David M. Burton Introduction To Modern Abstract Algebra PDF

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ADDISON-WESLEY SERIES IN MATHEMATICS
Ocnuultiftl/ Editor: LYNN H. LoOMI8

D A V I D M. BUR TON, University of New Hampshire
INTRO-DUCTION TO
MOO'ERN ABSTRACT ALGEBRA
ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY

ReedIng, M8ItIaChuIItItIt
Menlo PIITk, California . London . Amatflfdem Don MIlls. 0nfarl0.S)IdIIey
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CATALOG CAIlII NO. 67-19426.
, _ 0201.007223
IJKLMNOPO-MA 19818
PREFACE
This book has been written with the intention of providing an introduction to
model'll aht:!t.ract algebra for mathematics major8. The r('.ader is not presumed
at thc Outllct to possess any previout:! knowledge of the concepts of modem
algebra. Accordingly, our beginuing is somewhat elementary, with the exposition
in the earlier sections proceeding at a leisurely pace; much of this early material
may be covered rapidly on a first reading. An attempt. has been made to keep
the book as self-contained as possible. To smooth the path for the unexperienced
reader, the fir8t chapter is devoted to a review of the basic facts concerning
sets, functions and number theory; it also serves as a suitable vehicle for intro-
ducing some of the notation and terminology used subsequently.
A cursory examination of the table of contents will reveal few surprises; the
topics chosen for discussion in COUr8es at this level are fairly standard. However,
our aim has been to give a presentation which is logically developed, precise,
and in keeping with the spirit of the times. Thus, set notation is employed
throughout, and the distinction is maintained between algebraic systems as
ordered pair8 or triples and their underlying sets of elements. Guided by the
principII! thnt 0. st(~l"ly diet. of definitions and cxullIples SOOIl 1)(~c()llIel'l unpalat-
able, our eiTOl-ts are directed towards establishing the most important and
fruitful results of the subject in a formal, rigorous fashion. The chapter on
groups, fOl' example, culminates in a proof of the classic Sylow Theorems, while
ring and ideal theory are developed to the point of obtaining the Stoile Repre-
sentation Theorem for Boolean rings. Ell route, it is hoped that the, reader will
gain an appreciation of precise mathematical thought and t.he current standards
of rigor.
At the eud of each section, there will be found a collection of problems of
varying degrees of difficulty; these constitute an integral part of the hook. They
introduce a variety of topics not treated in the main t.('xt, as well as impart
much additional detail ahout material covered earlier. Home, especially in the
latter seet.ions, pl'Ovide slIbl'ltantial extensionl'l of t.he'theory. We have, on the
whol(', resist.('d t.h(' t.('mptation to lise the exercises to develop results that will
be ncedl'd HllbsequC'nt.ly; aN a 1(,~lIlt., the reader need not work all the problems
in order t.o read the reHt of the hook. Problems whose solut.ions do not appear
particularly straiJ!;htforward arc accompanied by hints, Besides the general
index, a glossary of !!pecial Hymhol!! iN also included.
v
vi PREFACE
The text is not intended to be encyclopedic in nature; many importaut topics

vie for inclusion and some choice is obviously imperative. To this end, we
merely followed our own taste, condensing or omitting altogether certain of the
concepts found in the usual first course in modem algebra. Despite these
omissions, we believe the coverage will meet the needs of most students; those
who are stimulated to pursue the matter further will have a finn foundation
upon which to build.
It is a pleasure to record our indebtedness to Lynn Loomis and Frederick
Hoffman, both of whom read the original manuscript and offered valuable
criticism for its correction and improvement. Of our colleagues at the University
of New Hampshire, the advice of Edward Batho and Robb Jacoby proved
particularly h~lpful; in this regard, special thanks are due to William Witthoft
who contributed a number of incisive suggestions after reading portions of the
galley proofs. We also take this occasion to express our sincere appreciation to
Mary Ann MacIlvaine for her excellent typing of the manuscript. To my wife
must go the largest debt of gratitude, not only for her generous assistance with
the text at the various stages of its development, but for her constant encourage-
ment and understanding.
Finally, we would like to acknowledge the fine cooperation of the staff of
Addison-Wesley and the usual high quality of their work.
Durham, New H amp8hirc ..D.M.B.

March 1967
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Preliminary Notion.

1-1 The Algebra of Sets 1
1-2 Functions and Elementary Number Theory 13
Chapter 2 Group Theory

2-1 Definition and Examples of Groups . 27
2-2 Certain Elementary Theorems on Groupf! 41
2-3 Two Important Groups 52
2-4 Subgroups 64
2-5 Normal Subgroups and Quotient Groups 75
2-6 Homomorphisms 89
2-7 The }<'undamental Theorems . 103
2-8 The Jordan-Holder Theorem . 117
2-9 Sylow Theorems 128
Chapter 3 RI. . Theory

3-1 Definition and Elementary Properties of Rings 141
3-2 Ideals and Quotient Rings 156
3-3 Fields '172
3-4 Certain Special Ideals . 183
3-5 Polynomial Rings 196
3-6 Boolean Rings and Boolean Algebras 219
Chapter 4 Vector Spec..

4-1 The Algebra of Matrices 235
4-2 Elementary Properties of Vector Spaccli 249
4-3 HaMes a.nd Dimension 263
4-4 Linear Mappings 277
Selected Reference. 297
Inde. of Special Symbol. and Nototion. , 299
Inde. 305
vii
CHAPTER 1
PRELIMINARY NOTIONS
1-1 THE ALGEBRA OF SETS
This ehaptcr hrieAy summarizes IIOme of the bll.llic notions concerning sets,
functiollH, and number theory; it alllO serves Itl! It vehicle for establishing COIl-
ventions in notation and terminology used throughout the text. Inasmuch as
this material is intended to serve primarily for background purposes, the
reader who is already acquainted with the ideas in this chapter may prefer to
cmbark directly 011 the next.
Within the confines of one section, it is obviously impossible to give complete
coverage to set theory or, for that matter, to achieve a logically coherent exposi-
tion of such a formalil!tic diseipline. The subsequent presentation should thus
be regarded simply as a summary of the fundamental aspects of the subject,
and not as a sYRtematic development.
Rather than attempt to list the undefined terms of set theory and the various
axioms relnting them, we shall take an informal or naive approach to the sub-
jeet. To thil! cnd, the term set will be intuitively understood to mean II. collection
of objects having some common characteristic. The objects that make up a
given sct arc called its elements or members. Sets will generally be designated
by capital letters and their elements by small letters. In particular, we shall
employ the following notations: Z is the set of integers, Q the set of rational
numbers, and R' the set of real numbers. The symbols Z+, Q+, and R~ will
stand for the positive elements of these sets.
If x is an element of the set A, it is customary to use the notation x E A
and to read the symbol E as "belongs to." On the other hand, when x fails to
be an element of the set A, we shall denote this by writing x I;l A.
There arc two common methods of specifying a particular set. First, we may
list all of its elements within braces, as with the set {-I, 0,1, 2}, or merely
list some of its elements and use three dots to indicate the fact that certain
obvious clements have been omitted, as with the set {I, 2, 3,4, ... }. When
such a liHting il! not practical, we may indicate instead a characteristic property
whereby we can determine whether or not a given object is an element of the
set. IHore specifically, if P(x) is a statement concerning x, then the set of all
elementR x for whieh the J;tatcmcnt P(x) is true is denoted by {x I P(x)}. For
example, we might have {x I x is an odd integer greater than 2I}. Clearly,
1
vi PREFACE
The text is not intended to be encyclopedic in nature; many important topics

vie for inclutlioll and some choice ill obviously imperative. To this end, we
merely followed our own taste, condensing or omitting altogether certain of the
concepts found in the usual first course in modem algebra. Despite these
omissions, we believe the coverage will meet the needs of most students; those
who are stimulated to pursue the matter further will have a firm foundation
upon which to build.
It is a pleasure to record our indebtedness to Lynn Loomis and Frederick
Hoffman, both of whom read the original manuscript and offered valuable
criticism for its correction and improvement. Of our colleagues at the University
of New Hampshire, the advice of Edward Batho and Robb Jacoby proved
particularly ht'lpful; in this regard, special thanks are due to William Witthoft
who contributed a number of incisive suggestions after reading portions of the
galley proofs. We also take this occasion to express our sincere appreciation to
Mary Ann Ma.eIlvaine for her excellent typing of the manuscript. To my wife
must go the largest debt of gratitude, not only for her generous assistance with
the text at the various stages of its development, but for her constant encourage-
ment and understanding.
Finally, we would like to acknowledge the tine cooperation of the staff of
Addison-Wesley and the usual high quality of their work.
Durham, New Ifampshire ..n.M.B.

March 1967
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Preliminary Notion.

1-1 The Algebra of Sets 1
1-2 functions and Elementary Number Theory 13
Chapter 2 Group Thoory

2-1 Definition and Examples of Groups . 27
2-2 Certain Elementary Theorems on GroupR 41
2-3 Two Important Groups 52
2-4 Subgroups 64
2-5 Normal Subgroups and Quotient Groups 75
2-6 Homomorphisms 89
2-7 The l!'undamental Theorems . 103
2-8 The Jordan-Holder Theorem . 117
2-9 Sylow Theorems 128
Chapter 3 Rlnt Theory

3-1 Definition and Elementary Properties of Rings 141
3-2 Ideals and Quotient Rings 156
3-3 Fields '172
3-4 Certain Special Ideals. 183
3-5 Polynomial Rings . 196
3-6 Boolean Rings and Boolean Algebras 219
Chapter 4 Vector Spac..

4-1 The Algebra of MatriceR 235
4-2 l!~lementary Propertie.'l of Vector Spaces 249
4-3 U8l!C1I and Dimension 263
4-4 Linear Mappings 277
Selected Reference. 297
Indox of Spoeial Symbol. and Notation. . 299
Index 305
vii
2 PRELIMINARY NOTIONS I-I
certain sets may be described both ways:
{O, I} = {x / x E Z and x 2 = x}.
It is customary, however, to depart slightly from this notation and write

{x E A / P(x)} instead of {x / x E A and P(x)}.
Definition 1-1. Two sets A and B are said to be equal, written A = B,
if and only if every clement of A is an element of B and every element of B
is an element of A. That is, A = B provided A and B have the same elements.
Thus a set is completely determined by its elements. For instance,
{I, 2, 3} = {3,I,2,2},
since each set contains only the integers 1, 2 and 3. Indeed, the order in which
the elements are listed in a set is immaterial, and repetition conveys no addi-
tional information shout the ad.
An empty set or null set, represented by the symbol 0, is any Bet which has
no elements. For instance,
o= {x E R' I x 2 < O} or 0= {X/XFX}.

Any two empty sets arc equal, for in a trivial sense they both contain the same
elements (namely, none). In effect, then, there is just one empty set, so that
we are free to speak of the empty 8et 0.
The set whose only member is the element x is called 8ingleton x and it is
denoted by {x}:
{x} = {y I y = x}.
In particular, {O} F 0 sincll 0 E {O}.

Definition 1-2. The set A is a BUb8et of, or is contained in, the set B, indicated
by writing A ~ B, if every element of A is also an element of B.
Our notation is designed to include the possibility that A = B. Whenever
A ~ B but A F B, we will write A C B and say that A is a proper BUbset of B.
It will be convenient to regard all sets under consideration as being subsets
of some master set U, called the universe (universal 8et, ground set). While
the universe may he diffC'rent in different contexts, it will usually be fixed
throughout any given difol(~llllllion.
There arc several immediate (:onscquenc(~s of the definition of sct inclusion.
TheOrem 1-1. If A, B, and C are subsets of some universe U, then
a) A ~ A, 0 ~ A, A ~ cr,
b) A ~ 0 if and only if A = 0,
c) {x} ~ A if and only if x E A; that is, each clement of A determines a
subset of A,
1-1 THE ALGEBRA OF SETS 3
d) if A 5;; Band B 5;; C, then A 5;; C,

e) A 5;; Band B 5;; A if and only if A = B.
Observe that the result 0 5;; A follows from the logical principle that a false
hypothesis implies any conclusion whatsoever. Thus, the statement "if x e 0,
then x e A" is true since x e 0 is always false.
The last assertion of Theorem 1-1 indicates that a proof of the equality of
two specified sets A and R is generally presented in two parts. One part demon-
strates that if x e A, then x e B; the other part demonstrates that if x e B,
then x e A. ' An illustration of such a proof will be given shortly.
We now consider several important ways in which sets may be combined
with one another. If A amI B are subsets of some universe U, the operations
of union, intersection, and difference arc defined as follows.
Deftnition 1-3. The union of A and B, denoted by Au B, is the subset
of U defined by
A U B = {x I x e A or x e IJ}
The intersection of A and B, denoted by A n B, is the subset of U defined by
AnB= {xlxeAandxEB}.
The difference of A and B (sometimes called the relative complement of B in
A), denoted by A - B, is the subset of U defined by
A - B = {x I x E A but x ~ B}.
In the definition of union, the word "or" is used in the "and/or" sense. Thus
the statement "x E A or x E B" allows t.he possibility that x is in both A and B.
It might also he Jlot(ld par(mthetiml.\ly that, utilizing this new notion, we could
define A to be a proper subset of B provided A ~ B with B - A ~ 0.
The particular difference U - B is called the (absolute) complement of B
and designated simply by -B. If A and B are two nonempty sets whose inter-
section is empty, that is, A n B = 0, then they are said to be disjoint. We
shall illustrate these concepts with an example.
Examp.e 1-1. Let the universe be U = {O, 1,2,3,4,5, 6}, the set A = {I, 2, 4},
and the set B = {2, 3, 5}. Then
A uB = {1,2,a,4,5}, A n JJ = {2}, A - B = {t,4},
and
B - A = {3,5}.
Also,
-A = {O, 3, 5, 6}, -B = {O, 1,4, 6}.
Observe that A - B !lnd B - A are disjoint.

4 PRELIMINARY NOTIONS 1-1
In the following theorem, some simple consequences of the definitions of

union, intersection, and complementation are listed.
Theorem 1-2. If A, B, and C are subsets of some universe U, then
a) A U A = A,
AnA = A,
b) A uB = B u A,
A nB = B nA,
e) A U (B u 0) = (A u B) u c,
A n (B nO) = (A n B) n C,
d) A u (B nO) = (A u B) n (A u C),
A n (B u C) = (A n B) u (A nO),
e) A U 0 = A, A n 0 = 0,
f) A u U = U, A n U = A.
We shall verify the first equality of (d), since its proof illustrates a tech-
nique mentioned previously. Suppose that x E Au (B n C). Then, either
x E A or x E B n C. Now, if x E A, then clearly both x E Au Band
x E A U C, so that x E (A u B) n (A u 0). On the other hand, if x E B n C,
then x E B and therefore x E A u B; also x E C and therefore x E A u C.
The two conditions together imply that
x E (A U B) n (A u C).
This establishes the inclusion,
A u (B n 0) ~ (A u B) n (A u 0).
Conversely, suppose x E (A U B) n (A u 0). Thcll both x E A U Band
x E AU C. Since x E A U B, either x E A or x E Bi at the same time, since
x E A U C, either x E A or x E C. Together, theMel conditions mean that
x E A or x E B n C; that is, x E A u (8 n C). This proves the opposite
inclusion,
(A U B) n (A u 0) ~ A u (B n C).
By part (e) of Theorem 1-1, the two inclusions are sufficient to establish the
equality,
A u (B n C) = (A u 8) n (A u C).
If A, B. and C are sets such that C ~ A and C ~ B, then it is clear that

C ~A n B. Thus it is possible to think of A n B as the largcst set which is
a subset of both A and B. Analogously, A U B may he interpreted as the
smallcBl set which contains hoth A Rnd B.
The next t1worcm relates the operation of complementation to other opera-
tions of set theory.
Theorem 1-3. Let A amI B be subsets of the universe U. Then

a) -(A U B) = (-A) n (-B),
b) -(A n B) = (-A) U (-B),
c) if A ~ B, then (-B) ~ (-A),
d) -(-A) = A, _o~ = U, -V = 0,
e) A u (-A) = V, A n (-A) = 0.
To give the reader a little more familiarity with set-theoretic argument, we

shall establish the first of the above assertions. For the proof, let x be an
arbitrary (!Icmcnt of -(A U B). Then x ~ A U B. Hence x is in neither A
nor n. Thill implicH t.lmt x E - A ami x E n, from which it follows that
0_0
x E (-A) n (-B). Thus -(A u B) ~ (-A) n (-B).

Conversely, if x E ( - A) n (-B), then x belongs to both - A and -B. In
other words, x ~ A and x ~ B. This guarantees x ~ A U B, that is
xE-(AUB).
We consequently have the inclusion (-A) n (-B) ~ -(A u B) and the

desired equality holds.
The first two parts of the above theorem are commonly known as DeMorgan'8
rules.
There will be occasions when we wish to consider sets whose elements them-
selves are sets; in order to avoid the awkward repetition "set of sets," we shall
frequently refer to these as families of sets. One family which will prove to be
of considerable importance is the so-called power set of a given set.
Definition 1-4. If A iii I1.n nrhit.mry l'Ict, thcn t1w !let WhOHC clements are
nl\ the HuhRI't.H of A ill known nil the power 8(~t of A allli dmlOtcu by P(A):
peA) = {B I B ~ A}.
A few remarks arc in order before considering a specific example. First,

since 0 ~ A and A ~ A, we always have {0, A} ~ peA) no matter what the
nature of the set A. (If A = 0, then of course peA) = {0}.) The next thing
to observe is that if x E A, then {x} ~ A, hence {x} E peA). From this, we
infer that the power set of A has, at the very least, as many elements as the
set A. Indeed, it ean be shown that whenever A is a finite set with n elements,
then peA) is itself It finite set having 2 n elements. For this reason, the power
set of A iH oft!'11 represented hy the Hymbol 2A.
Example 1-2. Huppol'll! t.he l'Id A ,~ (fl, Ii, c}. Tht POWC1' tid of A, whirh has
aI:I its c11:mclItH all the subl:lCts of fa, b, c}, is then
P(A) = {0, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, A}.
It is both desirable and possible to extend our definitions of union and inter-
section from two sets to any number of sets. Assume to this end that a is a
nonempty family of subsets of the universe U. The union and intersection of
this arbitrary family are defined by,
ua = {x / x E A for some set A E a},

na = {x / x E A for every set A E a}.
At times we will resort to an indexing set to define these notions. To be

more precise, let 1 be a set, finite or infinite, and with each i E 1 associate a
set A,. The fCl!ulting family of sets,
a= {Ad i E I},
is then said to be indexed by the elements of I, and the set 1 is called an index
Bet for a. Wh(ln t.hifl notation is employed, it is customary to denote the union
and intcrHCction of the fnmily a by
and n{Ai / i E f}.
If the nature of the index set 1 is clearly understood or if the emphasizing of

it is inessential for some reason, we simply write, -
and
Example 1-3. If A" = {x E R' / -lin ~ x ~ lin} for n E Z+, then
u{A .. / n E Z+} = {x / x E A .. for some n E Z+} = At,

n{A .. / n E Z+} = {x / x E A .. for every n E Z+} = {O}.
In passing, we should note that by a chain of sets is meant a nonempty

family e of subsets of some universe U such that if A, BEe then either As; B
or B S; A. For instance, the family in Example 1-3 constitutes a chain of sets.
From our definition of set equality, {a, b} = {b, a}, since both sets contain
the same two elements a and b. That is, no preference is given to one element
over the other. When we wish to distinguish one of these elements as"being
the first, say a, we write (a, b) and call this an ordered pair.
It is possible to give a purely set-theoretic definition of the notion of an
" ordered pair as follows:
Definition 1-5. Tbe ordered flair of el(!ments a and b, with its first compo-
nent a and lK!cond component b, denoted by (a, b), ill the set
(a, b) = {{a,b}, {a}}.
I-I THE ALGEBRA OF SETS 7
Note that according to this definition, a and b are not elements of (a, b) but
rather components. The actual elements of the set (a, b) are {a, b}, the un-
ordered pair involved, and {a}, that member of the unordered pair which has
been selected to be first. This agrees with our intuition that an ordered pair
should be an entity representing two elements in a given order.
For a ~ b, the sets {{a, b}, {a}} and {{b, a}, {b}} are unequal, having
different elements, so that (a, b) ~ (b, a). Hence, if a and b are distinct, there
are two distinct ordered pairs whose components are a and b, namely, the
pairs (a, b) and (b, a). Ordered pairs thus provide a way of handling two things
as one while losing track of neither.
In the next th(!Orem, a useful criterion for the equality of ordered pairs is
obtained; the proof ill subtle, but simple, relying mainly on Definitions 1-1
and 1-5.
Theorem 1-4. Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (e, d) are equal if and only if
a = e and b = (l.
Proof, If a = e and b = d, then it is clear from Definition 1-1 that
{a} = {e} and {a, b} = {e, d},
This in tum implies {{a, b}, {a}} = {{e, d}, {e}}, whence (a, b) = (e, d).
As for the converse, suppose that {{a, b}, {a}} = {{e, d}, {en. We dis-
tinguish two possible cases:
1) a = b. In this case, the ordered pair (a, b) reduces to a singleton, since
(a, b) = (a, a) = {{a,a}, {a}} = {{a}}.
According to our hypothesis, we then have

{{an = {{e, d}, {en,
which means {a} = {e, d} = {e}. From this, it follows that the four elements
a, b, e, d are all equal.
2) a ~ b. Here, both {a} ~ {a, b} and {e} ~ {a, b}. If the latter equality
were to hold, we would have e = a and e = b, hence the contradiction a = b.
Now, by virtue of the hypothesis, each member of the set (e, d) belongs to
(a, b); in particular,
{e} E {{a,b}, {a}}.
This means that {e} = {a} and accordingly a = e.
Ap;nill hy KIIPPOKitioll, (a, II} E f fe, (l}, fr.}} with {a, b} ~ {e}. It may thus
be inferred that la, b1 = {c, d} lUlll therefore b E {e, d}. As b cannot equal e
(this would imply that a = b), we must conclude that b = d. In either case
the desired result is established.
Having faced the problem of defining ordered pairs, it is natural to consider

ordered tripl('s, ordered quadruples and, for that matter, ordered n-tuples.
What simplifies the situation is that these notions can be formulated in terms of
ordered pairs. For instance, the ordered triple of a, b, and c is just an ordered
pair whose first component is itself an ordered pair:
(a, b, c) = (a, b), c).

Assuming that ordered (n - I)-tuples have been defined, we shall take the
ordered n-tuple of alt a2, ... ,an to mean the ordered pair (a" a2, ... ,a,.-I), a,.),
abbreviated by (a" a2, ... ,an), It should come as no surpriMC that two ordered
n-tuples equal whenever their corresponding components are equal; in other
words,
(at. a2, .. , a,.) = (b" b2, .. , bn )
if and only if ak = bk for k = 1,2, ... ,n.
Definition 1-6. The Carte8ian product of two nonempty sets A and B,

designated by A X B, is the set
A XB = {(a, b) I a E A and b E B}.
Whenever we employ the Cartesian product notation, it will be with the

understanding that the sets involved are nonempty, even though this may not
be explicitly stated at the time. Observe that if the set A contains n elements
and B contains m elements, then A X B has nm elements, which accounts for
the use of the word "product" in CartcRian product.
Example 1-4. Let A = {-I,O, I} and B = {0,2}. Then,
A X B = {(-I, 0), (-1,2), (0,0), (0, 2), (1,0), (1, 2)},

while
B XA = {CO, -1), (0,0), (0, 1), (2, -1), (2,0), (2, I)}.
Clearly the sets A X Band B X A are not identical. In fact, A X B = B X A
if and only if A = B.
By a (binary) rrlatinn in a nOllf'lIIpt.y Ret A if:! meant a subset R of the CartcRian
prod\l(~tA X A. H t.h(~ e1elllent (a, b) E R, wc KUY thllt a iH related to b with
respect to the relat.ion R and write aRb. For instance, the relation < in R'
consists of al\ points in the plane lying above the line y = x; one usually writes
3 < 4 rather than the awkward (3,4) E <.
Frankly, the concept of a relation as defined is far too general for our purposes.
We shall instead limit our attention to a specialized relation known as an
equivalence relation.
Definition 1-7. A rl'lllt.ion Il in It liet, A iii 8nid to he 11I1 (!quivalence relation

ill A provided it Ilatislied the threc propertie8,
1) refll'xive propl'rt.y: alla, for eaeh a E A,
2) Kyn\llletril~ proJ)('rt,y: if allb for IiOmc a, b E A, thcn blla,
:i) tram!itive property: if allb and bUe for IiOllle a, b, t: E A, thcn aRc.
Equivalence relations arc customarily denoted by the symbol,.., (pronounced
"wiggle"). With this change in notation, the conditions of Definition 1-7 may
be reHtatcd in a more familiar form:
J) 0"" 0, for I'l\I'h 0 E A,
2) a ,.., b implic8 b ,.., a,
3) both a ,.., band b ,.., r. imply a ..., c.
In tJlI~ following (lxnmpII'K, WI' h~lwc to t.ho rt'ndor t,h(l t.ILl'Ik of verifying that
each rdlltion dCH(~ril)(!(1 Ilet,unIly iii lUI cfJuivulmwc relation.
Example 1-5. Let A be an arbitrary nonempty set and define for a, bE A"
a..., b if nnd only if a = b (a = b is tacitly interpreted to mean that a and b
are identical clements of A). This yields an equivalence relation in A.
Example 1-6. Consider the set L of all lilies in a fixed plane and let a, bEL.
Then,.., is an cquivalenee relation in [J provided a,.., b means that a is parallel
to b; let, us agrce thnt any line is parallel to itl)lf.
Example 1-7. Take Z to be the set of integers. Given a, b E Z, we define
an cquivalclwc reln'tion ,.., in Z by requiring thnt a ,.., b if nnd only if a - b E Z.,
the He!. of (wen int,l'gerM.
Example 1-8. All a linal illustration, suppose A = Z+ X Z+ and define
(a, b) ,.., (e, d) to mean ad = be. A simplc cldculation reveals this is an equiv-
alence relation in A.
One is frequently led to conclude that the reflexive property is redundant in
Definition 1-7. The argumcnt goes like this: If a,.., b, then the symmetric
property implies b ,.., a; since a,.., band b,.., a, using the transitive property,
it follows that a ,.., a. Thus, there appears to be no necessity for the reflexive
eondition at all. The ftl~W in t.his reasoning IiI'S in t,he faet that for some clement
a E A, tllI'rl' llIay not, I'xisl. any b E A Slid, I.hat, a ,.., h. AI~I~(mlil\j!;ly, we would
1101. IlIlv(' a ,.., (t fol' I'VI'I'Y 1I1I'lIilu1' of It, liS llw I'l'fI('xiv(' propl'l'1.y l'("quin'M.
I'(!rllltps lh(, prilwipal ,'('aSOIl for ('ollsidl'l'illK ("qllivall"If"" rclat.i()m; in a IiCt A
is that they separat.e A illt.o certain (!onvcnient suhliets. To be more precise,
supposp ,.., is a KivclI I'quivall'lIl'e relation ill A. For each a E A, we let [aJ
denote the suhset of A I'onsisting of all clements which are equivalent to a:
[aJ = {x E A I x ,.., a}.
This set [aJ is referred to as the equivalence class determined by a.
Some of the baKil: properties of equivalence classes are listed in the next
theorem.
Theorem 1-5. J.A:~t - he an equivalence relation in the set A. Then,
1) for each a E A, [a] 0,
2) if b E [a], then raj = [I)]; that is, any clement of the equivalence class
[aJ determines the cllUlS,
3) for any a, b E A, with faJ rbI, [a] n [b] = 0,
4) U{[a]laE A} = A.
Proof. Clearly, a E [a], since a-a. To prove (2), let bE [a], RO that b - a.
Now, SIIPPOKI' ;r E [a). whil'" impIiI'R.1" - a. UKinK t.he KYlllmctril~ and transitive
propcrt.il's of -, it follmvH that. :c - b, h('nl'c x E fbI. This estnhlislwH the in-
clusion [a] s;; [b]. A Himilllr argument. yil'lds the opposite in('lusion and thus the
equality [a] = fbI.
We derive (3) hy assuming, to the contrary, that there is some element
C E [a] n fbI. Then by statement (2), which has just been verified, [a] =
[e] = rbI, an obvious contradietion. Finally, since each clll.SS [a] s;; A, the
inclusion U{[a] I a E A} s;; A ill apparent. To obtain the reverse inclusion one
need only demonstrate that each clement a in A belongs to some equivalence
c1aSllj but this is evident: if a E A, then a E [a].
We next conned. the idea of an equivalence relation in A with the concept
of a partition of A.
Definition 1-8. A partition of a set A iH a family {Ai} of nonempty subsets
of A with the properties
1) if Ai Aj, then Ai n Aj = 0 (pairwise disjoint),
2) UAi = A.
Briefly, a partition of A is a family {Ai} of nonempty subsets of A such that
every element of A belongs to one and only one member of {Ai}. The integers,
for instance, have a partition ('onsisting of the sets of odd and even integers:
Z = Z. u Zo, z.
n Zo = 0. Another partition of Z might be the sets Z+
(positive integ<'rH), Z_ (nl'Kntive integers), and {O}.
Theorem 1-5 may be viewed as asserting that if - is an equivalence relation
in A, then the fnmily of nil l'(Juivalent'e classes (with respect to the relation -)
forms a partition of A. We now reverse the situation and show that a given
partition of A indu('l's a natural equivalence relation in A.
Theorem 1-6. If {Ai} is a partition of the set A, then there is an equivalence
relation in A whose cquivalen('e classes are precisely the sets A j.
Proof. For clements a, b E A, we take a - b if and only if a and b belong to
the same subset A j . Th(' reader may check that the relation -, so defined, is
actually an equivalence relation in A. Now suppose the clement a E Ai. Then

b E Ai if and only if b "'" a, that is, if and only if b, E raj. This demonstrates
the equality A. = raj.
In summary, the nhove ClitlCUHHiOIl Hhows that there is no C14scntial distinction
betwccn partitions of a set and equivalence relatiolls in the set; if we start with
one, we get the other.
Example 1-9. Let A = R' X R' and define the relation"", by
(a, b) "'" (c, d) if and only if a - c = b - d.
TIII'II - is Ilil I'Iluivll1c-lIc'c- rc-laLion ill A. Thl! cquivlLlmwe dlLHH determined by

the clement (a, 11) iii !limply
[(a, b)J = {(c, d) I a - c = b - d}.
This set may be represented geometrically as a straight line with slope 1 passing
through the point (a, b). Therefore, the relation"", partitions A into a family
of parallellinel!.
PROBLEMS
In the following excrciscl! :I, B, and C are subset!! of some universe U.

I. Provo t.hat. A n B ~ .. I U B.
2. Suppose ,1 ~ B. Hhow that
\ a) A n C ~ B n C, b) A U C ~ B U C.
3. Prove that A - B = A n (-B), and use this result to verify each of the follow-
ing identities:
a) A - 0 = :I, 0 - A = 0, ..t - .1 = 0,
b) A - B = A - ( ..1 n B) = (11 U B) - B,
c) (11 - B) n (B - A) = 0.
4. Simplify the following expressions to one of the symbols A, B, II U B, An B,
A -B:
a) A n (A U B),
b) A - (11 - B),
c) -..I n B) U (-.1.
5. Prove that A n (B U C) = (A n B) U (A n C).
6. Establish the following reKults on differences:
a) (A - B) - C = A - (B U C),
b) .1 - (B - C) ... (II - B) U (A n C),
c) A U (B - C) = (:I U B) - (C - A),
d) .t n (B - C) = (A n B) - (.1 n C).
12 PRELIMINAlty NOTIONS 1-1
7. The notion of set indw;ion may be expressed either in terms of union or inter-
section. To see this, prove that
a) AS:;; B if and only if .1 U B = B,
b) ..l s:;; R if and only if .1 n R = :1.
8. a) If .1 s:;; /I nllli .1 ~ -II, prove I.hat :I .., tl.
b) If A !; Hand -.1 !;; H, prove that B - ll.
9. Establish the two absorption laws:
A U (A () B) = A, A n (A U B) = A.
10. ASRume that :1, H, and Carll Ret.s for which
AUB=,IUC and
Prove t.hat B = C. [Hin.t: H = B () (B U .\).1

]1. Let a = {.It, .h, ...} be a family of subsets indexed by the positive integers
Z+. Define a new family m = {BI, B2, ... } as follows:
Bl = "h; Bn = An - U{.h I k = 1,2, ... , n - I} for n > 1.

