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BASE-ISOLATION DESIGN PRACTICE IN JAPAN:

INTRODUCTION TO THE POST-KOBE APPROACH
a b c c
PENG PAN , DAN ZAMFIRESCU , MASAYOSHI NAKASHIMA , NARIAKI NAKAYASU & HISATOSHI
c
KASHIWA
a
Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University Gokasho , Uji, Kyoto, 611-0011,
Japan
b
Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest , Bucharest, 72302, Romania
c
Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University Gokasho , Uji, Kyoto, 611-0011,
Japan
Published online: 04 Sep 2008.

To cite this article: PENG PAN , DAN ZAMFIRESCU , MASAYOSHI NAKASHIMA , NARIAKI NAKAYASU & HISATOSHI KASHIWA (2005)
BASE-ISOLATION DESIGN PRACTICE IN JAPAN: INTRODUCTION TO THE POST-KOBE APPROACH, Journal of Earthquake Engineering,
9:1, 147-171, DOI: 10.1080/13632460509350537

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13632460509350537

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 Journal of Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 9, No. 1 (2005) 147-171
@ Imperial College Press @ Imperial College Press
www.icprsss.co.uk

BASE-ISOLATION DESIGN PRACTICE IN JAPAN:

INTRODUCTION TO THE POST-KOBE APPROACH

PENG PAN
Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University
Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto 61 1-001 1 , Japan

DAN ZAMFIRESCU
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Technical Uniuersity of Civil Engineering Bucharest

Bucharest 72302, Romania

MASAYOSHI NAKASHIMA, NARIAKI NAKAYASU

and HISATOSHI KASHIWA
Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kgoto University
Gokasho, Wji, Kyoto 61 1-001 1, Japan

Rcccived 8 Scptembcr 2003

Rcviscd 15 July 2004
Accepted 15 July 2004

Japan has twenty years of experience in designing and constructing basc-isolnted buildi rlg
structures. Construction has increased significantIy since the 1095 Hyogokcn-Nnnbu
{Kobe) earthquake, having reached over 150 annual construction projects. Many new
developments and refinements have been made in the material, device, design, and
construct ion of these structures. This paper summarises recent design and construc-
tion of base-isolated building structures in Japan, including statistical data with rcspcct
t o the common usage as well as the number of new projects. It is notable that the
size, height, and fundamental natural period of new base-isolated buildings increase
steadily with time, indicating that base-isolation in Japan is reaching maturity. Base-
isolators and dampers commonly adopted in Japan are also introduced, with emphasis
on recent design efforts to enlarge the natural period of base-isolated structures and
reduce the lateral forces induced in the superstructure. Basic design procedures are pre-
sented, including determination of design earthquake forces, modelling of base-isolat ion
layers, modelling of the superstructure, selection of ground motions, time-history anal-
yses, and performance criteria. A mandated peer-review system, unique for design
of base-isolated structures, is also noted. Several characteristic issues in the design of
base-isoiated structures are discussed: Variation of base-isolation material properties,
applications to high-rise buildings, effects of vertical ground motions, and response when
subjected t o near-fault ground motions.

Keywonis: Construction statistics; isolators; dampers; design procedure; peer- review.

1. Introduction
The concept of modern seismic base-isolation emerged in the early 1970s in
New Zealand [Skinner et al., 19931. As in other earthquake-prone developed coun-
tries, the application of base-isolation in Japan began in the early 1980s (the first
 148 P. Pan et d-

building was finished in 1983). The start was slow and until 1985 only three demon-
stration projects were completed. From 1985 to 1994, during the Japanese economic
boom, the number of base-isolated buildings began to increase, reaching about ten
buildings per year (Fig. I), and Japan became a leiding country in the number of
base-isolated buildings. Design was characterised by a very large scatter in the main
design parameters and in the choice of isolation devices. This was an indispensable
period of testing and experimenting to determine the best details, technologies and
. -
isolation devices.
After the 1995 Kobe earthquake a new era began for seismically isolated
buildings in Japan (Fig. 1) [Building Center of Japan, 1990-20021. The number
of base-isolated buildings significantly increased from ten buildings per year in
the pre-Kobe earthquake period to more than 150 buildings per year thereafter.
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Seismic isolation moved from t.he experimental stage to the mass production stage,
characterised by relatively standard detailing and devices. Clark et al. [2000] per-
formed an extensive survey among Japanese designers, building owners, researchers
and regulators. They reasoned that the explosion of base-isolation applications was
caused by the devastating hunla~iand economic losses that led to a search for alter-
natives to traditional seismic design approaches. The observed damage to buildings
also produced a sense of doubt regarding the reliability of traditional corlstruction
approaches particularly concerning damage protect ion of the s truc t urc and its con-
tents. The technologies iwolved in base-isolation were relatively mature prior to
the earthquake, and the large prornotionel efforts of developers and construct ion
companies, as well as the recommendations from engineering orgunisations and the
Ministry of Construction for new technologies playcd an important role as well.
This paper reviews the state-of the-practice of Japanese design and construc-
tion of seismically isolated buildings to share with the readers the experience
and knowledge accumulated in this field over the last 20 years. Due to its rel-
atively recent implementation, not all the problems regarding the behaviour of
the seismically isolated buildings have acquired complete solutions. It is notable,
for example, that there is not much information regarding the "real" performance

Fig. 1. Approved seismically isolated buildings until 2001 [BCJ, 20021.

 Base-Isolation Design Practice in Japan 149

of seismically isolated buildings that have experienced strong ground motions. Two
seismically isolated buildings, the Matsumura-Gumi Research Laboratory and the
West Japan Postal Savings Computer Center (West- 1) , t h e largest base-isolated
building in the world at that time, were located approximately 30 km from the
epicentre of the 1995 Kobe earthquake and experienced ground accelerations of
about 0.3 g. The buildings performed very well [Naeim and Kelly, 19991, but their
locations were outside the region of the strongest shaking. The paper d s o identifies
issues to be resolved through fur t he; research and development.

