Weak inversion page 1

CCCD Workshop 2003, Lund, Oct. 2-3

WEAK INVERSION IN
ANALOG AND DIGITAL CIRCUITS
Eric A.Vittoz
CSEM, Centre Suisse d'Electronique et de Microtechnique SA
Jaquet-Droz 1, CH 2007 Neuchtel, Switzerland
eric.vittoz@csem.ch

Behaviour and model of MOS transistors in weak inversion [1,2,3].

Examples of analog circuits.
Exploratory analysis of weak inversion logic [4,5].

CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003

 Weak inversion page 2

MOS TRANSISTOR : DEFINITIONS

n-channel symbols:
VD B
D VS
B VG G VD
ID
VS S S D ID
n+ n+ p-channel VG

p local substrate G
n-channel VG
W,L width, length of the channel S D ID
Cox gate capacitance per unit area VS VD
UT = kT/q ( = 26 mV at 300K) B
V = local non-equilibrium voltage in channel : channel voltage
(quasi-Fermi potential of electrons)
at source end of channel: V = VS
at drain end of channel: V = VD
Qi local mobile inversion charge in channel (electrons)
VT0 gate threshold voltage for V=0.
CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
 Weak inversion page 3

DRAIN CURRENT
VD
ID =
Qi with = Cox W (=mobility)
Given by: - dV
C ox L
VS
- Qi /Cox
VG-VT0 V G const.
strong inversion, slope factor n =1.2 to 1.6
slo

-Qi VP -V
exponential
pe

ID weak inversion: C = 2nUT exp

ox UT
-n

V
0 VS VD
VG - VT0
Pinch-off voltage VP
n
Weak inversion already possible for VS=0 if VG<VT0 ("subthreshold")
CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
Weak inversion page 4

DRAIN CURRENT IN WEAK INVERSION

(vertical axis magnified)

-Qi /Cox -Qi /Cox

VG-VT0>0
slope

slope
-n

ID/ ID/

-n
0 V 0
VS VD VD V
VP<0 VS
VP>0 VG-VT0<0

CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003

 Weak inversion page 5

FORWARD AND REVERSE CURRENTS

-Qi/Cox -Qi/Cox -Qi/Cox

Drain current ID forward reverse

current IF current IR

=
ID IF
IR
V V V
VS VD VS VD

ID(VG,VS,VD) = F(VG,VS) - F(VG,VD) = IF - IR

Drain current is the superposition of independent and symmetrical
effects of source and drain voltages.
basic property of long-channel transistors, independent of current [6].
Transistor saturated if IRIF, then ID=IF.
CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
 Weak inversion page 6

DRAIN CURRENTEXPRESSION IN WEAK INVERSION

VP-V VP -VS,D
-Qi/Cox = 2nUT e UT 2nUT thus: IF,R = IS e UT

2
Definition: specific current of the transistor: IS = 2nUT

(10 to 300 nA for W=L)

Introducing VP (VG-VT0)/n and ID =IF - IR, this yields:

VG-VT0 V V
- S - D
ID = IS e nUT (e UT - e UT ) for IF and IR IS
IF IR

CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003

 Weak inversion page 7

FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS IN WEAK INVERSION

VG VS VD VT0
- -
ID = ID0 e nUT ( e T - e UT
U ) where ID0=IS e- nUT

output transfer from gate transfer from source

VG,VS = const. VS, VD const. VG, VD const.
ID
ID /IF log ID
ID0 log
1 ID0
5% saturation
1/n

1
VD-VS pe VG

e
VS
slo

op
UT U T -

sl
0 UT
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
VD-VS VG VS
ID ~ 1-e - U ID ~ e nUT -
T
ID~ e UT

minimum VDSsat exponential, slope 1/n exponential, slope 1

CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
 Weak inversion page 8

CONTINUOUS MODELS WEAK-STRONG INVERSION

a. From charge analysis [7,8]: IF,R
IF,R 1+4 I -1
VP -VS,D S
= 1+4 I -1 +ln
UT S 2
cannot be inverted to express IF,R(VP,VS,D)

IF,R VP -VS,D
b. Interpolation formula: = ln2 (1 + e ) [9]
IS 2U T

Both converge asymptotically towards:

IF,R VP -VS,D
IS = e U T for VP -VS,D UT (weak inversion)
IF,R VP -VS,D 2 for VP -VS,D UT (strong inversion)
IS = 2UT

Only 3 parameters: VT0, n (inside VP) and IS (or ) to model the current
from weak to strong inversion.
CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
 Weak inversion page 9

