5.

Synapses

Are specialized junctions between neurons where interactions occur
Axons typically forms synaptic terminals, branches exhibiting dilated regions
Synaptic cleft separates the synapse from the adjacent post-synaptic structure, the
dendrite
Contains various organellese.g. mitochondria, synaptic vesicles (contains
neurotransmitter)
Chemical:
o One neuron (presynaptic element) releases a transmitter agent which binds to
the postsynaptic neuron producing excitation or inhibition
Electrical:
o Consists of gap junctions that form low resistant channels between the pre &
post synaptic elements.
o Here the various ions freely move between pre & post synaptic elements this
mediating rapid transfer of signals
Neurotransmitter release is Ca2+ dependent; action potential open the calcium
channels & allows an infuse of calcium which leads to exocytosis of the synaptic
vesicles
Quantity of transmitter released is directly related to the amount of Ca2+ influx.

v POST SYNAPTIC RECEPTORS:
Are large complex proteins with a binding domain- extending to the synaptic cleft &
and ionophore extending into the post-synaptic structure.
The ionophore can be either an ion channel or a 2nd messenger activator.
Ligand-gated ion channel allowing influx of sodium is excitatory where as channels
allowing Chloride influx are inhibitory
2nd messengers activators are commonly G-protein is attached to the receptor. It can:
o Open a specific channel for an ion. E.g. Na or K ions
o Activates cAMP or cGMP (c Guanosine MP) stimulates specific metabolic
machinery
o Activates enzymes that initiate biochemical reactions
o Activates gene transcription & protein synthesis.









6. Neurotransmitters, Synaptic receptors

v SMALL MOLECULE TRANSMITTERS:

o Rapidly acting transmitters, can be synthesizes & packages into synaptic vesicles
in the axon terminals.
o Effect on postsynaptic membrane is brief (1ms or less) & typically open or closes
an ion channel.
o Can stimulate receptor-activated enzymes & alter the metabolism of the
postsynaptic neuron
o The synaptic vesicles used are recycled at the axon terminal.
Acetylcholine is a typical small-molecule.
It is produced form the Acetyl-CoA & Choline in the presence of choline
acetyltranferase
Within ms it is broken down into acetate & choline by acetyl cholinesterase
present in the synaptic cleft
These are shortly inactivated soon after they bind to their receptor.

v NEUROPEPTIDES:

o Typically synthesized in the soma as integral components of large protein
o These large molecules are cleaved in the cell body & packaged into vesicles by
the Golgi as the active peptidergic agent or as a precursor of neuroactive
substance.
o Smaller amounts of the neuroactive peptide are released & their vesicles do not
appear to be recycled
o More prolonged duration of activity compared to small molecule
o Can alter ion channel function & modify cell metabolism or gene expression

Neuronal membrane exhibits a resting membrane potential of -65mV
Repolarization makes the cell more excitable where as hyperpolarization makes cell
more excitable
At resting potential, the membrane is more permeable to K+ than Na+ hence K+
efflux making all negative
When Na+ influx occurs due to transmitter-receptor interaction, membrane potential
depolarizes to +61mV, excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
If the membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron moves above threshold of the
axon initial segment, an action potential is generated.
The initial axon segment contains 7x more voltage gate membrane channels, than
other parts.

v FOUR CLASES OF NEURO TRANSMITTER:

Amino acid glutamic acid [excitatory], Gamma amino-butyric acid (GABA)
[inhibitory], Aspartate & Glycine
Monoamine norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine, histamine & serotonin
Acetylcholine
Purinergic transmitter e.g. adenosine