2. Construction Statistics

2.1. Usage; size, and height

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Detailed statistics for bllscisolated structures in Japan are available clue to the
for~rlal approval process that will be described later. The maiu authority ill
the atl~ninistmtionof the approval process, Building Center of Japan (BCJ), p u b
lishcs a monthly journal, the Y3CJ Letter," [1990-20023 which coritairls the main
dcsigti data for all the licenses grarlted. The statistics presented in the paper wcre
hasctl 011 tllc following three publications: The sulimmy report publislictl by BCJ
[2002]; the rcsidts of a survey co~ductctlin 1999-2000 l)y tllc Arcliitcct,l~ralIustitlltc
of Japan (AIJ) Conunittee for Base-Isolatiorl [2001], mid fro111thc twclvc issilcs of
BCJ Lettcr pu1)lishcd in year 2000.
Figures 2 slid 3 prcsexit the built floor area and usagc of thc biuc-isobtetl
buildings approved by 2001. The "Other" category in Fig. 3 corisists mainly of
hospitals, governrne~itoffices, and schools. Post-earthqliakc cRccts of the 1005 Kobe
event are notable. The built floor area, an importa~itindex of the dcvelopmc~tin
practical application, recorded a leap after 1905 and contimed to increase slowly
in more recent years. The main reason is the increase in the building height; the
average number of storeys rose from four to five before 1995 to about eight storeys
thereafter. Before 1995, many base-isolated buildings were relatively small buildings
including laboratories, experimental offices, and dormitories built and owned for

(Unit: sq.m)

Fig. 2. Built Boor area of seismically isolated buildings [BCJ, 2002).

 150 P. Pan et al.

others
1196 2% computer center

laboratories

computer
officebuilding center 5% houses
Before t 995 After 1995
(a) (b)
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Fig. 3. Types of facilities [BCJ, 2002). (a) Before 1995;(b) After 1995.

demonstration purposes by construction companies. Funding for these b ~ d d i n g s

typically came from the construction companies' research investments, and the
buildings used many different types of proprietary isolation systems. After 1905,
types of facilities such as apartments, office buildings, hospi tsls, and govern~lient
buildings increased to a very consistent proportion (higher then 90%).
Taking advantage of the development in design R I practical ~ application of
new base-isolated buildings, rehabilitation of existing buildings using baseisolation
became more wide-spread in recent years. Rehabilitation solutions for existing
buildings were about 10% of the total seismically isolated designs approved in rcccnt
years [BCJ, 1990-20021.
Before 1994, the aspect ratio (total height to maximum floor length ratio) of
seismically isolated buildings was lower than one on the average and the ratio was
larger than two only for one building. Building height increased sharply from 1995,
with the aspect ratio more than two for 40% of structures. The designers found
the seismic isolation solution worthwhile even for rather tall structures where the
effect of the isolation layer is generally less effective, 10% of the total buildings have
aspect ratios between three and five [Fig. 4(a)] [AIJ, 20011.

2.2. Isolators

The most common types of isolators in recent years are NRB (Natural Rubber
Bearings), HDRB (High Damped Rubber Bearings), LRB (Lead Rubber Bearings)
and Sliding Bearings (SB). In about half of the buildings only one type of isolator
is used, and a combination of popular types or a combination with sliding bearings
(SB) was chosen for the remaining structures [Fig. 4(b)]. The "mix" in Fig. 4(b)
means that a combination of different types of isolators was used but one type was
dominant.
In the earliest years (before 1994), NRB were used in more than 65% of cases
[AIJ, 20011. Between 1996 and 1998 the proportion of HDRB and LRB increased to
 Base- Isolation Design Pmctice in Japun 151

Sliding or rolling
HORB mix 1m ,

LRB

mix

Year 1995-2000 Year 2000

(b)
Others Steel
Friction 7% 3%
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. -,,Steel + Lead

LRB

Year 2000 Year 2000

Until year 2000

(e)
Fig. 4. Statistics about base-isolation design. (a) Aspect ratio [AH, 20011; (b) Types of isola-
tors [BCJ, 20021; (c) Secant equivalent periods corresponding to design earthquake [BCJ, 20021;
(d) Types of dampers as function of material used for energy dissipation [BCJ,2002);(e) lvlaximum
floor acceleration [AIJ, 20011.

levels of usage relatively similar to NRB. The main reason is probably the advance
of Japanese industry in developing reliable isolators that can dissipate energy
(HDRB and LRB). However, the recent trend is a significant reduction in use of
the HDRB solution, NRB and LRB being used in the majority of .the designs
 152 P. Pan et ai.

[Fig. 4(b)]. The reasons may be the cost reduction of NRB isolators and the dif-
ficulties of obtaining large isolated periods due to the increased lateral stiffness
of HDRB with respect to NRB. In recent years, SB bearings are becoming more
popularly used in conjunction with NRB, LRB or HDRB to decrease the stiffness
of the isolation layer for the large displacement domain.
The improved performance of the isolators also explains the increase over time of
the mean compressive stress in the isolators. The compressive stress was between
3 and 8 ~ / r n m *in the early years and reached 7-13 IV/mrn2 for NRB alld LRB,
~ HDRB thereafter [AH, 20011. The increase in the compres-
and 5 - 1 0 ~ / m m for
sive stress led to longer periods of base-isolated structures. The equivalent period,
estimated in reference to the secant to the maximum displace~nentimpused by the
design earthquake, moved up gradually from 2 to 3 s before 1994 to 3 to 4 s (and
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even larger) in the last few years [Fig. 4(c)]

~ i l "isolation
e gap" has had to keep up with the improving perforn~;mceill the
displiwe~ne~lt capacity of the isolation devices [AIJ, 200 11. Thc clei1r;lrlcc (isolatiou
gill)) is 400 to 50011iru 111) to 600 to 7001nnl for strllcturcs built after 1995.

2.3. Dampers
Prior to 1905, the encrgy dissip;~bioriwas I I S I ~ J Jprovidcd by ollly orie type of
tlanipcr. 1x1 rlrorc recent designs [Fig. 4(d)), colllbinirtiolm of cliffwc~it types
r s more frequent. Stecl tlampcrs usctl iri co~ijlmctionbit11 lciul (li~llpcrs
of t l i t ~ l l p ~ are
1l;wc proved to be one of the most corrimon corlhili;rticms. High iliitii~lstiffiwss ( t o
rcsist wind loads) and good p e r f o r ~ r i a ~to m rcsist a largc number of cyclcs without
dailiagc are the main advantages of the l e d tla~upcrs.Using t h p lewl di~~llpcrs i11
conju~ictionwith steel dan~pers,which posscss a rclativcly largc yield force, ovcr-
comes the disadvantage of the lead dampers (low yield force - reclucetl energy
dissipirtion). Oil dampers are sometinies used for large struct~~res in ordcr to pro-
vide large-additional viscous damping.

2.4. Base shear coeflcient

Variation over time of the design base shear coefficient of the superstructure [Fig. 51
confirms the advances in design and the better understanding of the belmviour of
seismically isolated structures. The design base shear coefficients decrease with time
due to the better performance of the isolation devices, and, probably, to a larger
confidence in the base-isolation solution leading to adoption of smaller margins of
uncertainty. The rather low strength adopted in more recent years is associated
with long secant equivalent periods.