Show that
a) the member" of Hare di!ljoint. !lets, b) ua = um.
12. For any thrlle ~ets .. t, JJ and C, establish t.hat
a) .1 X (HUe) = (.1 X H) U (:1 X C),
b) 11 X (B n C) = (.1 X B) n (.t X C),
r) A X (B - e) = (ot x B) - (A X C),
d) A X B = U{A X {b} I bE B}.
13. Classify earh of the following relations R in the set Z of integers as to whether
they do or do not have the properties of being reflexive, symmetric, and transitive:
a) aRb if and only if a < b,
b) aRb if and only if a - b is an odd integer,
c) IJRb if and only if ab ~ 0,
d) aRb if and only if a 2 = b2 ,
e) aRb if and only if la - bl < I.
]4. Let S be a finite set, but ot.herwise arbitrary. Determine if the relations defined
below are equivalenre relations in P(S):
a) J,.., B means .1 s:;; H,
b) .1 ,.., B meanll ..\ and B have the same number of elements.
15. How many distinct equivalence relations are there in a. set of 4 elements?
16. Prove that the following relations,.., are equivalence relation!! in the Cartesian
product R' X R':
a) (a, b) ,.., (e, d) if and only if b - d = m(a - c), m a fixed real number,
b) (a, b) ,.., (e, d) if and only if a+ d = b c,+
c) (a, b) ,.., (e, d) if and only if a - c E Z, b = d.
1-2 l"UN(''TiONS ANn ELl!lMENTAltY NUMBER THEORY 13
1-2 FUNCTIONS AND ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY

Let us turn next to the concept of a function, one of the most important
ideas in mathematics. We shall avoid the traditional view of a function as a
"rule of ('Orrl~HJI(IIlClcfl(:e or nfl(ll!;ivI' inHt,\lad II. definit.ion ill U1rfllli of ordered pn.irs.
What t.hili Inl.t.l'l npprllueh l:Leks in f1utumluel!..'i is lIIorc thull I:ompemmted for
by its clarity II.lId precision.
Definition 1-9. A Junction (or mapping) f is a set of ordered pairs Buch that
no two distill(~t
pairs have the same first component. Thus (x, Yl) Ef and
(x, Y2) E J implies Yl = Y2.
TIll! ",)Jl(~(:t.illfl of all lirlit ('WIIJlUfI(!IItli IIf II. fuuetion f iii ealled tho domain of
the fuuetioll nlld is denoted by D" while the collection of all second components
is called the ran!le of the funetion and is denoted by R,. In terms of set notation,
D, = {x I (x, y) EJ for some y},
R, = {y I (x, y) EJ for some x}.
If J is a function and (x, y) E J, then y is said to be the functional value or

image of f at x and is denoted by f(x). That is, the symbol f(x) represents the
ullique second component of that ordered pair of f in which x is the first com-
ponent. We lihall oCC8.:-;ionally ohscrve the cOllvention of simply writing fx for
f(x).
Example 1-10. If the function f is the finite set of ordered pairs,
f = {(-1,0), (0,0), (1, 2), (2, I)},

then
D, = {-1,0, 1, 2}, R, = {O, 1, 2},
and we write f( -1) = 0, f(O) = 0, J(I) = 2 and J(2) = 1.
It is often convenient to descrihe a function by giving a formula for its

ordered pairs. For instanl:e, we might have
J= {(x,x 2 +2) IXER'}.
Using the functional value not.ation, onll would then wriw f(x) = x 2 + 2 for
each x E R'. Needles!! to say, there are funetions whose ordered pairs would
be difficult-if IIOt impoliliible-to express in terms of a formula. The diseerning
reader is advised to keep in mind the distinction between a function and its
values or, as the case may be, its formula; although the notation sometimes
leads to confusion, these concepts are obviously quite different.
Definition 1-10. COII;;ider a funetion J ~ X X Y. If /), = X, then we
say t.hat J iii a fUflct.inn fmlll X int() }', or t.hat f mall'~ X into Y; thiH Kitua.tion
is expressed symboIieally by writing f: X ----> 1".
The function I is said to be onto Y, or an "onto" function, whenever I is a

function from X into Y and RI = Y. Thus I is onto Y if and only if for each
ye Y there exists some xeD, with (x, y) e/, so that y = I(x).
Since functions are sets, we have a ready-made definition of equality of
functions: two functions I and g are equal if and only if they have the same
members. Accordingly, I = g if and only if D, = Dg and I(x) = g(x) for each
element x in their common domain.
Suppose I and g are two specific functions whose ranges are subsets of a
system in which addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are per-
missible (one may think of functions from R' into R'). The following formulas
define functions 1+ g, 1- g, I g and I/g by specifying the value of these
functions at each point of their respective domains:
+
(f gHx) = I(x) + ,,(x), )
(f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x), where xeD, n Dg
(I g)(x) = f(x)(j(x),
(f/g)(x) = f(x)/g(x) , where x e (D, n Dg) - {x e Dill g(x) = OJ.
We term f + (I, f - g, f g and fig, the pointwise sum, difference, product and
quotient of f and g.
Examp'e 1-11. SUppOtlC
f = {(x, V4 - x2) I -2 5 x 5 2} and g = ((x,~) I R' ~ {O}},

so that
f(x) = v4 - X2,
2
g(x) - -.
x
Then for x e D, n Da = "D, - {OJ,
(f + g)(x) = v4 - x2
2
+ x-,
(/ - g)(x) = v4 - x2 -
2
-,
x
_IT- 2
(J. (J)(.r) -- (v <1 .r 2 ) x'
v4-x 2 x_~
(f/g)(.r) = 2/x = 2 v4 - ;1:2.
The function operations just eonsidered plainly depend on the algebraic

properties on the range; the domain merely furnishes the points for these
pointwise operations. The most important operation involving functions,
functional composition, is independent of such algebraic structure and relies
only on the underlying set.s.
1-2 FUN<-'TIONS AND ELEMENTARY NUMB Ell THEORY 15
Definition 1-11. The composition of two functions / and 0, denoted by

/ 0 0, is the function
/0 g = {(X,7/) I for some z, (x, z) E g and (z,7/) E/}.
Written in terms of functional values, this gives

(f (I)(X) =
0 I(/(x), where
This last notation serves to explain the order of symbols in f 0; the letter
g is written directly beside x, since the functional value O(x) is obtained first.
It is apparent from the definition that, so long as RII n D, 'F- 0,/. g is meaning-
ful. Also, Dlo ll ~ DII and Rlo ll ~ RI .
Examp'e 1-12. IA't
I = {(x, vi) I x E R', x ~ O},

and
u= {(x, 2x + 3) I x E R'} ,
so that/ex) = vi, o(x) = 2x + 3. Then,
(fog)(x) = /(g(x) = f(2x + 3) = v2x + a,
where
D"II = [x E DII I g(x) ED,} = {x E R' I 2x + 3 ED,}
= {x I 2x + 3 ~ O}.
On the other hand,
(0 o/)(x) = o(f(x) = g(v'x) = 2v'x + 3,

where
D llo, = {x E D, I/(x) E D II } = {x ~ 0 I v'x E R'}
= {xlx~O}.
Olin ObRf'rVeH t.Jmj, I (I iH dilTl'rC'lIt from (f Ii indeed, mn!ly
0 does I (f = g 0 f.
The next theorem concerns some of the basic properties of the operation of
functional eompositioll. Its proof is an exereise in the use of the definitions of
thiR S()ctioll.
Theorem 1-7. If /, g and h are functions for which the following operations
are defined, then .
1) (f. g) Ii - 1 (y It),
0
2) (f+ y) It = (f. h) + (g. It),

3) (f. g) h = (f 0 h) . (g 0 h).
Proof. We establish here only property (3). The other parts of the theorem
are obtained in a similar fashion and 80 are left as an exercise. Observe first that
DU'II)% = {x E D/o I hex) E DI"}
= {x E D/o I hex) E DI n D II }
= {x E D" I hex) ED,} n {x E D/o I hex) E D II }
= D,o/a n Vll0/o = DUo/a)'(II0/a)
Now, for x E D("II)o/a, we have

[(f. g) 0 h](x) = (f. g)(h(x = /(h(x . g(h(x
= (f h)(x) . (g h)(x)
0 0
= [(f h) . (g h)](x),
0 0
whidl, Recording t.o UlP d(!finit,ion of equality of functions, Hhows that

(f. g) 0 h = (f 0 h) . (g 0 h).
Once again, consider an arbitrary function f: X ~ Y. While no element of

X can be mapped under / onto more than one element of Y, it is clearly possible
that several (perhaps, even all) elements may map onto the same element of Y.
When we wish to avoid this Hituation, the notion of a one-to-one function is
useful. The formal definition follows. -
Definition. 1-12. A function / is termed one-ta-one if and only if XI, X2 E D"
with XI '" X2, impli(!s/(xl) '" /(X2)' That is, distinct clements in the domain
have distinct functional values.
When establiilhing one-f,o-oncness, it will often prove to be morc convenient
to use the contrapollitive of Definition 1-12:
In terms of ordered pairs, It function I ill onc-to-onll if and only if no two

distinct ordcred pairs of / have the same second component. Thus the collection
of ordered pairs obtained by interchanging the components of the pairs of /
is also a funct.ion. This oh8(rvat.ion indicates the importance of such functions.
More specifically, the inverse of a one-to-one function /, symbolized by /-1,
is the set of ordered pllirs,
/-1 = fey, x) I (x, y) Ef}.
The function /-1 has the properties

(f-I I)(x) ~ x for xED"
(fo/-I)(y) = yforYEDrt = RI.
1-2 FUNCTIONS AND ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY 17
To state this result a little more concisely, let us introduce some special
terminology .
Definition 1-13. Given a nonempty set X, the function ix: X -+ X defined
by ix(x) = x for each x E X is called the identity [unction on Xj that is to
say, ix merely maps caeh element of X onto itself.
ExpreRRed in terms of the identity funetion, what was just seen is that for
any function j: X -+ Y which is both one-to-one and onto Y,
and [0[-1 = iy.

It migftt also be mentioned at this point that the identity function ix is itself
a one-to-one mapping onto the set X such that iXI = ix.
Example 1-13. The fUlwtioll [ = {(x,3x - 2) I x E nil is on(,>..to-one, for
ax. - 2 ~ ax:.! -- !! impliml x. = X2' Cont:I(Jqucmtly, the inVllftj(J of j exists and
is the set of ordered pail~[-I = {(3x - 2, x) I x E R'}. It is preferable, how-
ever, to have[-t defined in terms of its domain and the image at each point of
the domain. Observing that
{(3x-2,x)lxER'} = {(x,!(x+2lxER'},
we choose to write
r 1 = {(x,!(x + 2) I x E R'}.
In terms of functional vl\lueM, [-I(X) = !(x + 2) for each x E R ' .

An important situation ariscs when we consider the behavior of a function
on a subset of its domain. For example, it it! frequently advantageous to limit
the domain 80 I,hnt t.he fUlldion beeomcM one-to-one. Suppose, in general,
that j: X -+ Y it! an nrbitrary function and the subset A ~ X. The composi-
tion j i ... : A -+ Y is known as the restriction of [ to the set A and is, by estab-
0
lished cllstom, denoted by f I A; dually, the funetion [ is referred to as an

extension of f I A to all of X. For the reader who prllfers the ordered pair
approach,
flA= {(x,y)l(x,Y)E[andxEA}.
In any event, if the clement x E A, then (f I A)(x) = [(x) so that both [and
[ IA coineide on the set A. It is well worth noting that while there is only
one restriction of the given function [ to the subsct A, [ is not necessarily
uniquely determined by [I A. The particular restrietion ix I A = i A , when
viewed as a funetion from A into X, is termed the inclusion or injection map
from A to X.
Thl! lwxt ddinitinn 1'lIIilodil'fl lL fn~CJUlmtly employed uotational device.
Observe that despite the use of the symbol j-1, the function [ is not required
to be one-to-one.
Definition 1-14. Conllider a (unction f: X -+ Y. If A !;; X, then the direct
image of A, denoted by f(A), is the subset of Y defined by
f(A) = {f(z} I z e A}.
On the ot.her hand, if B !;; Y, then the inverse image of B, denoted by f-l(B},
is the subset of X defined by
f-l(B) = {z /f(z) e B}.

It shall be our convention to omit unnecessary parentheses whenever possible.
In regard t.o RinglctonR, for iIlRt,allce, we Rhl\lI write dirc(~t l\n<1 inverse images
lUI f(:z:) ami J- I (x), fnUlI'r UIILII J( :r; ) nncl r
I ( (x:). TIII~ HI,II(hmt who worriuH
about notlltion nmy fcelllOnll'what UIICIJ.'W about this double usc of the symbol
f- 1 The abulIC of notation Ilhould not cauRe any confusion, howev<lr, for in
any given eontext it should be perfectly clear how f- I ill to be interpreted.
Certain properties of the function f may be conveniently characterized in
terms of inverR<l illlllg(~R. To he more (~xJllidl., J iR 1\ onc-t.o-QII(! fun<~tion if and
only if the invcrHC imagc! of each clement of III ill a Ringleton. Whereas j maps
onto Y if and only if the inverse image of eaeh nonempty subset of Y is non-
empty.
We shall now preRC'nt two short theorems which will establish the re\.ationship
between direct and inverse images; these results are rather trivial but will be
essential for later study. In the two theorems, supposc f to be an arbitrary
function from the sct X into the sct Y.
Theorem 1-8. For each subset B !;; Y,
J(rl(B) !;; B.
ProoJ. If b eJ(j-I(R, then b = f(a) f~r some element a in f-t(B). From
this, it follows that f(a) e B, and conscquclntly b e B.
Corollory. If, in addition, j maps onto the sct Y, then
Proof. In view of the indusion proved in the theorem, we need only establish
that, under the existing hypothesis, B !;;f(j-I(B). For this, let be B; then,
as j is by supposition an onto function, b = f(a) for some choice of a in X.
Since a ej-l(B),
80 that
1-2 FUNCTIONS AND ELEMENTARY NUMBEU THEORY 19
Theorem 1-9. For ea.ch subset A k X,
Proof. The proof is almost obvious, for, if a e A, thenf(a) ef(A); hence,
Corollary. If, in addition, f is a one-to-one function, then
Proof. H Jllninly HllfIlI'I'H 1.0 I'HI.nhliflh t.hn 0111' il",hlllicm , - I <t(A) !;;; A. To
II Ef I (j(A). We then hlWt! f(a) ef(A) ILUU thUl"f(a) = f(a')
HLILI'L with, 11'1.
for some a' in A. Since' is assumed to be one-to-one, a = a' and 80 a e A.
Before terminating this section, it may be well to review, quickly, some of
the facts from number theory which we shall require later. Most of these results
depend on the HC)-(~nlll!(l Wcll-Ordnring Prirwiplc:
Well.Orderlng Principle. Every nonempty subset B of nonnegative integers
contains a smallest element; that is, there exist..~ some (unique) element
a e S with a ::; b for all b E S.
Let us start with the following result.
Theorem 1-10. If a, be Z, with b > 0, then there exist unique integers
q and r such that
a= qb+ r, 0::; r < b.
Proof. We begin by proving that the set,

S = {a - xb I x e Z; a - xb ~ O},
is not empty. Since b ~ 1, lalb ~ lal, and

a - (-Ial)b = a + lalb ~ a + lal ~ O.
Hence, for x = -Ial, a - xb E B. By the Well-Ordering Principle, S contains

a smallest integer, say r. In ot.her words, there is somc q e Z for which
r = a - qb, r ~ O.
We now show that r < b. In the contrary case, r ~ band
a -- (t}l- I)b = (a -- qlJ) .- I, = r - b ~ 0,
which implics r - b E 8. Since r - b < 7', t.his contradicts the choice of r as

the HmItJ1<'Ht elenl('nt in 8; therefore, luwing reached a. contradiction, r < b.
To prove the uniqueness of the integers q and r, suppose that
o = qIJ + r = q'h + r',

where 0 S r < h, 0 S r' < h. Then r' - r = b(q - q'), consequently
Ir' - rl = blq - q'l.

Adding the inequalities -b < - r S 0 and 0 S r' < b, we obtain
-b < r' - r < b, or Ir' - rl < b.
Hence, blq - q'l < b, 80 that
o S Iq - q'l < 1.
Since Iq - q'l is a nonnegative integer, it follows that q = q', which in tum
gives T = r'.
Corollary. (Division Algorithm). If 0, b E Z, with b 0, then there exist
unique integers q and r such that
a = qr+ b, OS T < Ibl.

Proof. It suffices to consider the case where b is negative. Then Ibr> 0 and
the theorem yields unique integers q' and r for which
a = q'lbl + r, OS r < Ibl.

Since Ibl = -b, we may take q = -q' to get
a = qIJ + r, OS r < Ibl.

Let us now make the following definition.
Deftnitlon 1-15. Let a, b E Z, with 0 O. Thc integer a is said to divide b,
or 0 is a divi81w of h, in JoIymhols a I h, provid<.'<.i there exists HOme c E Z such
that b = ac. If a does not divide b, then we write arb.
When the notation a I h is employed, it is to be understood (even if not ex-
plicitly mentioned) that a O.
Some immediate consequences of this definition are noted below; the reader
is asked to verify each of them.
Theorem 1-11. Let a, b, c E Z. Then
1) 0 10, 1 I a, a I a, .
2) a I 1 if and only if a = 1,
3) if a I b, then ac I be,
1-2 21
4) if a I band b I c, then a I c,
5) a I band b I a if and only if a = b,
6) if c I a and c I b, then c I (ax + by) for every x, y E Z.
From (1) above, we see that every integer a 0 is divisible by 1 and a,

diviflOrH whidl ar(! fn'IJIlI'IIUy f(f(rn,d t.o II.H illlpropl'r lliviH()fH. An int.eger
a > 1 having no divisol'H other than the improper ones is said to be a prime
number; all integer a > 1 that is not prime is termed composite. Thus, according
to our definition, 1 is neither prime nor composite. In particular, an integer
a > 1 is composite if and only if there exist integers b, c with a = be, 1 < b < a,
l<c<a.
If a, bE Z, we sayan integer d ill a common divisor of a and b if d I a and
d I b. Also,
Definition 1-16. Let a and b be integers, not both of which are zero. The
{JreairHtr()mmon tiiviR01' of a I\lId b, dell()u,d by Ked (a, b), is t.he positive in-
teger tl Ilueh t.hnt
1) d I a and d I b,
2) if c I a and e I b, then e I d.
Briefly, ged (a, b) is the largest integl1r in the set of nil common divisors of
a alld b.
A naturu.l qU(!lltion to ask is whether the integers a Ilnd b can posseS!! two
different greatest eommon divisors. For an an!!wer, suppose there are two
positive integers d and d' whieh satisfy the conditions of Definition 1-16. Then
by (2), we must have did' as well as d' I d, whence d = d' [Theorem 1-11(5)].
Since tl and d' are hoth positive integers, it follows that d = d'. Thus, the
greatest COlIllllOII diviHor of a and b is unique, when it exists. The following
theorem will prove that any two integenl, which are not both zero, actually
do have a greatest common divisor.
Theorem 1-12. If a, b are integers, not both of which are zero, then
ged (a, b) exists; in fnet, t.here ('xiRt integerR x II.l\d y such that
gcd (a, b) = ax + by.
Proof. First, define t.he set S by
S = {au -I- bv I u, v E Z; au + bv > O}.

This set S is not empty. For example, if a 0, the integer lal = au bO +
will lie in S, where we ehoose u = lor -1 according as a is positive or nega-
tive. By the Well-Ordering Principle, S must contain a smallest element d > 0;
that is to say, there exist x, y E Z for which d = ax + by. We assert that
d = gcd (a, b).
From the Division Algorithm, one can obtain integers q and r such that
a = qd
+ r, ~ r < d. But then r will be of the form
r = a - qd =a- q(ax + by)
= a(1 - qx) + b( -qy).
Were r> 0, this representation would imply rES, and contradict the fact
that d is the least integer in S. Thus r = 0, so that d I a. A similar argument
establishes that d I b, making d a common divisor of a and b. On the other
hand, if e I a and e I d, then by Theorem 1-11(6), e I (ax + by), or rather,
c I d. From these two statements, we conclude that d is the greateflt common
divisor of a and b.
It may be well to record the fact that the integers x a.nd y in the representa-
tion gcd (a, b) = ax + by are by no means unique. More concretely, if a = 90
and b = 252, then
ged (90, 252) = 18 = (3)90 + (-1)252.
Among other possibilities, we also have
18 = (3 + 252)90 + (-1 - 90)252 = (255)90 + (-91)252.
There is a special case of Theorem 1-12 which will play an important role
in the future; while it is, in effect, a corollary of the foregoing result, we shall
single it out as a theorem. But first, a definition: two integers a and b, not
both of which are zero, are said to be relatively prime (or prime to each other)
if and only if gcd (a, b) = 1. For instance, the integers 8 and 15 are relatively
prime, although neither is itself a prime.
The.Nm 1-13. Let a, ,) E Z, lIot both zero. Th(m a Ilnd b are relatively
prime if and only if there exiflt integers x and 11 such that
1 = ax +by.)
Proof. If a and b are relatively prime, 80 that gcd (a, b) = 1, Theorem 1-12
guarantees the existence of x and y satisfying 1 = ax + by. Conversely,
suppose 1 = ax + by for suitable x, y E Z and that d = gcd (a, b). Since
d I a, d I b, Theorem 1-11(6) implies d I (ax + by), or rather d 11. Because d is
positive, this forces d = 1 [Theorem 1-11(2), as desired.
In light of Theorem 1-13, one may easily prove
Theorem 1-14. (Euclid's Lemma). If a I be, with a and b relatively prime,
then a I e. .
Proof. Since gcd (a, b) = I, there exist integers x and y for which 1 = ax + by.
MUltiplying bye, wc obtain
e = (ax + by)e = a(cx) + (be)y.
1-2 FUNL'TIONS ANI) ELI!:MENTARY NUMB.m TIIEOItY 23
Now a I a trivinlly ILlld a I be by hypothcNi8, 80 that a IlIU8t divide thc sum

acx + bey; hence a I e, as asserted.
Corollary. If p i8 a prime and pi (ala2' .. a,,), then p I at for some k,
1 :::; k:::; n.
Proof. OUf proof is by induction on n. For n = I, the result obviously holds.

Supposc, al:! the induction hypothesis, that n > 1 and that whenever p divides
a product of less than n factors, then it divides at least one of the factors of
this product. Now, let pi (ala2' .. an). If p divides at, there is nothing to
prove. In thll contmry I!MC, p and al arc rdativcly prime; hence, by the
theorem, p I (a2' .. an) Since the product a2' . an contains n - 1 factors,
the induction hypothe8is implies p I at for some k with 2 :::; k :::; n.
Having developed the machinery, it might be of interest to give a proof of
the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
Theorem 1-15. (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic). Every positive integer
a > I I~nll hll (lxpreHllCd u..'\ a P1"lltluct of prime!! i thi!! rcpretIClltu.tioll i8 unique,
apart from the order in which the factors occur.
Proof. The first part of the proof-the existence of a prime factorization-is
proved by induction on the values of a. The statement of the theorem is trivi-
ally true for the integer 2, since 2 is itself a prime. Assume the result holds
for all positive integers 2 :::; b < a. If a is already a prime, we are through;
otherwise, 4 = be for suitable integers b, e with 1 < b < a, 1 < e < 4. By
the induction hypothesis,
b = PIP2" p"
with P., p, nil prime!!. Hut theil,
a = be = PI' .. PTP~ .. p!
is a product of prinles.
To establish uniqueness, let us supposc the integer a can be represented as a
product of primes ill two ways, say
where the Pi and qi are primes. The argument proceeds by induction on the
integer n. In the case n = 1, we have a = PI = ql(q2' . q...). Since PI is
prime, it possesses no proper factorization, so that m = 1 and PI = ql.
Next, assume n > 1 and that whenever a can be expressed as a product of less
than n factors, this representation is unique, except for the order of the factors.
From the equality PIP2 ... Pn = qlq2' . q... , it follows that PI I (qlq2' q...).
Thus, by the preceding corollary, there is some prime qk, 1 :::; k :::; m, for which
PI I qki relabeling, if Iwccssary, we may suppose, PI I ql. But then PI = qt,
for ql has no divisors other than 1 and itself. Canceling this common factor,
we conclude 1'2 .. PA = q2 .. qm' According to the induction hypothesis, a
product of n - 1 primes can be factored in essentially onc way. Therefore,
the primes Q2, . , qm are simply a rearrangement of the primes 1'2,'" , PA'
The two prime factorization!'! of a are thus identical, (~ompleting the induction
step.
An immediate consequence of this theorem is the following:
Theorem 1-16. (Euclid). There are an infinite number of primes.
Proof. Assume the Rtatement is false; that is, assume there are only a finite
number of primes PIr 112, ... ,1'". Consider the positive integer
a = (1'11'2' .. PA) + 1.
None of the primeR Pi divides a. If a were divisible by PIr for instance, we would
then have p, 1(0 - P,1'a'" 1'A) by Theorem 1-11(6), or PI 11; this is im-
possible by part (2) of the same theorem. But, since a > 1, the Fundamental
Theorem asserts it must have a prime factor. Accordingly, a is divisible by a
prime which ifol not amonK our list of all primes. ThiR lugument shows there
is no finite listing of till! prillle int<~gerH.
This comJlI(!t<~H our Hurvc~y of HOmel of till! fUluJu.numtlLl notion!!! c:onceming
sets, functions, and arithml'tie in thll int,egers. Although the treatment was
purposely sketchy, it is hoped that the reader did not find it too superficial. In
the subsequent chapters of the text, we shall utilize the foregoing concepts by
applying these ideas to certain specific! situations.
PROBLEMS
1. Let I: X ~ }' be an arbitrary function. Define a relat-ion in the Ret X as follows:

for any two elementR x, y E X, x,." y if and only if I(x) = I(Y). Verify that ,."
is an equivalence relation in X and describe its equivalence c19.!l8e8.
2. Show that the ordered triples (a, b, c) and (a', b', c') are equal if and only if a = a',
b = b', c = e'.
3. Give an example of two functions I and g from R' into R' with I ~ g for which
log = go/.
4. Determine log, g I, and their respective domains, given that
0
a) I = {(x, x 2 +
x) I x E R'}, g = {(x, ax +
4) I x E R'},
b)/= {(x,x/(x 2 +
1)) IxER'}, g= {(x,l/x)lxER'-{O}}.
5. Let I, g and h be runction!; such that Rio ~ D. and R. ~ D,. Verify the law
1 0 (g h) = (I. g) 0 h.
1-2 FUNCTlO!IIS AND ELEMENTARY NUMnER THEORY 25
6. Let I, g and h hE' fundionl! from R' into R' with Rio ~ D, n /)/1' PrO'!e that
(fIg) 0 h = (f 0 h)/(g 0 h).
7. Determine which of the function14 below are one-to-one. In thollC cases in which
the fund inn I ill not (llll'-tn-Onl', "xhihit. two pl1irH (:tl, YI), (X2, Y2) EI such that
Xl ;o! X2 but YI = Y2.
a) I = {(x,:t 2 + 1) I :t E R'},
b)/= {{x,lx-Jl)I-2:5:t:52},
c) I I
= {(x, 11x) x E R~}.
8. For every pair of real numbers a and b, define a function I",,: R' -+ R' by the
formula/ob{x) = a:t +
b for each x E R'.
a) Show t.hat. /I. /'.0 = lab.
0
b) For a ;o! 0, prove that I"" ill both one-to-one and onto.
c) For a ;o! 0, obtain 1.. 1
9. Using fllnl'tions/: R' -- R', give an example of a function which ill
a) one-to-one but not onto,
b) onto but not one-to-one.
10. For functionR g: X -+ }' and I: Y -+ Z, flhow that the following statements are
true:
a) If I iH all nnto funl!tioll, then I ill 8\1111.
0 (/
b) If log i,.. 8 (1ll1...t~l-Illl(l fllnl't.ion, th(\n g ill aillo.

n) If I nlld 0 urI' hnth nnn-tn-nlle fUllnt.jllllll, t.Iwn log iH I~IHCI nnu-tn-one and
(jo g)-I = g-I 0/-1.
11. Establish the following characterizations for any function I: x. -- Y:
a) I
ill onto Y if and only if for all functions g, h: Y -+ Z, g. I = hoi implies
that g = h.
b) I is one-to-one if and only if for all functions g, h: Z -+ X, log = , 0 h. implies
that g = h.
12. If I: X -- Y, g: Y - Z and A ~ X, prove that
(g 0 I) I A = go (I I A).
13. Given I: X -- }' and .1, lJ ~ X, show that
a) 1{.1 U B) = I(A) U I(B),
b) I(A n B) ~/(A) n/{lJ),
c) I(A) - I(B) ~/(A - B),
d) if A ~ B, then/(A) ~/(B).
14. Given I: X -+ Yand A, B ~ Y, show that

a) ,-1(.-\ U B) = 1- 1(11) U/-I(B),
b) 1- 1(.,1 n B) = 1- 1 (:1) n,-I(B),
c) I-I (..t) - 1-1 (B) = I-I (.1 - B),
d) if .1 ~ B, t1ll'IlJ 1(.1) ~rl(B).
Comparing th(l1lC resultH with those of Problem 13, one can I!CC that inverse images
are much better behaved than direct images.
15. If I: X -+ Y, prove that I is a one-to-one function if and only if

I(A n B) = I(A) nf(B)
for all set.'! .1, B ~ X.
16. Given intt'.j/;ers a and b, which arc not hoth zero, establish the following facts
concerning gcd (a, b):
a) p;cd (a, -b) = gcd ( -a, b) == ged (-a, -b),
b) whenever a ;o! 0, p;ed (a, 0) == lal,
c) p;ed (a, b) = lal if and only if a I b,
d) p;ed (ea, eb) = lei ged (a, b), provided c ;o! 0,
+
e) ged (a, b) = ged (a, b ea), for every c E Z.
17. Prove that. if a, b, e arc integers, no two of which arc zero, then
11:1'" (gl'" (a, b), c) ... g('d (a, p;1:d (b, c
= gcd (I/:cd (a, c), b).
18. Prove the two 8I!.'lCrtions below:
a) If lI;ed (a, b) = 1I;"d (a, c) == 1, then gcd (a, be) ... 1.
b) If gcd (a, b) = 1, a I c and b I e, then ab I c.
]9. Let a and b be intep;erR, not both zero. The least common multiple of a and b,
denoted by lem (a, b), iH the positive integer e such that
I I
1) a e and b e; that iH, e is a multiJlle of both a and b,
2) if a I e and b I c, tht'n e I c.
Show that the least common multiple of a and b is related to the greatest common
divisor of a and b by
(11:m (a, b) )(gl:d (a, b == labl.
20. Let a, b, c E Z, with a and b not hoth zero, and let d = ged (a, b). Verify that
there exiMt intcgcrM x and 1/ Hueh that
ax + by = c,
if and only if die.
CHAPTER 2
GROUP THEORY
2-1 DEFINlnON AND EXAMPLES OF GROUPS
In this I!hapter, nlld t.hroughout the renllLind(~r of thc text" we shall deal with
mathemntielll HYHtemK whidl ar(~ d(~fined hy a preserihcd list of properties.
Emphasis will be on deriving theoremll that follow logically from t.he postulates
and which, at the same time, help to describe the algebraic structure of the
particular system under consideration. This axiomatic approal!h not only
penn its us to concentrate on essential ideas, but also unifies the prescntation
by showing the basic similarities of many diverse and apparent.1y unrelated
examples.
We first confine our attention to systems involving just one operation, since
they are amenable to the simplest fornlal description. Despite this simplidty,
the axioms permit the construction of a profuse and elegant theory in which
one encounters many of the fundamental notions common to all algebraic
systems.
Before beginning, however, it iH necessary to arrive at some understanding
conceming the UKe of the equivalClwc relation =. We will henceforth take
the equality Hign t.o mean, intuitively, "is the same as." In other words, the
Hymhol = aHK(~rt.K thnt the two pllrtieular expreHllions involved arc merely
differcnt nameH for, or descriptions of, one and the HaOle objcct; jUHt onc objed
is being conllidered, and it ill named twice. To indicate that a and b arc not
the same object we shall, naturally enough, write a F- b.
As a fimt steJl in our program, we introduce the concept of a binary operation.
This idea is the cornerstone of all that follows.
Definition 2-1. Given a nonempty set S, any function from the Cartesian
produet S X S int.o S is "ailed 1\ binary operation on S.
A biliary op('rntion Oil S thuH 1l..'i."IigIlK to ('ad I ordl'J'('(\ pair of clements of S
a uniquely determined third element of the same sct S. For instllnee, if P(A)
denotes the power set of a fixed set A, then hoth U Ilnd n are binllry operations
on P(A). In praetice, we shall generally use the symbol * to represent a
binllry openlt.ioll lind write a * II, inst.ead of *(a, IJ)), for its vlLlue nt the
ordered pair (a, b) E S X S. While this eonvcntion is at varimlee with the
functional notation developed in the previous ehapter, its use in the prescnt
27
28 W({JUl' TH~;OHY 2-J
situation is dietated by long-standing mathematical tradition. At the very

least, it has t.he Ildvantage of avoiding some rather clumsy notation.
From tim<.' to timl~, we shall permit ourselves to make such informal state-
ments us "('ombine a with b" or "form a * b." In a precise sense, what is really
meant of ('ours!' is to upply the fUlwtion * to the ordered pair (a, b). The
most uscfulaspcet of a binary opcmtion is that, having once formed the clement
a * b, we may ill turn combine it with other members of S; the result of all
sueh ealeulatiolls again lies in S.
Needless to :;ay, the particular notation used for the abstract product of
two clement:; is of no great importance. On occasions ROme other symbol, as
equally nOlICollllllittal as *, will he employed. Specifically, we will frequently
('hooSt to write a IJ in phwe of a * b (in this context, the symhol is not in-
0 0
tended to hav(' allY Sll('pial (onlleet.ion with fUlwtiQlml eomposition). In gelleral,

a and IJ will havl' 110 llulllI'J'ieal valul' hut will simply Iw arbitrary element.!! in
our lIIulpriyilll!; SP!. S, whatever this set may be, while * may well be some
law of ('ompo:;itioll whid! bear:; no resemblance to the usual operations of
!'1('lnl'lltllry :dp;I'I>rIt.
Closely aliiI'd to the notion of It binary opl'ration is the so-called closure
condition. For It formal statement of this property, suppose that * is a binary
operation 011 the set S nnd A ~ S; the subset A is sllid to be closed under the
opcmtion Jlmvided a b E A whenever a and b are in A. The desirable feature
here is that when A is closed under the operation ., the restriction of to the
subset A is Il binary operation on A as well as S.
Example 2-1. Ordinary slIbtra!'tion is dearly a binary operution on the set
Z of illti!g!'l'H; the SUhH!'t. Z+ of pOtlitive integer!!, however, is not closed under
sllbtr:wtion.
When thl' lid S heing ('oll:;id('reu IUI.,'! u relatively small number of elements,
the results of applying the operation to its members may be conveniently
represented in what mij!;ht be called un operation or multiplication table. Wo
eonstrUlt this tahle by first listing the members of S in the same order both
vertically and horizontally. The result a b then appears in the body of the
table at the intersection of the row headed by a and the column headed by b.
Conversely, such a table could equally well serve to define a binary operation
on 8, for the re8ult, of ('ombining any pair of elements of S would be displayed
somewhere in tllP tahle.
Example 2-2. A binal'Y operation may be defined on the three-element
set S = (1,2, 3} by means of the operation table below:
2 3
1 1 2 3
2 3 1 2
3 2 3 1
2-1 In:FINITION AND ~:XAMJ>I..:I'\ OF <moups 29
According to the t.able, the product 2 3, for inst.ance, iR equal to the clement 2,
located at the interRection of the row marked 2 and t.he column marked 3.
Given an arbitrary binary operation ., there iH ('ertninly no ren.son to expect
that a b will be the Rllllle IlS 11 a for nil a Ilnd b. In faet, it can be seen in the
above example that 1 2 = 2, whereas 2. 1 = a. One must consequently
take care to refer to a b as the product. of a and b and to b a as the product
of b and a; the distinction is quite importallt. We should also point out that it is
obviously possible to combine an element with itself. Thnt is to say, a a
can be defined.
Deflnition 2-2. By a mathematiml .~y.~lcm (01' malhrmatical structure), we

shldl mean Il IlOTwmpty s!'t of (Ienwnls t.og('ther wilh olle or more biliary
operat.ions d!'fined on t.his set..
A maf,Ju'mal iC'al syslpm ('onsist.ing of Uw set S ILnd It single binary operation.
will be d('llot\'d hy tlw ordered pair (8, .); analogously, a system eonsi:4ing of
the Ret S lllld two operat.ions awl. will hI' I'l~pr<'Hcnl,('(l by the ordered triple
(8, ., 0).
Example 2-3. The pair (8, .), where the set S = {I, -1, i, -i} and the
operation is that of mdinary mult.iplication, is a mltth('nmtieall'!ystem provided
one defines i 2 = -1.
Example 2-4. If Ze and Zo denote the even and odd int<'gers, respectively,
then (Z., +, .) ('onstit.utes a mathematical system, while (Z., .+, .) cloes not..
In the latter caRe, Ow set Z. ill not. ('Ios(>d undN addition, sin('l' t.he sum of two
odd integerl'! is lweessarily even.
The systemH to be studied Hlloscqtwntly arc dall8ificd aecording to the proper-
ties they possess or, to put it anot.her way, accordillg to the axioms they satisfy.
Our object will be to present a sequent.ial development of the principal mathe-
matical Hystems of modern algebra, beginning with t.hose involving relatively
few axioms and progressing to systellls sat.isfying more detailed hypotheses.
The axioms whieh form the starting point of the abstraet theory can be, by
nature, ratlwr varied. The growing t.endeney of modern mathematies is to
isolate almost. any convenient set of propl'rtie~ from its original context, to
define a parti(,ular system, llnd to develop the eorrcspollding Ilbstract theory
through logical d(~dul'tion. ROllle of tlH'se forlllal :txiolllat ie theorie~, sueh as
the notion of It group, have It fundamentlll irhportalH'(' to the whole of mathe-
matics and have been instrullll'ntal in IInifyillg various apPllrently unrelated
branches; other I heories, while sat.isfying the esHwt i(' and inquisitive needs of
the mathemati('ian, are limited in the extent of their applicability. We do not
mean to create the impression that it, is the usmil praetiec for one to define a
new system by arbitrarily (apart from logical (,oll~iderntions) writing down
axioms. Although thpr(' is no part.icular np('('ssity for the model to precede the
thcorct~al development, in most cases the axioms nrc the abstract realization
30 GlWUP THEORY 2-1
of the properties common to a variety of specific examples. With these general

remarks out of the way, let us get down to work.
A set on which It Hingle unrestricted binary operation is dcfined does not by
itself yield a Htructure rich enough for our purposes; the concept, being too
general, ill poor in (~ont<mt. Certain rcQ.HOnahlll limitations must be impo8(~d
on the opcmt,jon if one itJ to obtain utlCful rctJulttJ. In the following pllragrnphH,
!lOme of the mOM) bailie requirements arc named and brieRy examin(.'<i. FOI'
conciseness, we shall hereafter omit the word "binary" inasmuch as every
operation to be considered will necessarily be binary.
Given a mathematical system (8, *), the symbol a * b * e is at the moment
completely meaningless, since the operation has only been defined for paim
of clementI! of S. If, however, we make t1w IItipulntion that whenever quantiti(!H
are enclotJed in pnrenthctJCs these are to be evaluated first, then both the expres-
sions a * (b * c) and (a b) e make tlCn8(~. Namely, a * (b e) is to be inter-
preted as: eombilw a with what rCfllllttJ fmm comhining b with e; while (a * b) * e
is to be interpreted atJ: timt combine a with b and then combine the result
with e. Of course, the resulting elements a * (b * e) and (a * b) e will not
necessarily be the same.
Definition 2-3. The operation * defined on the set 8 is said to be lJ88Oeia-
tive if
a * (b c) = (a * b) * e (associative law),_
for every triple, distinet or not, of elements a, b, and e of 8.
Example 2-5. The operation of subtraction on the set R' of real numbers is
not associative, since in general
a - (b - e) F (a - b) - e.
Example 2-6. An associative operation * may be defined on Z, the set of

integers, by taking a * b = a + b + abo (We shall frequently delete the dot
and write the product of a and b under ordinary multiplication simply as ab.)
Then
a * (b * e) = a * (b + e + be)
= a + (b + e + be) + a(b + e + be),
while
(a. b) c = (a + b + ab) * e
= (a + b + ab) -I- e + (a + b + able.
The equality of these two expressions follows in part from the fact that addition
and multiplicat.ion Ilrc themselves associative in Z.
When del~ling with a Hystem who8() operation is defined by a mUltiplication
table rather than II. formula, it is generally quite tedious to establish the associa-
2-1 1l1<:1<'INITlON ANI> I<:XAMI'LES 01<' OROUPS 31
tivity of the operation, for one must compute all possible threefold products.
On the other hand, it may be fur easier to show thltt the operation is not
a.'lROciativc, as all we need do in thi::; ea.'lC is find three pnrticular clements from
the underlying Ret fOf whieh the nS!lO(~iative law fails.
Example 2-7. Conl'lid(!f the I)JI(!MLI.iuli t11!fiw,t1 on the set S = {l, 2,' 3} by the
operntion tlLllle:
1 2 3
1 1 2 3
2 3 1 2
a 2 :J
From t.his I.allll!, we !j(!(' that 2. (1 :J) = 2.:J = 2, whereas (2. 1) a=

3 *3= ]; I.hnt, is,
2 (1 a) ~ (2. 1) .3.
The associative law thus fails to hold in the system (8, .).
The mathematical system which we shall use to build up more complieated
nlgehmil! llt.rudufCS ill known 11."1 a semigroup.
Definition 2-4. A Bemi(JTOUl1 ill a paif (8, .) (!onllillting of a nOnCml)ty scI. 8
together with an associative (binary) operation. defined on S.
Let us stress t.hat it is an abuse of lnnguage to say a certain sct alone is a
semigroup without also specifying the operation involved, as it may be quite
possible to equip the same set with several associative operations. For this
reason, wc have utilized the ordered pair notation to indicate both the operation
and the underlying set of elements.
Observe that since any three elements from the set of a semigroup always
associate, there is no particular reason for parentheses. Consequently, when
dealing with sueh It system, the I!ymbol a ~ c has meaning in the sense that
we are frL'C to interpret it either as a (b cj or as (a * b) c. More generally,
the notlttion al a2 .. am is unambiguous, for it can be shown that all
ways of inserting parentheses 80 as to give this expression a value yield the
same felmlt, (Theorem 2-4). An opemtion whieh il! not as80ciative has the
dedded disadvantage thtLt the notation for multiple-factored products can
be(!ome quite unwieldy 11." a result of the eonstltnt need for parentheses.
In order to ROlidify the notion of a semigroup, we present several examples.
Example 2-8. There Itrl! severnl semigroups wit.h whi('h t,he reader is already
familiar. If, for insta.nce, Z+ denotes t.he set of ull positive integers, then both
the pairs (Z +, +) and (Z +, .) form semigroups. Similar statements hold for
the sets Z, Q, and R'.
(mOUI' 'l'llI':Olty 2-1
Example 2-9. Define the operation * on the real numbers by the rule
a *b = max {a, b}, a, b E R'.