CONTINUOUS MODELS WEAK-STRONG INVERSION

IF,R b with:
IS 102 strong
a VP =(VG-VT0)/n
current
1
ID = IF - IR
weak
10-2

10-4 VP -VS,D
-20 0 20 40 60 UT
voltage
Definition: Inversion coefficient: IC = the larger of IF/IS and IR/IS
weak inversion: IC 1
moderate inversion: IC 1
VDSsat 2
strong inversion: IC = 2U 1
T

CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003

 Weak inversion page 10

TRANCONDUCTANCE FROM WEAK TO STRONG INVERSION

Transonductance gm from gate in saturation

weak inversion asymptote: gm=ID/(nUT)

model a
1.0
gm strong inv.asymptote: gm= 2ID/n
nUT 0.8
ID model b
0.6
0.4
0.2
weak moderate strong inv.
0 IC=ID/IS
0.01 0.1 1 10 100

gm/ID decreases with increasing inversion coefficient IC.

gm/ID is maximum in weak inversion.
CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
 Weak inversion page 11

SUMMARY OF FEATURES OF WEAK INVERSION

Large-signal DC model: VG-VT0 VS VD

ID = IS e nUT ( e - UT - e - UT )
+ translinear circuits and log domain filters
+ exponential : + max. Ion/Ioff for given voltage swing
intermodulation in RF front ends
+ min. VDSsat
+ max. intrinsic voltage gain
+ min. gate voltage
+ min. input noise density for given ID
+ min. gate capacitance + max. bandwidth for given kT/C and ID
+ max. gm/ID : + min. input offset voltage
+ gm(ID) linear max. output noise current for given ID
max. current mismatch : ID VT0
+ gm independent of
dominated by VT -mismatch: =
ID nUT
UT
Low speed: fT
2L2
CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
 Weak inversion page 12

EVOLUTION OF IC WITH SCALED-DOWN PROCESSES

Scaling-down of process:
dimension scaling by factor k
all voltages decreased by k, except U T:
- analog circuits: VDSsat must be decreased by k, thus

VDSsat 2
decreased by k2
2U
IC =
T
- digital circuits: VB decreased by k, thus

VB -VT0 2 2
ICon = decreased by k
2nUT
Weak inversion approached for constant temperature T.
VDSsat
Transition frequency: fT = 2 increased by k
2L
- weak inversion with L=100nm : fT >4 GHz
CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
 Weak inversion page 13

LOW-VOLTAGE CASCODE IN WEAK INVERSION [2]

VDSsat = 4 to 6UT per transistor

I I
VDS2 T2 All transistors in weak inversion with:
T3 T4
2 4
VD2 = P and =M
3 5
T1 V T5
DS1 VR
substrate

Model in weak inversion yields: VDS1 = UT ln [ P (1+ 2M)]

for P = M = 8 : VDS1=5UT,

thus VD2 = 10UT sufficient to saturate T1 and T2

CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003

 Weak inversion page 14

EXTRACTION OF UT AND CURRENT REFERENCE [1]

V+ I2 mirror T1-T2
T3

K
slope
T6 T4T3
I2 P(stable)
source I1

4
3 -T
T
sink T2KT1

or
irr
T5

m
T1 R VR I1
Q (unstable)
V-

For T1 and T2 in weak inversion: VR = RI2 =UT lnK

Self-starting if leakage of T2 larger than that of T1.

CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003

 Weak inversion page 15

CURRENT GENERATION WITHOUT RESISTOR

Resistor replaced by transistor T8 in conduction [10]:
T6 =T3 =T4 =T7 and T5 = T1 V+
T6 T3 T4
T7
T8 and T9 in strong inversion with I
I I
8 =A9 (A1 to have T8 in conduction) I
T2
T2 and T1 in weak inversion with T5 T1 V R T9
2 = K1
V-
T8

yields: 2
I = 2n8UT.Aln2K = IS8.Aln2K

Reference current I proportional to specific current IS8

Useful to bias transistors at inversion coef.IC independently of process.
If mobility ~ T -2, then compensation by UT2 : I ~ IS independent of T
CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
 Weak inversion page 16

MOS TRANSISTOR OPERATED AS A PSEUDO-RESISTOR

[11,12,13,6]
Consequence of basic property ID = F(VS) - F(VD):

Networks of transistors with same gate voltage are

linear with respect to currents
thus equiv. for currents to a resistive prototype, with Gi=1/Ri~ISi
ground in res. prototype correspond to saturated transistors.
example of application: current-mode linear attenuator (e.g. R-2R).