2.5. Maximum accelemtions

Design practice for baseisolated buildings in Japan commonly involves verification
of maximum floor accelerations of the superstructure in order to prevent extended
 B u e - Isolation Deszgn Practice in Japan 153

-1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Fig. 5. Base shcar coefficient [AIJ, 20011.

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3. Seismic Base-Isolation Devices

3.1. Isolators

3.2. Natural rubber bearings (NRB) [Japan Structural

Consultants, 20001
Japanese NRB consists of layers of natural rubber with thickness iii the range
of 3 to 9 mm! intercalated with stiff slellcler steel plates of 2.5 to 4.611m.For a.
circular isolator of diameter D and rubber lrbyer thickness tR, the sliape factor
is defined as S1 = D/4tR [Kelly, 1997). The usual SI values are ill the raxlge of
30 to 40, with maximum v n l ~ ~ofe sabout 45. The Sl shape factors conmoiily adopted
in Japan may be larger than those used in other countries. Japan adopts larger
SI factors primarily for the purpose of avoiding buckling of the bearings in large
lateral deformations and ensuring large vertical stiffness to minimize overturning
effect. The vertical stiffness associated with the stated S1 shape factors is between
2.5 x lo6 t o 3.5 x lo6 kN/m. The second shape factor, S2, defined by the aspect
ratio of the rubber included in the isolator Sz = D / ( n t R ) (n = the number of
rubber layers), is around 5.
 1 P. Pan et d.

The manufacturers usually offer a few types of bearings in terms of the rub-
ber's shear modulus; that is, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45 or 0.55M/mn2. The allowable long-
term compressive stress (due to gravity) ranges from 10 to 15 ~ / r n r nand ~ the
allowable short-term compressive stress (due to earthquake loading) varies from
20 to 30 Fl/mm2.
The diameter varies from 500 to 1550 mm, with common values between 600
to 1200mm. The design maximum deformation is set to about 250 to 300% in
shear strain (commonly 450 to 550 mm for the 800 mm' diameter) and the ultimate
deformation corresponding to buckling or crash to approximately 400% (600 to
800 mm for the 800 mm diameter), respectively.
The dependency of the vertical and lateral stiffness on creep, aging, vertical
stress, shear strain, temperature, load history, frequency of loading cycles is specified
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in the product data sheet. The degree of variation for each primary parameter is in
.
the range of 10%. Up to 20% total variation for the lateral properties and 10% for
the vertical ones is commonly specified by the manufacturers.

3.3. High-damped rubber bearings (HDRB) [Japan Structural

Consultants, 20001
The general iayout of HDR.B is similar to NRB with the tliffcrcnce that instead
of natural rubber, special sy~ltiieticrubtxr that cam tlissipi\te euergy t l u - o ~ ~ gloop
ll
cycles is usecl. The S1 shape factors (25 to 35) are generally si~iallerwith respect
to NRB: and the S2 factors have a largcr variatiorl (3 to 10). Srnaller SI shape
factors are adopted to obtain a larger proportion of synthetic rubber in order to
achieve the necessary damping. The recomn~ended~riaxirn~im compressive stress is
about 10N/mm2 and 15 to 2 0 ~ / m mfor ~ long-term and short-term loads, being
slightly reduced in comparison with the corresponding NRB. The lateral stiffness
depends primarily on the maximum experienced strain, a d secondarily on shear
deformation velocity, temperature, and compressive stress.
The resulting equivalent damping ratio for HDR is around 20% for shear strains
up to 300%. The equivalent damping is obtained by relating the dissipated energy
in the maximum loop to the secant stiffness estimated with respect to the same
maximum displacement. The maximum design and ultimate deformation values
(for the 800 mm diameter) are 450 to 550 mm and 550 to 800 mm, respectively,
being similar to the NRB.
Variation of the lateral stiffness, vertical stiffness and equivalent damping coeffi-
cient with age, load history, etc., is somewhat larger than NRB, and 20 to 25% total
variation of the main properties is considered at factory inspection before shipping.

3.4. Lead rubber bearings (ARB) [Japan Structural

Consultants, 2000]

LRB [Robinson, 19821 is a NRB with a lead plug (usually 60 to 150mm diame-
ter) inserted in order to dissipate hysteretic energy. The limits for the maximum
 Base-Isolation Design Prnctice in Japan 155

compressive stress and the vertical and post-yield lateral stiffness values are sim-
ilar to the corresponding NFU3. The yield force depends on the diameter of the
lead plug and is around 100 kN for the 100 rnm lead plug diameter. LRB has
a high initial stiffness (about 10 to 16 times the post-yield stiffness) for rela-
tively low horizontal forces normally produced by wind. The lateral properties
vary with the maximum experienced strain, compressive strength and temperature,
but the dependency is less significant than in the case of HDRB. The rnawimurn
design and ultimate deformations are 400 to 500mm mid GO0 to 700mm (for the
800 mm diameter), respectively. Variation of the lateral and vertical main properties
is up to 20%.

3.5. Modified bilinear model

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The ~~iodifiecl bilinear model is widely used in Japanese dcsign to represent thc
nonlinearity and strain-dependent behaviour of the horizorital liystcrestic bchavionr
of HDRB and LRB [Miyazaki, 19851. The difference with respect to the corllmoli
bilinear model is that the main parameters, i.e. initial stiffricss li, : post-elil~tic
stiffness h> and yield force Q d , are not consta~lt,but d e p e d priln'arily on tllc
rnaximum shear strain,,y experiericed in the loading history. The ~ n a n r ~ f a c t ~ ~ r c r s
provide in the specification sheet the I - / K dratio ill additioll to tlw stiffiwss li,llllo
ant1 the yield force Qdloospecified for the standard conlprcssivc stress (coniniody
10 N/rmn2) and lateral straiu (colnmo~ily100%). Equatio~ls1 a~itl2 prcscnt c x a ~ q ~ l c
relations of the rnodificatio~lfactors (Ckciant1 Ctjd)that allow for tllc tlcpc~ltlci~y of
the stiffness and yield force values on the nmxi~riunlshear strain y,,,;,, [AM, 20011.
These equations are provided for a specific type of LRB isolator.

Note that a valueof 0.01 to 0.05 is adoptedfor yo. Figure 6 shows example hysteresis
loops of the modified bilinear model, showing significant changes in both the initial
and second stiffness values according to the shear strain. The HDRB constitutive
law is similar but depends somewhat more significantly on the maximum shear
strain.

3.6. Sliding Bearings -(SB)[Japan Structural Consultants, 2OOO]

The weight of the structure may be supported on bearings consisting of blocks
of PTFE (polytetraRuorothyIene) sliding on plane horizontal stainless-steel plates
 1*56 P. Pan e t al.