That is, a * b is the larger of the two numbers a and b, or either one if a = b.
Here, we have
a * (b * c) = max {a, b, c} = (a * b) * c,
so that (R', *) satiRficR the requirempnts of a scmigroup.

Example 2-10. For IlIlY XC!!. X, eueh of UIIl HYH!.mnH (I'(X), u) Ilnd (I'(X), n)
cOIlt!titutCR It 1-!!'luigrouJl (Tlworem 1-2).
Example 2-11. 1,<'1. X bl! It lIollcmpty R(~f. ulld S he t,l1P (!olledioll of all funetion8
f: X -+ X. If dl'lIot.I'1-! flllU'tiollal 1'()1IIJ10I-!itioll, t.hell the pair (8,0) provides
another iIIustrat.ion of It semigroup (Problem !i, Seetion 1-2).
As we Rhall Rubs<''1uentiy SI'I', the relevance of the semigroup concept lies in
the fact that many important systems contain the semigroup structure as a
subsystem.
We have already indicated that the order in which elements occur in a product
is quite essential. If it is pos..-;ible to interchange the order of eombining any
two elenwnts from our set without affecting the result, then the operation is
termed commutativ('.
Definition 2-5. The operation * defined on the set S is called commutative
if
(commutative law),
for every pair of clements a, b E S.

Examples 2-8, 2-9 and 2-10 arc of commutative semigToups (semigroups
whose operation is commutative), while in Example 2-11 functional composition
is not, in grneral, a commutlttive operation. Although the commutative law
may fail to hold throughout an entire system, it may still be valid for particular
pairs of elemrnts; accordingly, it will be convenient to make the following
drtinition.
Definition 2-6. Two clt'mrllts a and b are said to commute or permute
(with each other) provided a * b = b * a.
Employing this terminology, we observe that the opemtion of the system
(8, *) is commutative if and only if every pair of clements of S commute.
Once an operation has been defined on a set, one finds that certain elements
play special rol(,l-!; t1H'rl' may ('xist identity clements and inverse elements.
Definition 2-7. The system (S, *) is said to have a (two-sided) identity
elelllrnt for the oppmf.ioll * if there exist~ an elenwnt e ill S such that
a*e=e*a=a
2-1 UJo.WINITION ANU EXAMPLES OF GROUPS 33
for every a E S. An element e having this property is called an identity

element (unit clement, Iwutml clement) for (8, *).
An identity element thus causes each element of the set S to remain stationary
under the operation. In particular, notice that e * e = e. Of course, for a given
system, an identity element mayor may not exist; in case an identity does
exist, it must be unique, as the theorem below shows.
Theorem 2-1. A mnthcmat.ieal Rystem (8, *) hIlS ut, most one identity
c1cllwnt.
Proof. For the pro()f, let Ul:! lIupP()lIe that (S, *) Iml:! two identity clements
I'and 1". Sil\l"e e * n = a for el\l~h a E S, then in JllLrti(~lIlnr e * e' = e'. But
Oil the other hUIIII, e' ill ulH() an iuent.ity clement, til.) Wt~ 1IIII1It have e * e' = e.
We thus ohtain e = e * e' = e' anu consequently e = e'; t.hat is, if the system
actually has an iuelltity, then there is precil:!ely OIle clement with this property.
It follows from Theorem 2-1 that, whenever (S, *) has an identity, we are
justified in using the expression "the identity element of (S, *)"; the symbol e
will be reserved exclusively for this identity.
Definition 2-8. A semigroup (8, *) is said to be a semig1'Oup with identity if
there exists a (unique) identity element for (S, *).
Example 2-12. The semigroup (Z +, .) possesses an identity clement, namely,
the positive integer I. On the other hanu, the semigroup (Z+, +) has none,
since 0 It: Z +.
Example 2-13~ Bot,h the semigroups (P(X), U) and (P(X), n) have identities.
Here, the empty lid 0 is the iuelltity element for the union operation, since
Au0=0uA=A for each set A s; X.

As is easy to see, the universal set X acts as the identity element for the opera-
tion of intersection, since
AnX=XnA=A for each set A s;;; X.
Example 2-14. To record one more example of a semigroup with identity,

consider the set of numbers
S = {a + bv'2 I a, b E Z},
and the operation of ordinary multiplication. First, one is obliged to check

that S iR actually closed under multiplication; this is fairly clear, for if a bV2 +
and c + dv'2 are arbitrary members of S, then
(a + bV2)(c + dV2) = (ad + 2bd) + (ad + bc)V2 E S.

34 GROUP THEORY 2-1
It is not particularly difficult to establish that the pair (8, .) is a commutative

semigroup with identity clement 1 = 1 + ov'2; we omit the argument.
When working with an operation which has an identity element, it is natural
to inquire which elements of the underlying set, if any, have inverses.
Definition 2-9. Let (8, *) be a mathematical system with identity ele-
ment e. An I'II'II1Pllt a E 8 iH Haiti to have 11 (tW()-Hitlfld) inverse under UlCl
operation * if there exil:lts ROme member a' of 8 SUdl that
a * a' = a' *a = e.
An element a' having thiH property iH called an inverse of a and is customarily
denoted hy a-I.
An inverse hall the effect of reducing a given clement, under the operation,
to the identity element. In particular, since e * e = e, we may infer that
e- I = e.
It will be established shortly that, for a semigroup with identity, each element
has at most one inverse relative to the unique identity clement. (The reader
might try to work out the proof for himself.) Thus, when dealing with such a
system, there is no ambiguity of meaning in the symbol a-I and, if it exists,
we are free to speak of "the invefHC of an element. "
Example 2-15. Let S be the set of all ordered pairs of nonzero-real numbers
and * the binary operation defined by
(a, b) * (e, d) = (ae, bd).
Then the system (S, *) forms a (commutative) semigroup with identity, with
the pair (1,1) serving as its identity element. For (a, b) E S, we evidently
have (a, b)-I = (l/a, lib), since
(a, b) * (l/a, lib) = (a(l/a), b(l/b = (I, 1).

Example 2-16. Let X be a nonempty set and 8 be the collection of all functions
f: X -+ X. It is easy to I:lOO that the system (8, 0) is a semigroup with identity,
having as it.'! iJl'ntity the identity map i x . A function f E S will possess an
inverse relative to t hI' operation of composition if and only if f is a one-to-one
mapping from X onto itself; in this event, the inverse of f (under 0) is the usual
inverse function 1-1:
Example 2-17. As a further illustration of these ideas, let us return to the

semigroup (P(X), U) of Example 2-13. In this case, just the empty set 0
possesses an inverse; for if A E P(X), with A ~ 0, there is no subset A - I of X
such that A U A - I = 0. Likewise, in regard to the semigroup (P(X), n), the
only member of P(X) which has an inverse is the universal set X.
2-1 DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES OF GROUPS 35
There is a mnt,hematieai system, known 1\.'1 a group, which displays most of

the proJlm'til~s we have so fur dil:!cUMll(lll.
Definition 2-10. The pair (G, *) is II. group if and only if (G, *) is Ii semi-
group with identity in which each element of G has an inverse.
,
While the above definition is perfectly acceptable, we prefer to rephrase it
in the following lIlor(! ddaiJl'd forllJ, nwrl'ly as It /lmtt<'r of eonvllni(,ncc.
Definition 2-11. A group is a pair (0, *) consisting of a nonempty set G
and a binary operation * defined on G, satisfying the four requirements:
1) G is closed under the operation *,
2) the opl'mt.ion is ItRsoeiativll,
3) (J contllinl:! lUI identity clement e for the opel'll.tion *, and
4) each element a of a has an inverse a-I E a, relative to *.
This definition calls for several remarks. For one thing, the first of the
requirements cited above could easily have been omitted, since any set is
dosed with respect to a binary operation defined on it. (We merely wish to
emphasize that one must always ('heck the dosure condition.) Observe partic-
ularly that eommutativity is not required in the definition. If it happens that
the group ol><'ration satisfies this additional hypothesis, then (G, *) is referred
to Itl'! 1\ ('ommulalillc or aIle/ian group. Let us also point out that it is possible
to give a Il'ss redundant version of the group I\xioms from which the present
axioms follow IUllogical consequences; for t.his, we refer the reader to Problem 14
at the end of the section.
When the group operation is clearly understood. one often identifies the group
with its underlying set of elements and refers to the group as G rather than as
(G, *). For furt.her simplieity, many authors drop the star notation and write
ab in place of a * b. While we shall continue to adhere to the a * b convention,
we will nonetheless adopt some of the terminology of ordinary multiplication and
talk of forming products, multiplying elements together, etc. At times, we
shall also be somewhat impreeise and speak loosely about the elements of the
group (G, *), when we re:dly mean the clements of the underlying set G; how-
ever, this should cause no particular confusion.
In order that the reader fully appreciate the generality of the concept of a
group and at the sume time guin l>Ome familiarity with this idea, we pause to
offer u selection of examples. Further examples appear in the exercises.
Example 2-18. Let a be allY nonzero real number and consider the set G of
integral multiples of a:
G= {naJnEZ}.
The pair (G, -H, wher<', as usual, + indil'llt.es ordinary addition, forms a com-
mutative group. III this eaS(', t.he identity is 0 = Oa E G, while the inverse of
an arhitrary e1pm(,lIf, na of 0 is - (na) = (-n)a E O.
36 onoup TIIEOHY 2-1
Example 2-19. COIlHider till! H!'!' of ordered pnil's,
G = {CO, 0), (0, 1), (1,0), (1, I)},
and the operation defined by Table 2-1. In this group, the identity element
is the pair (0,0), and every clement is its own inverse. Here the verification
of the associative law becometi a process of detailed enumeration of all possible
cases that could arise.
Table 2-1
---_.
(0,0) (0, I) (1,0)
.
(I, I)
- - .--
(0, II) (II, II) (0, I) (1,0) (I, I)
(0, I) (0, I) (0,0) (I, I) U,O)
(1,0) (I, 0) (I, I) (0,0) (0, I)
(I, I) (I, 1) (1,0) (0, 1) (0,0)
Since the entire table is symmetric about the main diagonal (upper left to
lower right), the group operation. is commutative. Note that each element
of G appears once and only once in each row and column of the table. Indeed,
any multiplication table for a group has this feature.
Example 2-20. Let P(X) be the power set of somc fixed nonempty set X. As
we have SI.'Cn, the systcms (P(X), u) and (P(X), n) possess identity elements
o and X, respectively, but neither system has invel'SCs for any clements other
than their respective identities. Consequently, P(X) does not constitute a
group with regard to the formulation of either unions or intersections. It is
possible, however, to remedy this deficiency by defining another operation on
P(X) in terms of union and intersection which will fCsult in a group structure.
More specifically, conHi<i<'r the op<'ratioll ~ (thl' HYlll-
hoi is traditional) given hy the formula
A ~ B = (A - B) U (B - A),
for
A, B E P(X).
This operation, known as the symmetric difference of A and B, yields the set
which is represcnted by the shaded area in Fig. 2-1. We shall leave as an
exercise the v(>rificatioll t hat the symnlC'tric differenc(> operation is commutative
and associative.
It is easy to H(,(, that fot any Hl't A s;;; X (that iH, fot' any clement of P(X,
A ~ 0= (A - 0) u (0 - A) = A U 0 = A,
which proves that the empty 8('t 0 serves ns un identity element for~. Moreover,
A ~ A = (A - A) U (A _.- A) = 0 u 0 = 0.
2-1 1>";)o'lNITION ANIl l~XAMPL"~'i OF GUOUPS 37
This implicH t.hllt, e:wh dl'lIWllt, of J>(X) ill it.!l own invc1'IIC. Conscquently, the
mllthclllatil'nl HYHtl'l1l (f'(X), a) is n I:OJlllllut,nt.ive gnlUp.
Examp'e 2-21. As 1\ silllple exampl(! of a noneollllllutative group, let the set
G consist of all ordered pail'R of real numbers with nonzero first component:
G= {(a,b)la,bER',a~O}.
Define the operation on G by the formula
(a, b) (e, d) = (ae, be + Il).

Thn nSH()(:intivit.y IIf t.he oJlI~mt,ioll flllluWH frolll tho f,ulli/inr properties of the
real numbers, for wc have
[(a, b) (e, tl) (e,f) = +

(ae, be (l) (e,J)
= ae)e, (be + +
d)e f)
+ +
= (a(ee), b(ee) (de f)
= (a, b) (ee, de + f)
= (a, b) [(e, d) (e, f)].
It is readily verified that the pair (1,0) serves as the identity clement, while
the inverse of (a, b) EGis (lla, -bla). To see that the group (G, *) is not
commutative, merely consider the elements (1,2) and (3,4) of G:
(1, 2) (3, 4) = (3, 10) ~ (3,6) = (3,4) (1,2).
Example 2-22. For another example of a noneommutative group, take the

set G as consist,iug of the six fUllctions f" /2, ... .J6, where for
x E R' - {O, I},
we define
l2(x) = !,
x
x-I
f3(X) = 1 - x, 14(x) = - - ,
x
X 1
i5(X) = .r - 1 ' f6(x) = -1-'
-x
I.et the group operation \)(' that of functional composition.
Thus, as an illustration, we have
(/2 is)(.') = I2Us(x = 12 C~ x) = 1/(11_ x)

= 1- x = !a(x),
38 GROUP THEORY 2-1
whieh implies that. J2 J6 = h. On the other Table 2-2

hand,
it /2 fa !4 f6 fo
(f6 !2)(x) = 16(12(x)
/2 fa !4 f6 fo
=16 G) = 1-
1
l/x
" ""
/2 /2 f6 fs f4 fa
fa fa f4 /l /2 f6 fs
f4 f4 fa f5 f6 /2 it
X
fll f" fo f4 fa /2
= - - = 1,,(x)
x - I ' fo fo fs /2 it fa f4
"
so that 16 12 = is, which shows that the operation is not commutative.
The multiplication for (G, .) in this case is given by Table 2-2. Since functional
composition is associative (Theorem 1-7), the system (G,.) is certainly a
semigroup. The operation table shows that It is the identity element and the
respective inverses are
It l = it. 1"21 =!2, ri l = fa,
1"41 = 16, fil =11'" 1;1 =14.

To encompass all the different groups above in a single concept obviously
requires the formulation of the underlying group concept in the most general
terms. This is preeisely the point we hope to convey to the reader; the value
of contemporary mathematics lies in its power to abstract and thus to lay
bare the structurally essential relations between superfieially distinct entities.
Historically, thc notion of 11 group aro~ early in the ninet.L(mth century out of
attempts to solve polynomial equations. Galois waH the first to use the word
"group" in any teehnical sense when he considered the group of permutations
of the roots of such equations. A major achievement in the evolution of the
theory was Klein's cln.."sification, in the IS70's, of the various branehes of
geometry according to groups of transformations under whieh certain geometric.
propertics remain invariant. It remained some time, however, before satis-
factory group postulates, free of redundancy, were stated. Definition 2-11,
first formulated in 1902, is attributed to the American mathematician E. V.
Huntington.
In the twentieth century, group theory has embraced all branches of mathe-
matics and, incl(~ed, a wid" vari('ly flf ot.her fields. It is difJieult to give exampltJ8
without beeoming too tedlllical, but the theory of groups is now employed in
the study of quantum mechanics, general relativity, and erystallography. In
these areas, group theory is not only a tool with which calculations arc made
but also a souree of coneepts and principles for the formulation of new theories.
A recent example can be found in the physics of fundamental particles with
the discovery of a new "elementary partide" whose cxistenee had been pre-
dicted from a e1a."sifil'ation scheme hased on groups. It is certainly appropriate
to begin our investigation of mathematical systems with this concept.
2-1 DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES OF GROUPS 39
PROBLEMS
J. Determine which of the following binary operations on the set Q are associative
and which are commutative.
a) a * b = 0 b) a * b = l(a b) +
c) a * b = b d) a * b = a b- 1 +
2. Rllppose Lhe system (S, *) haR an identity element; show that if the equation
(a * h) * (c * d) = (a * e) * (h * d)
holds for all pOH"ible choices of element!i a, h, c and d of S, then the operation *
i!! both aH:-Iociative and commutative.
3. Prove that the set of ordered pairs of real numbers together with the operation *
defined on 8 by
(a, h) * (e, d) = (a +
e, b d + +
2bd)
constitute!! a commutative !lemigroup with identity.

4. l,(~t 111'1 define a hinary operation * on the !!et S = {I, 2, 3, 4, 6} as follows:
a *h = gcd (a, h).
For example, 6 * 4 = 2, 3 * 4 = J, etc. Show that (8, *) is a commutative

semigroup. [Hint: Problem 17, Rection 1-2.)
5. ConRi!\er the three-element !let S = {a, h, e} and the operation * given by the
mlllt.i"li(~ation table helow:
* a h e
a abe
h h a e
c e c e
Verify that the pair (8, *) is a commutative semigroup with identity, but not a
group.
6. In the following illlltanceR, determine whether the systemR (G, *) described are
(~ommul.ative groups. For tholie systems failing to be so, indicate which axioms
are not satisfied.
a) (} - Z+, (I * II - max {(I,ll:,
h) a = Z, tl * b = mill {fl, bl (the Hlllall(!r of a and b),
e) (} = n' , a * b = a +
h - ab,
d) (J = Z+, a * b = Illax {a, b} - min {a, b},
e) (J = Z X Z, (a, b) * (e, d) = (a +
e, b d), +
f) G = R' X R', (a, b) * (e, d) = (ae +
bd, ad +. bd),
g) (J = R' X R' - (0,0), (a, b) * (e, d) = (ae - bd, ad be). +
7. RUJlPol'l(l that a E R' - {O, I} Ilnd conRider the set G of integral powers of
a: G -= {a k IkE Z}. If denotes ordinary multiplication, prove that (G,') is a
group.
40 GROUP THEORY 2-1
8. u-t G = {I, (-1 + iV3)/2, (-1 - iV3)/2}, where i 2 = -1. Show that the
lIytltem (a, .) is a group.
9. Con!!idl'r the set a consisting of the fOllr functions/J,i2,Ja,/4:
1
/I(x) = x, ! 2(X) = -x' hex) = -x,
x
with x E R' - {O}. Prove that (G,o) is a commutative group, where 0 denotes
functional composition.
10. Prove that the symmetric difference opt'ration
:1 aB = ( ..1 - B) U (B - A)
discussed in Example 2-20 may also be defined by the formula
.\ a B = (:I U B) - (.\ n B).

11. Granting the associative law, show that the following two operation tables define
groups:
... I 3 5 i ... a b c d
- . -_._---
I I 5 7
:~ a a b c d
:i a 7 5
I b b a d c
5 5 7 I 3 c c d b a
7 7 5 3 1 d d c a b
12. If G = {a E R'I -1 < a < I}, verify that (G, >II) form!! a commutative group,
with the operation'" givl'n by
a+b
a>llb = - - for a, bEG.
I fib +
13. Let (S, >II) Ill' a sl'migroup wit.hout illl'nt.ity and e hl\ any ('It~ment not in 8. Define
the olll'ration on the t't"" = S U {e) by ml'SnH of I.he ruleH
0
for all a, b E 8,
aoe=a=eoa for all a E 8'.
Show that the pair (8',0) is a semigroup with the identity element e; (8',0) is
said to be obtained by adjoining an identity.
14. Prove that the following weakened Het of axioms are actually equivalent to the
classical axioms for a group as given in Definition 2-11: A group is a mathe-
matical system (G, >II) for which
1) >II is an aN80ciative oper&tion,
2) there exists an element e in G such that a >II e = a for all a E a (existence of a
right identity),
3) for ('.sch a E G, thero ('xists an ('lement a-I in G such that a'" a-I = e (exist-
ence of right inverse.'1).
2-2 CERTAIN ELEMENTAltY TUEOItEMS ON GROUPS 41
2-2 CERTAIN ELEMENTARY THEOREMS ON GROUPS
AI! wc rmllllrke<i I'lLrlil'r, ollr apprO/wh t.o t.he suhjed, mnt.ter in this text is
dmrnl'l.l'rized hy tlH' ILhsll'lld. Ilxifllnalil: dpvdopnll'llt of llIodpl'n mu.themo.ties.
Thus PlLeh sYHI,(,1lI 10 hI' illvl'stiglLt('d (~onsists of It sd. of elcllIcntH and onc or
more opernt ions whi('h arc \II\(jelilll'd except that they ILre lUi8umed to obey
certain rules known as axioms or postulates. Once the axioms are granted, all
else is obtained by careful logical argument. Each new theorem is deduced
from the definitions, the axioms, and the t111'orenu! prcvioutlly proved. The
great advantage of the axiomatic method is that any particular example we
encounter which satislil's the axioms of a givpn mathl'nmti(!al system will also
satisfy nil Ow theorems which are true for that system. While the uninitiated
render llIay filld this approach uncomfortably abstraet at first, the feeling will
disappear as he progrl'ssl'H furt.her into the tcxt. III till! prO(!ess, wc hope that
he will gain an apprc('iatioll of llIathematics as !til exaeting, logical discipline.
In proving t.he following theorems on groups, it is essential to understand
that we know nothing whatever about the actual nature of either the set G
or the operation * ; both are completely abstract and unspecified. Our knowledge
of (J and il.s asso(,inted olwrat,ion is strietly eonfined to the information eon-
tairH'<i ill t Iw definitioll of grollP givl'lr (urli('r. Tlw muder would be welllLdvit!cd
at Uris poillt t,o r('view Definition ~-1I, Seet.ion ~-l, Iwfof(! proceeding. We
shall begin with a simple, yet highly important result.
Theorem 2-2. The identity clement of a group (G, *) is unique, and each
element of a group has precisely one inverse element.
Proof. Theorem 2-1 may be used to establish that the identity is unique. To
show Omf. an element has exaetly one inverse in G, we proceed as in Theorem
2-1 by showing that two sUPJlosedly distinct inverses are actually equal. To
this end, lu!sumc thc clement a E a has two invtrscs, a; and a~. Then according
to the definition of inverse,
a * a~ = a~ *a = P, a * a~ = a~ *a = e.
But, the identity element is the same in both eases (there is only one identity
as we have Illr('lldy 8('l'n), so that
a * a~ = a * a~.
!\I uitiply both I!ides of this equation on the left by a; (or by a~) to get
a~ * (a * aD = a~ * (a * a~).
Using the associative law, we have (a; * a) * u; = (a~ * a) * a~, and so
(' * a~ = e * a~ or a~ = a~,
whi('h proves that a has ollly one inverse.

42 OROUP THEORY 2-2
An inspection of the proof Hhows that we have established a little more than
is indicated by the statement of the theorem. We have, in fact, shown that if
an element of a semigroup with identity has an inverse, then it must be unique.
Corollary. Each clement of a semigroup with identity has at most one
inverse.
A further useful conclusion to be drawn from Theorem 2-2 is that
(a-I)-I = a. This stems from the observation that (a- 1)-1 is an element of
G for whidl
Since a itself 1m.'! t.his propcrty, and sin(!c invcl'8CH have jUtit been scen to he
uni<lue, the ('1(,lIIcnt a lIIust he the inverRC of a-I. For the proof of the next
theorem, we shall require a prl'liminary lemma.
Lemma. If a, b, c, dE G and (G, *) is a 8('migroup, then
(a * b) * (c * d) = a * b * c) * d).
Proof. L('t UII t('lllpomrily dpn()t.(! t.lw produet c * d by x. Then, Killce the
opemtion * is I\.'!.'l(!iat.iv(!, WI! hnvn
a * b * c) * d) = a * (b * (c * d
= a * (b * x)
(a * b) * x
= (a * b) * (c * d).
Theorem 2-3. If (G, *) is a group and a, bEG, then (a * b)-J = b- I * a-I.
That is, the inv('rRC of a prodmt of group clements is the product of their
inverses in reverse ordlr.
Proof. A(!cording to the dpfinition of inverflC, nil we nc(ld to show is that
(a * b) * (11- 1 * a-I) = (b- I * a-I) * (a * b) = e,
where e is the group id!'nt.ity. From t.he uniqueness of t.he inverse of a * b, we

would then conclude that
Using the above lemma, we have

(a * b) * (b- I * a-I) = a * b* b- 1 ) * a-I)
"''' a* (e*a- I ) = a*a- 1
= e.
A similar argument ('stnhlishcs that (b- I * a- I ),* (a * b) = e.

2-2 C.:ltTAIN I~U;MENTAltY 1'HEOREMS ON OROUPS 43
Corollary. If a and b are invertible elements of a semigroup with identity,

then
To be sure, if the operation * is commutative, then we do have
how(wl'r, in t.!1(' ahM<!lw(! of t.hiH hypothl'His tl1l'n1 is 110 gUI\rn.ntee t.hnt the inverse
of a produd is e(]uul to the produet of the respective inverses. The next example
should help to make t.hese not.ions c1enrer.
Example 2-23. Lpt. r: dC'lI11l.ll tim HI1. (If nil urdtln~1 pnil"!! of renl 1lI11nbers
with nonzero first. ClolllpOIwnt. If t.he hinary operation is defined on the
sct G by the rule
(a, b) * (e, cl) = (ae, be d), +
t.hen (a, *) is n nOllc'omlllutntive ~roup [Example 2-21). The ici<'ntity clement
of t.he group iK t.Iw pnir (1,0); the inverKll of lUI eleml'lIt, (a, b) EGis
(1Ia, -l)la). A din'lt c'()JlIIHllat.ioll KIIOWI'I t.hat,
1, a) (2,4-1 = (2,10)-1 (!, -5),

while
(2,4)-1 (1,3)-1 = (l, -2) (1, -3) = (l, -5).
Thus 1,3). (2,4-1 = (2,4)-1. (1,3)-1, 1\8 is guaranteed by Theorem

2-3. However, computing the product of the inverses in the order
we obtain
(1, -:I) (l, -2) = (1, -i),
so that
1,3) (2, 4-1 ~ (1,3)-1. (2,4)-1,
I,'or this ~rollP thl'lI, t.he inverl'lc of a pmchl<'t of I'lements if! not equal to the
procllld of t.hC'il rC'sJlc'diVtl illVClrKC'H ill clirC'1't ordm', ThiH Hhoulcl lint. be plLrtic-
ularly surprising inasmueh as the group (G, *) is noncommutativc.
The previous Il'mma is Iwtually a special case of a result mentioned carlier
whil'h in C'fTC't'1. aSKI'rts t.hat, pan'ntheRCs nrc superfluous in 1\ product of group
e\C'IIl('nt 1'1, and C'OIlH('qU(lIt.1y t.hat t.Iwil' olllisHioll ('lUI Il'ILd t.0 110 misunderstanding.
TI\(' exa(t story is told ill thl' npxt t.hcort'lll.
First., howevl'r, let us int.n>duI'" Homc ll.lIxiliary notut.ion: Impposc (8, .) is a
Hcmigrollp I1l1cl \.lie ,,11'IlIPlltH a I t a2t ' , , a,. h('\ollg 1.0 S (whcre 11 > 1), Their
44 mWlll' TIIJ<:OIlY 2-2
.~tandarrl produrl, lIymholized by al a2 , , , an, ill defined recursively as

a, ... (l~ ... , , , ... an
Whl'n n = 'I, for imll.iuH'l', u. (12 a:1 a4 will t.urn 0111, t.o he
aI a2 * aa ... a4 = (al a2 a3) ... a.

al ... a2) aa) a4'
In essence, we are usill!!; induct.ion to define It pltrt.icular grouping of parentheses

and thereforl' It Jlnrtil'lliar clemcnt of S.
With t.hill Ill'finit ion in mind, WI' 1I0W lIhow thl\t IL produI~t iii d(!t.erminoo
lIolely by the on\c'r of it II fal'torll, and 1I0t, on the manner of distributing
parent.ht,!!(,!!,
Theorem 2-4. ((;",If'ralizrr/ AS80datillr ',aw). I'(!t. (8, .) be n. HCmigroup and
a" a2, ' , , ,all ht' 1\ lid of n ~ ;~ e1em('nhl of S. Theil all possible produ<!ts
of a I, a2, . , . ,(I.." t akell ill t hut order and arrived at. by phwing parentheses
in any meaningful posit ion. yil'ld onl' and the Hllme re!!lllt.
Proof. The strat<'gy shall employ is to prove all products of the elements
WI'
* ... - a"i our argu-
a" a2, ' , , , a" arc equal to their standard product at - a2
ment proceeds by induction on n, where n ~ 3. In the case n = 3, the result
follows direetly from the assQ('iativity of -: -
Next, assume that the assertion holds for all products of m: factors, where
a :5 m: < n, and let x be any product involving n factors.
Sinccx is obtained by slleceflsive applications of the operation -, there must
be a final multiplication between two expreflsions having less than n factors.
By the induction hypotheses, each of t.hese two expressions equals the standard .
product, flO that x may be written as
l:5k<n.
By definition of the fltandard product,
whence
The usual associative law now yieldfl

2-2 CEHTAIN Jo:LJo:MENTAHY TIIEOHJo:M8 ON GUOUPS 45
Applying first our induction assumption to the expression in brackets (which

('I'rl,uilll.v ('OIlt.Hilll~ II'i'lM I,hnn It fnl'loTM) nllll HII'll Hw dl'finil,ioll of I,hl' stundanl
pJ'(}(llII~t. Ilgnin, WI' inrI'" tlml,
This completes the induction stcp and therefore the proof of the theorem.
Given four elements aJ, a2, aa, a4 E S, parentheses can be legally inserted
and the elements mult.iplied (in the given order) five different ways, Theorem
2-4 Jl(~rmjt.H \If'! to cO/u'lude that all theHC produnts nrc cqual:
(al * a2) * a3) * a4) = (al * (a2 * aa * a4

= a, * a2 * aa) * a4)
al * (a2 * (a3 * a4
= (al * a2) * (aa * a4)'
As It matter of notation, it will bc our tendency to omit parentheses in writing
products; the exception to this will be found 011 those occasions when we wish
to emphasize the associative law or a certain grouping of elements.
Theorem 2-5. (Cancellation Law). If a, b, and c arc elements of a group
(G, *) such that either a * c = b * c or c * a = c * b, then a = b.
Proof. Sinee c E G, c- I exists in G. l\lultiplying the equation a *c = b *c

on the right Mid( hy c-', we obtnin
(a * c) * c:- I = (b * c) * c-'.
Then, by the associative law, this becomes
or a * e = b * e. Therefore a = b. Similarly, we can show that c * a = c*b

implies a = b.
Corollary. The only solution of the group equation x *x = x is x = e.
Pmof. Tlw eoneiusioll iM lUI illllllediate eonsequenee of the cancel1n.tion 1n.w and
the fact that .c * x = x * e.
In n system (8, *), all element xES is said to be idempotent provided
x * x = x. Whnt we have jU!5t shown is thut u group possesses exactly one
idempot('nt clement, namely the group identity. For an illustration of a system
in which eVl'ry element is idempotent the student is referred to Problem 4,
Section 2-1.
46 GROUP THEORY 2-2
This last theorem allows us to cancel, from the same side, in equations in-
volving group clements. Wc cannot conclude, however, that a * c = c * b
implies a = b, unless the group is known to be commutative.
An arbitrary binary operation need not satisfy the cancellation law. To see
this, we consider the set G = {I, 2, 3} under the following multiplication table:
* I 2 3
1 I 2 3
2 2 I 2
3 3 2 I
On examining the table, we observe t.hat 2 * 1 = 2 * 3; but obviously 1 ~ 3.