In weak inversion:
linearity of currents even for different gate voltages
VGi
with Gi = 1/Ri ~ ISi exp
nUT

CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003

 Weak inversion page 17

simple example of pseudo-R network in weak inversion:

CALCULATION OF HARMONIC MEAN [14,13]

ground 0 IN I
0* 0*
GN GN GN* GN*
I Ik
IN Ik
Gk 0*
Gk G Gk* Gk*
I1 I1
0*
G1 G1 G1* G1*
V- V-
resistive prototype pseudo-resistive version
(0*=pseudo-ground)
1
Series combination of Gi : G =
1/Gi harmonic mean
1 Ihm
Same voltage across G and Gi, thus I = =
1/Ii N
Can be used as a fuzzy AND gate.
CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
 Weak inversion page 18

TRANSLINEAR CIRCUITS
With bipolar transistors: With MOS transistors in weak inversion: [16,17]
Ii [15]
+ (VGi - VSi) = (VGi - VSi) VGi
+ +
VBEi VSi
+ Ii -1
with: Ii
+ VGi Ii
+ common substrate
n -VSi = UT ln ID0i
+ and - directions of BEi If + and - are alternated then: pairs of equal
(any sequence) VGi both sides of equation:
VBEi = VBEi VGi VGi /n for each pair,
+ and then
Ii
with: VBEi= UT ln I
si
Otherwise: separate wells connected to
Ii Isi sources to impose VSi = 0
+ + =
=
Ii Isi Precision degraded by VT0 mismatch
CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
Weak inversion page 19

BASIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR WEAK INVERSION LOGIC [5]

supply voltage
Dynamic power consumption: Pdyn = f C V VB
logic swing
Weak inversion model can be rewritten as
VGS VDS
ID = I0 e nUT 1 - e- nU
T

exponential in VGS, with maximum gm/ID, thus:

- minimum swing V for given Ion/off, hence
- minimum Pdyn for given Ioff
VT0+(n-1)VS
- with: I0 = IS e- adjustable by VS.
nU T
Assumptions on process:
1. Threshold VT0 close to 0 (VS cannot be too negative).
2. Triple well (true twin well): separate local p and n substrates
- adjustment of I0 by VS for n- and p-channel.
CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
 Weak inversion page 20

STABLE STATES OF CMOS FLIP-FLOP

Simplifying assumptions: nn=np=n, I0n=I0p=I0 V+

inverter
Normalized voltages vk=Vk /UT
Ip
8 VB
In
high and low logic states

Vi Vo
C

le
n=1.6

ab
6

st
vH (high) V-

4 ble
sta
ta
vB me
swing

2
bistable for VB > 1.91UT
stable vL (low) 95% swing for VB = 4UT
0 2 4 6 8
normalized supply voltage vB

CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003

 Weak inversion page 21

STATIC CURRENT AT LOGIC STATES

Since VL=VB-VH >0, static current Istat at each state is larger than I0

1.2

Istat 1.1 n = 1.6

I0
1.0

0.9

0.8
1 2 4 6 8
normalized supply voltage vB

Istat <4% above I0 for vB 4 : the difference can be neglected thus:

Static power : Pstat I0VB

CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003

 Weak inversion page 22

STANDARD TRANSITIONS IN HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEM

Chain of inverters 2Td
VH Vo2 Vo4 Vo6 Vo8
VL
4 vH

3 vo1 vo3 vo5 vo7

von=vin+1
2Td/T0 n = 1.6
2 vB = 4
vo2 vo4 vo6 vo8
1

0 vL
0 1 2 3
normalized time t /T0
Characteristic time : T0=CUT/I0
Transitions become standard after a few stages
Normalized delay time Td/T0 only depends on VB and n.
CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
Weak inversion page 23

DELAY TIME FOR STANDARD TRANSITIONS

Td n = 1.6
T0 Approximation:
0.1 CVB CVB
Td
Ion I0eVB/nUT

CVB -V /nU
or I0 e B T
0.01 Td
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 (for calcul. of Pstat)
normalized supply voltage vB

Td decreases approximately exponentially with increasing VB.

CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003

 Weak inversion page 24

PROPORTION OF SHORT-CIRCUIT CHARGE

FOR STANDARD TRANSITIONS

10-2 n = 1.6

Qsc
QC

0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
normalized supply voltage vB

Short-circuit charge Qsc < 1.4% capacitor charge QC : negligible, thus:

dynamic power Pdyn fQCVB fCVB2
with static power Pstat = IstatVB I0VB

CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003

 Weak inversion page 25
POWER-DELAY PRODUCT

Definition: duty factor = 2f Td 1

proportion of time during which the gate is in transition.
CUT2 2
Then, total power P = Pdyn + Pstat P = vB(/2 + e-vB/n)
Td
PTd 10 =1 0.5
CUT2
power-delay product