Lateral strain (%) Lateral strain (%)

(a> (b)
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Fig. 6. Example hysteresis loops using the modified bilinear mocIel. (a) y,,,;,,5 100%;
(11) -/,,,;,, 5 200%.

Fig. 7'. Seismic base-isolation devices in Japan. (a) Slicling benrirtg; (b) Lead damper: (c) Stccl
coiled damper.

[Fig. 7(a)]. The main characteristic of SB is the high initial lateral stiffriess that
decreases sigriificantly once sliding is initiated. In order to rutl~lcethe very high
initial lateral stiffness that may promote higher moclc vibrations, SB is sonletinies
mounted on top of a rubber bearing. The restoring force provided by S13 is negligi-
ble once the sliding is initiated and consecjllently the SB's are used in con,junction
with other types of isolators (NRB, HDRB, LRB) that possess significant restoring
forces. SB is particularly adopted to reduce the stiffness for large deformations of
the isolated buildings. The high initial stiffness before sliding is provided primarily
to resist frequent lateral loads produced by wind. The coefficient of friction depends
primarily on the vertical pressure and sliding velocity. The usual values of the coef-
ficient of friction are between 0.05 and 0.15, decreasing with the vertical pressure.
The dependence on sliding velocity is much less significant and tends to stabilise for
1-elocities not smaller than 0.1 m/s. In recent years, use of SD increases in Japan,
and devices having various properties have been made available.

3.7. Dampers
In order to reduce the relative displacement demand on the isolation layer and t o
stop the horizontal motion as soon as possible after thle primary motion, dampers
 Base- Isolation Design Pmctice in Japan 157

are added to the isolation layer. One of the typical solutions used in Japan consists
of NRB combined with lead dampers and steel coil dampers. LRB or HDRB used
in conjunction with additional dampers (steel, lead or oil dampers) are also popular
s o h tions, particularly for large buildings.

3.8. Lead dampers [Japan Structural Consultants, BUOU

The lead dampers commonly used in Japan consist of a twisting pure-lead stick
curved in a U shape connected at the top and bottonl by rigid stiff flanges
[Fig. 7(b)] [Takayama et al., 1987,1088]. The curved shape prevcrits localised plastic
deforniation, ensuriug stable hysteretic behaviour for large nunhers of cycles. Tlie
resulting hysteretic relationship is cornnlorlly rnodellecl ;w bilil~cnrwith tio post-
elastic stiffness. The diameter of the lead stick varies from IS0 111111 (111ijstC O I ~ ~ I ~ ~ O I I )
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to r~lavi~urini 260 nun, and the height of the deformable part is ilrouiid 9GOuun.
The first branch stiffness is relatively high: 12 000 ~ N / I I (180 I 111111 diali~eter)to
32 000 kN/m (260 m n diameter), providing stability against r a t l w frequent wind
loacli~g.The yield shear force is relatively low, r u g i n g frwl 100 to 230 kN for tlic
180 null i d 2GO mnl diameters, rcspcctively. Fiitiglle curvos arc provitlcd hy illilll-
u h c t ~ ~ r e rarid
s , one major ndw~ltirgeof t lic lcirtl diu~lperis t l ~ umuorous
t cycles
o f likrge tl(:form;~tiousc;ui 1)c sl1st;riuctl witlwilt cr~ip"sig~lific;~~tt tlc:gr;ulittiol~.Tlw
1llirxinl11111 displikcerucllt is in the rtrngc of 600 to 800 ILLIII. The 1 c : i ~ l ( l i \ l l l l ) ~i K~C
c o ~ ~ ~ n o tlisctl
i l y ill coriju~lctionwith steel coiled hystcrctic: (li\1111)(:r~(tllc lmst ~ 0 1 1 1 -
11io11cotubinati~u)01. oil viscous dampers.

3.9. Steel dampers [Japan Strvctural Consultants, 20001

The most popular type of steel damper in .Japan dissipntcs crlcrgy througli plxstic
deformation of coiled steel rods [Fig. 7(c)] [Takayama e t aL, 1988; Tada e l d.,
19871. The coiled solution is adopted primarily to ensure a large yield displacemcnt
and large plastic deformation capacity. The height of thc devicc is small (up to
350 mm). The constitutive law for design is modelled as bilincar with initial stiffness
of around 10000 kN/m, and low post-yield stiffness (300 kN/m). The yield force is
approximately 300 kN and the maximum deformation range is 500 to 550 min.

3.10. Oil dampers [Japan Structural Consultants, 20001

Two types of oil (hydraulic) dampers, one with sealing of the damping forces and
the other without, are used in Japan. Oil dampers with sealing provide a velocity
proportional damping force up to a specified velocity and then a constant damping
force beyond the velocity whereas those without sealing supply a velocity pro-
portional damping force for all allowable deformations. As for the mechanism of
sealing, mechanical systems (fuses) are commonly adopted. The oil dampers com-
monly adopted are in the range of 500 to 1500kN in the force capacity, and the
velocity proportional damping coefficients have values between 500 to 2000 kN s/m.
 158 P. Pan et d.

The maximum sliding velocity is in the range of 1 to 1.5 rn/sec2. The damping force
is modelled as velocity-proportional for analysis.
Compared to other types of dampers cited above, the damping forces provided
by oil dampers are relatively high. The oil dampers are effective for deformations
only in one axis; hence, in order to restrain torsion, at least four devices are needed
per building. In addition, a relatively large space is needed to accommodate oil
dampers in the base-isolation layer. Because of these reasons, oil dampers are
. -
typically preferred for large-scale structures.'

3.11. Authorization process of devices

For practical applications, d l devices must be submitted for accreditation by the
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manufacturers to the same committee that approves the seismic bascisolirtion

designs. The accreditation is granted based on the standard test resdts of n speci-
fied number of devices. The nrmber of tested devices is at least thrcc for olic type of
isolator and can be decreased to one for the same type but with a different size. The
tests have to present results of full-scale specimens for the basic properties (first
stiffiless, second stiffness, yield force, damping, arid frictional coefficient) under tllc
stmdard conipressive stress. For the ultimate limit states (maxinun lateral str;rili,
masitilum cornpressivc st rc11gt11) , reduced-scillc specinmns of a hiill-scale initli~~mli
are permitted, only if the devices are too strong and cannot be t c s t d due to the
liniitatioris of the testi~igfacilities. Dcpenderm of thc ~forci~ic~itioricd cliaracteris-
tics on age, conlpressive force, temperature, lateral strain, velocity aiitl riuritber of
cycles has to be dcclarcd. The accredited devices are spccifecl iu cutalogucs
published by the manufacturers.