The failure of the cancellation law in this instance results from the fact that
when we mUltiply both sidcN of the equation 2 * 1 = 2 * 3 by 2- 1 = 2, the
element 2 does not associate with the product 2 * 3; that is,
2 * (2 * 3) ~ (2 * 2) * 3.
Theorem 2-6. In a group (G, *), the equations a * x = band y *a = b
have unique solutions.
Proof. First, x = a-I * b satisfies thc group equation a * x = b, since_
a * (a- 1 * b) =(a * a-I) * b

= e *b
= b.
This shows that there is at least one solution in G; it remains for us to show
that there is only one. Suppose there is some other element x' E G such that
a * x' = b. Thcn
a * x' = a * (a- 1 * b),
so that by the cancellation law,
x' = a-I *b, or x' = x.
The second part. of til<' t.limr!'111 may be proved in an analogous manner.
Corollary. In a multiplication table for a group, each element appears exactly
once in each row and column.
Proof. For a proof by contradiction, suppose that the element b occurred twice
in the row headed by a. There would then exist elements Xl and XII, with
Xl ~ XII.such that
a * Xl = b and a * XII = b.
2-2 CERTAIN ELEMENTARY THEOREMS ON GROUPS 47
However, this situation is plainly incompatible with the above theorem which
IlSserts that there is one and only one solution of the equation a * x = b. A
proof for columns can be obtained by imitating the argument for rows.
It can be shown that all groups with fewer than six elements are commu-
tative; thus a noncom mutative group must necessarily contain at least six
clements. The proof of thill faet ill ROmewhat, lengthy, although the actual
details are not by themselves particularly difficult. The subsequent lemma
will serve to isolatc the most tedious aspect of the theorem.
Lemma. If a and bare noncom muting elements of a group (G, *)-that is,
a * b b * a-then the clements of the set,
{e, a, b, a * b, b * a},
are all distinct.
Proof. The basic idea of the proof is to examine the members of the set
{e, a, b, a * b, b * a} two at a time, and show that each of the ten possible
equalities leads to a contradiction of the hypothesis
a*bb*a.
On several occasions, the cancellation law is used without explicit reference.
The argument runs as follows:
1) e = a implies a * b = e * b = b = b * e = b * a,
2) e = b implies a * b = a * e = a = e * a = b * a,
3) e = a * b implies a * e = e * a = (a * b) * a = a * (b * a), so that
e = b * a or a * b = b * a,
4) e = b * a implies e * a = a * e =.a * (b * a) = (a * b) a, so that
e = a. b or b * a = a * b,
5) a = b implies a * b = a * a = b * a,
6) a = a * b implies e = b, reducing to case (2),
7) a = b * a implies e = b, reducing to case (2),
8) b = a * b implies e = a, reducing to case (1),
9) b = b a impli(,H e = a, reducing to case (1),
10) a *br b * a contradicts the hypothesis.
The proof of the lemma is now complete.
Theorem 2-7. Any Jloneommutative group has at least six clements.
Proof. If (G, *) is a noneommutative group, it must have a pair of noncom-
muting c1emcnts a and b. According to the lemma, the set fe, a, b, a * h, b a}
then consist.s of distinet member.;. We now proceed to establish that one of
tho group ('I('men/s a * a or a * h * a is distinct from these five; however, it is
not possible to lSJlceify ablStraeily whether it is a * a or a * b * a.
48 GROUP THEORY 2-2
With the aid of the lemma, we first show that a '" a is different from each
member of {a, b, a '" b, b '" a}. To start with, observe that
a) a '" a = a implies a = e, reducing to case (1) of the lemma,
b) a '" a = b implies a '" b = a'" (a'" a) = (a'" a) '" a = b '" a,
c) a '" a = a'" b implies a = b, reducing to case (5),
d) a'" a = b '" a implies a = b, reducing to case (5).
Thus, either a '" a ~ e, in which case a '" a is the sixth distinct element of 0
or else a '" a = e.
In this latter instance, we ('an show a '" b '" a to be distirwt from each of
e, a, b, a '" b, b '" a and (~onS(CJ\wl\t.Iy to be th(~ required sixth clement. The
reasoning IlI'/'/' ,I"I)('nclH on the fud that
a'" (a'" b '" a) = (a'" a) '" (b '" a) = e '" (b '" a) = b '" a.
c) a '" b '" a = (' implies b '" a = a '" (a '" b '" a) = a '" e = a, reducing to
case (7),
f) a'" b '" a = a implies a '" b = e, reducing to case (3),
g) a '" b '" a = b implies a '" b = a '" (a '" b '" a) = b '" a,
h) a'" b '" a = a'" b implies a = e, reducing to case (1),
i) a'" b '" a = b '" a implies a = r, reducing t.o ease (1),
whi('h cstllblishcH till' n~HIlIt. Anltlt.crnative proof will be presented in Acetion 2-fi.
The generalized associative law insures that the product a '" a"" .. '" a has
I\n unarnhigtlouR mel\ning irreHpectivc of how the factors arc parenthesized.
Designating the foregoing product hy the symbol ale (assuming there arc k
factors), we may int rodUl~e the notion of th(~ pOHitive powers of a. The next
definition extmlllH t.hiH i<iI'IL t.o ILrhit.mry int.(grnl 1)('w/~rH.
Definition 2-12. In any group (0, "'), the integ'ral powers of an element
a E 0 are defined by
a" = a'" a"" .. '" a (k factors),

aO = e,
a-Ie = (a-I)",
where k EZ+.
With t.hese convent.ions, t.he customary laws of exponents have their counter-
part in group theory.
Theorem 2-8. Let (G, "') be a group, a E G, and m, n E Z. The powers
of a obey the following laws of exponents:
2) (an)'" = a nm = (am)",
4) e" = e.
2-2 CEHTAIN Jo;Lt:MENTARY THEOHEMS ON GROUPS 49
The detailed proof of these statements rcquires a brcltkdown into "cu..cres"

and (!UII Ilafdy be left ItS an exercille. We caution the reader that the property
(a * b)n = an * btl is not to be expected in an
urbitrnry group (It monwllt.'s r(~A(l(:t,ion Ilhould V
('onvillee olle of this), DI~ c..p /
Wc shall 1I0W ('ollchule t.his l'(:ctioll with t.wo
partieularly important, examples of groups, since
we shall have frequcnt oeeasion to refer to them
(7.'..--_-+-_ _ /
1',: ,/2
___ --~-..l.~-- Cl H
j,
___
in t.hp fut.ure. ,.,/': '" '\..,-
~/ : ,~ It
Example 2-24. Tlw J,!;rollp to bl' illt.ro<iu('cd hcr<~ (X'
is kllmvlI liS IIIl' IIfllll/l IIf XI/II/IIIl'/fit,S IIf a ,~qll.(lfl'. D~:.J
I JlIIlJ,!;i 11(' It eanlhollrd sqllllre havillg it.s siuI'1'
Figure 2-2
parall('1 to t.he axel:! of Il eoordinate system and its
('('nter at. the origin (FiJ,!;. 2-2).
TIll: P)pIIWII1.S of till: sd (J 111'(: taken to he (:ertllill rigid motions of the square.
PC'rmittpd mol ions 111'1' the following: I'h)('kwise rotat.iolls /lon, R IMO, R 27o , nnd
RallO about. I he ('cnt!'r through allgl('s of !JO, ISO, 270, and a(jo degrees, rel:!pec-
tiv!'ly; reAed ions (flips out of the pllllle and hack into it) II and V about the
horizontal and vertieal lill('S throuf,!;h thc I'cllt.er; rcfied-ions D. and ])2 about
the indic'at!'d dillf,!;onals, We l'ttll multiply t.wo sueh motions by Jlerforming
t111!111 in SIlI:C'I'ssioll, hl'J,!;inninJ,!; wit.h t II(' one 011 Uw l'iJ,!;ill. Thui'! X Y mellns the
mot.ioll t.hat u!'hievcH tJw Hllme result Ui'! Y followed by X,
For example, If Ruu is t.hat el!'ment. of (J whieh has t.he samll n!!t efl'e!'t Its
Ruo (a rotation e1C)('kwil;c through 00) followed by II (n hOl'izolltul flip), By
ohservilll!; till! II HUlIlel' in whieh tlH' numh('r('11 I'owers of the S(IIUlre arc Hhiftlld
IlfOlII II I, WI' SC'I! tllltt II /(I/U pl'odlWI'S t.il(' "alII(' 1'('slIlt ml the /lingle lIIotion
/)2; SO 1/. Ill/u _ 1)2' A sillliizu: 1l1I1l1,Ysis showi'! Ill/ u /I = /)1 fmlll whidl
we illfer t.hat our lIIult.iplil'at.ioll iH 1I0\. eOllllllutat.ivc.
Table 2-3
* Ruo R lxo R2iO R:u;o II V 1>J D2

Ruo Rlso ll2iO R:!(Io lluo DI D2 V II
RpHl R2iO RallO RHO Il IIHl V 11 /)2 DI
R270 Rano RHO RIHO R2iO /)2 Ih II V
R:u;o Ruo lllNn 1127o R:u;o /I V /)1 Ih
II 1)2 V Ih /I R:wu RINO R 270 RIIO
V /)1 /I lh V llll'o llano R!IO 112711
1)1 11 1)2 V 1)1 ll!JO R270 Ra(lO RulO
Ih I' Ih J/ Ih R270 RUII RI80 RallO
The ('olllpll'le llIultipli('alion talll!' for the op!'ratioll * is shown ill Table 2-a,
Note t.hut /lallo 8('rVCH liS the idcntity elCIIH'lIt ami cl1l'h of R ISI )' /l3so, H, V,
D" alHI [)2 il:l itl:! own illv!'rse, whereas Roo lind U 270 ar<~ inverses of mteh other.
50 GROUP THEOUV 2-2
The assoc~iativc law also holds, but this is not immediately obvious. We shall
sec later that thc symmctric!! of the !!quare are equivalent to a group of perm uta-
tiom:! of the Het {I, 2, :l, 4} (obtICrve that a HymmetrY ill complctely dcscribc(~
by its effed on the vcrticlcs) and asso(~iativity therefore follows from the associa-
tivity of funetional composition. Granting this for the moment, the proof that
(G, *) constitutes a group is complete.
Similar groups may be defined for other geometric figures; in fact, for any
regular n-sided polygon. Problem 14 at the end of this section den.ls with the
group of symmetriel!l of the equilatcro.l trianglc.
Example 2-25. Let (G, *) bc an arbitrary group. For a fixed clement a E G,
defin<l the left-multiplication function fa: G -> a by
f,,(x) = a *x for eltch xE G.
That ill, fa multiplil~s (or tranHlates) eanh element of G by a on the left. If

x E G, then
x = a * (a-I * x) = fa(a- I * x),
so that fa maps G onto itself. Moreover, fa is one-to-one, for if x, Y E G with

I ..(x) =la(Y), then a * x = a * y. From the cannellation law, we conclude that
X= y.
Suppose we combine two of thesc mappings, say la and Ib, under the usual
composition of fUllctions. For any x E G, we see that
(fa fb)(X) = 1,,(Jb(X)) = fa(b * x) = a * (b * x)

= (a * b) * x = I ... b\x),
This means that fa .Ib = lub, SO that the tlCt of all such functions is closed
under the operation of functional eomposition.
For thl) lIake of 1I0tl1t.ioll, tlCt /<'0 = {fa I a E GJ. Our aim is to show that
the pnir (Po, 0) iH Iwtunlly a p;roup.
Indeed, if e ill tile iilpnt.ity demcnt for (a, *), then f. a/li!! lUI the identity
for (FG ), since
fa f. = fa = fa = f .... = f. ola.
0
l\-Iorcover, (j,,)-I = 1.. -1, for we have

f .. f,,-I = fa ...- I = f. = fa-I ... = la-I. I ..
We alrendy know t.hat. (:oll1position of fUllctiolls is associative (Theorem 1-7),
so it folIowl:I that (Fa, .) formll It group.
PROBLEMS
1. Given that a, b, c, Illltl d arp l'\cmcnts of thc scmi!!:roup (G, *), prove that
a * b) * c) * d = a * (b * (c * d.
2-2 CERTAIN ELEMENTARY THEOREMS ON GROUPS 51
2. Complete the proof of Theorem 2-8.

3. Prove the theorem: A group (G, *) is commutative if and only if (a * b) -I =
a-I. b- I for every a, bEG.
4. Given a anc! bare element.s of a group (G, *), with a. b = b * a, show that
(a. b)k = a k bk for every integl'r k E Z.
5. Let (G, .) be a group such that (a. b)2 = a 2 * b2 for every a, bEG. Prove that
the group is commutative.
6. Given a 2 = e for every element a of the group (G, .), I!Ihow that the group must
be commutative.
7. A group (G,.) is said to be cyclic if there exists an element a E G such that
every element of G ill of thl' form a k for Home integer k (pollit.ive, negat.ivl', or zero).
Hueh an ,~Imllen t a ill ,~alll'd a generator of Ul(l grou JI.
a) Prove that any cyr.lic group is commutative.
Il) Given a = {I, -I,i, -i}, with i 2 =-1, show that (a,) is a ,~yelic group.
Whieh of its elements are generators?
8. Prove that if a and b are elements of a group (G,.) with the property
and
then a 4 = e = b4
9. Prove that if (G,.) is a group having more than two elements, then there exist
a, bEG, with a "" b, a "" e, b "" e, such that a. b = b. a.
10. If (8,.) is a semigroup with identity and G the set of all elements of 8 having
inverseK wit,h rC!lpect to the operation *, verify that the pair (G, *) ill a group.
II. Prove that a group may alternativl~ly he defined as a semigroup (G,.) in whieh,
for all a, bEG, ea(~h of the equations a x = band y. a = b has a KOlution in G.
[Hint: Use the eharacteriza~ion of a group given in Problem 14, Section 2-1.)
12. Hhow that any semigraul) (."I,.) with a finite number of element!! possesses an
iil,mJlot.ent e\em('nt. II/int: For 11 > I, proceed hy induction OIl n, the number
of elements of ."Ii givon a E S, lot o't = {ak I k = 2,3, ...}, and argue according
to whether or not .tI containll the clement a.)
13. For allY syKtem (B, .), define the Het
.t = {a E S aI * (b'" r) = (a'" b) '" c for all b, c E B}.
If A "" t\, prove tlmt. 1.111' pair (.1, *) ill a "ellligroup.

14. 1.1'1, 1.111' set G ,onsist or ,,rtain rigid 1II0t ions of an
'lJuilal.ml Iriall~I,. P"rlllit""d lIIotions I~n' thn'"
.'IIlI'kwi,,1' rotations 1l12!t, R24't, and R;wu ahoul the
el'nll'r t hrou~h 1.I1Ijt;hs or 120, 240, and :i(i() dl'grt(s,
rl'~pe,ti\"I'I.\", and Ihr,'(' )"I'fil'..tions /,1, /'2, 11.1\11 '-:I
I1hout lillI'S II, 12, 1I1111/a 11" illllhall'd (Fig. 2-:J) . .\s
U"III1I, dl'lill" I III' opl'rntion * Oil (J 10 h,' onl' motion
follow,"I hy nllothl'r. Prove thnt th,' sysh'm (G, *)
is a group. Figure 2-3
;')2 GROUP TtU;ORY 2-3
15. Let (0,.) ancl (11,0) he two difltin~t groups. Define a hinary operation' on the
Cartellian product
ax II = {(g, II) Ig E (I, II E II},
all followK : for
(gl, 1\) (g2, h2) = (g\. g2, h\ 0 h2)'
Prove that (0 X H,') ill a group, called the direct product group of (0,.) and
(H, o)j show further that this group is commutative whenever the original groups
are ('ommutativc.
2-3 TWO IMPORTANT GROUPS
This SC(t ion is tI('vot~,tI 10 an eXllIllilHlI ion of I,wn important and frequently
m,d grllllpH: til(' gl'ClllJl of illlC'g(,r!I Illoclul" ft allcl Ihe 1!;11111P of l><'rmutntionH of
the I'lellwllts of a 1'1'1 (tllC' s(J-I'alled HynlllH'1 ri(' group). Whilc thcl!C group!! nrc
of ROIlW int('rC',,1 pl'l' 1;(', our mnin purpo"C' ill illt.rochlC'inp; them ill to provide two
more ('oncrete examplelS 10 iIIustml.e eonccplK which will be developed subse-
quently.
W(! hegin wit h all illvl'KI igal.ioll of t.he not.ioll of ('ongrtwne(', in t.erms of
whieh the group of illt.cWr!I modulo n will hI' forlllulat(!d.
Definition 2-13. Let n be a fixed positive integer. Two integers a and b are
said to be congrent modulo n, written
a == b (mod n),
if and only if the difference a - b is divisible by n. That is, a == b (mod n)
if and only if a - b = 1m for some integer k.
For instance, if n = 7, we hnve
== 24 (mod 7),
:J
-!i == 2 (mod 7),
-s == -50 (mod 7), etc
If a - b is not divisiblc by n, we Ray that a is incongruent to b modulo nand,
in this cast', write a of h (mod n).
It ill noh'wort hy I hat, C'vC'ry pair of int.I'p;('fII nre ('onp;ru<mt. mociulo 1, while II.
1':1 il' of illl C'g(,l"~ al'" ('OIlI(I"IIC'II1. lI\o(hllo '! pnlViclt,t! I.ht,y an' hot.h (WI'II or hot,h odd.
Our firHt thc'orl'lI\ pnlvicll's a useful .. Iuund.('rizltt,ion of (~ongrll('JI('(l modulo n
in tl'rms of rCIlHliIHlerl! 011 division hy n.
Theorem 2-9. I..(It 11 Iw a fixed J>o~itive intl'gl'r nnd a, b be arbitrary integers.
Then a == b (mod n) if alld only if a and b have the same remainder when
divided by n,
2-a TWO IMI'OItTANT GIlOUPS 53
Proof. SUppOIIC firMt a IE b (mod n), 110 that a = II + kn for HOme integer k.
On division by n, b lelwes a certain remainder r:
II = qn I r, whef(l o :5 r < n.
ThUI!, a = b '1- kn = ('1 1- k)n 1 1', whi"h HhowH a has t.he Maille remainder
I\!! b.
On the other hand, let a = qln +
l' and b = q2n +
r, with the same re-
mainder r (0 :5 r < n). Then
with ql - q2 all int.cgcr. Hence, n is a factor of a - b I\nd HO a == b (mod n).

COlIgruC'nc'(' JIIay hn vi(!wC'cI 1t.H Il t.ype of equalit.y ill tlw KI'IIK1! that itH be-
Imvior with rC'l!p(!d t.o acldit ion ILnd lIlult.ipli(!nt ion iH rl'lllillil'!eC'lIt of orciillary
(qllnlit.y. HOlllu of U\(' (!Ienwllt.nry prop(!rt.im-l of (!qlllLlit.y whieh all'!O cnrry over
to congrucrW(!1! nrc liNt,c'u in the next thoor(IIl.
Theorem 2-10. J..ct n be a fixed positive integer and a, b, c be arbitrary
integers. Then
1) a == a (mod n),
2) if a == b (mod n), then b "'" a (lIIod n),
3) if a == b (mod n) and b == c (mod n), then a == c (mod n),
4) if a == b (mod n) und c == d (mod n),
th('n a -/- e == b +
d (mod n), ac == db (mod n),
!i) if a == b (mod n), thcn aC == be (mod n),
() if a == b (mod 11), then ak == hk (mod n) for every positive integer k.
Proof. For any int.cp:er a, a - a = 011, so that a == a (mod n) by Definition
2-13. If a == b (mod n), !.Iwn a -- b = kn for sOllle int.C'ger k. Henc(~
h a -. ( k)n,
wherc -k is nn integ('r. This yields (2).

To obtain (:3), Mllppose that a == b (mod n) and b == c (mod n). Then
a - b = kn and b-c=hn
for HOllie intl'l(C'rM k, It. The rdo I"I! ,
a-- c - (a - ,) 1 (II -- c) -- k,t + /", = (k I It)n,
whidl implies a == c (mod n).

Similarly, if a == I) (mod n) ancl c == d (Jllod n), thcn th('re exiHt integm's k .. k2
Much that
a - b = kIn and
54 (lItolTI' Tln:o!!y
COI\I!('q UCII t.ly,
(a -I- c) - (b + d) = (a - b) + (c - d) = kin + k2n

= (k l + k 2 )n,
or
a + c == b + d (mod n).
AIl:!O,
ac ... btl (mod n).

This ('stahli!!lw;! (4).
Prolwrty (:;) follow;! dirt'cUy from t1w second part, of (4), since c ... c (mod n).
Finally, WI' prove (Ii) hyan inuudiw argumcnt. The Ktatement is certainly
tmc for k = 1. AssulIJing it holds for an arbitmry k, we must show that it
also holds for k -I I. Bill, this is imnl<.'uiate from (4), since ale == ble (mod n)
and a == b (m(1I1 11) imply aka ... bkb (mod n), or a k+ 1 == 1I1e +1 (mod n).
In the fOl"('goillg t.h('())('m wc !il\W that if a == b (mod n), then ea == eb (mod n)
for any int.eger e. It is interesting to note that the converse of this statement
fails to be truc. For instance, 2 4 == 2 1 (mod 6), yet 4 ~ 1 (mod 6). To
put. it anotiwr way, one cannot, lllll"est.rictedly apply the cancellation law in
t.he alg!'hru of congrll('IIC('S. 1'11<' only posit.ive as.'I<'rtion that call be made
in t.his r('glll"li is ('mhodil'd in Ole following th{,'Orlllll.
Theorem 2-11. If m "'" (,1, (mod 11) and c i;! rl'lat.iv('ly prime to n, th(m
a== b (mod n).
Proof. By hypoOwsis, e(a - b) = kn for some integer k. Since e is prime to n,
it. follows that II must. divid!' a - b [Theorem 1-14); hel\(~c, a == b (mod n).
Definition 2-14. For lUI arbitrary integer a, let [a] dellot<l the Kef. of all
integers NHlgmcllt to a lIJodulo n:
[a] r,c E Z I x ... a (mod n)}

{x E Z I x = a + kn for some integer k}.
We ('alI la) t.he cOlly/'umce dass, modulo n, detemlinoo by a and refer to a as
n l'epresenlatiz'e of this cIa!!!!.
By way of illilst mt ion, HIIPPOS(' thaf. WI' an' d('aling wit.h ('ongrll('I1(!(~ modulo 3.
1'11<'11
[01 :.1' E Z I .1' ak fOl' :-lUll"! k E Zl
I
\ ... , !I, Ii, - a, (I, a, Ii, !I, ... l.
TWO IMJ'OltTAN'I' WWIIJ'S
AIHO
[I) = {X EZ IX = 1 + ak for som<' k E Z}
{... , -8, -5, -2, 1,4,7,10, ... }.
Similarly,
[2) = [ ... , -7, -4, -1,2,5, X, 11, ... }.
Obs<'l"Ve that every integer lies in olle of these three classcs. Int.egers in the
sanle eonp;rucn(~c dass af(~ eongl"lll'nt Il\odulo 3, while integers in different
c-Iassl's an' iIH" 0 IIJ?; r \1('11 I lIIodulo :t
A particular ('()ngru('n('(~ (,lass Illay be d('sigllal.(~d in a variety of ways by
merely changing its reprcRentativ(-. I II the above illustration, for instance,
[-7) = [2] = [11] = [35] = ...
It sulli(~cs 1.0 rl'lIIllrk t.hat the eharaeteristic feat.nrc of t.lwsc variou!! represcnta-
tives is that., in I his I'as(', tlH'Y all difTer from clwh other by multiples of 3, and
in p;(,IH'ml, difTer by multiples of n. For ('onveni(mee, onc often selects the
slllllll('st nOIlIlI'p;at.ive int.cp;pr from ('tuh congruence dass t.o represcnt it; in
pr:wt.i(I', WI' shall :ulh('f(- 1.0 t.his notat.ional (onv('nl.ioll.
To return 10 t.11e general ease of congruence modulo n, let
Z,. = {[OJ, [1], [2], ... , [n - II}.

Several properties of t.he collection Z,. which we shall lat.er requirc appear in
HII' lwxt, t.hl'or(,llI.
Theorem 2-12. Ld, n he It pOHitiv(~ illt('p;l'rllllll Z" he fIJi (Iefillcd above. Then
1) for !':lch [a] E Z", [a] ..,& 0,
2) if [a] E Z,. and b E [a], then [b] = [a]; that is, any clement of the con-
gruence class [a] determines the class,
3) for any lal, [1/] E Zn where raj ..,& fIJ], [a) n [b) = 0,
4) Uaa] I a E Z:
c-- z.
I'roof. The first three assert.ions of Theorem 2-10 indieat.c that. the relation
a"" IJ (mod n) forms an equivalence relat.ioll ill !.lIP s('l. Z of illt('gc~rs. Indeed, the
eongruenee daSiSes as defined in Definilion 2-14 are >limply the equivalence
dasscs for this equivnlenee relation, Vi('w('(1 in t.his light., the statement of
Theorem 2- 12 is a I ran>ll:ttion of Theorem 1-5 into t.he lalll!:uage of "eongruellce
modlllo n."
TtlP set. Z", whosl' element.s arc tlH' ('onl!:rlwn('c da>l~-s lllodulo n, is tradi-
t.ionally known liS t.hl' sd of iflfl'fIl'1',~ 1/111//U/1l n. It, llIay sl.rikl' t.hl' relul!-r Ural.
I.his 1,('rIllillol0lt.v is HOIIH'wllllt irmppr'ol"'iatl' fOI', 11I((is(.J.v sp!'akilll!:, Ow dmllellt.s
of Z" art' 1101 l'ingll' inl.l'gl'ls, hili, mlitl'r illfinit.(' ~'IH of int'('l!:l'rH. l\(on-ov('r, t.Iw
:l1't. Z" is 1101. illli"il(~, lik(, I hI' illll'It('I'S, bill. is LL lillil.!- SI'1. wit.h /I. (~I('IlWIlI.H. Whil(~
56 GROUP TIIBORY 2-:1
t.his i:> not quite in accnr'll with our intuition, we bow to long-standing custom
I1IHI Hindi eOllt,illll!' 1.0 n~fl'r 1.0 Z" aH t.h(, illt,l'lI;l'rloi IIIOdliio n.
Bya partition of t1w set S, we mean a family of nonempt,y subsets of S which
are pairwise disjoint and whose union is all of S. It, follows from Theorem 2-12
that, for eaeh n E Z+, the integers modulo n {~onst.itute a partition of the set Z.
Definition 2-15. A hillary operation +" may be defined on Zn 11.'1 follow:>:
for ('ad, [al. [II] E Z", 1'1, [a] -f .. [II] ~' [alii].
D{'finition 2-1;; ass!'!'ls I,hat. Hw lIlodular sum of t.wo {~ongruellcc (,lasses
[a] and [b] is tl\(' Uni'll\(' mellliwr of Z" whil'h ('olltaills the ordinary sum a II. +
Ilow(w(~r, th!'r!! is It ImbUe prohlelll (olllll'et.l'd wit.h t.his delillit.ioll. IlIlllollllud,
as addit iOIl of ('ollll;rUl'n('e c:lItsses in Z,. is detin{'d in teruls of reprel:lCntatives
from th(,sl' dusses, we must show that the operation +n doeM not depend Oil
the two l'I'P!'l's('lItativ{'s dloS<1JI. It mllst be prov('d formally, that if [a'l = [a)
alld W) = [/1), tlH'II [a'] +n [b'] = [a] +n [b], or rather, [a' +
b') = [a b]. +
;\Iowa' E [a'] ~ [a] alld 1/ E W] = [IJ], whil'h impii!'s
a' == a (mod n) and b' == b (mod n).

By virt 11(' of TlrPOI'!'II' :!-1O(4), it, follows t.hat.
a' -I h' =_0 a -j II (mod n), or a'i b' E tal bl

Th('orl'm 2-12(2) thl'lI ill!ii('at!'s that [a' +
1/) = [a I /1), IlS dl'sired. Thus the
opernt.ion +" i:> IInllmbig;uously defined, independent of the arbitrary choice of
r('pr('sent at iv(s.
Example 2-26. Rllppose we {'onsider ('onJ!;I'UI'IH'!l modulo 7 and the typical
mldit ion
[a) -I- 7 [(j] = [3 n] = [9]. +
SinN! [:1] = [10] and [0] = [--I!)], the same allliWl'r should he obtained if one
used
[101 +7 [-I;;] = [10 - 15] = [-5].
While these results appear superficially different, both congruence classes [9]
and [-!)] may be !'xpressed more simply as (2). Thus, although written in
terms of different repreRellt.atives, either modular addition gives the same sum,
[:2). Other pORsihl1' ('hoi(~es [-4] -h [-X] = [-121. [17) +7 [0] = (23), f3] +7
[13) = [Hi], also yil'ld the sum (2).
We nt( 1I0W in a posit ion t.o prove one of UI(' prindpnl theorems of this section.
Theorem 2-13. For elwh posit.ive inl!'ger n, t.l1(' mathematical system
(Z", t-,,) forms n ('omlllutative group, known as t.he (/1'OUp of inieyel's modulo n.
J'l'()of. TllP ass()('iat ivily and ('ommut.ativity of t.\w opl'ralioll -1-,. nre 1\ direct
consequenee of til(' sanl(' properties of the intl'geriS under ordinary addition.
2-:1 TWO IMI'OHTANT GROUPS 57
Indeed, if [a], rbI, [e] E Zn, then
[all .. ([bj-I .. [c)) =Iaj I" [b I r.J

= [a + (b -/ c)]
= [(a + b) + c]
= [a + b] +.. [r]
([ll) I" [II)) I .. If').
Similarly,
[a] 1-" [b] = [a + b] = [b + a] = [b) -1-.. [a).
By d('fiuition of -I,,, it is clear Um!. [0) iH the identij,y elmnellt. Filll1l1y, if

[a] E Z", then In - a] E Zn Ilnd
[a] +n [n - al = [a + (n - a)] = [n] = [0],
thlLt [a)-I = [n -- a].

110 Thill l'OIl1pl(lh~s the proof that. (Z", +..) ill n com-
mutative group.
InddmltnIly, Thron~m 2-Ja nlHO shows thnt for HV(' ..y positive integer n
t1l1're ex iH\.l'I at. 11'11.,{1. 0111' eommut.at,ivl' gnmp with n "ll'Irll'lIl.s.
If WI! adopt Uw c'ollvlmt.ioll of dl'lIiglmt,illg c~a"h I'ulIgru()IW(! dUIlI'; by it.H
smaIlI'!;t. lIonn(gnt.iv(~ I'(pn,sellt.utiv(', 011'11 the ol)('ratioll t:lhle for, say (Z4' -h),
looks like
+. [0] [1] [2] [a]
[0] [0] [1] [2] [3]
[1] [1] [2] [3] [0]
[21 [21 (a] [0] [1]
[3] [a] [0] [1] (2]
For simplir.it.y, it is convenient to remove the hrnckets in the designation of

the eongruen(!e dallses of Zn. Thus we oft.1'1l write Zn = {O, 1, 2, ... , n - I}.
With this notation, thc above operation table assumes the form
+4 0 1 2 3
0 0 2 :~
1 1 2 3 0
2 2 ;~ 0 I
3 3 0 1 2
For the seeollu of our I.wo exnmpleH, let us turn to the study of permutation
groups. To this clld, supposc Umt N is n finite set having n clements which,
for simplieit.y, we tnkl' to be t.he first n natural numbers; that is to SI\Y,
N= {1,2, ... ,n}.
58 GROUP THEORY 2
Definition 2-16. By a permutaliun of the set N is meant any one-to-oll

mapping of N onto itself.
In what follows, the totality of all permutations of the set N will be deno!.,,
by the Rymhol S". RiTl{'e the number of differ('nt, permut.ations of n object,!; i
nl, the fift;t thing to note is that Sn ill itself a finite set with n! distinct element,
Next, any permutation f E Sn may be described by
f= {(l'/(l, (2,/(2, ... , (n,/(n)).

While this is the Il(!eeptable funct.ional notation, it will prove to be more ('Oil
veni('nt to r('prcll('nl. f ill a two-line form
where till' (~nrrl'Rpollding imag(,R uppear 1)('low eaeh integer. Clearly, the ord,,
of the ('ICIIII'lIts ill th(' t.op row of thiR lIymhol ill inulIllwriul, for th(l columll:
may lw rl'arrnllged without affectillg t.he natufC of the function. Prccil:ll'l)
speaking, if (J iR Illl arbitrary p(!rmutation of the integers, 1, 2, ... ,n, thcn .'
could equally well b(' given by
f - (g(l) g(2) ... g(n)

f(g(t f(g(2 ... f(g(n)
From thill, WI' illf('r UIIlt. (,Iwh of the n! {>I'rmutntions in' 8" may be writ,tA'I'
in n! ditTl'fCnt way!!. For illlltarU'e, the following two symbols both reprcsclIl
the same clement of 8.:
(1 2 3 4)
2 4 :1 I '
( 214:i).
4 2 1 3
Permutation!'!, h('ing fum'tions, may be multiplied under the operation of

functional compol'litioll. Thus, for lK.rmut!ltions I, U E S",
(1 2 (1 2 ...
fog = f(t) f(2)
n)
f(n) 0 g(1) g(2) ... g~)
g~)
( (1(\) g(2) g(n) ) ( 1 2
= l(g(1 f(g(2) ) f(g(n 0 g(1) g(2)
f(g~
2
= C(g;l) l(g(2 )-
2-3 TWO IMPORTANT GROUPS 59
What we have done is to rearrange the columns of the first (left) permutation
until its top row is thc same as the bottom row of the second (right) permuta-
tion; thp product /0 g is then the permutation whose top row is the top row
of the se(!OII(I factor and whose bottom row il:l the bottom row of the first factor.
With a little pmet.iee one can evaluate produet.l:I without luwillg to w.rite out.
this intermediat!' preparation. }lany authors prefer to carry out the multiplica-
tion of P("llllll.ations in the oppo:-;it,(! onl"r (that ill, they apply the factors in It
prouud frolll )(ft. to right.), alld t.he read('r :-;hould h, parl,il'tllllrly wlltehful for
this,
Before stating a theorelll whieh indieutell the algebmic nature of Sn under
I his 1lI,,1 h()(1 of (!Ollll)()sit ion, we hop(~ to dnrify sOllie of till' foregoing "ointH
Wit.ll IlII ('xILlllple,
Example 2-27. If 1.111' s(I. N ('onsiHls of t.he illt.(/.t(rs I, 2, a, tlllln t.hcn! nrc
a! Ii Jll'rlllllf.nl.ions ill Sa, 1I1L1l1dy,
II =C :~) , 2
2 :~
/2 =C :;) , .ra=Ca :J) ,
2
2
:l
2
2
f4 =C :) , fs =C :a)J , .f6 =C ;) .
2 2 2
:l 2 3 2
A t.ypical lIlultiplieation, say f4 0/6, proceeds as follows:
.f4 f6=C
0
2
a
a)'Ca D
2
2
2
=G
2
:~ :)G 2
2
:J)= C
I 2
2
:l
:)=12,
On the other hand, WI! h:wl!
16 f4 =Ca 2
2
:;) c 2
a
:~)
2
~)oC ~)=G :) =fa,

a 2 2
=G 3 1
flO that. lIIult.ipli('ntion of pl'l'mutatiolls is not ('ol1lmutntivl',

Theorem 2-14. 1'1)(' pair (S", .) forms It /.troup, kllown as the symmell'ic
f/l'OUP lin n Hymbo/s, wlli('" is IIOJJl:OIIUllutut.ivc fOJ' n ~ :t
The proof of f his fad. is OIllil.t.('(1 in:l.'lIl1ll('h as !l mom gllllCral version of the
thcorem will be l!;iv('11 shortly. III Jlus:sing, it is only 11I..'Cc8I!ary to note that the
(iO I:llOl'1' 'I'll EOHY 2-:\
identity e1cmcnt for (,sn, 0) is the permutation
2 n),
2 n
whil<' thc 1lI111t.iJllieativ(~ inverse of any permutation f E ,sn is described by
l'arf'ntlH'tic'ally, we might observe that t.he gnlllp of symmetrieK of ttw

sqllllrl~ (ExaIllJlIc~ 2-24) I'Iln he Imbsurncd uuder the theory of permutatiou
groups, for these symmetries really do nothing more than map the four vertices
of the square in It one-to-one fallhion onto t.hemselves, This particular group
is ohviously not ('qual to the symmetric group (R., 0), sinee the set S. mllst.
(,(lIItaill -1! c :'!I ('ll'lIl1'lIt.s; illdl'eli, one ('lUI I'Ilsily lind P<'.'lIlUtatiolls in S. whil'h
do not correspond to allY lIymmetry of the square, Rnther, we have an exampl(~
of what is ealled It lIuhgroup of the group (S., 0).
In the following Homewlmt t.l'('hnieal definition, WE' introduce a special typf'
of Iwnllutllt ion c'alll'c11t c'yc'I".
Deflnition 2-17. LI't f! I, n2, . , . , nl: be k distinet illtl~gCrs between 1 and n.
If It perlllutatioll f E S,. is such that -
for 1 $ i < k,
f( 11k) - nI , alld
fen) = It for n fl {nl, n2, ... , nl:},
then f is said to be a k-cycle, or a cycle of lenyth k.