0.2
8 n =1.6
0.1
normalized

6
4 0.05
2 0.03
0.01
0 0.003
2 4 6 8 10 12
normalized supply voltage vB
Pdyn dominates for large min. VB for min. PTd
Pstat dominates for small increase VB to increase Ion/Ioff
CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
 Weak inversion page 26

POWER/FREQUENCY RATIO
-v /n
By re-using =2f Td : P/f = C(nUT)2 (vB/n)2(1+
2
e B )

P/f 1000 Pdyn for VB=25nUT 1V

C(nUT)2
10-4
normalized total power

10-3
100 10-2
e-3 parameter
10-4
10 1 Pstat
10-3
Pdyn e-3 10-2
1
1
4 6 8 2 10 12 14
normalized supply/slope factor vB/n
VBopt and Pmin increase for decreasing
At Pmin : PdynPstat
Increasing I0 does not allow to reduce VB significantly for Td const.
For > 5%, power reduction by >20 compared to Pdyn at 1V.
CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
 Weak inversion page 27

MAXIMUM SPEED

CVB
Since Td and Ionmax ICon IS (inv. coeff* spec. current), thus:
Ion
VB C
Tdmin
ICon IS

Limit of weak inversion: ICon 1, thus process

Tdmin(weak) VB C
IS

Higher speed can only be obtained by entering moderate or strong inv.

CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003

 Weak inversion page 28

EFFECT OF ENTERING MODERATE AND STRONG INVERSION

60
(using continuous model of ID) VGS 105
nUT
40 103
More voltage swing needed param.

VGS swing
to obtain Ion/Ioff Ion/Ioff
20 10
from continuous current model:
0
10-1 1 101 102 103
"on" inv. coeff. ICon
Degeneration of logic states:
4 vH vB=4
3 n=1.6
reduction of logic swing logic
large increase of static current Istat 2 swing
loss of bistability vL
1 Istat
more supply voltage needed. IS
0
0 1 2 3 4 ICon
CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
 Weak inversion page 29

NUMERICAL RESULTS
Simple inverter replaced by 3-input NAND-gate:
approx. equivalent to inverter with
L = 3-time that of n-ch transistor
C VB
C = 6-time that of min. inverter
(includes Cinterconnect=C/2).
parameter process A process B unit
min. channel length Lmin 500 180 nm
equiv. spec. current IS 200 400 nA
equiv. load capac. C 20 4 fF
specific energy C(nUT)2 28 4.2 aJ
P/f for =1 VB=4UT 228 44 aJ
(P/f)min for =0.01 and VBopt=6nUT 1.46 0.22 fJ
Pdyn/f at VB=1V 20 4 fJ
fmax1 for =1 and VB=4UT 50 500 MHz
fmax2 for =0.01 and VB=VBopt 0.22 2.56 MHz
Pmin at fmax2 32.5 56.3 nW
CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003
 Weak inversion page 30

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND LIMITATIONS

Low-voltage power source

should be proportional to UT (PTAT)
need for power-efficient adapter from higher supply voltage.
Asymmetry
p/n asymmetry may result in speed reduction.
Mismatch
dominated by threshold mismatch VT
may result in speed reduction proportional to VT /VB.
Short channel effects: should not drastically degrade the results.
Gate leakage current : should be alleviated by very low VB.
Adjustment of I0 orTd to required value
control by VS with charge pump in loop [18]; n>1 needed (no SOI!)
corresponds to threshold adjustment unavoidable at very low VB.
System architectures and applications.

CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003

 Weak inversion page 31

SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE AND APPLICATIONS

Duty factor must be maximized to reach minimum P/f,

(where f is the average transition frequency), thus
avoid idling gates (contrary to traditional CMOS culture)
new architectures needed:
- maximally active gates of minimum speed (max. delay time Td)
- particular problem with RAMs (short Td but sparse activity)
- how? new constraints should result in novel solutions.
partition the system in blocks of comparable and Td
- optimum VB and I0 for each block (separate I0 control).
Maximum frequency much lower than for strong inversion:
best applicable when no high local speed is required
m-parallelize: mTd but same power if same (m units with P/m)
- digital image processing ?

CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003

 Weak inversion page 32

CONCLUSION

Weak inversion permits very low supply voltage VB

2
approached with scaled-down VB: IC ~ VB
limit for scaled-down VB.

Analog: VB>10UT = 250 mV

provides maximum gm/ID
bipolar-like behaviour can be exploited in new schemes.

Digital: VB> 4UT = 100mV

transistor not a switch but a current modulator (Ion/Ioff)
new architectural approaches for max. duty factor .
ultimum (asymptotic) limit for low power*delay.

Low speed, but keeps increasing with 1/L2 in scaled down processes.

CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003

 Weak inversion page 33

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CSEM, E. Vittoz, 2003