4. Design Practice

4.1. Design framework

For seismic base-isolated structures, the common design practice implies enhanced
performance requirements with respect to the general design of structures in Japan
[AIJ, 2001; Japan Structural Consultants, 20001:

L-1- The building should be fully functional at the occurrence of a significant

accidental event. A 50 year return period wind load and seismic load associated
with an earthquake that can occur more than once during the building life cycle
are considered for this level. The superstructure should behave elastically, and
the maximum storey drift angle is set to be not greater than 1/200.
L-2 - The associated hazard level is a rare major earthquake having a return
period of about 500 years. The behaviour is kestricted to accidental initiation of
yielding of the structural elements, formation of plastic hinges a t a few locations,
but the development of fill-plastic state must be prevented.
 Base- Isolation Design Pnzctice in Japan 159

L-3 (L-2+) - An additional performance level is reconmiended to cbeck the

safety margin against the maximltm credible earthquake. A 50% increase of the
L-2 ground motion intensity is sometimes used for this level.
The common practice is to associate a PGV (peak ground velocity) value of
0.25 1 4 s and 0.5 m/s for L-1 and L-2 level ground motions, respectively. Tlie limit
value of the storey drift angle is prescribed with the intentioil of ninintaining the
main function of the building even at the occurrence of L-2 ground motion. As nien-
tio~iedearlier, the common design rule is to limit the horizontal floor ilccelerat'lot1 to
3 -0 nl/s2.

4.2. Seismic loads

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Tlie siguificarit effect of local soil conditions was: greatly enlpllilsisecl by tlic 1995
Kobc eiwtliquake. Buildings located at approxi~m.telythe same distaucc frmu tlic
epicelitre cxpc.riencetl very clifferelit gro~intlacceleriltioii levels [AIJ. 1095, 199'7;
i ~ 1998). Onc of the explil~latiuusWLS fomd to bc tlic cffcct of local
N i \ h ~ ~ l l i ~etl ld.,
soil propcrtics. Cousoq~crltly,hi thc BSL rcvisctl h i 2000 [Builtliug St~lldiLlYlLaw:
20001 i l l 1 explicit coxisicleratio~iof the loci11 soil effects 011 the design s p w t r l u n ~is
pt'oviclctl:

wllcrc S,, = 5% diuripirlg acceleration rcsponse spectrruli, Z= scisr~lir:aoliing firctor

( 2 titkcs vidues fro1110.7 to 1, but is equal to unity for approxir~iirtcly80% of .Japirrr's
territory), G, = local soil amplification factor, So refers to thc 5rcspoi~cspcctr~~nr
at tlw exposed engitieering bedrock. The So spectrnm (in tn/s2) for L-2 is givcn hy
Eq. (4) and Fig. 8(a). The L-1 spcctrurn is obtained by tlividi~igtlrc L-2 associi~tetl
spectrum values by a coefficie~itequal to 6 . Tllc engi~lcerirlgbedrock is dcfirictl as
a layer with more than 400 xn/s in the shear wave velocity.

The soil effect can be assessed using a program code like SHAKE [Schnabel ct al.,
1972; Idriss and Sun, 19921, if the accelerograni at the engineering bedrock is given
and the local soil properties are known. When the soil properties are not precisely
defined, default spectra are stipulated for stiff, medium stiff and soft soil conditions,
as shown Fig. 8(a) [Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, 20011.

4.3. Ground motions

Japanese design practice for seismically isolated buildings involves time-history

analysis, meaning that acceleration time histories have to be specified. Two groups
 160 P. Pan et al.
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Hachinohe EW
.....----
Hachinohe NS

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Fig. 8. Ground motions adopted in design. (a) Design response spectra at engineering bcdrock
and ground surface (L-2 level); (b) Spectra of preferred standard ground motions (L-2 level).

of accelerograms are commonly adopted. The first group consists of three stan-
dard accelerograms: El Centro 1940, Taft 1052 and Hachinohe 1968 [Fig. 8(b)].The
Hachinohe ground motion is preferred mainly due to the long period components.
The second group must consider the characteristics of the local site. At least three
accelerograms have to be developed in this group. Natural accelerograms recorded
in the vicinity of the building site may be used if available. Alternatively, synthetic
accelerograms can be constructed. Two types of procedures are used for the con-
struction of synthetic ground motions. In the first one [Irikura, 1986; Kobayashi
and Midorikawa, 1982; Kawano, 1988, 20001, which starts from the fault rupture,
the effect is estimated at the seismic bedrock through convolution, and then the
amplification of the waves over the bedrock and from the engineering bedrock to
the surface is assessed. The second starts from the engineering bedrock with the
generation of synthetic ground motions compatible with the spectrum defined by
 Base-lsolution Design Pmctice in Japan 161

Eq. (4), and the effects of the local soil are determined using "SHAKE" type pro-
gram codes. The phase spectra to be specified in the course of syntliesis are rather
debatable, but the common solution is to consider tlie phase spectra similar to
recorded accelerograms or alternatively, white noise distribution.
The sta~ldardaccelerogra~nsare scaled for PGV equal to 0.25 m/s" and 0.5 m/s2
corresponding to L-1 and L-2 levels as described earlier. There is a deliberate con-
tradiction between the ratio of the L-2 to L-1 intensity (two to one) recommended
for the scaling of the standard accelerogranls and the ratio of the same intensity
l e ~ e l sprovicled by BSL 2000 (5 to 1). The 5 to 1 ratio lias i x c w a design concept
for coninloll buildi~gs,but for special structures that require the peer-review, a
conservative measure of two to one ratio has been atloptcd for ywlu. L-2 i11tclrsit-y
le\-el is the smwi mearlillg thak L-1 intensity level is nitlch liwger For peer-revicwccl
strlictlires. The tlesigtl criteria (the innxi~n~urn
allowvalh ilorizol~tidtlisplircc~rlelrts
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of t lie bascisolat ioll l q w ! the lmuci~numstorey drifts of t l s~tpcrstructt

~ wc, ctc.)
should be si~tisfidfor thc pcilk response values obt ilinct 1 for i ~ l 1i~ccclcrognulis.

4.4. Analysis models of structure and isolation layer

structure is carried out in order to estimate thc force- ( l ~ h 1 . l ~ l i ~ t ~si~0 l1il l t i ~ l l ~for
hip
c x l i storey. Member by member element reprcsenti~tio~i with col~cc~itratctl phs-
tic hinges is usually adopted for the p~isliovcri~lidysis.Often. n spittiid model is
co~lstructedto check tlie sensitivity of the s tructurc to torsioll m c l bi-directionid
actions. Based on the storey slicar-deformation relationship, the storey stiffness
and strength cliaracteristics of the stick model are devclopecl. The chosen hysteretic
~uodelis usually degrading trilinear for RC structures and trilinear or bilinear For
steel structures. The analysis ~nodelsof the isolation lztyer depend on the types of
seismic isolators and clampers. The common models are elastic springs for NRB,
bilinear hysteretic for l e d and steel dampers, modified bilinear for HDRB or LRB,
a i d viscous springs for oil dampers.