Simply put, a cycle replaces n. by n2, n2 by n3, ... , and finally nl: by n'l,
while leaving all other d"mcnts fixed. For cycles, a more condensed notation
than the usual two-linl' form is to write (nl! n2, , .. ,nt), indicating that eneh
integer is to be replac('d by its suecessor on the right and the last integer by
the fil'l:lt. III the Kymmetrie group (8 6 , .), for example, wo hlwe
Of course, eaeh integer whil'h is omitted in this cycle notation is presumed to

map onto itself under the permutation. A given ('yde may clearly be repre-
sented in more than one way, since any of its elements can be put in the first
position of the one-line form, all with
(2 5 3) = (5 3 2) = (3 2 5).
2-:l TWO IMPOHTANT GROUPS 61
A final comment, before we formulate a significant result on the factorization

of pC'rmutat,ions, is that olle multiplies ('yell's by multiplying the permutations
they reprtscllt. Thus, ill (Ss, 0) again,
(2 5 a) 0 (t 2 4 a) = C 2:l45)
4 135
Theorem 2-15. F.V(~ry pennlll.nt.illll f E 8 n call be writ.l.C'n M a commutative

product of cycles, no two of which have an element in common.
Proof. First, consider the set of images of the integer 1 under successive powers
of /: {f(1),/2(1),/3(l), ...}. As usual. hy r
we mcan J of 0 ' " . / , m times.
Hincd.he domain of J is fillit,e,ji(t) ,- 1'(1) for SOIlW i < j, whmwe P-i(l) = 1.
This in turn implies that there exists a lcaHt positive integer k (I ::; k ::; n)
for which /"(1) = 1. Let (1,/(1),/2(1), ... ,/"-1(1 be the first cyele of the
permutation J. If the element 2 is not found in t.his eycle, repeat the foregoing
arJl:llIllC'lIt. 1.0 ohtnill nnotlll'f c'yd(' (2, J(2), f2(2), ... ,P-I(2, where j is thn
KIlI1L1I('sl. pOHitive illtcg(!r KliCh that P(2) = 2. III Ilt llIost n Hlleh steps, this pro-
eedunl must ternlillatc. The order of multiplieation of the resulting eycles is im-
matclrial, for they clearly have 110 clements in common.
To illustrate Theorem 2-15, l~t us return momentarily to the permutation
considered above; in this c!ase,
since
f(I) = fl, r(I) = /(3) = 1,
and
f(2) = 4, /2(2) = f(4) = 2.
The simplest of pennut.ations arc undoubtably the 2-cycles, for they just
int.erehnnJl:(J t,W() dl'flll'nt.s and Il'nve all ol.llI'rs fixed. It is cust.omary to refer
to sl.wh eydeH as Imnxposili()ns.
Corollary. Every permutation may be expressed as the product of trans-
positions.
Proof. In light. of the preceding result, it suffices to write any k-cycle as a
product of transpositions. A direct computation shows that this can be done
rather simply in the following manner:
(1 2 ... k) = (1 k). (1 k - 1) 0 0 (1 2).

62 GHOUP TIn:OUY
As the above trnlll'ipOAitiollS havl' all illt,(~jI;('r in ('om mOil, t.hey do not, ill
general, commute. Furtlwl"more, the decomposition is by no means unique.
For instance,
(1 2 3) = (1 3). (1 2) = (2 1). (2 3).
While n jl;ivl'n pl'rlJlut at ion may hI' fUl:tored into It produet of tmnspo8itions ill
a variety of ways, tl\(' IIl1mlwr of \,mllsp08itioml involved will alwaY8 have till'
same parit.y. That is, if 0111' fadol"i7.lIt,ion has lin ev('n (odd) number of tmnsposi-
tions, then cvrry faI'tOl"i7.:t\.ion mllst have an cvrn (odd) numher of transpositions.
The notion of permutation as presented in Definition 2-16 is not. sufficiently
general for all ollr pllrpos('s, since it restriets liS to finite Rets only. It would
sl'em Illore lIat uml to dl'finp this I'OIWI'P\' for arhitrary Het.H, fillite or infinitl',
as follows.
Definition 2-18. If G is any nOlll'mpty set, then n permutation of G is a
one-to-one function from the Ret G Ollto itself.
We rcprl's('nt tIll' spt of all pNmutatiolls of G hy the symhol, sym G (tlll'
reason for this ehoi('e will he clear in a moment). To he sure, if G is a finitl'
set having n ('11'1111'11\ s, tlwn sym G = 8,..
I n this genrral fmml'\\'ork, it, is possihle to prove a st.rueture theorem from
which Thrort'1II 2- 14 will follow as a speeial ense.
Theorem 2-16. For a 1I0011'mpty set G, the pair (sym G, ~ constitutes a
/!:roup, ('alled Ihe symmetric IImUJI of G.
['roof. Tlw firs\. thill/!: to til' dlllll' is to show that. is adually a binary operation
on I:lylll U. (:ivplI nrhit rary pC'rIJlII\.atiom; I, f/ E sym fl, t.he ('omposition f f/
if! ohviollsly It fUlII'tioll frolll (J illto a. If t.he e1l'llll'llt C E a, thell t.here exists
sOllie /) E (J SIl"'1 tim!. 1(11) .. c; silllilarly, thl'm is lUi dellll1llt a in (J for whieh
g(a) = b. HC'Il!:I',
(f. y)(a) = I(f/(a) = I(b) = c,
whi('h shows that f (I is nil onto function.

0
By definition, hoth f and g nre one-to-one fundiolls; we would like to con-

clude t.hat, thl' ('olllposition f. II all) has thii'! propprt.y. For this purpOf!e,
consider arbitrary plements a, bEG with a b. Since g is one-to-one, the
images f/(a) and ,,(b) nrC' ne('cssarily distinet. in G. But thpn, the one-to-one
ehnrlwterof I implipsl(y(a) f(y(b). In otll('r wonll:l, (f. !/)(a) (f y)(b), 0
whil'h pstahlisill's tilt' (Ie'sirprl OII1'-i.o-OIl('nI'SS of I.!/. From t.he prece<iin/!:

remarks, WI' illfl'r I hat f y E sym r; \\"11('1I1'\,1'I" I and !/ are ill sym a, makill/!:
o a hinary operatioll of the fi('t Sylll G.
1'11(' as.'<llI'ial ivily of fUlldiollal ('Olliposit iOIl follows frolll Tll('lIrCIll )7.
Plllinly, till' irhlIlit.y fllllr:tioll ia iH a J1prnllltat.ioll of r; lWei is :-nwh thnt.
f io = f = io I,
2-3 TWO IMPORTANT GROUPS 63
rOl'lLny I E sym (f, showing; i(; to Ill' lUI identity elemcnt for the liystem (sym G, 0).
If I E sym (;, the inverse fUlwtion I-I exists, is a one-to-one function, and
maps the sl'!. (; Ollto itsdr. l\Iorl'ovPI', I-I is the inverse of I with rClipeet to
C~olllp()sitioll. All of whi .. h justifies th .. st.atpmpnt that (sym G, .) is 1\ group.
PROBLEMS
I. Prove thut if a == b (mod n), then ea == cb (moel CIl).

2. a) Find all solutions x, where 0 ~ x < 15, of the equation
3x == 6 (mod 15).
b) Prove that 6" == 6 (mod 10) for any n E Z+.
3. I )esI'ribe the partition of Z eletcrmined by the intl'~er8 modulo 5.
4. Ld I'(x) Iw 11 polynomial in x with inte!(rtll codli .. ients. If 11 is 11 solution of the
equation 1'(x) == 0 (mod II), and a == b (mod n), prove thl1t b ill also a solution.
+
5. Show that the pair ({O, 4, 8, 12), 16) is a group.
6. Use the fact that 10 == 1 (mod 9) to prove that an inte!!;l'r is divisible by 9 if and
only if the sum of its cliJ!;its is elivisible by 9. Illint: Express the integer in decimal
form as a sum of powers of IO.J
7. For any integer n, prove that either n 2 == U (mod 4) or n 2 == 1 (mod 4).
R. a) Detc'rmine solutions of the cOIlJl;ruen!:c' equations 2 == -.1 (mod 5) and x 2 ==
-1 (mod Ia). This shows, loosdy speaking, that. the ~quare of an integer in
Z" may be negative.
h) If thl' I'qul1tiull J.2 ~ a (mucin) has 11 solution .1:), show X:l = n - XI is also a
solution.
9. Huppos(' a 2 "" b2 (lIIocl n), whi'rc: 11 is It prime nllmhcr. Prove thll I. I'i t.\wr
a"'" b (mod n) or a "" -b (mod TI).
10. a) Prove t.he sYIIIII\(~trit: group on t.wo symhols, (8 2 , 0), is t:ommut.ative.
h) J)('lIIonstmt.n Umt. t.hl' jl;rclUp (,"h, 0), :mcl henel' IUIY lurger symmetric group, ill
1l0n!:omlllutllt ive hy c:on"idering the pcrmll(.llt.ions
and
11. Express the following permut.ations as (a) productll of cycles having no elements
in common, (h) prudul'l.!S of transpositions.
2 :J 4 5 6) (1 234567)
(j 4 1 2 5' Ii 7 (j 2 1 3 4
12. Hhow t hat, the e,\'C'le (1 2 ;~ 4 5) may he written as a product of 3-cycle.<l.
1a. Verify the relutioll (1 2 :J .. 11)-1 = (II 11 - 1 ... 2 1); in particular deduce
t.hnt. C'vl'r,\' tl'lIl1spo"it.ion is it." own inversc'.
14. Thn sYIIIIII('tril's of thl' S(pIII.rll (Exulllple 2-24) muy be interpreted &8 permuta-
lions of t.he. vl'rti(,C>!. HCI'fl'sent (,ach of thCI!IC lIymmctricli by a corresponding
permutation.
64 GROlTP 'fHEOIlY 2-4
15. Consider the set G consisting of the four permutations
(11 22 3344), (2I 21 a4 34), ~).

Show that (G, 0) constitutes a commutative group.
16. Form the sct G = {f,j2,f3,r,F',r) , where! is the permutation
! _ (1 2 3 4 5 6),
2 :J 4 a 6 1
and prove that thl' pair (0,0) ill a eommutative group.
2-4 SUBGROUPS
There nrc two Ktnnd:ml t.eehniqul's in at.ta(king t.lw problem of t.he strueture
of a parti('ular j!;roup. One method ('ulls for finding all the subgroups of the
group, with the hopl' of gaining information about the parent group through
its local structure. The other approach is to determine all homomorphisms
from the given group into a more familiar group; the idea here is that the
images will reflect some of the algebraic properties of the original group. On
dOKl'r Kcrutiny. WI' KhaH KI'C that while HICKe lill('to! (If inveto!tigation aim in
difT('rent dirpdions, t.hey nrc not entirely unrelnt(!d, hut rather'll.spects of th(!
Kiln\(' probl(m. For the moment, however, our attcntion ito! focused 011 analyzing
It group by means of its subgroups; the question of structure-preserving map-
pings is a morl' sub tic matter and will be deferred to n lat.er section.
From variolls examples nnd exercises, the reader may have noticed that
"I'rlnill suhsl't.s of 1.1 ... 1'II'III1'II1s of n grouJI Il'llcl 1.0 III'W I!;rlluJls wlll'lI UlIt! n!Htri(l.s
tlw group olIPratioll to these subsets. It iH this situation in which we shall be
primarily interested.
Definition 2-19. Let (G, *) he n group and II ~ G be a lIonempty subsef
of G. The pair (II,.) is snid to be 1\ subgroup of (0, *) if (II,.) is itself n
group.
Eaeh group (0, *) hUH two oLvioUl~ subgroupH. For, if e EGis the idcntity
clement of th(! group (0, *), t.hen both ({e}, *) and (0, *) arc subgroups of
(G, *). These two sUhgfOUJlIl arc often referred to as the trivial subgroups of
(G, *); all suhgroups hdw(,pn thelle two extrernefol are calIed nontrivial sub-
groups. Any subgrollp different from (0, *) is termcd lIroller.
Example 2-28. If Z. and Zo dcnote the setH of even and odd integers, rcspe(~
tively, then (Z., +) is a subgroup of the group (Z, +), while (Zo, +) is not.
Example 2-29. Consid('r (Zo, +6), the group of integers modulo 6. If
II ~ {O, 2, 4},
2-4 SUBGROUPS 65
then (H, +6), whose operation table is given below, is a subgroup of (Zo, +0)'
+0 0 2 4
o 024
2 2 4 0
4 4 0 2
Example 2-30. Let (G, *) he the group of symmetl'ies of the square (Ree Ex-
ILlIlP'" 2 21), wlll'I'I' a 0_:U uo , H IH ." H 2711 , H:lflfl , II, I', /)It 1)2] IUIII t.11I' OPI'I'n-
tion * l'onKiKt.!oI of following olle mot.ion by anot.her. Thi!ol group I~ollt,ltin!ol eight.
nont.rivial subgroups. We leave it to the reader to V('rify timt the following
sets comprise the ei(!ment.s of these subgroups:
{If lilli, /(:11111, II, V},

{R IIlO, Raoo, [)It D 2 }, {R 180, Ra6u},
{Raoo, D 2}, {R 360 , H}, {R a60 , V}.
Suppose (H, *) is a subgroup of the group (G, *). Since the identity element
of (H, *) satisfies the equation x * x = x, it mURt be the sn.me as the identit.y
of UI(' pnnmt. group (a, *), for otherwi!olc we would hlWI~ two idl~mJlotcnt ele-
nll'lIt.R in a, l~olltrlLry to Theorem 2-li. The identit.y demellt of a group thUl:l
also serves 3.'> the identity element for any of its subgroups. Moreover, the
uniqueness of the inverse elements in a group implies the inverse of nn element
hE H in the subgroup (H, *) is the same as its inverse in the whole group (G, *).
I'll l'fltnhliHII tlml. n l(ivl'lI !oIlIhH(I. 1/ flf a, nlnlll( wil,h I,h,' illllul!l'Il IIJlIrntiml
of (a, *), eonHt.it.utl'!oI n subgroup, W(! IIlU!:!t verify tlmt nil the eonditions of
Definition 2-11 arc sl\tiRfied. However, the asROdat.ivit.y of the operation * in
II is an immediate consequence of its 3.'>sociativity in G, since H !; G. It is
neeeRsnry then to show only the following:
1) a, bEll implies a * b E H (closure),
2) e E II, where e iR the identity element of (0, *),
3) a E II implies a-I E II.
Needless to say, the saving in not having to eheck the associative law can
prove t.o btl cOIl!olidl'lable.
A theorem whieh e!olt.ablishcs a single eonvf'nient criterion for determining
subgroups i!ol given below.
Theorem 2-17. Let (G, *) be a group and 0 "t; H !; G. Then (H, *) is a
subgroup of (a, *) if and only if a, /J E II implies a * II-I E H.
Pl'Oof. If (II, *) i!ol a !oIuhgl'oup and a, bEll, tlWII II-I Ell, 1UIIl!olO a * b- I Ell
by the dosurl' "oJl(lit ion. COllvlrMlly, suppose 1/ is tL 1101l(!Jllpty suhset of G
66 GROUP THEORY 2-4
which contains the element a * b- 1 whenever a, bE H. Since H contains at

least one element h, we may take a = b to sec that b * b- I = e E H. Also,
b- ' = e * b- I E H for cvery b in H, applying the hypothesis to the pair e,
bE H. Finally, if a and b are any two members of the set H, then by what was
just provl'd b- I also belongs to H, so that a * b = a * (b-I)-I E H; in other
words, the sct 11 is dosed with resped to the operation *. Because * is 11.11
associative opl'ration in 0, II inherits the associat.ive law as a subset of G. All
the group axioms arc satisfied and the sYi'lielll (11, *) is therefore a subgroup
of (0, *).
Definition 2-20. The center of a group (a, *), dcnoted by cent G, is the Ret.
("'lit. a= {c E a Ic * x = x * c for all x E G}.
Thus cent. (J ('onsists of those clements which commute with every element
of O. For example, ill the group of symmetries of the square,
cent a= {R 1140, R360}'
The reader may already have deduccU that a group (G, *) is commutative if
and only if c('nt. a = O.
As ilIustratiolJs of the usc of Theorem 2-17 in determining when a subset
of the clements of a group is the set of elements of a subgroup,..we present the
following two theorems.
Theorem 2-18. The pair (cent 0, *) is a subgroup of each group (G, *).
PmoJ. We finlt ohserve that cent Gis nonempty, for at the very least e E cent G.
Now consider any two elements a, bE cent G. By the definition of center, we
know that a * x = x * a and II * x = x * b for every clement x of G. Thus,
if x E G,
(a * b- ' ) * x = a * (b- I * x)
= a * (x- 1 * b)-I
= a * (b * X-I)-l
= a * (x * b- 1 )
(a * x) * b- I
= (x * a) * b- I = X * (a * b- I ),
which implies a * b- I E cellt G. According to Theorem 2-17, this is a sufficient
('ondition for (,pnt a, *) to he a subgroup of (a, *).
Theorem 2-19. If (Hi, *) is IUJ arhit.rary indexed collection of subgroups of
the group (a, *), then (nil;, *) is alHO It subgroup.
Proof. SilH'e tht' Sl't,; IIi all ('ontain t.Iw identity (lement. of (a, *), the inter-
scl'tion nil. ~~. 1\('xt" supposc a !\luI II Ilrc any t.wo clcmcnt8 of nH,; thcn
2-4 SUBGROUPS 67
a, bElli, where i rangeM over the index Met. The pair (Hi, *) being a subgroup,
it follows that the product a * b- I 11.\:;0 belongs to Hi. As this is true for every
index i, a * b- I E nIl.-, which implies (nHi , *) is a subgroup of (G, *).
In regard to the group of symmetries of the square, we could take
HI = {R 90 , R I!JO, R 270 , R 360 },

H2 = {R lIw Rallo, Dt, D2}.
The system (HI n H 2 , *) = ({R UIO , R 360 }, *) is obviously a subgroup of this
group, for its elements eomprise the eenter of thc grollp.
III j!;PIII'r:d, wit.hollt fllrthpl" restrictioll 011 the Imbp;roupll (1/;, *), it ill not true
that the pair (Ulli, *) will 'IlJ.!:Uill he IL sllbg"oUII of (0, *). 0\1(' lIilllply eannot
!!;uarallt('(l that. Ulli will c:olltain produets whose faetors come from different Hi.
To give a eonerete illustmtion, both ({O, o}, +12) and ({O, 4, s}, +12) are
subgroups of (Z 12+ 12), yet on takin!!; the union, ({O, 4, 0, 8}, + 12) fails to be so.
The diffieulty in this ease is t.hat the modular sums 4 -h2 6 and () -/-t2 8 do
not belong to the set {O, 4, 0, S}.
By the way of an aualog to Theorem 2-1H, we have:
Theorem 2-20. Let (IIi, *) be an indexed collection of subgroups of the

group (G, *). Suppose the family of subsets {Hi} has the property that for
any two of its members Hi and Hi there exists a set Hk (depending on i and
j) in {H;} sueh that Hi S;;;; Hk and Hi S;;;; H k Then (UH i, *) is also a subgroup
of (G, *).
Proof. By now the pattern of proof should be clear. We assume that a and b
are arbitrary elemcnt.s of UIIi and Rhow that a * b- I E UHi. If a, bE UHi,
then there exist subsets II i, II j cont.aining a and b. rel'lpectivcly. Aecording to
our hypothesis, HiS;;;; H k and H j S;;;; Ih for some choice of lIt in {Hi}. Since
(H k , *) is a subgroup and both a, bE H k , it follows that the product a * b- I
belongs to H k Accordingly, a * b- I E UHi as was daimed at the beginning.
Asa particular case of the foregoing result, (~onsider just two subgroups
(H I, *) and (H 2, *). Theorem 2-20 may be interpreted as asserting that
(H I U H 2*) will again be a subgroup of (G, *) provided either HIS;;;; H 2 or
H2 S;;;; HI' 'What is rather interesting is that thil:! condition is I1eeessary, as well
as sufficient. The next theorem gives the details.
Theorem 2-21. Let (HI, *) and (H 2 , *) be subgroups of t.hc group (G, *).
The pair (H I U H 2,) is also a subgroup if and only if HIS;;;; H 2 or /J 2 S;;;; HI.
Proof. I n view of the prececiing remarks, it il'l enough to I'lhow thut if (II, U 11 2 *)
is l~ tiubgl'Oup, then olle of the I'lets H I or 112 must be contained in the other.
Suppose to the contrary that this assertion were false: that is, HI g; 112 and
112 g; II,. Then there would exist elementli a E III -- J/ 2 and bEll 2 - Ill'
!i8 WUltI!' TIH:OItY 2-,1
Now, if the procille! a * IJ were n member of the set Il" wc (~ould infcr that
b = a-I * (a * b) E Ill,
which it! clpurly not. t.rul'. On the other hand, the possibility a * bEll 2 yields
the equally false conclut!ion
That it!, the den1t'nts a, b E HI U Il 2, but a * b Ii HI U Il 2. This conclusion

is obviously untl'nublC', for it contradicts thc fact (II I U 1/2, *) is a group.
Having arrived at n contradic~tion, the proof is compl(~te.
The next t.opie of intC'rC'lit c'O!\ecrns eyelil' subgrollps. To facilitate this dis-
c'lIliliion, WI' fir:-;t int.rodll(e some spceinlnotution.
Definition 2-21. If (U, *) is an arbitrary group and 0 :;o<! 8 ~ G, then thc
symbol (8) will represcnt the set
(8) = n(1I 18 ~ II; (Il, *) i:; tL subgroup of (0, *)}.
The set (8) dearly exists, for G itself is a member of thc family appcaring
on the right; t.hat is, (G, *) is a (trivial) subgroup of (G, *) and 8 ~ G. In
addition, sinee S is ('olltnillcd in eaeh of the sets being intersect&d, we always
have thc inclusion S ~ (8).
Theorem 2-22. The pair S), *) is n subgroup of (G, *), known cithcr as
tl\(' f'nveilJpiny .~ulJyl'Oul' for 8 or the RUIJI/roup yenerated by the set S.
P/'(}of. The proof is !In imnwdiutl' consequl'lwe of Theorem 2-19.
Definition 2-21 implies thnt whenever (Il, *) is a subgroup of the group (G, *)
with s ~ II, then (8) ~ II. For this reuson, one speaks informally of 8), *)
us being the smallest subgroup which contains thc set 8. Of course, it ma:y
well happen that (8) = G, and ill such a situation, the group (G, *) is said
to bc (Jenel'ate(i by the subset S. For example, it is easy to sec that the group
(Z, +) is generated by Zo, thc set of odd integers.
We shall givl' an a\1ernative description of the sublict (8) which is frequently
elllii('l' to work wit.h than Definition 2-21. III what follow:;, the symbol 8- 1 is
u&-'<I to indicat~ t.he ('ollection of inverses of f'l('mlmts in 8: S- I = {a-I I a E 8} .
The result. we propose to obtaill i:ol that
(8) = (at * a2 * ... * ani ai, ... ,an E S U 8- 1 ; n E Z+}.
Although the' notalioll is self explanatory, it would be helpful to explicitly

poillt out I hnl till' :,;pt 011 the right ('()n:oli~tM of all lillit.p product::; whose fl~etors
arc' C'itiwr 1'11'1lI1'1It.:oI ill S or inven'1i of I'IPIlI('lIiM ill S. I..<t 11M t.mll(lornrily desig-
lIate this set. of produc:ts by [S].
HIJBWWUI'H
All abhlpviaj.pd proof of tIll' ass!'rtion ahov!' llIi!1:ht filii as folloWll: TIll'
"yst(,11I (181, *) is a subg;roup or Ih(' g;I'OUp (a, *) wilh tlIP prnppl'ty '" ~ [81.
A" (8), *) is tll(, slll:dlpst. s\IIh sUbg;l'OlIP, it follows t.hat (8) ~ IS). Tlw rever~('
inl'\usion ill just ifi!'d by tlw fad that any l'HIi>gI'OUP whieh (~ontllins the set 8
Illust J1('(~!'sslll'ily ('olltain nil the l'I!'llI!'nts of [S).
A ('asl' of spp(~i:t.I illlportlllH'!' aris!'s \\'11('11 S ('onsists of It singl( plpllJ('nt a. In
I.his sitllatioJl, it is US \I: II to \Hitp (It) im;tpad of (fn:) alld n,f!'1' t.o t.ht' Ilsso(~iatpd
sUhg;I'Olljl (a), *) as the cydic SUIJUI'IJIlJl (/('naaled IllI a. The subs('1. (a) is rather
!'asy to d!'s('I'il)('; as all ils produds involve the cI('llIent a or its inverse, (a)
silllply I'('dw'('s to t he integral powel's of a:
It. is ('ntirdy possihl(' that. the gl'oup (a, *) is <'qllal to OIIP of it.s (yelie suh-
groups, that. is, for Rom!' (hoiee of a E a, (a) =, a. lInd!'I' t.heRe rircllmstane!'s,
the group (G, *) is I'ef('rrl'<i to as a cyclic YTOUP wit.h !It'lI/TatoT a. Thus, to say
a group is ('ydie llH'I\IlS tlmt. ('Itch of its members ('(UI Iw ('xpr!'Flsed ItS lUi intpgml
po\V<'1' of Home fixed clement of the group.
A (yelie group may POSSCHS severnl different gmwrators; indepd, one always
has (a) = (a-I). l'\otiee in addition that, as a rOnS('qllC'IlCe of the law of
el\pOllPlltH, any (yelie !1:I'OUP must 1)(' eommutativ!'.
To muk!' t hpse notions dearer, let UH pUllse to examine s('vNal examples.
Example 2-31. First eonsider the group of int.eg!'1'S (Z, +). In this case,
silH'P t.h!' 1I;1'01IP opl'mt iOIl is t.hllt, of addit ion, the ahst.md pro<iud a * a * ... * a
is rephu'ed hy t.he ordinary SIIIII a -I- a -I- ... + a. A(:eor<iingly, the subset
g(merat.!'<i hy till' ('Iement a tak!'s the form
(a) = {na I n E Z] .
Using this notation, [O} = (0), Z = (1), while Ze = (2). We may thus eon-
dude that both thc groups (Z, -f ) ntHl (Zc, -I ) are (ydie, with the integers 1
and 2 as their reHpcC't.iv(' gelwratOI'S.
Example 2-32. Another illustration is furnished by (Z 12, +12), the group of
integers modulo 12. Not.!' that we now write a +12 a +12" +12 a for
a * a * ..... a. The ('y<,li(' subgroup gellerated hy, say a, is ([0, :l, (i, 9}, +12),
for herc,
(a) = {an (mod 12) In E Z} = 10, :l, n, !l}.
+
As (1) = Z 12, til(' group (Z 12, 12) is its!'lf cyelie; other possible generators
of (ZI2,t 12) are;}, 7ltnd 11. It is lIot difficult, t.o SPC' that., in general, the group
of int!'g;!'!'s Illodulo 11 iH eyelie with 1 as a g(lwmi.or.
Example 2-33. 'Th!' group of SylllllH't!'il's of tI .. , s<ruan~ is not ('ydi!', for
('ydie gr'()lIpH al'l' tl('('('ss:trily eomnlllial ivC'. Havl' for t.he i<\l'lItity, t.he distind
70 (;Itol''' Tln:OllY 2-4
powl'rs of allY of il s 111'1II1'1I1H comprisl' lJIP nlemlu'rs of a nontrivial cyclic sub-

group. TIll' rol al ion f( 1111, ill part ielllar, generates til(' suhgrouJl whose clcmcnts
art' :U IIII , N nUl , /(27111 R:III11:'
By I\. finite !/mup, WI' Illmn any group whose underlying set of clements is I\.
finite set. The order of 1\ finite group is defined to be the number of its elements.
AnalogO\\I!ly, n groUJl wit-h nn infinite number of element.s is said to have infinite
order.
In til(' following lIworpms, we shall s<!e t.hat. fini\(' eyclic groups have It
pllrtieulllrly simpll' slrud.ure. For 0I11! thing, lhe elelllents of a finite cyelic
j(roup wilh 1(1'111'1"11101' II IIrI' jll14 t', (I, a 2 , ' , , ,a"-I, whl'f(' 71 is thl! ordl'r of UII'
grollp. All 01.\11''' I'0w. ..s of (I 11"(, HIII'I','IIIIOIIH, Hill"I! tllI'Y IIwrl'ly rl'lI('at tI\('SI',
Theorem 2-23. If 11), .) is !L finite eyclic group of order n, then
Proof. As the sl't (a) is finih', not all the powen; of the generator a are distinct,
There must be 801ll{' rl'JlI't.ition at = ai with i < j, On multiplying this equation
by a- i = (ai)-I, it follows that a i - i = e, Thus the sct of positive integers k
for which ak = e is noncmpty, SUppORe m is the smallest positive integer with
this prop<>rty; that is, am = e, while a k e for 0 < k < m.
The sct. 8 = :1', n, a 2, ' , , ,am-I} con8ists of distinct clements of (a). For
a' = a', with 0 ~ r < 8 ~ m - 1, implies that a'-' = e, contrary to the
minimalit.y of m. To I'olllplete the pl'Oof, it remains to show each member ak
of the group a),.) i;; {'qual to IlIl clem('nt of S. Now, by the division algo-
rit hill, we Illay writ(' k ~ 1J1It ~I l' for SOIllI' integers q !lnd ,. with 0 ~ r < m.
II CII(,(, ,
ak = (am)q. a' = e * a' = a' E S,
This means 011' 1-<1'1 (a) C;; S, yielding (a) = ["~, a, a:.!, . . , ,am-I) and the Bub~
sel)uent ellul\lity 111 = n.
If a is an el(,lllent of t.h ... group (G, *), we define the order of a to be the order
of the eydic! subgroup a), *) generntec.l by a, The last result permits an
altcrnativ(' vil'wpoint: the orch'r of a is the 1(,!tHt )lositivc integ{!r n, provided it
('xiHtl'l, HIII'1r t Iral (I." ('. Of 1'0111'1'1(', if 110 sud\ integ!'r (~Xilltll, a ill of infinite
orll('r. AM 1111 illusl ntl ion, I'ollside'r I II(' gl'OlIp (Z4' 14); Il('re, the elemcnt 0 has
order 1, 11m:; orcll'l' .. , :! hal'l 0('(\t'1' :!, whill' a hitS order 4.
III certai'l (,ltSI'S (unfol'ftIlIlL(('ly, far 100 f('w) , it. is pOl!sihle to characterize
compll'll'ly tIl(' suhgroups of a give'" gl'OUP, To cit.e 0111' instance, ill the
aclditivi' group of illll'gl'rs (Z,I), 1I11' I'IlIhj.!;IOIlJlH 11I'I' all of the form n), +)
for H()IIII' 110111 tIj.!;:t t ivl' illll'gl''' II, Adllally, 1he I-<ilu!tt ion is sonwwhat, mono
general, for it. I':\n hI' showlI that allY suhgroup of It c'yelic group is again cyclic;
we shall diH('uHS this III'Xt.
2-4 KUBGHOlTPS 71
Theorem 2c-24. EVl'I'y subJl;roup of It ('Y('Ii(~ group is (~y('li('.
I'/'III/f. LI't. (a), *) 1)(, n ('y('li(' Jl;roup gl'lIl'rah'lI by Uw 1'11'1IWIlt. a llllll let, (1/, *)
be OIW of its liubgl'Oups. If /I '''' :(':, LlII' t.!WOI1' II , is t.rivially l,rllI' , for (teJ , *J
is the l'y(lie subgroup gl'lIcmtcd by the idcntity e1emcnt. We may tlll.IS supposc
the set H {e}. If am E H, whcre m 0, then a- m is allio IlII clemcllt of H;
hence, II must. contain positive powers of a. Let n he thl' smalll'l'It. llOsit.ive illtl'l!;l'l'
sueh that an E /I. We propose to show Il = (a").
To ('stablish till' inl'lusioll Il <;: (a"), h,t a k bl~ all lU'bit.I':tI'Y I'lellll'nt in till'
KeL 1/. The divisioll ulJl;orithlll illlplil's 1.llI're I'xist illtegl'J'M q nnd r fill' whieh
I,: 1/11 I /', I) S; I' < II.
Since both a" and a k arc elcmcnts of 11,
If r > 0, we have a contmdietion to the assumption that an is the minimal

posit.ive powl'r of a in 11. Aecordingly, l' = 0 and k = qn. Thus, only JlOwers
of an lic ill 1/, illdil'ut.ing II <;: (a").
On the other hand, since the set H is dosed under t.he group operation, any
power of an must again be a member of Il. Consequently, (an) <;: H. The two
indusions demonstrate that H = (an).
Corollary. If (H, *) is a subgroup of (a), *) and H {e}, then H = (an)
where n is the least positive integer such that an E H.
We shall Tl'turn to a furt,hm' diseussion of eydie groupl-l at the appropriate
place ill t.he sequel. For the mOllll'lIt, though, Id us inlli('lltc another useful
method for manufueturing new subgroups from given ones. For this, some
speeiaJ terminology is r('quired.
Definition 2-22. Let (a, *) be n group ILIHI /I, K hI! IHIIII'JIlpty subsets of
q. The product of /land K, ill thltt order, is the set
II *K = {h * k I It E H, k E K}.
A brief ('Olllml'lIt 011 IIot.at.ion that should Ill' lIuule is that the usual custom
is to writ.e Hie produl't II /I 1I11'1'('ly 11.8 1/ 2 :lnd, if olle of the sets eOllsist.s of a
sillgle delllt'llt a, silllplify tal * II to a * II.
At first sight, th(~ readl'r JIlight real-lollahly ('ollj('('ture that whenever (H, *)
!lud (K, *) an' both subgroups of (0, *), tllI'lI (II K, *) will also bl' a subgroup.
The group of l-Iymmdril's of the square, howev('r, showH that such It simple
outeOIlHl is 1101, to bl' exp(,(,t.('d. IIl'n', it is ('Ilough to (~ow'iider UII' subgroups
hltvillg I'hnlt'lIt.s /I = {N: wo , /),: nlld K =- {U: wo , V:.
A lJui(~k dw('k ('stah-
lishes that there is 110 subgrouJl whose melllbers comprise th(' produl'l. set
1/ *K = {H 300 * Il36o, Il360 * V, D\ * R360, D\ * V} = [R3Ilo, V, Db R 270}.

