as follows i.e.,
Here the drop due to armature reactance (Xa) and leakage reactance (XL) are taken as
separately. Hence it gives the more accurate results.
The effective armature resistance (Re) is neglected.
The leakage reactance drop IaXL is independent of excitation.
The armature reaction mmf is constant.
The OCC taken on no-load accurately represents the relation between mmf and voltage on
load.
Steps to find the regulation:
1. No-Load or Open Circuit Characteristic curve (OCC curve) obtained by OC test.
2. Full-Load zero power factor curve (not the SCC curve) also called the wattless load
characteristic. It is the curve of terminal voltage against excitation when armature is
delivering full-load current at zero power factor.
In this method, the drop due to armature reactance and leakage reactance combinely gives the
maximum open circuit induced emf (E0). It should be noted that if we vectorially add to V, the
drop due to leakage reactance (XL) and effective resistance (Re) we get E. if further added the
drop due to Xa gives the E0.
The zero power factor full-load lagging curve can be obtained from,
a. If a similar machine is available, which may be driven at no-load as a synchronous motor
at practically zero power factor
b. Loading the alternators with pure reactors.
c. Connecting the alternators to a 3- line with ammeters and wattmeters connected for
measuring current and power, by so adjusting the field current that we get full-load
armature current with zero wattmeter reading.
D
Ifr
Ift
900+
B
Ifm
E0 T
IaXa
900 E
R
0
90
S IaXL
O
V
IaRe
Ia
The OBD which is obtained from the graphical representation. For that,
Ift D
Ifr
900
O Ifm B C
E0 -V
% Voltage regulation = *100 about 20%
V
Similarly the vector or phasor diagrams for leading and unity power factor loads as mentioned in
MMF method. The value of E0 can be obtained with respective to Ift for voltage regulation.
OA represents field current which is equal and opposite to the demagnetizing armature
reaction and balancing leakage reactance drop at full-load.
By knowing P and A points, the full-load curve at zero power factor A P is drawn.
From P, PQ is drawn equal to and parallel to OA. From point Q, QR is drawn parallel to
OE i.e., tangential or air-gap line. Hence we get R point on No-Load or OCC curve, which
corresponds to point P on full-load zero power factor curve. The triangle PRS called
known as potier triangle. This triangle is constant for a given armature current.
Draw RS perpendicular to PQ. The length RS represents the drop in voltage due to armature
leakage reactance XL.
Ift1 = field current to compensate drop due to saturation and is added in phase with Ift
Measure E0 corresponding to Ift1 .
E0 -V
% Voltage regulation = *100 about 25% to 28%
V
Similarly the vector or phasor diagrams for leading and unity power factor loads as
mentioned in MMF method. The value of E0 can be obtained with respective to Ift1 for voltage
regulation.
EMF method > ASA method > ZPF method > MMF method
i.e., we concluded that among the four methods the ASA & ZPF method will gives accurate
regulation compared to EMF & MMF
In cylindrical type synchronous machine, the air-gap length is uniform. So the armature reaction
is same in between stator conductors and field poles. So Xa is same i.e. single reactance is
sufficient for modeling the armature reaction.
In salient-pole type synchronous machine, air-gap is minimum in d-axis or direct-axis and
maximum in q-axis or quadrature or inter polar axis. So it requires both reactances i.e. Xd and Xq
for modeling the armature reaction.
In cylindrical rotor synchronous machine, the air-gap is uniform around the entire air-gap
periphery. So armature reaction is same along the d-axis and q-axis. So finally we concluded
that a single reactance is sufficient for modeling the armature reactance because Xd = Xq.
But in salient pole synchronous machine, the armature reaction is maximum in d-axis and
1
air-gap
armature reaction
the armature reaction is minimum in q-axis.
1
air-gap
armature reaction
So single reactance is not sufficient to modeling the armature reaction, it requires Xad and Xaq
i.e., Xd and Xq.
Leakage reactance (XL) is same along d-axis and q-axis because it is independent of air-gap
length and dependent applied voltage and flux leakage. Therefore,
Xd = Xad + XL
Xq = Xaq + XL
Where,
Xd = direct axis synchronous reactance.
Xq = quadrature axis or interpolar axis synchronous reactance.
Xad = direct axis armature reactance.
Xaq = quadrature axis armature reactance.
XL = leakage reactance.
In general, Xd > Xq. i.e., Xd (1.5 to 2) times of Xq.
Xd -
Under these conditions, the relative velocity between the field poles and the rotating armature
mmf wave is equal to the difference between synchronous speed and the rotor speed, i.e., slip
speed.
A small ac voltage across the open field winding indicates that the field poles and rotating
mmf wave is revolving in the same direction then that should be required for slip test.
If field poles revolve in a direction opposite to the rotating mmf wave ve sequence reactance
would be measured.
At one instant, the peak of armature mmf wave is in line with the filed pole or direct axis, the
reluctance offered by the small air gap is minimum as shown in above figure. At this instant,
the terminal voltage per phase divided by the corresponding armature current per phase gives
d-axis synchronous reactance. (Xd).
Vmax
Xd = because air-gap is minimum
Imin
After one quarter (1/4) of slip cycle, the peak of armature mmf wave acts on the inter polar
or q-axis of the magnetic circuit, and reluctance offered by long air-gap is maximum. At this
instant,
Vmin
Xq = because reluctance in air-gap is maximum
Imax
During this test, the induced emf in open field winding is AC Sinusoidal at Slip-frequency.
Rotating field is driven at less than Ns because when the rotor is driven at Ns, the flux linkages
are maximum, so Ia is minimum always. So we want to get maximum values of Ia i.e., field is in
locking with the stator poles.
Oscillograms of armature current and terminal voltage and the emf induced in open circuit field
winding is shown below.
When performing this test, the slip should by small as possible, otherwise the currents induced
in the magnetic
circuits
would cause large
errors in the
Eg = OB = OE + ED + DB
Eg = Vcos + Iq Ra + Id Xd (1) lagging power factor load.
From the above phasor diagram tan can be obtained as, (one part of an above vector diagram).
Base QA QD + DA
tan = = =
opposite side QO OP + PQ
V sin + Ia Xq
tan = (2) lagging power factor.
V cos + Ia Ra
Eg = V cos - Id Xd - Iq Ra
V sin - Ia Xq
tan = (4)
V cos + Ia Ra
For a synchronous generator, finally we concluded from (1), (2), (3) and (4) equations.
Eg = V cos +Iq Ra Id Xd
V sin Ia Xq
tan =
V cos + Ia Ra
V sin Ia Xq
tan =
V cos - IaRa
Formulaes
Xs = Zs 2 - Re2
Zs = Synchronous impedance ()
Open circuit induced emf
i.e., Zs = at constant excitation or same field current axis
Short circuit current
Eoc
Zs =
Isc
Value of Ift for leading power factor, from phasor diagram (Ift angle 900 - )
Value of Ift for unity power factor, from phasor diagram (Ift angle 900)
Value of Ift for leading power factor, from phasor diagram (Ift angle 900 - )
Value of Ift for unity power factor, from phasor diagram (Ift angle 900)
Ift1 = field current at maximum open circuit induced emf (E0) when saturation considered.
Eg = V cos +Iq Ra Id Xd
V sin Ia Xq
tan =
V cos + Ia Ra