4.5. Common design m l e s and practices

To achieve a n effective reduction of the earthquake demands, the ratio of the fixed-
base period to the base-isolated period of-the structure is recommended to be greater
than three. The natural period in the large displacement domain computed based
on the isolators tangential stiffness is commonly greater than 3.5 s. The isolators7
placement and number are determined by the tributary gravitational loads. The
~ NRB and
vertical average stress of the isolators is set to be about 1 0 ~ / n l mfor
LRB and a little lower for HDR. The number of dampers is assessed in order to
 162 P. Pan ef crl.

obtain an equivalent damping for the L-2 earthquake of about 15 to 20%. Hysteretic
dampers, if used, are designed to resist the frequent lateral loads in the elastic
domain. The common yield threshold of the hysteretic dampers is commonly in the
range of 3 to 5% of the weight of the structure and is determined by the design
wind load. After the timehistory analysis of the stick model subjected to the chosen
ground motions, the maximum values of the response parameters are determined.
The most important response parameters are as follows.
Maximum displacement of the isolation layer: The demand (L-2 performarice
level) is checked against the linear li~rlitdeformation of the rubber bearing. The
limit deformation is specified as a function of the maximum shear stain that the
robber bearing can sustain in the absence of vertical load and the vertical loid
applicd to the bearings. As indicated in Sec. 3, the nmxirr~urndisplacement is
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400 to ,500 mm for common devices that corresponds to a shear straiu of 200 to
250%. The safety factor against buckling or failure is in the range of two. The
tla~npersare chosen to be able to wlstai~la significantly larger number of cyclos
of' illxuimurn amplitude than the oue resultily from tllo associated i u l i ~ l y ~ iThc
s.
clci~rtnice(isolatiorl gap) arltl the st rookc of the liydraulic dampers irrc tletcrrl~iucd
using a safety factor in the range of 1.5 with respcct to the tleterminetl niifiir~llu~~
t lispliicenient.

3I;~uirllurnforce and tlisplacerneut of the s~lpcrstructure:The sllpcrstrl~cturcs

limited to el~sticbcll;wiollr for thc L-1 intensity levcl. Accitlcntd yiclclirlg is
accepted for L-2 eirrthquirkes, but full fonrlatiou of plastic lliligcs is not acccptetl.
hI~~ximuln drift angles are limited to 0.5% c w l 1% for L-1 and L-2, respectively.
Thc niaxirnurn horizorltal floor nccclcrntion is limited comlnody to 3 m/s2.
Lately, the use of sliding bearings becomes more conmoil to further increase
the natural periods of the base-isolated structures. When combined with slitle bear-
ings, target natural periods (in the large deformation domain) are between 4 and
5 seconds. Sliding bearings are conmonly combined with rubber bearings (which
supply horizont a1 restoring forces), with the sliding bearings arranged in the build-
ing's interior in which axial forces exerted to the sliding bearings do not vary
much. As for damping, hysteretic dampers, lead dampers, oil dampers are com-
mon, depending on the designers' choice. Whatever the combination may be, the
yield threshold is set at about 5% of thc weight of the structure.
A number of technical papers are available as for details of real design projects
on Japanese base-isolated building structures, and a partial list of the papers is
presented in [Yamamoto et al., 1998; Ogura e t aL, 1998; Kishimoto et al., 2002;
Hayase et a[., 2002; Kirnura et al., 2002; Nakazawa et al., 2003; Higashino, 2003).

4.6. Regulatory environment in Japan

Seismically isolated buildings in Japan require special licenses from the Ministry
of Land, Infrastructure and Transport. The Building Center of Japan (BCJ) is
 Base-Isolation Design Pmctice in Japan 163

mandated by the Ministry to organise review committees that act as a third-party

review and administer the building approvals for special types of structures. Each
committee is delegated to review one type of special structure. For example, there
are committees for high-rise, base-isolated, special concrete, and steel structures.
The committee for reviewing base-isolated buildings is composed of about 20 uni-
versity faculty members and structural engineers who represent the professional
design and structural associations in Japan [Japan Struct urel Co~lsul tants Ass*
ciation (JSCA), Building Constructors Society (BCS),and Japan Society of Base
Isolation (JSSI)].
The seismic base-isolated coninlittee must review every base-isolated building
submitted by the designers. The designer provides n summary of the design doc-
uments consisting of a binder of ahout 50 nmi in thickness. Two meinbers of the
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com~nitteeare assigned to each design project. 0 1 1 average, one or two montlis arc
needed for the completion of the review, and cl ruing this time the I I S S ~ ~ I Lrwicwers C~
meet one to three times with the designers.
111 relation to administering the approvals process. the BCJ plihlislws a jo~lr~lirl
[BC.J, 1990-20021 which contains the clcsigu data for all the licenses grimtecl 11.y
tllc vnriow co~nnlittees.These tl;itil expctlite stratist ical i l l l i ~ l y ~of
c s t lie iulopt iorl of
spccial strrictures in .Japan.

5 . Special Design Considerations

5.1. Material uncertainties

The nlnnufacturers of the isolators arc rcquired to provide a prodllct s l w t
describing the main properties of the vertical and horizontal belirrviour a d their
dependencies on the compressive stress, temperature, age, number of loading cycles,
slide velocity, etc. Variation of the main parameters is explicitly taken illto account
during the design process in Japan. The designers usually rnake two limit assump
tions for the isolation layer stiffness and yield strength in order to take into account
the probable deviation within the expected range of dependency parameters. The
variation is commonly estimated to be between &lo% and f25% for the stiffness
and 330% and f15% fer the yield strength. The analysis is performed assuming
the defined variation limits, and the most conservative results are considered in the
final design.

5.2. Vertical motions

While, horizontal vibrations are greatly reduced thanks to base-isolation, vertical
vibrations may remain the same compared to those experienced by conventional
structures, because of the high vertical stiffness of the base-isolation layer. This
increases the importance of vertical motions in the design.
 164 P. Pan et d.