72 <1Il0UP TIIEOUY 2-4
In fad., Hl(, set II K isn't even dmled under the group opemtion. One ne('d
not b( dismaYl'd by this state of affairs, for an additional assumption on til\'
subsets II and K readily overcomes the difficulty.
Theorem 2-25. If (II, *) and (K, *) are subgroups of the group (G, *)
such that II * K = K * II, then the pair (II * K, *) is also a subgroup.
Proof. Il1nol!uolIS as the equality /I * K = K * /I appears, it is nonetheless th(!
source of sOllie difficulty. This notation docs not mean Cll.!!h element of /I
eommutes with ea('h element of K; all it signifiC/!! is Umt whenever hand t.-
Itrc arhitrary lIIelllhers of 11 and K, then ther(! exist elements h' E 11, k' E K
for which It k = k' * h'. Bearing this in mind, let us proceed with the proof
proper.
Plainly, HI(' produd. set 11 * K iii noncmpty, for e = e * e E II * K. Now,
I('t a and b he allY pair of clements in II K. Then a = h * k and b = h, * k,
for suitable .. hoice of h, h, E II and k, k, E K. As usual, our aim in what
follows is to show that the produet a b-' lies in II * K. This is achieved
through first noting
a */)-' = (h. k). (h, * k.)-' = h * k * ki') * hi').
Since K is elOS('<i under *, the clement k * ki' belongs to K and consequently
By virtuI:' of the eOllditioll K * /I = II * K, there exist elements h2 E II and

k2 E K satisfyill~
We lIlay thus 1lIIwlllll .. t.hat.
a * /)-, = It * (1t2 * k 2) = (It * h 2) * k2 Ell * K,
for the closure of t.he set II insures II * 112 also is a member of it. To complete
the proof, it suffices to invoke Theorem 2-17.
Corollary. If (II, *) and (K, *) arc Imbgroupli of the (!ommutative group
(G, *) UH'1l (II * K, *) is llJl;aill Il :,;ubgrollp.
Tlw III ility of Th"l/fI'lIl 2 2!i IiI'S in the flld tlmt it pcrmitH another character-
izat ion of the suhgroup Jl;l'rwml.ed by a union of sets. What happens is thi:,;:
if th(' pair (II * K, *) forrw:I a suhJ!;roup of (G, *), it mllst in fact be the sub-
group gl'nerat('d by II UK; in symbols,
Let us briefly outline the argunwnt involvt'd. To start with, the two inclusions
II = ll*c~II*K and K=('*K~II*K

SUBOltOUPS
indicate /I U K ~ /I K. We have ah'eady observed t.hat the subgroup gen-

emted by II U K is til(' smallt-:;t l!ubgroup to cont.ain thiH union. Thus, whenever
(H. K, *) is a subgroup, it follows that (H U K) ~ H ... K. On the other
hand, thc sct (II UK) by definition must contain all products of the form h k
with It E H, k E K. This I'Clmlts in the reverse inclusion II K ~ (f/ u K) and
the subsequent equality f/ K = (/l uK).
The l!ignilieant point. ill this discussion is tlmt we have gained a great deal of
insight into Ow Htrud,ure of the group generated hy t.he union II u K, where
(II, *) and (K, *) arc bot.h sUhgrollpH of the group (U, .). To be Hp('c~ifie, in
t.he event t.he c'olldilioll /I K = K /I holdH, eac~h 1Ill'lllher of UK), .) is /I
expressihle as the produet of all element, of H wit.h all element of K. This
stat('m('Jlt obviously nppli('s in the c':\se wlwrc the p:u'pnt gnmp (fl, .) is eOlIl-
mutative.
Example 2-34. For purposes of illustrating the above remarks, let us return
again to the commutative group (Z 12, 112) and the t.wo subgroups ({O, (j}, +12)
and ([0,4, X}, + 12)' To obtain the l!llIalIC'st subgroup which containl! {0,6}
and -rO, 4, 8}, it suffiees merely to compute the produc,t of these subsets:
{0,6} +12 {O, 4, 8}

{O +12 0, +12 4, +12 8, () +12 0, 6 +124,6 +12 8}
{O, 4, S, 6, 10, 2}.
Hence, the subgroup of (Z 12, + 12) gel1emtl'd by the union {0,6} u {O, 4, S} is
just ({O, 2, 4, 6, H, 1O), + 12)'
PROBLEMS
t. In c'lwh of t.hl' r"lIowinl( elL~C'S, c'stahliHh tlULt (//,) iii IL rmhl(fUUp of tho p;roup
(,', .) :
a) II = {I,-I}, (} - {1,-I,i,-iJ, whnrci 2 - -I;
b) II = {2n 111 E Z}, G = Q - {O};
e) II = Q -" {OJ, G = n' - {O) ;
d)/I = {(1 + 211)/(1 + 2m) 111, /1/ EZ}, G = Q - {O).
2. Prove that ({O, 4, X, I~; ,I-Jn) is It subgroup of (Ztn, -hn), t.he group of integers
lIlodulo IIi.
:1. III CIt(, SYllllllc'tri .. f,\rc>UJl (S,.. uJ, ld If tlt'noh, t.he 1:ICL of (l1'rIlIlILlttiuns 1l'ILvinl( the
integer n fixed:
II = {f E S. I/(n) = 11).
Show that the pair (11,0) is a subgroup of (8 .. ,0).

4. "Prove that if (II, .) is a subgroup of the group (G, .) and (K,.) is a subgroup of
(II, .), then (li.,.) is also a subgroup of (0, *).
5. L{,t (II, .) he a suhf,\roup of tIl!' f,\rouJl (G, .). We say that t.wo eJem{'nts a and b
of G an' ('ol/grul'lI/modulo II, wrill('11 a == b (lIIocl II), if unci only if a. b- I E II.
Establish that congru{'nc'l' mocluJo II is an cquivalC'[H'c rl'lation in G.
i-l GHOUl' nn;OHY 2-4
Ohsl'rvl' that in tIll' additive group of intl'gl'rs (Z, +), where the subgroups an'
of thl' forlll n), +), 11 a nonnl'gatin' intl'gl'r, Ihis fl'latiun reducl's to eongrul'nl'l'
modulo 11.
6. SIIPPOSl' thnt. (0, *) is a p;roup 11.1111 aE a. Let Cia) denol.e the Sl't of all elements
of () whieh ('ollllllute with a:
Cia) = {x E G I a * x = x * a}.
Prove that. thl' pair (C(a), *) is a Ruhp;roup of (U, *), known /1..'1 the centralizer
of a in a. ,\Iso vl'rify the equality, l~cnt G = n.'EG C(a).
7. <livl'lI (0, *) is n finill' p;rnup, prove t.hat
IL) t.Il1'rl I,isls Ii posit.ivl! inlc'p;(!r 11 Mud. t.llILt a" = I: for all ( E (1,
h) if II is a nOIll'llIpty Huhset of U which is closed under the operation *, then
(II, *) is a subp;rollp of (0, *).
R. In t.hl' ('olllmlllativl' p;roll(l (a, *), define the Sl't II by
II = {a E a I ak = e for Home k E ZJ.
Detrrmine wlwtht'r t1H' pair (II, *) is a 1mbgroup of (G, *).

9. Let (0, *) hr a p;rollp allti a, bEG. Establish the following facts regarding the
order of an ell'ment.
a) Thl' I'll'mrnts a, a-I anti b * a * b- I all have the same order.
Il) Both tIll' protiul'ts a * band b * a havl' the sam(! order. [Hint: Write a * b =
a * (b * a) * a-I anI! use (a).)
r) If a is of orr\rr II, thcn at = a i if and only if i == j (mod n).
10. Ol'termine the l'yeli(: subp;roup of (85,0), the symmetric group on five symbols,
generate. I by the ryclc (I 3 5 2 4).
II. Prove that a group of even order containl'! an element a ~ e such that a 2 = e.
[llint: if a ~ a-I fllr all a, thl' group contains an odd number of elements.]
12. Let (II, *) bc a Ruhl!:roup of thc group (G, *) such that II ~ G. Prove that the
subgroup genl'rated by the complement 0 - H is the group (G, *) itself. .
13. Suppose (G, *) is a p;roul' and S iii a non empty subset of G. If the elements of S
all l'olllmutt', !:!how that the subgroup generated by S, 8), *) is a commutative
group.
14. Given a group (G, *) and 0~ J[ ~ G, verify that the following statements are
equivall'nt:
a) (II, *) is a l'ubl!;roup of (G, *).
h) J[ * H t:;; II anti 1/-1 t:;; II.
l') 11* 1/-1 t:;; II.
15. If (II, *) is a suhp;rllllp "I' the p;roup (G, *) and 0 ~ K t:;; G, prove II * K t:;; /I
implirs K t:;; 1/.
16. Let (II, *) and (K, *) he suhgroups of the commutative p;roup (G, *) with orders
nand 111, TI'sp"div(iy. A"''1ulllinp; 1/ n K = (eJ, verify that the oreler of the
group (11* K, *) is nm.
NORMAL SUDGltOUPS ANI> QUOTn:NT GROUPS 75
17. Consider the group of symmetries of the square. Use Theorem 2-25 to obtain
the subgroup J.!;cnprll.ted by II U K, where II = f RplO, R:wo) , K = {Raoo, Dd.
IS. Ll't (0, *) hI' It J.!;rollp of ord('r n, W}IPf(' n is odd. Prove thllt ('Iu:h "Ielnpnt. of G
is Ii sqIlIL),l' (i.('., if rEO, thl'1l .x = y2 for ~Olll(, y ill G).
2-5 NORMAL SUBGROUPS AND QUOTIENT GROUPS
Althoul!:h WI' have dl'rivt'd sOllle interesting results eOllcel'lIing suhgroups,

this e()(le(~Jlf" if unrcstrieted, is too gelwrul for muny purposes. To obtain
(Nt.ain highl.v dl'sirahlC' (:onehlsion>-l, :ulditiOlml assulllpt.ioJls t.hat p;o IlI'.vond
I )I'Iinitioll:! I!I II I 11M I. I", iIlIPOM('1.
Thus, in the Jll'esent S(,et.ion, we nurrow the field and focus attention on u
rt'Ht.ri(,ted ('(ass of :mhgroupl'l which we I'IhnIl refer to ns normal subp;roups.
FrollJ IL eon('l'pt.uul point. of view, sueh groups ure "noI'llHLI" ill the liense that
t1H'Y make til(' )'t'sull,illg Hl('ory so Illueh ridH'r Ullin would oUlPrwi>-le he th('
('!lS('. Whill' not. I'vl'ry suhgroup nl'l'd h(' of t.hiH t.YJlI', norlll:ll :.alhgroups O('plll'
nOlwt.h"ll'lis with I'onsideruble frequenpy. It. will lioon he('ollle uPJlal'pnt. that,
for the lIlajor part of OUI' work, t.he signitit':lnt. usped of this ('lILIiS of :lIIbgl'oups
resides in the faet that they permit the ('onstruetion of algebraic structures
known as quotient groups,
Having already divulged some of the content of this section, let us now
proceed to develop these idea.s in detail. As a starting point, we prove a sequence
of theorems lmding to the conclusion that eneh subgroup induc:es a decomposi-
tion of the dementH of the parl'flt group into disjoint subsets known a.s cosets.
Deftnition 2-23. Let (H, *) be a subgroup of the group (G, *) and let a E G.
The set
a * II = {a * It I It E II}
is called a left coset of ][ in G. The clement a is a representative of a * H.

In u. similar fashion, we eun define the rip;ht eosets H * a of II. The right
cosets of the same subgroup nrc in general different from the left cosets. If the
grouJl operat.ion * of (G, *) is commutative, then dearly a * ][ = ][ * a for all
a E 0, In HI(! suhsequent diseussiolls, we will generally consider only left
cosets of a subgrouJl. It is obvious that, u parallel theory for right cosets may
be developed.
Before proeeedillg to all exampl', we lihall make several simple observations.
First, if e i:; thl' id!'lItity pll'nH'nt. of (0, *), thl'lI
e* II = [e * It I Ii E II} "" {II. I II E II} = II,
so that 1I its('lf is a I<'ft. ('Os('t. of 1I. :\[OI'('OV('J', Hill('c e E Il, we have
a=a*eEa*lI,
71i 2-1i
t.hat is, every c1('m('nt a of G beJon~8 to some left coset of H, and more specific-
ally, to tIl!' ('081'1. (l II. We shnll nmkl' uS(' of t.his fad in 1\ Iitt.J(, while,
We nolp further that t.here is It onl'-to-on(' ('orreHpondence between thl'
('1<'111('11 Is of II llIlIl t.hoS(' of any "OHet of II. I n<iel.'d, if a II ill 11 I(~ft coset of II,
WI' may d('fill(' It mappinJl; f: II --+ a /I by f(lt) = a h. This function maps
01110 a /I, sill('p ('vl'ry I'll'mcnt of a II is of t.he form a h for some choi(~('
of h E /I. III addition f is a one-to-one funetion, for if a. hi = a. h2' where
hi, h2 E /I, th(~ "arwella1ion law for groUJl!I yieldH hi = h 2 That is,j(hd = f(h 2 )
impJi('s hI = },2' If tIll' group (G, .) has n finit.e numlwr of c1emcnts, we may
t.herdor!' ('olwhlll<~ that. nny two Idt {~()Imt.s of /I have the Harne numher of
"'l'llll'lIls, nallll'ly, I.hl' IlIl1l1hl'r of 1'll'llll'lIl.s ill /I.
Example 2-35, Heturning Olll'e again to the group of symmetries of the
square, let us sl'icd. the subgroup (8, .), where S = {R360, V}. The tn.sk of
computing the I('ft eosets of 8 is .straightforward, sinee we have the operation
tahle for this group at. our disposal (HeC Example 2-24).
R90 S = {R90 fl360, R 90 V} = {Roo, D 2 },

IlI!!o S = {R IHO * R360, Il Iso V} {R ISO, H},
N 27u s=
{R 27 I!. RaRIh R 270 * V} {R27o, D I},
R 3Ro * s = {R 360 * R360, R 360 * V} = {R360, V},
H *S = {H * Ra6o, H * V} = {H, R ISO},
V *s ~~ {V. Nann, V * V: = {V, Rann},
{I) .. 1l27nl,
{D2' Roo}.
From n quick inspeetion, the render will observe that there are only four
distinct (~osets,
{Ilon, J)21, { /lillO, II}, f R270' J).}, and {fl36o, V} = S.
Thl'sl' '~OH('tH aI'<' disjoillt alld their union is the un<il'rlying set of elements of
t.he whole group. As WI' shull see, this is always the ease. Also, for this sub-
J,!;roup thl' not ions of IpH allli right ('OSl't~ do not IlgJ'l'I', since
/). * S = [D" R 2701 {D" R 90} = S* /)1'
Theorem 2-26. If (II, *) is It subgroup of till' j!;l'OUp (G, *), then a * H = H

if awl only if n EO II.
Proof. HUPJlos(' lil'sl Ihal a. /I = /I. As W(' havl' just. r(,IlUlrlwd, the fact thnt
t h(' id('nt il y /. is n II\III.h,I (If /I iIllJlli{s I hili IhI' ('II'IIIt'IIt. a 1lt'lollKS to a * II,
alld thus hy hypotlll'sis 10 /I also. Oil till' oth.'!' h:llld, if a E II, t1wn a /I <;;; II,
2-5 NOHMAI, SUlIGlWUPS ANI> QUOTIENT GROUPS 77
since the set H, being the set of elements of a subgroup, is closed under the
gnlllp op{'\"IL\.ion *. The oPpoHite inclusion is ohtained by noting that ench
elcment It E If may be w\'itten as
h = a * (a-I * h).
Here, a-I * hEll, since both a, hEll and (II, *) is a subgroup of (0, *).
This implics that It E a * If and consequently II ~ a * H.
Our next theorem provides a simple criterion for the equality of two left
(:osets, whcn It rcpn~lICntativc of each is known.
Theorem 2-27. If (//, *) is a Huhgl'Uul' of the gnllll' (a, *), thCIl
a*H = b*H,
if and only if a-I * b E H.

Proof. ASRume that a - II = b - II. Then, if a * hI is an arbitrary element of
a- H, there must exist all h2 E H such that a - hI = b * " 2 , From this we
conclude that
and, since the product hI - h;1 belongs to H, that a-I - b E H.

Conversely, if a-I - b E H, then by Theorem 2-26 we have
(,,-I * b) * H = H.
This implies that nny elt~lII(mt hI E 1/ (:an he cxpn~l!s(!d as
for some 112 E II, from which we infer that a - hI = b * "2'

Thus each product
a * hI in the coset a - II is equal to an element of the form b * h2' and con-
sequently lies in the COIICt b - 11. Sincc this stl\tmllcnt also holds, with a and b
interchanged,
a-/I = b-Il.
Remark. When working with right cOIICts, the requirement a-I - b E H must
be rcplaced by a- b- I E II; that is, Ii * a = Ii - b if and only if a * b- I E H.
As an imnwdiatc (~onsequence of the 1I11;t theorem, we tICC that any element al
of the ldt em;ct a *11 detcrmincs this eosct. For if al E a - II, then al = a * hI
for suitable hI E II. Thus a-I - al E /I, so that by th(! theorem, a * H = al - H.
This Illl'tUlH tim\. (,twh pJ('nwnt of 11 (:oset ean be thought of ns It represcntative
of that. ('oset. In IL (~ert.ain HI'IlHI! we ure heing prejutiic('(i whenever we denote
n ,'oSt'\, hy a * II, for SOI\l('()I\(' !'lSI! lIIi!!:ht dlool!(~ to "all it. ,) - II wlwre b ;t! a,
but a-I -" Ell.
78 G1WUP THf:ORY 2-5
We are now in a position t.o prove a fundamental result concerning cosets to

the effect that if two left cosets have an clement in common, then they are
precisely the same set.
TheoNm 2-28. H (II, *) is It subgroup of the group (0, *) then either t1w
cosetH a * II null /) * /I are Jisjoillt or e1l'!e a * H = b * H.
Proof. HlIJlJl(.HI' HIIlI, II. II and /1 * II ('ont.ain HOIll!' .. (.. nll'lIl. r. ill (~Onlll\llll.
Hin('(~
c iH ill 1I 1/, I h(,I'1' ('xi:":; 1111 It, I Eo 1/ Hlwh that c a . It I. Hilllilarly, we
have c = b h',l for SOIlI(' plellwllt 112 E 1/. It follows then that
or
RilleI' (II, *) is a slIhl(l'OlIP, t.lw pl'Odud hI * h'2l, alld t.I11IH a-I * b, 1II11tlt lie
ill the HI'f 1/. 0111' IIl'l'd ollly apply T(lI'orl'l1l 2 -27 to eOlwhul1'
a * 1/ = b * 1/.
We saw earlier thllt eneh clement a EGis a member of /:lome left CQI,lct of
H in 0, namely. the C'Ol'lPt a * H; that is,
is exhausted by its left ('OsetR.
Theorelll 2-2S illdil'llt.('l'I that nn clement can b!'lollg to one and only one left.
C'O!wt of 1/. Thlll'l t ht' ~('t a is partit i()J}('d hy 1/ into disjoint sets, each of whi('h
has eXlwtly as mllny elements as H. For case of future reference let us summarize
these rellJllrks ill tIll' followiul!; theorem.
Theorem 2-29. If (II, *) is n ~lIbjl;roup of the I/;l'Olip (0, *), the left (right)
('osetR of II ill (J forlll a partit.ioll of till' set a.
Example 2-36. ConsiJer (Z 12, + 12), the group of intcgefl:! moJulo 12. If we
take {O, 4, R} for the set H, then ({O, 4, S}, +12) is evidently a subgroup of
(ZI2, +12)' The left {,ORets of II in ZI2 arc
0+ 12 II = {O, 4, 8} = 4 +12 H = 8 +12 H,

141',l1l= [1,5,9} =;,-1-!211=9+12H,
2 t 12 1/ .~ {2, (I, to} = 6 +1211 = 10 +12 H,
~ I 1211 = [a, 7, Il} = 7 +1211 = 11 +12 H.
In this ('aRp, thp I'oset dl'('omposition of Z12 relative to the subset H is just
Z 12 = [0,4, Rl U {I, 5, 9} U {2, 6, to} U {3, 7, Il} .
RUJlpOHI' 1I0W Ihal (r:. *) is a lillit .. jl;rollP, Hay of order n, nllll (H, *) iR n
l'Il\hjl;roup of (0, *) of orll'l' k. WI' (:tI1 thell deeomposc the set (l iuto 1\ union
of Il liuitt, 1l1l1lllwr of diHjoillt left ('osets of 11:
a= (al */1) U (a2 * H) u .. U (aT * H).

2-5 NOltMAI. HUBGHOUI'H ANI> QUOTIBNT GHOI1I'S 79
The number r of dist.inet left cosets appearing in this ueeompositioll is called

the index of Tl in G. Since cueh eoset in the above decomposition has k clements,
the s('t. G itself must hlLvil 1". Ie dements; hel\(~e n = 1". k or
order a= (inel(~x II) (order 1/).
Theorem 2-30. (l.a!lranl/c). The order and illd('x of any subgroup of a

finite group divides the ordpr of the group.
There is It ("orollary to Theorem 2-30 which is of some int,rinsie interest.
Corollary. If (a, *) iH II I-(I"IIUp of OI"Ile. n, thl'lI till! orel('r of lLllY dClIlent
a c r; is lL fador of It; ill Ilclditioll, an ~ (:.
I'f(}o!. L('t the ('(Plllellt a have order k.
By detillitioll, the cyclie subgroup
(a), *) geliPrated by
must alRo be of order k. According to the condusioll
a
9f Lagrange's Theorpm, k is a divisor of n; that is, n = rk for some r E Z+.
Hence, .
an = ark .~ (a K)' = c r = e,
('ompleting the proof of both assertions.

From Lngrange'H TheOlem, w<' are able to condude that any finite group of
prime ordpl' hal-i no 1I0ntriviai l-iuhgroupl-i. Actually a Ht.rongm Htat.enwnt can he
mud(~:
Theorem 2:-31. If (U, *) is a finite group of composite order, then (G, *) has
nontrivial subgroups.
Proof. If the group (G, *) ill not cyclic, any element a E G with a ~ e generates
a nontrivial cyclic subgroup (a), *). Thus, it. sufficeH to consider cyclic groups
of compoHite order. To t.his end, l-iuppose G = (a) when' the g<'lIera\.or a has
order nm (n, 111 ~ J). Tll('n (a")m = e, while (an)m' ~ e for 0 < 171' < m.
From t.his, it. iH obviolll-i thut (an), *) is a lIontrivial cyclic l-illbgrollJl of (U, *)
with order m.
Corollary. Every group (U, *) of prime order is eyclil'.
Proof. Consider the cydic subgroup (a), *) generated by any a E G, with

a ~ e. Now, the order of a), *) must divide the order of (G, *), It prime;
sinee (a) eOlltains more than one elenwnt, order (a) = ord(~r G, whenee (a) = G.
Al-i a fllrt.(lI'r applicat.ion of Lagrange'H TIll'orelll, W(! ("Illi 1I0W give It t!implified
proof of Theorem 2-7:
Theorem 2-7. (Revisited). Any noncommutative group hUH at least six
clements.
HUOlll' 'l'II~;Oln' 2-5
Proof. A group of prime order, being a cyclic group, is necessarily commutative.

Ac(~ordillgly, nny gToup hnving order 2,3, or 5 will be! commutative. SuppoS(l
next I.hnl (fl, *) ill It grullp of oTilc'T 4. My (.ngrILlIgC!'H TIUloTem, eadl elenwllt
of (J <iiHtind from the identity has order 2 or 4. If onc of them has order 4,
then (a, *) iH n c,ydic! grolll> of order 4 and therdore commuta.tive. On the
other hand, a group elU'h of whose clements other than the identity has order 2
mu!!t be ('ommutative by Problem 6, Section 2=-2. This argument establishes
that all groups of order less than () are eommutative groups.
III('idl'lIlally, till' implic'at.ioll of Lagrange's Theorl'm cannot be reversed; that
is to say, a group of order n need not have a subgroup of order k, where k is
a divisor of n. To 1)(' more spcc!ific, a group of order 12 exists which has no
subgroup!! of order Ii. Thc! particular group we arc referring to happens to be
a subgroup of the symmetric group (8 4 , 0) and has as its clements:
2 :J 4)
C 2 :~ C C 4 2 3 '
G G
2 3
4 3
G: 3
1 2 3 2 3 2 3
(
:3 4 G 2 4 G 1 2
C
2 3
C~ 3 (: 2 3
3 2
This pemllltntion group c\O<'R, however, Imve suhgroups of orders 2, 3, and 4.

We shall introduce next a particularly important class of subgroups which
we shall refer to as normal subgroups.
Definition 2-24. A subgroup (H, *) of the group (G, *) is said to be normal
(or invariant) in (G, *) if and ollly if every left coset of H in G is also a right
coset of H in G.
Thus, if (H, *) is normal and a * H is any left coset of H in G, there exists
some element bEG such that
a*H = H *b.
Since a is in the IcCt coset a * H, this means that a is also II. member of the
right ('Ol'll't If * II. The COK<'ts 11 * b I\nd 1/* a have t.he clement a in common;
so the Ilnalog of Theorem 2-28 for right cosets implies that
11* b = 1/* a.
2-5 NOItMAL KUI!G1W\1I'1'! ANI> QUOTJIo:NT GROUI'S 81
In other words, if a H happens to be a right coset of H, then it must be the

rip;ht COtlCt /I * a. 'rhil:! observation u1l0w8 us to reformulate Definition 2-24
1\.1:1 followH.
Definition 2-25. A subgroup (1/, *) is normal in the group (G,.) if and

only if a * 1/ = H a for every a E G.
For a normal subgroup (11, *), we may thus speak simply of the cosets of
II in G without spl.'t:ifying right or left. The triviallmhgroups arc obviously
normal l\Iore generally, every subgroulJ of a commutative group is a normal
subgroup.
We will HOmetimes speak of a simple group (in the technical sense), meaning
thereby tlmt it 1111.8 no normal subgroupl:I other than the two trivial ones. For
instance, the finite cyclic groups of prime order are simple groups.
Definition 2-2."i indicates that normality of a subgroup (H, *) guarantees a
w('ak fOl"lll of commutativity f('lative to II. For, if hEll, while it cannot in
geneml he cOllcluded that a It = h a for any a E G, we do know that there
exists an clement h' E J/ such that
a. h = h' * a.
It would be gratifying to have a less cumbersome procedure than to compute
cosets for determining whether a given subgroup is in fact a nonnal subgroup.
Just such a criterion is given in the next theorem, and we shall have frequent
occasion to make use of it.
Theorem 2-32. The subgroup (II, *) is a normal subgroup of the group
(], *) if and only if for each clement a E G,
a.H. a-I ~H.
Proof. First, assume that a * H a-I ~ H for every a E G. We must prove

that in this case a * H = 11 a. Let a It be an arbitrary element of a II.
Since a II * a-I ~ II, a. h a-I =-- hI for some hI E H. Thus
a. h = (a. h a-I) a = hI a.
The product hI a lies in the right coset II a, so we conclude that
We obtain the opposite inclusion, 1/ a ~ a *11, by a similar argument upon

observing that our hypothesis also implies
a-I. II *a = a-I. II * (a-I)-l ~ II.
Conversely, suppose a. f{ = II. a for each a E G. Let a hI a-I be any

element in a. H a-. I Then, since a .11 = H a, there exists an element
82 (lIWITI' TlIJo:Olty 2-5
h2 E /I such that
Consequently,
which iml>lies a *1/ * a-I s;;; 1/.

To demonstrate the convenience of this result, we now prove the following
assertion:
(rent G, *) is a normal subgroup of each group (G, *).
In terms of elements, it must be shown that if c E cent G and a is arbitrary in

G, then a * c * a-I E cent G. But this is fairly obvious, since from the defini-
tion of the center of a group, a * c = c * a. It follows at once that
a * c * a-I = c ... a'" a-I = c ... e = C E cent G.
Examp'e 2-37, Let us return to the noneommutntive group (G, 0) of order 6
presentnd in Example 2-22. The reader may f<lI'llll thnt the elements of G arc
functions It, f2, ... .JfI, while Ow group oJlemt.ion is fUf$~tiorll$ (!omposition.
For convcnicnct', HI(' olll'ration table is reproduced below:
.- fl f2fa i4. is f6
fl It 12 f3 f4 hi f6
f2 f2 It f6 fs f4 fa
f3 fa f4 It f2 f6 f5
f. f4 f3 fs f612 It
f5 fro f6 f4 f3It 12
fa f6 fs !2 It fa 14
If we take as H t.he subset {fl.J .J6}, thcn it is easily verified that the pair
(H,o) is a normal suhgroup of (G, 0). The I:osct breakdown for the subgroup
in question is
fk 0 H = {!t.hf6} = H of,. for k = 1, 4, 6,
fk 0 II = {h,Ja,fs} = IIf,. for k = 2, 3, 5.
On the other hand, the subgroup ({It,!2},.) is not normal; a short com-
putation indi{'atcs why the criterion of Theorem 2-32 fails to be satisfied:
f. 012 of. 1= f4 f2 f6 = f" e {!t.12}

The Rignifil'nJlc(' of normal subgroups-indeed, our main purpose for intro-
ducing them-is that they enable us to define new groups which are associated
2-5 NOItMAJ, RlJlIOItOtTl'H A Nil ~~lJOT"';NT (mOUI'S 83
in a natural way with the original group. More specifically, we shall show that
the set of eoscts of a nonnal subgroup is itself the set of clements of a group.
If (H, *) is a lIornmll:!ubgroup of the group (G, *), then we shall denote the
collectioll of distinct (!oscts of H in G by GIH:
Gill = {a*ll/aE(l}.
Thesc are also right coscts, since the definition of a normal subgroup guarantees
that a * /I = /I * a for every a E a.
A rule of (!ompositioll may be defined on (JIll by the formula
Since this definition is stated in terms of coset representatives, we must first

show that the multiplication of cosets under is unambiguously defined,
independent of the arbitrary choice of representatives from these sets. That
is, it mwst be shown t.hat if
a*H = al *H and
t.hen also
According to Theorem 2-27, it is enough merely to prove that the product
(a ~ b)-I * (al * bl )
is a member of H. Now, a * H = at * H and boll H = b l * H imply both
a-I * at. b- l * b1 E H. Silll.:e (H, oil) is normal in (a, oil), we know that
for every x E G. In particular,
From this we conclude b- 1 * (a- t * al) * b E H and, since H is closed, that
The above argument shows to be a well-defined binary operation on GIH in

the scnsc that the product of two coscts depends only on the cosets involved
and in no wny 011 the representative elements chosen from them; any other
choice would have yielded the same product.
Having thus prepared the way, we now state and prove the principal result
of this sedion.
84 GROUI' TIU;OIty 2-5
Theorem 2-33. If (11, *) iR a normal Rubgroup of the group (G, *), then
the system (a/II, ) formR a group, known as the quotient group of G by II.
Prool. First, lelt 11M ohHCrve t,hat, UIC! ulIIIO!lintivity or the Opl!ratioll is a direct
consequence of the associativity of * in G:
[(a * /I) (b * II)] (c *11) = a * b) * II) (c * 11)

= a * b) * c) *11
= (a*(b*c*11
= (a * II) b * c) * II)
= (a * 1/) [(b * II) (c. 11)].
The coset If = e.11 is the identity clement for the operation , since
(a 1/) (e. II) = (a. e) * /I

= a *11
= (e * a) * If
= (e * JI) (a * If). .
It is equally easy to sec thllt the inverse of the coset a * If is a-I * II, where
a-I denotE's the inverse of a in (0, *). This is evident from the computation
(a * II) (a- I * II) = (a * a-I) * II

= e */1
= (a- I * a) * II
= (a- I * II) (a * H).
/
Hence all the group postula,t.es are fulfilled and the proof is complete.
Example 2-38. Once n.p;ain we fnll bl~ck on th(l group of symmetries of the.
square for an illustration. Here, the subgroup
(S, *) = ({Rilla, R 36o}, *)
is normal, being the center of the group. Its distinct cosets, that is, the elements
of G/S, are I
G/S = I {R I8o , R 36o }, {R go, Rna}, {V,N}, {Dh ~2}1.
A typical coset multiplieation proceeds as follows:
ID" D 2 } {R go, R270} = (D I S) (Rgo S)

= (D t R go) S
= II*S
= {V, II}.
NOHMAI, :-;U/lGlUIlJI'S ANIl tll)UTn:NT (JIWUI'M 85
To lIluJt.iply two (:Ol'!ds under , nil we really need to do is select all arbitrary
rnprcflCmtnl,ive from ('/wlt 1'()l'!HI" Illultiply tlwlic c1emcnts under tho group
uJlI'/ILI.ioli ... ILlIII tIHt.l'rlllillC! to whith eOIi(I. the rtliIlIt.illg prothwt. bolollgll.
The operation table for the quotient group (G/S, ) il:l shown in Table 2-4.
Table 2-4
{Ii pm, Raoo} {Ruo, R27u} {V, II} {/)I, /)2}

-------_. .. _ - - - _._-------
{Rpm, Rauu} {RIBO, Rauo} {Ruu, R27o) {V,ll} {Dl, D2}
{RIIO, R27o} {Ruo, R27o} {R18o, RallO} {{h, /)2} {V,lI}
{V, II} {V,II: {J)I, ])2} {Ii PUI, 1l:IHII} {lluu, R27(J}
l/JI, /J:!: (/)" /J2} t V, II} l Uuu, U27U} {lll8u, /lauo}
Example 2-39. A simple, hut. lIscful example to kl'l'p ill milld when working
wit.h IJllot.i(!lIt. grouJlIi iii furnislutJ hy till' atltJit.iv(! gJ't)up of integers (Z, +).
11. hu.s heell prl'viollsly ('stnhlislll'd that tlw (IIOl'mal) suhgroups of (Z, +) are
the eydie suhgroupli n), I), n a lIollllcgatiVl' illll'ger. The (~osets of (n) ill Z
t.ake t.he form
a + (n) = {a + kn IkE Z} = [a].
In other words, the cosets of (n) are merely the congruence classes modulo n.
Coset multiplication in Z/(n), moreover, is given by
(a + (n (b + (n = a + b + (n),
or, with a judicious change of notation,
[a] [b] = [a +- b] .
. Wc thus (!Iduce that. the quot.ient ~roup of Z by (n) is none ot.her than the
~roup of int,I'I!;('1'lI modulo n,
(Z/(n), ) = (Zn +n).
Am()n~ ot.hl'r t.hings, t.ltis illllieates that had we so desired, t.he study of the
integcr!:! modulo n eouid havc been subsumed under t.he more general theory of
quotient groups.
It is a simple matter to sec that any quotient group of a commutative group
is ne(:('sl'iarily eommutativc. A natural qucstion is whether a noncommutative
group ('1U1 poss('ss eommlltnt.iv(' qllot,i('nt grollps ILnd, morc pointedly, what
eondit.iow; (if allY at. all) would insure their exishmee. As a concluding topic
in this seetion, we investigate t.hil'i particular liituatioll. Our analysis begins
wit.h a basic definition.
Definition 2-26. <:ivcn a group (U,"') ILnd c1cments a, bE 0, the com-
lIlutator of a ILnd b is defined to be the product a * b'" a-I ... b- I .
86 GHOUl' TlU:OItY 2-5
To simplify matters, Hw symbol [a, b) will be used to represent the commuta-

tor of two element.s a and h; any other symbol would do as well, but this
notation is standard. Inasmueh as [a, h] satisfies the identity
a *b = [a, bl * b * a,
one may view the commutator of a and h as a measure of the extent to which
a * b differs from b * a. Indeed, the elements a and b commute if and only if
[a,b) = e.
In general, the commutators do not by themselves form the elements of a
subgroup, !linee thC'y fail to be closed under multiplieation. The mmal pro-
cedure for bypassing this difficulty is to work imltead with the suhgroup gener-
ated by all the commutators [a, h), a, bEG. The resulting subgroup is known
either as the dcril'cd s1iligroup or commutator subgroup of (G, *) and may be
denoted simply by (lG, G), *).
Now, the illver~c of a eommutator is again a commutator: [a, bl- I = [b, al.
There if! no nC'ccl'l'ity then of explicitly conKidering inverses in the definition of
the set [a, G]; ilK clements consist merely of products of finitely many com-
mutators of G. That is,
IG J G) = {ilIa;, bi ] I ai, bi E G},
whcre t he ~Ylllhol il l'hould be construed as representing a finite product with

one or mor!! fadors.
With HlI's!' prl'paratory remarks out of the way, we pro(~eed to establish
some of the Kp<'('ial properties of the commutator subgroup.
Theorem 2-34. The group (fa, aI, *) iR a normal subgroup of (G, *).
Proof. The proof procemls along the usual line. Namely, it must be shown
that for c E [G, G) and a in G, a * c * a-I lies in [G, G]. But,
a * c * a-I = (a * c * a-I * c- I ) * c = [a, c)* c.
The element [a, c) * c is a finite product of eommutators and accordingly belongs

to [G, G].
The quotient group (G/IG, G). ), which exists by virtue of Theorem 2-34,
is called the commutatol' quotient (/!'Oup or abelianized (J!'OUp. The motivation
for this In\.t,er (hoi((, of t.errnillology will only h(,(~()IIJ(l llppnrl'nt nH(lr the next.
r(!Huit.
Theorem 2-35. Lc-1. (II, *) he n normal subgroup of t.he group (G, *). Thl'
quotient. group (G/lI, ) is cOlllnlllt,nl.iv(! if anel only if rG, G) ~ II.
Proof. Suppose a * /I and b * /I arc two arhitrary elc-mcnts ill G/H. Sinee
the coset II = e * 1/ is the identity clement of (G/II, ), the group operation
2-5 NOItMAI, SUIlGHOUI'S AND QUOTmNT GItOUPS 87
will he (:ommutative if and only if
H= [a*II,b*lIJ= (a*H) (b * II) (a*H)-1 (b*H)-I,

or, whitt amounts to the sllme thing,
But, Theorem 2-26 tells us a necessary and sufficient condition for the last
equality to hold is that
la, bJ = a * b * a-I * b- I E H.
In other words, commutativity of the quotient group (GIH, ) is equivalent
to requiring that the subgroup (H, *) contain all the commutators of G. As
([0, GJ, *) is by definition the smallest subgroup with this property, the latter
eOlldition may be replaced by [G, GJ S;;; II.
A special case, but itself of interest, occurs on taking H = [G, 0):
Corollary. For any group (G, *), the commutator quotient group (Gil G, 0], )
is commutative.
The foregoing theorem says, in effect, that the commutator group is the
smallest (again, in the sense of inclusion) normal subgroup whose associated
quot.ient group is commutative. The transition from a group to its commutator.
quotient group is mfermd to II-S the abelizalion of the group and provides a
cOllvenient melUUI of mallufacturing commutative groupt! from noncommutative
ones.
PROBLEMS
J. If 11 = {O,6, 12, Ig}, show that (II, -t2.) is a cyclic subgroup of (Z24, +24).
Also, lillt t.he elementl! of eaeh coset of 1/ in Z24.
2. In the symmetric group (84,0), let the set 1/ consist of the four permutations
( 1 2 3 4),
I 2 3 4
(21 2I 34 4),
3
(1 2 3 4).
432 1
LiK!, Ow c!c'IllI'" til or I'lli'll ('OHI't or 1/ in 84.

3. AK.~III1l(l (II, *) iH a HllhJ,!;TOIlP or (0, .J.
a) :Show that ('very left ('oset of /I ha.~ the Harne numher of elements as every
ri/!:ht coset..
h) Prove that (c * a) * /I = (c * II) * 1/ implit's a II = b * II.
(.) Show that. tht'rtl cxistH a IIne-to-one (,orreIlJlon(\ence betwl'('11 the left cosets of
1/ in G and the right cosets of II in G. [Hint: a * II -+ II * a-I.)
88 G1WUP Tln:OItY 2-5
4. Det('rmin(' till' l('ft ('OH('t dc('omposition of ttl(' jl;roup of !:!ymmetriefl of the squarc
with rcsl'ed to the slih/l:roup ([ Raun, /)I!, *).
5. In the group of symmetries of the elillilateral trian/l:lc, fin(l:
a) all Rllhjl;roU(lR,
b) all normal IIU hgrou pR,
I') the "('1\ t('r of t.hl' /l:flllIl'.
6. Hhow that if the cyelie jl;roup a), *) is infinite, then a and a-I are its only gener-
ators, and all subgroups except ({e}, *) are infinite.
7. Lilt (II, *) he a Ruh/l:fOllP of index 2 in t1l1ll(rOllp (0, *). Prove that (II, *) i!i a
normal Sllhl(fOUp. [lfint: /I U (a * /I) = 0 = /I U (II * a) for any a E G - /1.1
~. Given t.hat (III, *) Imd (11 2 , *) af(~ hoth normal HlIhl(fOlIPH of the 1(ff1IlP (G, *),
prove t.hat, tlH' SlIhl(rflllp (1/1 n 112, *) is also normal.
9. Let (1/, *) be a Huhl!:rollp of t.he I(roup (G, *) and the set N(l/) be defined by
N(ll) = I * II * a-I = ll}.

{a E G a
a) Prove that the pair (N(ll), *) is a subgroup of (G, *), called the normalizer
of IT in G.
b) Prove that (1/, *) ill normal if and only if NUl) - G.
10. Rllpposc that (II, *) an,1 (K, *) are normal Rllhl(roUpR of the group (G, *), with
/I n K = ':('1. By ('onsidl'rinl!: l'il'lIH'nt.s of thl' form" * k * II-I * k- I , !lhow that.
h * k = k * It for all It E /I, k E K.
II. Given (If, *) and (K, *) arc subgroupR of the group (G, *) and one of these sub-
groups is normal, prove that the pair (ll * K, *) is a subgroup of (G, *) i when both
are normal subgroups, show the group (11* K, *) is also normal.
12. Find an example of a I(rollp (G, *) having a subgroup (//, *) for which the produet
of two left CORllts of // in 0 need not be a left coset of ll. '
13. Describe the quotillnt group of
a) (Z.,+) in (Z,+), b) ({O,2, 4, 6, 8},+1O) in (ZIO,+lO),
c) (Z,rt-) in (Q,+), d) ({I, -I},) in ({I, -1, i, -i}, .).
14. Let (G, *) be a cyclic group with generator a and (II, *) be any subgroup of
(G, *). Prove that the quotient group (G/II, ) is also cyclic with the coset a * II
as a generator.
15. Given (II, *) is a normal subgroup of the group (G, *), prove that the quotient
group (G/II, ) is I'ommutative whenever (G, *) is commutative.
16. For any group (G, *), describe the quotient grouJlS of the trivial normal sub-
groups ({e},*) and (G,*).
17. Consider the eyclie I!;roup a), *) of or(ler 15 and the subgroup a 3 ), *). List
the elements of eaeh coset of (a 3 ) and construe!. the multiplicat.ion table for the
quotient grouJl a)/(a 3 ), ).
18. In the commutat,ive group (G, *), let the set II consist of all elements of G with
finite order. Prove that
a) (11, *) is a normal subgroup of (G, *), called the torsion 8ubgroup,
b) the quot.ient group (G/II, ) is torsion-free; that is, none of its elements
other than the identity are of finitl~ order.
2-{i 1I0MOMORl'HI8MS 8U
19. Rhow that a group (G, *) is commut.at.ive if ancl only if (G, GJ = {e}.
20. For any group (a, *), h-t (II, *) he the l"Iuhgroupgcnerated hy the Kct of Ilquares
of clmnenl.!I of a. Jo:stnhlish t.he following:
a) (II, *) is a normalllllhgfoup of (G, *).
h) The qllotil'nt p;rollp (G/II,0) is commutative. (llint: [G, GJ ~ II, since
[a, II) = (a * II)".! * (/}-I * a-I * /})2 * /}-2.)
21. u-t (IIi. *) he a ('olll-I,tion of nontrivial norllIal ~ubgroup>! of the group (G. *) such
that G = U/h Assume further that II, n IIi = {e} for i ;>C j, Prove that the
parl-nt group (G, *) ill n"""I'<lInrily I'ornlllutative, [/lint: Let a E II. and bElli' For
i ;>C j, w.,e Prohlem 10. In (~a.~e i = j. choose any clement, c E G - II;. Then
c aud c * a "OIlIllIUIl- wit,h IWI~ry ('lllment of IIi; in partkular, e = [e * a. b * al =-
[a, bl.]
22. Prove that if th!' qUoti"nt group (G/cent G, 0) is I~y('lil'. then (G, *) ill a I:om-
mutative group,
2-6 HOMOMORPHISMS
Up t.o thiH point, in the t(~xt, w(~ hll.vI~ not eonHidcred ml\(lpinll;f1 from one group
to Ilnothel'; in(l<~('d. any knowledge of funetions was irr<,l(lvallt to most of
the t.opi(s (~onsid('r('(1. TllI'Y now ent.er in an eHslmt,illl way. for we wish to
inl.rodu<:e It ('0111'<'(11. IIII' idm of algl'iH'uienlly indistinguishable sYHI,ems-whieh
will be of fundamental importance throughout thc remainder of the book and
whieh ill, in fat't. one of t.he most important notions in mathemlltics,
This section begilll'l, however, with an analysis of a class of functions which
preserve alj!;ehmic Rtrueture.
Deftnition 2-27. Let (G, *) and (G', .) be two groups and f a function from
G into a'. f: a -+ G', Tlwn J is said to be a homomorphism (or operation-
preserving fundion) from (G, *) into (G', .) if and only if
f(a * b) = f(a) 0 feb)
for every pair of clements a. bEG.
A few remarks are in order before considering any examples. First, notice
that on the left.-hand side of the above equation, the product a * b is computed
in G, while on the right side the product f(a) feb) is that of elements of G'.0
The fundions indicated in this definition have the charaeteristic: property of

earryillg productll into products, A common way of expressing the situation
is to llay that t.he image of n produet under J is equal to the product of the
images,
((a), ( ( b l l - - - - . . . : - - - -.... ((a) 0 ((b) ~ f(a b)

!}() WlOtTP T1n:OHY 2--1;
Anotlwr vi('wpoint is perhaps 1)(,IH'ficial. The requirement. that f(a * b) =

f(a) f(b) for eVl'ry pair of clements a, bEG is sometimeH des(~rihed by saying
0
thnt till' dinJ.(mlll of mappings on page 8!J is ('ollllllutal.iv(', For this eCllulit.ioll
aHsertl'! thaI. if WI' I'!tal't with dl'nwlltH a, b of a and move them to 0' by eit.IH'1'
of the two rouh'H indieateu by the arrowli -hy fil'lit forming the product a * /,
and t.lWII applying f t.o it or hy firlit. oht.aining UII' imagl'li f(a) and f(b) and
then taking I heir produl'l. --the rCHult will be the Hllme,
It may niSI) st.rike t.he reauer that the langlmge ill whil'h Definition 2-2i i"
coudwd is 01)('11 to I~ritieilim. To speak of IL hOlllolllorphiHm from a group (G, *)
illt.o It group' (0', .) iii S<lmewhll.t imrlrl~ciSl', Hinee the lIIapping cOlleerned is
aetually IlI'l.wl'l'lI t.h('ir underlying 1i('ls of ('1('n1('nls. ThiH linguiHt.ic eonvelltioll
haH til(' d(~eidl'd advanlage, however, of illllicatillg Ihe operations preserved as
well ali the domaill and rangl' of the funct.ion.
Example 2-40. FOI' lin arhitmry group (G, *), d('filll' the funetion f: G -+ (/
hy taking f = io , the ident.it.y map on G. It is It trivilLlit.y to check that f is
!l homomorphililll from t.he group (G, *) into itself, a8
f(a * b) = a *b = f(a) * f(b).

Example 2-41. Suppose that (G, *) and (G', 0) are two groups with identity
elements (' and p', r('sp('divl'ly. Thl' fun('tion f: G -+ G' given hy f(a) = c'
for eH('h a E r; is a homomorphiHm:
f(a * b) = e' = e' e' = f(a) of(b).

0
This part.i('ulal' mapping (the so-ealled trivial homomorphism) is the ollly

constant. function whieh satisfies Definition 2-27.
Example 2-42. Considpr the two groups (R', +) and (R' - {OJ, .), where Ill'!
usual, +
lind d('llOtt' ordinary addition and multiplicntion. For a E R', dcfilw
t.he funl'liollf hy f(a) = 2". To show that the mappingf is operation-preserving,
we mllst ('stahlish whether f(a +
b) = f(a) , f(b). This is readily verified,
f(a + b) = 2"+b = 2" 2b = f(a) . feb).

Example 2-43. L(,t (Z, +) be the group of intcgcl'!! under addition and
(Zn, +n) be thl' group of integers modulo n. Define J: Z -+ Z,. by f(a) = [a];
that is, Illap eal'h intcgl'r into the congruence dass containing it. That f is a
homomorphism follows dirl'ctIy from the definition of modulnr addition:
f(a -I I) = la -I b] = [a] f,. [b] = f(a) +,.f(b).
For fulure liSP, W(' shall label the set of all hOlllolllorphiHtns from th(, group
(0, *) inlo ilsdf (thp so-calh'd ('1u/olllurphis1ns) hy t.he Hymbol hom Gj a fr('-
!(llI'ntly IIs!'ll altl'rnal iv(' notal ion iH to write end G. Both notations hllv(' a
el'rlain HUJl;gestive pow('r, and it rctIuces to 11 matter of pel'l:lOnal preference.
2-6 IIOMOMOltPlIlHMS 91
IlIterCl:it ill)!;ly ('lIoll/!:h, the set hom a cnll be enuowl,d with an nlgebraic
stmdur!' :
Theorem 2-36. Tilt' pail' (hOIlI 0, 0), wh('l"(' 0 dl'lIot.ml flllwtionnl compOl~i
tiOIl, forms a semigroup wit.h idcnt.ity.
PJ"()of. For' III!' proof, whidl is quite dCllwnt.nry, it, IIlUHt fif/lt. he Hhown that
t.h(l ('olllposil ion f (I of two flllwLionH f, (I E hom G Itl(uin pr('HerVCS tho group
operation. ThiH is pltsily Itcl'ompli!lhed by noting that whenever a, bEG,
(f 0 (f)(a * b) = f(y(a * 1))
= f(r/(a) * f/(/I)
= f(a(a) * f(I/(II) = (f 0 g)(a) * (f 0 g)(b).
As we havp s('('n in an ('arli('r !l(lction, ('o!llposition of funetions is a.'!sociative.

Filially, Example 2-40 in!iil'nt.es that. the identity mapping io (the identity
dement for (~orllposit.ioll) is it.Helf opl'rat.ion-preservillg.
A r!'Hsonabltl l'luhjed. of curiosity would 1)(' th(' question of whether or not
t her(' !'xistll a subset S ~ hom G such that (8, 0) is a group. For inverses to
exist, on!' must plainly single out the one-to-one functions. i\loreover, in order
that the domain of f-I be the set G, consideration should be further restricted
to Ihos(' fllnd ions whil'h lIIap onto G. Thus a natural lIndl'rtaking is to in-
vest.igate I hI' (~()II('etion of all one-to-one homomorphisnu; from the group
(G, *) onto itself; as a matter of notation, we shall designate this set of map-
pings by UI(' symbol A (G), for auloTnoJ'plii81n.
The clementI:! of A(G) arc now restricted to the extent that (A(G), 0) does
indeed have the agreeable property of being a group. Let us give some details.
Theorem 2-37. The system (A (G), 0) is a subgroup of t.hc symmetric
group (sYIll a,.).
Proof. For funetions f, (J E A(G), we already know the composition of fog is
in sym G. In conjunction with the lal:!t result, this showsf (J belongs to A(G), 0
aH does the ident.ity map i a. It remainH ollly to verify here that whenever a
funetion f E A (G), it.s inver!le f- I (whieh clearly is a member of sym G) is a
homomorphi!llll. If if, 1) E G, the onto dmmeter of f implies if = f(a), lj = feb)
for some choice of a, b in G. Therefore,
f- I (if * b) = f-I (f(a) * f(ll
= f-I(J(a * b)
= a*b = f-I(if) * f-I(b),
and t II(' proof is ('olllplete.
There are many important and inlN('sl illg fad.s ('olwerning homomorphic
mappings. I n I h(' :-;u('(~eedin)!; theorellls, we shall examine some of tJwse results
in detail.
92 G1WUP THEOHY 2-6
Theorem 2-38. If J iH n homomorphiHm from the group (G, *) into the

group (;', .), then
1) f mapll the identity clement e of (G, *) onto the identity clement e' of
(G' , ):f(e) = e' ,
2) f maps the inverse of an element a E G onto the inverse of f(a) in (G' , 0):
f(a- I ) = f(a)-l for each a E G.
Proof. To prove the first assertion, it is enough to observe that under the
hypoUw8is of the t.lworl'lll,
J(a) e' = J(a) = f(a * e) = J(a) J(e),
whenever a E G. By the cnrwl'Untion hlW in (G', .), we then have

j(e) = e' .
In ttw second part of the t.1worem, it ill first necessary to show that
We can then conclude from the uniqueness of the inverse of f(a) in (G' , .) that
f(a)-I= j(a- I ). To obtain this result, we make use of part (1) t.o get
f(a) 0 f(a- 1 ) = f(a * a-I) = f(e) = e'
Similarly,
j(a- I ) f(a) = e/.
Example 2-44. As an immroiate application of these ideas, we propose to

establish that for each real number r ~ 0 there is exactly one homomorphism
f from the group (Z, +) into the group (R' - {O},) for whichf(l) = r. The
('XiHteIW(, of Btwh n function is trivial, for we need only (!onKider the mapping
f(n) = r", n eZ. /
To prove there can be at most one function satisfying the indicated con-
ditions provides a more chall(mging problem. The basic idea is simple enough:
assume there are two fmwtions, f and g, having the required properties, and
show that they are actually the same. Now, each positive integer n may be
written as
n= 1+1++1 (n summands).
The operation-preserving character of J and g thus implies

f(lI) = f(1)" = r" = g(l)" = g(n) ,
On the othC'r hand, if n is a nonzt'ro negative integer, -n E Z+. Hence,

f(n) = f(-(-1I) = f(-n)-I = y(_n)-l = g(-(-n) = g(n).
2-6 HOMOMORPHISMS 93
The erlJ(~inl st.ep, f(-n) =-: (I( -n), is justified by til(! fact f lmd g arc already
known t.o agree on the positive intl'ge,'s, By the firnt. plLrt of Theorem 2-38,
f(O) = 1 = y(O), so t.hat fen) = yen) for every integer n; therefore, f = y,
The next result indicates the algebraic nature of direct and inverse images
of subgroups under homomorphisms, Among other things, we shall see that if
f is a homomorphism from the group (G, *) into the group (G', .), then (f(G), 0)
forms a subgroup of (G', 0), The complete story is told below:
Theorem 2-39. Let f be a homomorphism from the group (G, *) into the
group (G', 0), Then
1) for each subgroup (H, *) of (G, *), the pllir (j(II),.) is a subgroup of
(0',0),
2) for each subgroup (H',o) of (G', 0), the pair (I-I(H'),.) is a subgroup
of (G, *),
Proof. To obtain the first part of the theorem, recall the definition of the
image set f(H) :
f(H) = {f(lt) I h e H},
Now, suppose f(h) and f(k) are arbitrary clements of f(H) , Then both hand k
belong to the set H, as does the product h * k- 1 , Hence,
f(h) of(k)-l = f(h) of(k- 1) = f(h * k- 1) ef(H),
Our argument shows that whellever f(h),f(k) ef(H), thenf(h) of(k)-l lies in
feB); this is a sufficient condition for (j(H), 0) to be a subgroup of (G', 0).
The proof of the second statement proceeds in a similar manner. First,
rememher thut
j-I(H') = {aeGlf(a)eH'},
Thus, if a, b ef-'(H'), t.he images f(a] and feb) must be elements of H', It
follows at once that
f(a * b-') = f(a) 0 j(b-I) = f(a) 0 f(b)-t e H'.
This means a * b- t ej-I(ll'), from whi('h we ('OIwhule (J-'(Il'), *) is a sub-

group of (G, *),
L(ft. ullrl'solved, as yet, is the mat.t('r of replacing t.he term "subgroup" in
Throrem 2-39 hy "normnl suhgroup." It. is IIot pIll'ti('ularly diffil'ult to show
that. part (2) of the theorem remains true under sueh IL subst.itution, Preeisely
speaking, if (/1',0) is a normal subgroup of (G', 0), the subgroup (I-'(H'), *)
is normal in (G, .), In establishing this falt., we will ut.ilize both implications
of Th('or!'1II 2-:t!. Huppose \lOW II ef-'(lI'), M t.hat f(lt) ell', nnd let a be
94 GROUP THEORY 2-(S
an arbitrary dement of a. Then,

f(a * h * a-I) = f(a) of(h) of(a)-I E H'.
In other words, a * h * a-I Ef-1(H'), or in terms of sets,
According to Theorem 2-32, this inclusion is enough to make (j-I(H'), *) a

normal subgroup of (G, *).
Without further restriction, it cannot be inferred that the image subgroup
(f(H), 0) will be normal in (a', 0) whenever (H, *) is itself a normal subgroup
of (a, *). One would need to know that
a' f(lt) 0 (a,)-I Ef(H)
for all a' E G' and It E H. In general, there is no way of replacing the element
a' by someJ(a) ill order to (!xploit the normality of (H, *). A slight strengthen-
ing of the hypot.hellis overcomes this difficulty; simply tak!l f to be a.n onto
ma.pping. (Rc<:all that the word "onto" r<-'quircs every member of (J' to be the
image of at. I<'l\~t one clement of G.)
Summarizing tlH'sC r('marks, we mny now state:
Corollary. I) For !lll.dl normal lmhgroup (H',o) of (G',o), the subgroup
(f-I(II'), *) is norlllal in (0, *).
2) If f(G) --=- a', Uwn for ca<:h normal Imbgroup (ll, *) of(G, *), the HUh-
group (j(l/), 0) it! normal in (a', 0).
In much of our subsequent work, the object of interest will be the kernel
of a homomorphism.
Definition 2-28. Let J be a homomorphism from the group (G, *) into the.
group (G', 0) and let e' be the idenhity element of (G', 0). The kernel of f,
denot,ed by ker (f), is the set
ker (f) = {a E G I/(a) = e'}.
Thus ker (f) consists of those clements in G which are mapped by f onto
the identity eicment of the group (G', 0). Theorem 2-38 indicates that ker (f)
Is a nonempty subset of a, since e E ker (f). It may well happen, as Example
2-41 shows, that kl'r (f) = G. Except for the trivial function indicated there,
the kernel ill IlIW:1YII a proper subset of G.
Our definition of It homomorphism did 1I0t require that it be a one-to-one
function, and iIHl('cd, we hllve preRCntcd several examples where it failed to be
so. There ill, howcV!'r, 11 simple charudcrization of a on<-'-to-one homomorphic
mapping in tenns of the kenlel.
2-(i HOMOMOUPHISMS 95
Theorem 2-40. l.,(~t f he a homomorphi8m from the group (G, *) into the
group (G', .). ThenJ is one-to-one if and only if ker (f) = {e}.
Proof. SuppoS(! the function f is one-to-one. We already know that e E ker (/).
Our aim is to show that this is the only element in the kernel. If there existed
another clement a E ker (f), a e, then we would havef(a) = e' = I(e). That
is, f(a) = fee) but a e. This would contradict the hypothesis that I is one-
to-Gne.
On the oUler hand, !lUppOH(! thaI, ker (f) = {e}. Let a, bEG and f(a) = feb).
To prove f is one-to-one, we must 8how t1mt a = b. But if f(a) = feb), then
f(a * b- I ) = lea) of(b-I) = f(a) of(b)-I
~-= lea) f(a) - I '" e',
0
which implieR a * b- I E ker (/). But, ker (J) = {e}. Therefore a * b- I = e or

a = b.
The next theorem will establish the algebraic character of the pair (ker (f), *).
Theorem 2-41. If I is a homomorphism from tho group (G, *) into the group
(/', 0), then t.Il1l pair (kllr (f), *) is u nornll~IHubgroup of (G, *).
Proof. We have already indieated that t.hc trivial subgroup ({e'), .) is a normal
subgroup of (t, 0). Hin/~e k/~r (f) = f-"(c'), I.he /:onduHion follows from the
general result tltl1u!<1 ill pnrl. (1) of the lust /~orollnry.
Example 2-45. As IL Him pie illu~trntion of the! ILbovn Uworems, cOIIHi<i(lr the
two grollI'M (Z, I ) and (Il' - {O},')' Thll nmpping f: Z -> n' -- {OJ defin<-'fi
by
fen) = { I if n E Z.,
-1 if n E Zo
is a homomorphism, us the reader may vllrify by checking the various cases
that could arise. III the situation considered,
ker (f) = {n E Z Ifen) = I} = z.,
while the direct image
feZ) = {I, -I}.
It is not pnrl.i/lIlnrly diffieult 1.0 show that (Z., +) i!l a normal subgroup of
(Z, -!) ancl t.hat ({I, -I},,) is a subgroup of (n' - IO}, .).
We IlILvc jUHt. H(~(m that every homolllorphiHm determincs It normul Huhgroup
by mcanfl of its k(!rncl. On I.he other hand, thc following theorem will show
that every normal flllbgroup givefl rifle to a hom()morphi(~ mapping, the so-
calk-d nutunl1 llJapping. Simply put, the problems of IIIIIJlIIg homomorphisms
and normal subgroups are inscparable.
96 GHOUl' THEORY 2-6
Theorem 2-42. Let (H, *) be a normal subgroup of the group (G, *). Then
the mapping natH: G -+ G/ H defined by
is II. homomorphism from (0, *) onto the quotient group (G/H, ); the
kernel of natll is prc("iscly the set H.
Proof. Tlw fal"!, t.hat. t.he mapping natH is homolllorphie follows directly from
till' mlUlIIl'r in whi!"h 1I\11lt,iplic~llt.iClII i>l clC'linml ill thc~ ,,1IC1t,icmt KrOllI':
nllt.,,(11 I,) = (a. II) * /I

= (a * H) (b * H) = nutH(a) natJl(b).
To show thnt, nat/( is an onto funet ion is almost trivial, sinee every element
of G/If is Il c'ost't a * H wh('\'( a E G find Ilntll(a) = a * H.
IlIIuml\lch lUI the ("0>1('1, /I serV!'s IlS the identity clement for (O/H, ), we
must have
ker (natll) = {a E G I natH(a) = H}
{a E G I a * /I = /I} = II.
Th(' InRt !'CllIlllit.y was ac'hievec! by t1w lise of TheorNIl 2-2fi,

It is pO>lsihl(', IUlcl sonwt.illll'H {!onvl'lIient, to phru.sc TIl(lorem 2-42 so that no
rdl'rc'nc'C' is lIIaclc' to t.Il1' notion of CJllotil'nt p;roup:
Theorem 2-43. Ll't (1/, *) be a nOl'mal Imbp;roup of the group (G, *).
Then there exists a group (G', 0), and 11 homomorphism f from (G, *) onto
(G', 0) su{~h that ker (f) = H.
Of COUl'R(', we tak(' (G', .) to be the quotient group (G/II, ) and f = natH,
The usual custom is to refl'r to the function nntll as the natural or canonical
mappinfl of G onto G / II. Provided there is no danger of eOllfusion, we shall
frequently omit the sub8cript II in writing this funl,tion.
As a rl'bt.t'd rc'mark, it might be emphasized that the natural mapping is
not generally one-to-Olw. For if a, b E (J arc clements such thaI, the product
a-I * b is in H, tl1<'11 by Theorem 2-27, a * 1/ = b * II, and consequently
nutH(a) = nat.[{(b).
Lt,t us pausl' for a 1lI0nlC'lIt to inil'rpr('t Theorl'lll 2-42 ill the ease of the
additivc group of illt('~t'rs (Z,!~). We already know that its normal subgroups
are the cyclie grouplS n), +), where n is a nonnegative integer. i\Ioreover,
the' qlloti!'nt group C'OI'I'('sponding to !lny fixed n E Z+ is simply (Z,,, +n), the
group of int('~ers modulo II; that. is, Z/(n) = Zn. It ilS fairly evident from this
that. the nlltuml mapping na .. : Z -+ Zit docs nothing morc than send each
integer into its eongnwnce ('hls8 modulo n: nat (a) = [a).
2-(3 HOMOMORPHISMS 97
Definition 2-29. Two groups (G, *) and (G',.) are said to be i8omorphic,
denoted (G, *) ~ (G', .), if there exi~ts a one-to-one homomorphism f
of (G, .) onto (G', .), that is, f (G) = G'. Such a homomorphism f is called
lUI i8()mOTp"i.~m, or isomorphic mapping, of (G, *) onto (G', .).
Any property of (U, *) whieh clLn be expres!:!ed in terms of the operation *

is prc~rvcd under f and consequently be(~ome!:! a property of (G', .) as w'lJ1I.
The uJlHhot is that t.he nmpJlinj!; f haH the effect of I ransferring the algebmic
Htrtll'l.ure of the group (a, *) to the group (G', .). I!:!()llIorphic groups are thus
incliHt.ingllislmhl .. fmlll t.\J(' ILhslral't point of vi(~w, (WI''' though t\u'y limy lIiffc'r
ill t.hl' not.al ion for arid lIal Ul'(' of UU'ir "Iements mill ()p(~flLtiom~. Two slleh
groups, whill' not. ill W'lIl'ml fOl'lnally iucntil:al, arc the HIUIIe for all plact.ieal
purposes.
Actually, the concept of isomorphism is applicable to all types of mathe-
matical systems, for it seems reasonable to treat two systems as essentially
<'qlUlI when they hnve exactly the Hallie properties. The eR.'!Cnec of the notion
is that we can alwnys find a one-to-onc mapping betwccn the clements of the
two systems whil'h preservcs whatever structure we are int.erested in studying.
The ohservant. reader probahly noticed that Definition 2-29 is unsymmetric
in t.hat it IImk('s nH'ntion of a fllll(t.ioll f!'Om one pllrt.iellhlr group t.o Ilnother.
Howl'vPr, if f: (J -+ (]' is a one-to-one, onto, op<'ration-preserving mapping,
the fundion f- I : G' -+ G also Jut~ these propertil's. We may therefore ignore
this illitillllaek of symmet.ry and merely Hpeak of two groups (G, *) and (G', .)
us heing iiiOll\orphie to ea(~h other; to indieate t.his, it. Imffiees to write either
(fl, *) ~ (a',.) fir (a',.) ~ (f~, *).
Before procecuing further, 1\ knowleuge of several specific examples will
provide some basis for an understanding of the general idea of isomorphism.
Example 2-46. Consider the two groups (Z., +4) and (G, .), where
G = {I, -1, i, -i}
and i 2 = -1. The operation tables for these two systems arc
+. 0 I 2 3 1 -1 -1
0 0 2 3 1 1 -1 i -i
1 1 2 3 0 -1 -1 1 -1
2 2 :3 0 1 i -i -1 1
3 :3 0 2 -I -~ i 1 -1
Wc wish to provc that the groups (Z., +.) and (G, .) are abstractly "equal." To
do so, we must produce a one-to-one homomorphism f from Z. onto G.
Since the preservat.ion of identity clcments is !\ general feature of any homo-
morphism, f llIust be such that f(O) = 1. Let us suppose for the moment that
we were to define f( 1) = -1. The image of an inverse clement must equal
98 GROUP THEORY 2-6
the invel'HC of the image. We would then have
f(3) = f(I- I ) = f(I)-1 = (_1)-1 = -I,
or f(3) = f(l). This, however, would prevent f from being one-to-one.

A more appropriate choice, in the sense that it avoids the above difficulty, is
to iake f(l) = i. The condition on inverses then implies f(3) = -i. Since f
is further required to preserve modular addition,
f(2) = 1(1 +.1) = 1(1) f(l) = i i = -1.
Wo are thus lNI in a llatuMLl way to eonl!ider Uw f\llletion defined by
1(0) = 1, f(l) = i, 1(2) = 1, I(a) = -i.
Clearly this fundion is 1\ ono-t.()-()no mappinll; of tho HCt Z. onto the set G.
Furthermore, 1 uetuully pn~HCrve8 tho operations of the groups. Merely to
verify one instanco, we ObH(~rv(l that
f(1 +. 2) = 1(3) = -i = i -1 f(I) f(2).
Consequently, we have (Z., +.) ~ (G, .).

Loosely speaking, two finite groups are isomorphic if it is possible to obtain
each mUltiplication table from the other by merely renaming the elements.
The nature of the function 1 suggests the appropriate rearrangement of the
table for (G, .) is
1 i -1 - l
i -1 -i
i i -1 -i 1
-1 -1 -i 1 i
-i -i 1 i -1
Apart from the particular symbols used, this group table is identical to that of
(Z .. , +.. ), for corr<'sponding elements appear at the same place in each table.
Both groups are simply disguises for the same abstract system.
In passing, we might note that (Z .. , +.) is also isomorphic to (G,.) under
the function g, whereby g(O) = 1, g(l) = -i, g(2) = -1, g(3) = i.
Example 2-47. Let G = {e, a, b, c} and the operation * e a b c
be defined by the table at the right. The reader may verify
*
that the pair (G, *) is IL group, known as Klein's four- e e a b c
group. The two groups (Z., +.. )
and (0, *) are not a a e c b
abstractly equal, however, for every one-to-one function b b c e a
I from the S('t. Z. onto G fails to be operation-preserving. c c b a e
From t.his we conclude t.hat. there arl' at least. two distinct algebraic structures
for groups with fOllr clements.
To illustrate this point, we shall check several possibilities for the function f.
Consider the mapping defined on the set Z4 by
f(O) = e, f(l) = a, f(2) = b, 1(3) = c.

Then
1(1 -I-. 3) = f(O) = e ~ b = a. r. = f(l) 1(3),
whidl Ilhows that. Uw proposp.<1 f is not a homomorphism. Another posllibility

for f might, bn
f(O) = e, f(l) = h, f(2) = c, 1(3) = a.

Note that wo mUlti, ulwaYIt mlLp idt!lltity n1mmmtll to it.ioutify clements. This
ehoico of f also faill'! to pr(!S('fve th(' operations, Ilineo
1(1 -h 1) = f(2) = r ~ e = b1J =- 1(1) f(I).
We shall leave the test of the remaining possibilities as an exercise.

A standard procedure for showing that two groups are not isomorphic is to
find some property of one, not possessed by the other, which by its nature
would necessarily be shared if these groups were actually isomorphic. In the
prellCnt case, the group (Z4, +.) and the four-group are differentiated by the
fact the former is a cyclic group whereas the latter is not.
Example 2-48. The two groups (Z, +) and (Q - {O},) arc not isomorphic.
To sec thiN, IlUppotIC t.hat t.here exists a one-to-one onto functionf: Z -+ Q - {O}
with the property
I(a + b) = f(a) . I(b)
for all a, bE Z. If x donotes the clement of Z such that f(x) = -1, then
f(2x) =f(x+x) =f(x)f(x) = (-1) (-1) = 1.
According to Theorem 2-40, the identity element of (Z, +) is the unique clement
of Z corresponding t.o the identity of (Q - [O},), so that 2x = 0 or x = O.
Consequently, both f(O) = 1, and f(O) = -1, contradicting the fact that the
functionf is one-to-one. This argument shows that (Z, +) cannot be isomorphic
to (Q - {O},), for no fUlH'tion satisfying Definition 2-29 can exist.
Example 2-49. For an instructive example in connection with the additive
group of integers ('ollsidcr the following ll..'!SCrtio:l: the only functions under
which (Z, +) is isomorphie to it.'lClf are the idcntit.y mapping and its negative.
A fairly suceiru:t dl'seription of all this is that A(Z) = {iz, -iz}.
100 Gnoup THEOny 2-6
Perhaps the quiekest proof of til(! above WI.'!crtion consists of ahowing that if
J E A (Z), then the eY('lie subgroup (j(l)), +) generated by J(I) is the group
(Z, +) itself. Since the illdusion (j(l ~ Z trivially holdR, our aim would bc
achieved by establishing Z ~ (/(1. But this is a l:!traightforward matter. If
n is an arbitrary integer, n = J(m) for some mE Z-recall J is a. ma.pping
onto Z-so that
n = J(1 + + ... +
1 1) (m summands)
= J(I) + J(I) + ... + J(I)
= mJ(I),
whence n E (J(l.
Since land -1 are the only generators of (Z, +), either J(I) = lor J(I) = -1.
However, the preceding computation indicates fen) = nf(l) for each n E Z;
fromthis,itisclearthatJ= izorJ= -iz according asf(I) = 10rJ(I) =-1.
Let us return to general considerations by showing that the groups (Z", +,,)
and (Z, +) are the prototypes of all finite and infinite cyclic groups, respec-
tively.
Theorem 2-44. Every finite cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to
(Z", +,,) and every infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to (Z, +).
Proof. First, suppose the cyclic group a),.) is of finite ordeF- n. In this
case, we know from Theorem 2-23 that
It scems nutural tht'll t,o illvel:!tigate thc mapping J: (a) --. Z,. givcn by thc
rule f(ak) = [k], 0 ::; k < n. This function plainly carries (a) onto the sct Z,..
Next observe that f is Ollc-to-one: if J(a k) = f(a i ), then k == j (mod n) so that
a k = a i . Finally, for any clemcnts a\ a i in (a), we have
This shows t.hc function J prescrves the respective group operations and eom-
plctes the proof of the iRomorphism C(a), .) ~ (Z,., +.. ).
For t.he seeond purt of the theorem, thc cyelic group C(a),.) is assumed to
he of infinite order. HI're, the choice of a mapping I betwccn (a) and Z is
obvious: simply take I(a fr ) = k. It is immediate that J, so defined, is an onto
mapping. Further, this function is one-to-one, for all the powers of the generator
must be distinct; if two different powers of a were equal, the argument of
Theorem 2-23 could be employed to obtain the contradiction that (a) is a
finite set. The rest is routine:
Hence, as we wished to establish, C(a),.) is isomorphic to the group (Z, +).