T11e vertical ground motions can impose large vertical accelerations that
affect the functionality of the baseisolated buildings. Addit ionally, the com-
bined vertical and overturning action may induce tensile forces in the isolators. The
vertical restoring force behaviour of the rubber isolators when subjected to tension
is approximately bilinear elastic, with a linear limit stress of about 1 to 1.5IV/rnm2.
Under overturning moment the bilinear elastic behaviour can lead to vertical
force redistribution within the isolation layer. To avoid this, tension in bear-
ings clue to overturning and vertical ground motion is conimonli not accepted
in pnrctical design. If tension canriot be avoided, the tensile stress is limited to
1 Pi/rnni2.
To check the effects of vertical niot ions, tiilicllistory rrnalyscs of the designed
structure subjected to vertical niotiolis are sometimes carried out. The vertical
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coilipolients of the staiitlarcl groulitl motioii records [Fig. S(b)] are typically ~isetl.
, with their amplitudes adjusted so that the ratio of the vertical to liorizoiltal
iuliplitudes is thc same iks tlic ratio of the origiid verticirl to liorizorital records.
The maxi~nunlaxial forces applicd to the base-isolators iwc: collmiouly ill tlic nulga
uf 0.3 to 0.5 g [Pau ant1 Nirkirsliimr_ 20031. The floor vcrtical vilnxtions virry sig-
nificimtly accordhg to t lie lmilcliug licight , sp;ui-lcilgtll! iuvl i ~ e i ~ ~ i ~t.h. - r l 111
c p iiiirily
illst i~iiccsthey reach more t.h;ul 1 i l l t lrc: t ~ l i ~ ~ i l l l l l~l l~i c c c ~ c ' L Sllch
. R ~ ~vihritt
o ~ I . i01is
IllilJ* GIIISC tro~~blcs
i i l 1)uildhg c o i ~ t o ~ ibt ts~~t dwigiivrs
. fiii(1 it d i f f i d t . to (:olitrol t11~:

v i l ~ stioiis.
;~

5.3. High-rise buildings

Scismic base-isolatio~isolutioris bccomc: l ~ s seffective For high-rise bldtlings liirvilig
lorlgcr natural pcriotls. A niirior atlvmtage achieved by b;~sc?-isolittionu i a high-
rise building is a possible rwhction of storey drifts due to the c h u g c of the first
~liotleshape of the isolated structlue with respect to the fixctl-base eqllivnlent. A
more important effect can be expected From the energy dissipation provided by the
dampers installed in the isolation layer. For high-rise structures a more efficient
soll~tionmay often be acliieved by incorporating the darnping devices withiu the
structure instead of base-isolation. Nevertheless, the average height of basoisolnted
buildings in Japari is increasing. I11 recent years the height of about one tllird of
the total number of approved base-isolated buildings is more than 40 m [BCJ,
1990-20021. The maximum height tops out at about 60 m.

5.4. Near-fault ground motions

There is a concern regarding the performance of seismically isolated buildings sub-

jected to near-fault ground motions that are characterised by few large high-velocity
pulses [Hall et al., 19941. The isolated structures are more vulnerable to this type
of ground motion since the period of the pulses commonly exceeds 1.5s.
Figure 9 shows the displacement response spectra (with 5% damping) of the
fault-normal components of eleven near-fault motions recorded during the Kobe
 Base- isolation Design 'Practice in Japan 165

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Period (s)
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0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Period (s)

(b)
Fig. 9. Near-fault Kobe 1905 5% elastic spcctra. (a)displacement spcctra; (b) pseudo-accelcratioi~
spectra (bold h e : Design response spectra for meditim stiff soil).

earthquake [N;~kashinlaet aL, 20001. A five-storey base-isolated structure, r e p

resented by a s h degreoof-freedom stick model, was analysed for these ground
motions. The superstructure had a fundamental natural period of 0.5 s when it was
assumed fixed at the base. The base-isolation layer was assumed to be bilinear,
~ i t the
h natural period cf the total structure estimated ~ i t respect
h to the post-
yielding stiffness set at 3.0, 3.5, and 4.0 s. The yield strength of the basoisolation
layer was equal to 5% of the total weight. The storey restoring characteristics of
the superstructure were taken to be trilinear, with the yield and maximum base
shear coefficients equal to 0.2 and 0.3, respectively. The obtained maximum hori-
zontal displacements of the base-isolation layer are summarised in Fig. 10 for the
three (tangential) natural periods. The displacement demanded of the base-isolation
layer in such extreme actions surpasses the provided isolation clekance (commonly
about 0.5 rn), and collision o&xrs between the structire and perimeter retaining
walls. Additional analyses were conducted to allow for such collisions, in which the
 166 P. Pan et al.

No Collision Collision No CoIlion Collision

l'ici1ii'4

T = 3 3.5 4 elastic elastic- m T = 3 3.5 4 elastic elastic-

plastic plastic
Period (s) Period (s)

Fig. 10. Responses of base-isolated structure when subject to near-fault motions. (a) hlaximunl
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displacement at base-isolation system; (b) m m i m u m storcy drift angle of superstructure.

retaining wall and the soil behind it wcre represeritctl by a bilirlear spri~lg.The spring
wits tilke11 to become effective only wheil the c1ispl;~elllelitof the base-isolation lnycr
reaches the clctuance of 0.5 in. The iriitial stiffness and yield strength of the spring
were csti~rii\tctlfi.0111 associated M t e clcllicnt slialyscs. Tlw obtiki~ldiniui~litlm
respouses are shown as 'kollisiorl: elastic-plastic" in Fig. 10. For conlpi~riso~i pur-
poses, the respouses obtai~iedwhen the spririg that reprcsei~tctlthe rctai~iirlgwdl
and soil was assumed to behave elastically (without yielding) are also prcsc~ltctl
as 'kollisiori, elastic" it1 the figure. Thcsc responses indicate that collisio~linvolvcs
significant incrciue in tlie rnasimlm storcy drift of the sc.lperstructnre, but yielding
of the retaining wall (and soil behind) rnitigiltes tlie increiwe. A trade-off betwcen
the maximum displacement of the baseisolation layer and the maximum storcy
drift of the superstructure is notable. Details of the analyses presented here can be
found elsewhere [Nakaynsu and Nakashima, 20031.
Many designers have recognised a possibility of collision if the designed base-
isolated structures sustained an extremely large near-fault motion, but most of them
did not explicitly consider such behaviour, believing that such an event is very
rare. There is, however, an exception. Miyazaki (19971 proved that base-isolated
structures can be designed without damage even for ground motions featured
by pulses having more than 1m/s in the ground velocity. The solution applied by
Miyazaki to several buildings was to place a very strong vertical load truss sys-
tem in the first storey above the isolation level in order to minimize the support
points [Figs. ll(a) and (b)]. The idea is to allow the use of large diameter (1300
to 1500 mm) isolators that can sustain high compressive stresses and lateral defor-
mations of more than 800 mm, also achieving large isolated periods. The periods
determined by rubber stiffness and equivalent periods at 200% isolator strain are
more than 5.5 and 4.5 s, respectively.
 Base-Isolation Design Practice i n Japan 167

Fig. 11. Meikoh Gakuen Nagoya Technical High School. (a) Overview; (b) iLIodel for analysis.
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5.5. Torsion and biaziad loading

The large majority of base-isolated structures are dcsigncct carefully to avoid ecccri-
tricities between the stiffness centre of the base-isolation layer and the vertical
projcctio~iof the mius centre of the structure on thc base-isolation iiitcrft~ce.For
usual cases where the isolated period am1 the fixed-based pcriotl of tlic str11c-
t lire are well separated, the torsiouid eHccts of the supcrstrwturo's occcritric-
itv arc consiticrcd 11iiliinla1 [ R Y m and Cliopra, 2002]. Gt:ner:~lly. no accidcutal
cccclitricity is taken into accuurit ill thc process of Japaricsc scisiuic dcsigli of
~t~ructures.
Sensitivities of tlic base-isolatcd s tructurcs to a biaxid seisr~iicat tack is colii-
~riorllj-exarnincd using tlie eigcrival~wmalysis of a stick rrioclcl liaving thrcc clcgrccs
of frecdoni, i.e. two trarislational imcl one rotational, per floor. Tlw stiffiicss v;ducs
of these degrees are estiina.tct1 froni t h associated pushover ar1:~lyscs.Using the
stick nioclel, time-history ~-tnalyscsarc sonletinles carricd out under bi-clircc tional
ground rriotion conditions. In rriost instances, torsional responses rcniairi ~nini-
ma1 because of the niinirnisecl eccentricity achieved by caref~llarraligement of
base-isol'~1t ors.

5.6. Comparison with real responses

Most of the base-isolated structures constructed before the 1995 Kobe earthquake
were instrumented, but the number of the constructed base-isolatecl structures was
limited as shown by Fig. 1. After Kobe, the nurnber of base-isolated structures
increased significantly, but instrumentation became uncommon. No exact statis-
tics are available about the number and location of instrumented base-isolated
building structures in .Japan, but an estimate is in a range of 100 [Personal Com-
munication, 20041. Up to yeaz 2003, no major earthquake hit the instrumented base-
isolated building structures. 'The largest responses were obtained in the 1995 Kobe
earthquake for the two sejsmically isolated building structures mentioned in Sec. 1.
Those structures were located on the other side of the mbuntains of Kobe, and the
 168 P . Pan et al.

- - 3 3
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Time (s)
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I0 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
-10 0
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Time (s) Time (s)

Fig I . Accclcrntion t i n w histories obtairlcvl i t 1 i!)95 liohc. enrtlqtiakc. ( i t ) Top of foutdation of

hut-isolittcd structure; (1)) 1st Hoor of bcujc-isolntcrls t r ~ ~ c t u r c( c; ) roof of hsc-isolatctl strrlcttlre;
(d) roof of co~ivct~tionalstccl frame.

groli~~tlshaking was not so significant. Ollc of tlic two structures, t hc Matsunnlra-

gwni tllrccstorcy basc-isolated research labofittory was i~~stninicntctl with seismo-
graphs at a few locations, nilmcly, on top of the co~lcrctefountlation, and 011 the first
floor ard roof of the base-isolated snperstr~lcture.Fignrcs 12(a)-(c) show the a.ccc1-
eration time histories recorded in the 1935 Kobe earthquake [Izawa and Onishi,
19981. The level of sliaking was relatively low, and therefore the period elongation
due to base-isolation was not so sig~ificant . Nevert lieless, some elongation of tllc
response period of the superstructure as well as reduction of the response accelera-
tion (relative to the ground) was notable. A three-storey conventional steel moment
frame was built next to the base-isolated laboratory. It was also instrumented with
a seismograph on the roof, and the acceleration time histories shown in Fig. 12(d)
were obtained in the Kobe earthquake. Comparison between Figs. 12(c) and ((1)
also indicates significant reduction in structural response for the base-isolatecl
structure.

6. Conclusions
This paper summarises the development and present status of design and con-
struction of base-isolated building structures in Japan. Statistical data regarding
base-isolated buildings notably show that base isolation in Japan has grown
 Base-Isolation Design Practice in Japan 169

remarkable since the 1005 Kobe earthquake, with more then 150 new projects annu-
ally. The floor area, height and natural period of base-isolated building structures
keep increasing, and the niawirnurn shear exerted into the superstructure remaining
low, whicli is a clear indication of the confidence and maturity of seismic isolation
design in Japan. Slide bearings are increasingly applied to reduce maximum design
shear force. Basic design procedures that are becoming standardised after 20 years
of' experiences are outlined. These involve the determination of design earthquake
forces, modelling of the base-isolation layer, modelling of the superstructure, selec-
tion of ground motions, time-history analyses, and perfor~riarmcriteria. Nonlinear
tiwe-history a~lalysesfor rlntltiple si te-specific g r ~ w i d~ilotionsare cliarilctcristic of
the design of base-isolated structures. Scveral issues pertinent to base-isolation are
tlisi:usseil: Variation of b:rse-isolrttim material properties, applications to high-rise
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I)~dtlings,effects of vertical groriud nlotions, and rcsponsc when subjcctecl to near-

hulk gsouml motions. Anlo~igtllcsc, vertical motion cffccts (in terms of the nssur-
m c c of f~uictionality)~ ~ 1 i~ tO1 S S I ~ I tlaiiitgc
C (iidutling collisio~iwith tlie slirrou~diug
rcti~illiugw i d l ~ )i~irll~cctl
ly ilca~-fi~lllt li~otiolisarc i t lo~~tifietl
as isslws that llavc tlot
I,c:r:i1 f~i H v rcsolvecl.

Acknowledgement
The: writcrs wish to tllark Y. Nak23i~of Nippori S t n l Co., hI. hliynzaki of Dyuiuliic
Dwigu Co. illid K. I Z ~ W OE D M i ~ t ~ ~ i l l l ~ l iCo.
b g ~for
~ ~providirlg
li t l writers
~ with
pllotos sliow~iin Figs. 7 and 11 u i t l thc rcspo~lse(latit sllowll iu Fig. 12 of tliis pikpcr.
Tlic writors are also grateful to the followi~igi~idivitlwdsfor tllcir ilscful co~nrncllts
oli tiic c o ~ t c n tof the paper: M. Miyazaki of Dynamic Dcsign Co., H. Kitmlrira
uf Tokyo Scic~iceUniversity, H. Hayyaniizu of tlic B~lildiiigCCH~CI. of Jup;\ti, and
hl. Higaslliim of Takenab Co. Any errors in tliis papcr arc those of tlie writers.

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