Corollary. Any t,wo "Yl'lic grouP!! of the same order arc isomorphic.
Trivially, llny group (0, *) is isomorphi(~ to itself under the identity mapping
i(}. A reasonlLhl" query is whether (0, *) is isomorphic to any group other than
itself. The concluding th(!orem in this HCetion, a classical result due to Cayley,
answers the question in the affirmative.
We begin, however, by reenlling HOIlt(! definitions and notation. For an
arbitrary clement a in 0, the left-multiplication function fa: G -+ G was defined
by taking fa (x) = a * x for every x E G. The collection of all functions obtained
ill this way is labeled by Fo: Fa = {fa I a E G}. Example 2-25 established
the stnlctural nature of the pair (Fa, )-in the present context indicates
0 0
the operation of funetional eompoHition-when this system was shown to be a

group. Our tn.sk now is to prove the isomorphism of (G, *) and (Fa, .).
Theorem 2-45. (Cayle'lJ). If (G, *) is an arbitrary group, then
(0, *) ~ (Fa, .).
Proof. Define the mapping f: G -+ F G by the rule f(a) = fa for each a E G.

That the functioll J is onto Fa is ohvi()uH. If f(a) = J(II), so fa = fb, thell
a * x = b * x for all clements x of a. In particular,
a = a *e = b *e = b,
which shows that f is one-to-one. We complete the proof by establishing that

f is a homomorphism:
I(ll * IJ) = f ... b = fa fb 0 = f(a) 0 f(l,).
As all iJluHtration of this theorem, (~onsider the group (Il', +). Corresponding
to an element a E R' is the left-multiplication function fa, defined by
f .. (x) = a + x, x E R'.
That iR, the function fa merely has the effect of translating or shifting elements
by lln llmount a. Cayley's Theorem MHerts that the group (R', +) and the
I/:rollP (Fa, .) of transl:tt.iollR of t.he real line nre indiRtinguishablc a8 far as their
nlgl'hmie propl'rt.i(s an! (!OIw(!rlled.
PROBLEMS
I. In the following situations. (Ietcrmine whether the indicated function J is a homo-

morphifoull from the first group into the sc{'ond group.
a)J(a) = -a, (R'.+). (R',+)
h} J(al = la!. IN' :0: . ), (R'+,)
c) J(a) = a + I. (Z,+), (Z,+)
102 GHOUl' TIU;OHY 2-6
d) I(a) = a 2 , (R' - {O}, .), (R't, .)
e) I(a) = a/q (q a. fixed nonzero integer), (Z,+), (Q,+)
f) I(a) = na (n a fixed int.eger), (Z, I ), (Z, I )
2. l'IUJlIHll!1l I iii a IWlIlulllurphitim trolll t.he group (},.) into the group (G', 0):
a) If e d(!!!ignu.tel! the identity eiemont of (a, .), show tha.t the kernel of I may be
dMcribed by ker (I) - I -I (f(e.
b) Provided the group (G',o) is commutative, establish the inclusion [G, GJ S;;;;
ker (f).
3. Let (ZK, I K) he the group of intogertl modulo Ii and a),.) be any finite (lydi(l
group of order 12. AJ;l!ume further that. the maJlPing I: ZS -- (a) is defined all
follow!!:
1(0) = 1(4) = Il, 1(1) =/(5) = aa,
1(2) = 1(6) = a6 , 1(3) = 1(7) = all.
a) Prove that. t.he function I, 110 defined, is a homomorphillm.
b) Dell('rib(' the ~UhgroUPN (kl,r (f), -I II) anel (f(ZK) , .).
c) If II = {e, aft), show the pair (f-I(II), +11) ill a Iluhgruup of (ZI!,-t-s).
4. Consider the two groups (Z, -1-) and ({ J, - J , i, -i},'), where i 2 = - J. Hhow
that the mapping defincd by I(n) = i" for n E Z is a. homomorphism from (Z, +)
onto ({ I, -- J , i, - i J, .), and determine itH kernel.
5. Let I be a. homomorphism from the group (G, .) into itselr and let II denote the
Aet of elements of a whit-h are left fixed by I:
II = {a E G I/(a) = a).
Prove that (ll,.) is a subgroup of (G, .).
6. Let (G,.) he 11 gruul' and tho (,)omont a E a be (ixlle\. Provo that (G,.) ill iso-
morphic to itllclf--that is, (0, .) ~ (G, . ) - under the mapping I defined by
xEG.
What is the kernel of thi!! function?

7. Prove that if the group (G,.) is commutative (cyclic) and (G, .) ~ (G',o) then
the group (G', 0) ill also commutative (cyclic).
8. Let the St,t a = z x Z and the binary operation on G be given by the rule
+ r, b + d). It ill easily verified that the pair (G,.) is a
(a, b) (c, d) = (a
commutative grollp.
a) Show that the mapping I: a -> Z defined by I[(a, b)) = a is a homomorphism
from (G,.) onto the group (Z, +).
b) Det,C'rmin(' the kernel of this mapping.
c) If II = {(a, a) I a E Z}, prove that (II,.) is a subgroup of (G, .), whieh is
isomorphiC' to (Z, +) under the function I.
9. Show that the two J!;roups (R', +) and (R' - {O},) arc not isomorphic.
10. Prove that all finite groups of order two are isomorphic.
'2--7 TU),; FUNOAMENTAL THEOUEMS 103
II. If
wlll're i~ = . I, thl'lI the pl1ir (0,') rorlll~ 11 group.

(G, .) ~ (Za, -l-:i).
]2. Let land g be two homomorphisms from the group (G, *) into the group (G', 0).
Define tlw fUlldioll h: G -+ (/' by
h(a) = 1(11) 0 g(a).
Rhow that. if t.l1I1 group (/',0) is ,'ommutative, then h ill also a homomorphism.
13. COIl~idcr the following two groups: (GI, *), where
GI = {RUIO, Raoo, II, V},
and the operation * "on~iHtli of following onllllyrnmetry of the IIlluare by another;

(02. 0). wlll'rl' (/2 I'ow.;ists of t Iw four fUlwtiollS on R' - {O:,
/1 (.c) = .1', 12(.1') = -.1', /:I(x) = I/x, 14 (x) = -I/x,

and 0 dl!llOt!'s fund-ional I,ompollitioll. Verify that (aI, *) ~ (G2, 0).
14. (liven I is a homomorphil:!m from a Aimple group (G, *) onto a group (G', 0). show
that, eith,'r (0, *) ~ (0',0) or e1lSe that I mUlSt be the trivial homomorphism.
15. Let (G, *) be an arbitrary group and i be the mapping of the set G onto itself
defined by ita) = a-I. for aK a E G.
a) Prove that the function i is a homomorphism if and only if (G, *) is com-
lllut,n.I,ivr..
b) Generalize thr. result of Examplo 2-49 to the following: if (G. *) is an infinite
cyeli() group, then A (G) = {io, i}.
16. Prove that any group (G, *) is isomorphic to some subgroup of its symmetric
group (Kym G, 0). rUint: Use Theurem 2-45.]
17. Obtain the group of left-multiplication functions eorresponding to the group
(Zli, +8) j set up the homomorphism which results in the isomorphism of these
groups.
2-7 THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS
In thill flectioll. we shall clifleuSS a number of lIignificant results having to do

wit.h the relationship bet-w('1'1l homomorphisms and quotient groupli. Of thesc.
Theorem 2-47, genl'rally known as the Fundamental Homomorphism Theorem
for Groups, iK perhaps the most crueia!' The importance of this result would
be difficult to overcmphnsizei in !1 scnse. all which follows thereafter may be
vicwed as an enumeration of its spccial cases and implications.
Throuylwut this lIection, / denotes a IwmomoTllhism from the group (a, *) onto
the group (G'.o). t.hat is. f(G) = a'. In order to simplify the statements of
104 OIlOUP TIIEOIlY 2-7
various tl\('or('m~, WI' shall frequently 1I0t troll!>l!! to spedfy this familiar open-
ing phm&. Ae('ol'dingly, unl('S!; Uwre is ('I('ar indicat.ion to the eontmry, any
rIf(~rel\(e to til!' fUIH'tionj i~ undel'Mtood implieitly t.o involve the aforementioned
hypoth('~ill.
W(~ h(gin wil II It proof of the Fnctor Theorem, stated here in a form beij!.
Huitl'd to 0111' immedinte needs.
Theorem 2-46. (Far/or Theorem). LC't (//,.) be a normal subgroup of
the group (0, .) l>uch that H ~ ker (f). Then there exiijts a unique homo-
morphism7: Gill -> G' with the property
1= 7 nntl/.
Prool. Before becoming explicit in the details of the proof, let us remind the
r('ad('r thnt the symbol nat/l designates the natural mapping of G onto GIH;
that is, natu: G -+ Gill with natH(a) = a. II.
To start. with, we ddine a function 1: GIH -+ G', called the induced mapping,
by taking
l(a. II) = I(a), aE G.
The first question to be raised concerns whether or not 1 is aetual1y well-defined.

In other words, it must be established that this funetion depends only on the
eoSC'ts of H and in no way on the partieular representative used. -To see that
thil> is so, SUppOIiC a H = b II. As the elemcnf,ij a and b belong to the same
('oset, the product a-I. b E H ~ ker (f). This means that
f(b) = j(a a-I b) = f(a) f(a- I b) = f(a) e' = f(a),
I\nd, by the mllnner in whieh 1 is defined, that
l(a H) = l(b II).

Hem'e, the function 1 is const.ant on the cosets of H, as we wished to demonstrate.
A routine computntioll, involving the definition of multip\i('lltion in (G I H, ),
shows 1 to be t\ homomorphism:
fa.H) (b.H =fa.b) .H)
= f(a. b)
= f(a) feb) = l(a II) l(b H).
Xext, we ohserve that for et\('h elenwnt a E G,
f(a) = l(a .11) = l(nntu(a = a natll)(a),

whl'nce the equality f = 7. lIatll. The proof is complet.l'd upon showing that
thil> fact.orization is uniqul'. Thms, l>UPPO:-;C also that f = Y lIat" for IIOmc other
0
2-7 105
fUlletioll (/: 0/11 -+ a' . But t.JWII,
7(a /I) = f(a) = (/ 0 nll.tll )(a) = g(a ll)
for nil a ill fl, Ji()] 1/. '1'111' irllitweci nlllppillg ] iK tllIr..ror() 1i('(~11 to hI' thl! Ollly
functioll from a/ /I to (J' lSutilSfying the equation f = ] natH' 0
Corollary. The function] is one-to-one if and only if ker U) s; ll.

Proof. What is required here is an explidt description of the kernel of 7:
ker (/) = {a. H I](a. H) = e/}

{a. H If(a) = e'l.
where, of CO\lI'8(', e' denotes the identity of the group (G' , 0). Another way of
saying the same thing is
ker (]) = {a. H I a E ker (J)} = natll(ker (f.
Now, from Theorem 2-40, a necessary and sufficient condition for 7 to be a

one-to-one mapping is that ker (]) = e .11 = H. In the present situation,
this eondition reduces to requiring that
natll (ker U = H,
. H.
whieh is equivalent to the inclusion ker (f) S;
In view of the equality f = 7 natll, the conclusion of Theorem 2-46 is

0
often described by saying that the function f can be factored through the
quotient, group (G/H, ) or, alternatively, that f can he factored by natH.
The followillg dillgmm muy help to elurify the relations umong the various
function!! :
G/H
What. we have just proved, ill effect, is that there' ('xi!lts one and only one
function 7 whieh makcs thilS triangle of maps commutative.
Example 2-50. Lct us eit.(~ a SI)(!cific instance of the Factor Theorem. Our
content.ion is that whenever the group (G', 0) is commutative, the function f
can nhvays he fadored t.hrough the commutator quotient group (G/[G, G), );
ot.herwise stated,
f = 7 natlo,o).
lOG (;)(WP TIIEOHY 2-i
For this, f'ollsidl'r allY ('Ollllllutator fa, 11J = a * b * a-I * /,-1, with a, II E G.
As a ('OIlS('q\l('IH'1' of till' ('OIltllllltativity of (0', 0),
f([a, b)) = [f(a),/(b)] = e',
so that [a, b] E k('r (f). 1'\ow, the ('omnlllt.at.or subgroup (0, G], *) is, so to
speak, the smallest subgroup of (G, *) to contain :\11 the commutators. Thus
we must ('OIl1'lude that [0, OJ C;;; ker (f). Having t.his inclusion, it is only neces-
sary to apply Theor!'1ll 2-1(i to obtain the dl'sired factorization.
Although WI' did Ilot I'xprl'ssly IWluire the information in {hp proof of Theorem
2-W, it Illight II(' poilltl'd out thaI til(' ilulw'l'd nlappinll:7 ('lllTil'M (;/11 ont~) till'
set (I'. 'fhi,.; is I'mdily ohtainable 1'1'0111 til(' defillition of 7 and t.hc fact f itself
is un onto fundion. To hp more Sl)('('ific, if a' E (;', thcn a' = f(a) for some
c1ellll'llt a in 0; h('III'I',
a' = f(a) = 7(a * II).
A rather simple obs('rvat iOIl, with far-reaehing implieations, is that whenever

II = k(')' (fJ, so t hat bot h t he FIl(~tor Tlworem and its eorollary are applicable,
f inclu('('s a nlllppinI!;JIIIUI('r ",hi('h (G/II, ) and (G', 0) arc isomorphic groups.
Thp cI iseu8sion of the for('l!;oinl!; paragraph may be ('onvcnicntly summarize(1
in the followillJ!; thN)f'I'Ill, a I'l'slIlt whi('h will hI' invoked rcpcnt.eUJy.
Theorem 2-47. (Fundamental Theorem). If f is It homomorphism from
the group (G, *) Ollto thp group (G', 0), t1K'n
(ajk('r (f), ) ~ (G', 0).
Remark. If in the statl'nl<'nt of the th!'Or('m, t.he word "onto" is replaced by

"into," the e'OIwlusion takl's t.!u' form (a/kcr (f), ) ~ U(G), 0).
Theof('1ll 2-47 is :ulmitt('dly rather t.Pehnical in nature and therefore perhaps
n hril'f I'xplallat ion of its signifi('atH'(, is in ordl'r. Ruppm;p t.hnt. (G, *) is nn
ullfalllilinr grollP WIIlISI' IIlw,bmi(' pl'Opl'lt.il'; W(~ wiHIr t.o (1t,t.('r11lill('. CI('nriy, if
(G, *) ('oHld hI' slroWII to hl' ilSolllorplri(' to SOIllI' well-known group (G' , 0),
then OUl' prohlplll is soh'l'd; for (G, *), h('inj!; a rl'plica of (0 ' , 0), would POSReISS
the SUIIlP alg('lmlil' Ht ruf'lurl'.
Anofiwr approaeh, whieh usually givl's a lcss completc picture of (G, *) is
t.o ('xamill(, itH illlngl's Ulldl'l' hOlllolllorphilillls. The (litrieult.y h('n~, of eOUrRI!, is
that wlH'1I t.IrI'SI' flllld iOlls fail to 1)(' onl'-to-one, not all t.hc alj!;(hraie properties
of the imag:<'s an' 1'('f\I'I'I('tJ in t h(' original group. For instance, it is quite possihle
for the ('()fIlIllH tilt ivl' law to hold ill :III illlag(~ group wit.hout (a, *) itself being
(:olllmutat iv('. TIII'or('1ll 2---17 assl'rts t.hat the images of (G, *) ullder horno-
rnorphisllIs (':111 II(' dllpli('atl'<! lip to isomorphism hy qllotil'nt I!;roups of (a, *),
III a S<'IIS(', it is not 1Il'('l'ssllry to go IwyollIl (a, *) to ohtaill all its illlages un<!l'r
homomorphic' lIlappinl!;s.
2-7 Tilt<: FUNUAMENTAL THEOREMS 107
Example 2-51. A simph', hut illuminating, example of f.he Fundamental

Theor(,1lI is flll"llislwci hy UII' I!;I'OIlJlS (Z, ~I ), ( 1, -I}, '), and thll homomorphism
J; Z -> :1, I}, where
fen) ={ 1 if n E Ze,
-1 if n EZ o ,
Hen', Ihe kern!'1 of J is I.IIC' sci. Z" so t.hat
Z /kcr(f) = Z /Z. = {Z., Zo}'
The FlIIuianunl.al '1'1\('01'('111 l.ill'n I!;lIarnntel~s thnt ( (Z., Zo}, ) and ( {I, -I}, ,)
Itrl! il'lIIll1rphi(! Jl:rllllps illlll'l'ci, t.hiH is flLirly I'viill'lIt fnull 1m inspection of
their multipliclLtioll tables;
1 -1
Z. Z. Zo 1 1-1
Zo Zo Z. -1 -1 1
Further, the proof of the theorem indicates that the function which actually 7
establil:lhm; thil:! iHOmorphil:lm (the induced mappinp;) is given by
7(Ze) = 7(0 + Ze) = f(O) = 1,

7(Zo) = Z(1 + Z.) = f(l) = -1.
Example 2-52. For n more Jl('netrntinp; exampll~, consider an arbitrary group

(0, *) and It fixed dlnwllt. a E (1, Deline the nmppinp; f; Z -> G by the rule
fen) = an, nEZ, It ill not difficult to chC(~k that f, so defined, is a homo-
morphie mapping from til!' :uldil ivl' group of intcgcrs (Z, +) onto the cyclic
subgroup a), *), Hence, by virtue of Theorem 2-47,
wherc, in t.he sitllation at hand,
ker (f) ~ (n E Z I an = e},

Now, t.WO pIIssihilit.i(s Ilril'' IU'l'orclilll!; 10 t.Iw mnl!;nit.Ilc1( of t.he kernel, tho
first hl'ing I hat kl'r (f) = :0;; ill other wordfol, an = e implies n = 0, Under
the ('ireulllstall(,!'s, (Z/kcr (f), ) is just t.he group (Z, +) itself. On the other
hand, if kC'I' (f) ~ (0], tlH'I'C I'xistH SOI1W least posilive iute-ger n for which
aft ~ f', 0111' ('lUI ('asily d('d\l('(~ fl'OIll this that k('I' (f) = (n), HO W(~ IlIlIst have
(Z/k('r (f), ) = (Z, .. -f .. ),
III Sll 11111 lal'y , til(' pr('('('dillg disellHsion reveals t.hat (I) if the 1!;(,lwmtor a ill of
infinite order, then (a), *) ~ (Z, +), and (2) if a is of finite order n, then
108 GROUP THEORY 2-7
a), *) ~ (Z .. , -III)' Tlwsc fads arc already familiar, of (~ourse, but thc
argument involved furnishes an alternative approach to Theorem 2-44.
The next theorem not only provides further evidence of the power of the
Fundamental Theorem, but is of independent interest sinee it gives additional
insight into the stmeturc of the quotient group (G/cent G, ). To prepare
the wny, it is 1\(!(~(,SS:U'y t,o <iigr('sl:! for Il. moment.
<:iv<!n It fixed d('nll'lIt. II of the group (a, *), define t.he nlllJlping CT tI : (J -+ a
by taking
for every x in G. I.('t, us obtain a few of the special properties of this (unction.
Finlt, CT" turns out to he a homomorphiHm: if XI, X2 E 0, then
CT,.(.fl * .1'2) = a * (XI * X2) * a-I

= (a * XI * a-I) * (a * Xl * a-I) = CTa(XI) * CTa(X2)'
The next. t.hing to noti('c is that CT a maps the set G onto itself; specifically, for
any e1<'n1<'lIt. ;r E G, CT "(a-I * x * a) = x. Filially, it can be proved that CT a is
actually a one-t.o-one function. For this purpose, assume CTa(XI) = CT 4(X2), so
that a * XI * a-I = a * X2 * a-I. The superfluous el('ments may be removed
through the e:tnc('lIation law, allowing us then t.o conclude that XI = X2. All
of these observations may be eonvenientIy summarized by saying-that
CT" E A(G).
Funetiow; of t.lw form CT tI, with a E G, are usually (:aIlcd inner automorphism8
of the groUJl (1, *); to he more preeise, CT a is the inner automorphism induced
by the elelllent a. For hrevity, we label the set of fum:tions arising in this
way by I(G):
I(a) = fCT" I a E G}.
In the ease of a commutative group, I(G) reduces to just the identity mapping
io = CT.. Thus, it is only when (G, *) is noneommutative that the notion
becomes meaningful.
Lemma. The pair (I(G),.) constitutes a group, known as the group of
inner aulomo/'phisms of (G, *); in fad., (I(G),.) is a normal subgroup of
(A(G), .).
Proof. The proof that, (I(G),.) is a group presents no difficulties; it consists
of nothinl!: more than noticing that whellever CT a, CTb E I(G),
In addition to disposinJ!; of the closure condition, thili relation also indicates CT.
is the iden! ity elemellt for the system and CT;I = CTa-l.
2-7 THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS 109
Regarding the second assertion, it suffices to show that if J E A(G), the

product J (I' a J- I is an inner automorphism. The argument proceeds as
0 0
follows: for each clement x in G,
(f 0 (1'" 0 rl)(x) = f((I'a(r1(X)

= f(a. rl(x) a-I)
= f(a) I(r\t f(a-I)
= f(a) x f(a)-I = UI(a)(X).
The reasons for earh of these steps are reasonably KClf-cvident, and the reader
should mnke Hure he ullderstlUuls them. What is Hignifimmt is that
f 0 U" 0 I-I = (l'/(n) E leG),
as was to be proved.
We are now in a position to obtain the result which has been our goal. Namely,
that the groUpH (G/I!ent G, ) and (I(G), .) refICmblll Clwh other in all essential
aspects.
Theorem 2-41. For each group (G, *), (G/cent G, ) ~ (I(G), .).
Proof. To begin, consider the mapping 0: G -+ /(G) whereby g(a) = u o That
this function maps G onto the set /(G) is quite plain. It is equally easy to see
that 9 is a homomorphism, since
.
g(a b) = (l'a.b = (l'a 0 Ub = yea) g(b), a,bE G.
The crudul IUipect of the proof is now to IdlOW that ker (g) = cent Gj once
this is done, the desired conclusion will follow immediately from the Funda-
mental Theorem.
III f,he clll;e at hand, t.he inlier automorphiHm U c serves as the identity clement
for the group (I(G), .). A('cordingly, the kernel of the function 9 is defined by
ker (0) = {a E G I o(a) = u.}

= {aEGlu a = ia}.
RI'ferring t.o the ddinition of p<)lInJif,y of funetions, we eonclu<ie that a E ker (g)
if and only if
a. x. a-I = x
for every x in G. But this is obviously equivalent to demanding the element

a be sueh that a x = x a for all x E at or what amounts to the same thing,
that a E ('(!nt G.
Returning to the gcneml development, once again let f be a homomorphism
from the group (G, .) onto the group (G', .). We have already noticed that
llD GROUP THEOUY 2-7
cvery subgroup (II, *) of the group (G, *) determines a subgroup (f(II), 0) of
the group (a',o). It. goes without saying that group theory would be eon-
sidernbly simplified if the subgroups of (a, *) were in a one-to-one eorre-
:-;pondelwe with t.hm' of (a', 0) in thill mamwr. Unfortunately, this need not
be the CIlHl'.
The !)ituation is refll'eted in the fact that if (II, *) and (K, *) arc two sub-
groups of (C, *) with 11 ~ K ~ II * kcr (f), then (f(II), *) = (f(K), *). The
quickest way to see this is to note that
f(lI) ~f(K) ~f(1I * ker (f)) = f(lI) of(ker (I) = f(II),
from ",hii'll Wl' infpr Ihat. all thc inclusions are actuuIly equalities. In essence,
we llre observing that diRt.inet RubRet.s of G may have the same image set in G'.
TIl(' diffieult.y in thc last paragraph could be remedied by either requiring
that kcr (I) = {e} or clse by narrowing our view to considcr only subgroups
(II, *) with ker (f) ~ II. In eith('r event., it followH I,hat
II ~ K ~ 11 * ker (f) ~ II,

yielding the subsequent equality II = K. The first of these aforementioned
('onditions has the eff'eet of making the function f onc-to-one, in which case
(a, *) llnd (G', 0) are isomorphic groups. The seeond possibility is the subject
of the next theorem.
We pallsc to establish a preliminary lcmma which will provide the kcy to
later success.
Lemma. If II is llny suhset of G such that ker (I) ~ II, then II = f-I (f(II).
Proof. Suppose the cl!'ll1!'nt. a is ill f-'(j(II), so that f(a) Ef(II). Then
f(a) = f(h) for HlHne choi('(~ of II. E 11. As the equation f(a) = f(lt) is equivalent
to f(a * It-I) = e', we have a * It-I E ker (f) ~ II. This implies a also belongs
to the set II ulld yield:-; the in('lu:-;ion f-I (f(II) ~ II. The opposite illdusion'
always holds (Theorem 1-7), whenl'e II = f-I(j(II.
Tim n'latinllHhip "I'IW('('II t.11I~ HII"I(I'OIl(l1l of (0, *) lun! Un~ suhgrou(l of (0', 0)
may he stall1I "" follow ... :
Theorem 2-49. (Corrcl!pllluience Theorem). There is a one-to-one corre-

spOndell('e between t,ho:-<e subgroups (H, *) of the group (G, *) sueh that
k!'r (f) ~ II and the HI'! of all subgroups (H', 0) of thc group (G', 0); spccifi-
('ally, /I' i:-< j!;iV!'n by Il' = f(H).
Proof. Let us first dJ('('k t hal the indj(at.ed correspondencc is onto. In other
words, if (II', .,) is any :-<lIbgroup of (U', .), we must. produce some subgroup
(II, *) of (a, *) with ker (f) ~ /I for whieh f(lI) = 11'. To !l.(!(omplish thill, it
is sufficient to take II = f- I (II'). lly Theorem :!-;m, the pair (j-I (II'), *) is
2-7 III
a subgroup of (a, Oo) and, sincc e' Ell',
l\Ioreover, t.hl' fund-ioll f hcing Itll OlltO IIlltppillg, I,he corollary to Thcorem 1-6
indicatcs thatf(j-l(II') = Il'.
Next, we vcrify that this corrcspondence is also one-to-one. To this end,
supposc (Ill, Oo) and (H2' *) are both subgroups of (G, Oo) with ker (I) ;;; H.,
kcr (I) ;;; H 2 and such that f(1I 1 ) = f(1I 2 ). According to the preceding lemma,
we then must. have
It follows that thc eorrespondence (H, *) <-> (J(II), 0) is one-to-one, thereby

completing the proof.
Tlw t.Il1'orl'lll llpplil!s, ill pllrt.il!ular, to I hp Ias(' ill whidl we st.art with It
normal :;uhgrollp (//, *) of (a, *) alii I lake f \'0 be the lIatural mapping
natu: G -> a/II of U onto a/ Il. Hinee ker (Ilntu) = Il, the conclusion is
modified slightly.
Corollary. Let (II, *) be a normal subgroup of the group (G, Oo). There
is a onc-to-one eorrC'spondenee b('t\V('CIl those subgJ"Oups (K, *) of (G, Oo)
Hu(~h that. II ~ K Ilnd thc set of all Hubgroups of the quotimlt group (a/II, ).
Before proceeding, it should be remarked that the Corf('spondence Theorem

remains valid if WI' replacc the teml ":subgroup" throughout by "normal Hub-
group." That is to say, there is also a one-to-one correspondence between those
normal subgroups of (a, *) which contain kcr (f) and the set of all lIormal
suhgroups of (a', 0). The addit.ional nrgunwnt needed to establish this fact is
left for the reader to supply.
Example 2-53. As nn application of these ideas, consider the following
statement: if (a, *) iH a finite I!ydie p;roup of nrlll'r n, tl\()n (0, *) hn.s cxaCltly
()III! suhgroup of ordl'! 1r/. for I'lldl positivI' c1iviHllr 1/1. of n !LIlli no oUlI'r
propl'r suhgroups. Alt.hough t.\lI'rl' is nothing vt'ry HllrpriHing about LhiH asser-
tion, our aim is to demonstrate it.s validity hy IIHing the corollary to the
Corresponuenec Theorem.
First observe that, sincc the groups (a, *) and (Zn, +n) are isomorphic, there
is np losH in generalit.y in working with (Zn, +n). Furthermore, as we have
poirill'd out 011 :several occasions, (Zn. -In) = (Z/(n), ). By the corollary,
we learn there is a one-to-one eorrespondelwe between those subgroups of the
group (Z, I) whi("h eontain the spt (n) and IIII' subgroups of (Zn, -hi).
Bul., the suhgroups of (Z, +) are jm;t the ('ydie subgroups m), +), where
m is It lIonnl'galive intpger. Comhining these rpsult,s, we arrive at the COIl-
c1u:sion then' is a one-to-one eorrcsponucnce bctween the subgroups of (Zn' +n)
and those subgroups m), +) of (Z, +) such that (m) 2 (n). This last in-
clusion occurs if and only if m divides n.
Tlw two ':olwluiling tlwOr'!IllH of thiH Kedion arc KOmewhat dl.'cper results
than U811111 IUIII rl''1l1ire the full forI".' of ollr necllmlllutcd machinery; thl!y
eOlllpriSl.' what un' oftl'n <:ulled the FirKt allli Second lliomorphilim Theorelllli
for Groups and are of great importanee in the study of group structure.
Theorem 2-50. If (II, *) is allY normal subgroup of the group (G, *) such
that ker (I) ~ II, then (G/II, ) ~ (G'/f(ll), /).
Proof. As a prefatory remark, we might point out that the corollary to
Theorem 2-30 implil's the pair (J(II), 0) is a normal subgroup of (G',o), so
thnt it. is I'l'rt.llinly J1l'rmiHMihlc to form f he quotient group (0' /f(II) , ').
Let us now define thl' function 7: (; --> 0' /f(J1) by
1= nat/Ol) f,0
where natf(ll,: 0 --> O'/f(lI) deRiglllLtes the naturnl mapping. The following
diagram helps to visualize the situation:
G'/I{H)
Observe that 1 nwr(ly ILssigns to (ach element a EO the coSet f(a) of(H) of
0' /f(II). Since both the functions f and nat/(II) are onto and operation-pre-
serving, the composition of these gives us a homomorphic mapping from the
group (G, *) onto the group (G'/f(ll), ').
The main line of the argument is to show that ker 0) = H, for then the
desired reRu!t. would be a simple eonl!l'quence of the Fundamental Theorem.
Now till! ililmtity dlmll'nt of (a' /f(lI) , ') iM jUHt the (:OKl.'t f(lI) = e' f(II).
This means the kernel of 1 ('onsists of those members of G which are mapped
by ] onto f(lI); that is,
ker m=:a E G I](a) = f(lI)}

fa E G If(a) of(H) = f(lI)}
= :a EO I f(a) Ef(H)} = f-I (J(ll.
As we Ilrt givI'n f.Imt, kl'f (f) ~ II, the lelllllll\ prm'eding Theorem 2-49 may b('
invoked t.o (,OIl1'lud(' II = f-I(J(ll. Hence, k('r (]) = H, which completes
the proof.
In applicat.ions of this theorem, we frmluently Htart with an arbitrary noml1l1
subgroup of (a', .) lind utilize inVl'rsc images rather than direct images.
2-7 1I:J
Corollary. If (II',.) is any normal suhgroup of the group (G', .), then
(G//- 1 (1I'), ) ~ (G'/H', ').
I'mo/. By the ('llrollul'y to Tlwllrmll 2--:m, nUl pair (f-I(lI'), *) iK I~ Ilornml
f:!lIhl(rIllip of (a, *). :'Itofl'llVl'r, kl'r (j) r;;/-I(II'), SIl 1.111' hYIlOUlC'siK of th(,
UIC'()J'('III is ('()/IIJ1h,tdy sut isfil'd. This leads to till' iSOIllOl'phiKIIl
Since / is a mnpping onto a', 1/' = /(j-I (1/', and we arc done.
Our final theorem, a rather technical result, will be crucial to the proof of
the ,Jor(lnll-Htildl'r Theorem.
Theorem 2-51. If (//, *) lUlU (K, *) an! KuhgroliPH of 1.1)(' KrouP (a, *) with
(K, *) llorllllLl,l.hen (II/II n K, ) ~ (11* K/K, ').
Proof. NeedlesH to Hay, it should be che(,ked Uu~t the quotient groupII appearing
in the stat.emf'llt of the theorem nrc actually definc'd. We leave to t.he reuder
the routine t.usk of verifying thltt (11 n K, *) ill U Ilormal Huugroup of (II, *),
I.hnt.-(II * K, *) is 1\ group, lUui that (K, *) h~ llorlllal ill (1/ * K, *).
Our proof is putt.erneu on t.hat of Theorem 2-flO. H(!I't~, the problem is
to construct a homomorphism (I from the group (Il, *) ont.o t.he quotient group
(/1* K/K, ') for whieh ker (I) = II n K, To n(,hil've this, cOllsili('r t.he
function (I(h) = It * K, It E /I. Note, II = II * e ~ /I * K, so that a can be
obtained by composing the inclusion map ill: /I .-. II * K with the natural
mapping natK: H * K .-./1 * ~/K. In other words,
or, in diagrammatic language,
H oK/K
The foregoing factorization implies a is a hOlllomorphismund a(l/) = /I * K/ K.

WI' next proceed to estahlish that. the kerlwl of a is precisely t.he sct II n K.
FirHt., obHl'rw I hut. tI\(' cosl'!. K = e * K K(,\'V('S as till' id(,lltit.y ('1(,llwllt of I,h(!
quotient gi'ouJI (1/ * K/K, '). This llIeans
ker (a) = [It E III a(h) = Kl = Ut E /lIlt *K = KJ

[It E /I lit E K} = II n K.
The required i~olllorJlhism is /lOW cvili('nt from t.he Fundn/lwlltal Theorem.
Example 2-54. As an illustration of this last result, let us return again to the
group of integers (Z, +) anrl consider the cyclic subgroups 3), +) and
4), +). Both these Imbgroups are normal, since (Z, +) is a commutative
group. Morc!Ovcr, it is fllirly obviolls tlmt
(:J) n (4) = (12) unu (a) -I- (4) = Z.
Th<,'orem 2-;;] then tells liS that
:J)/(]2), 0) ~ (Z/(4), 0'),
where 0 and 0' ucsignate the resp<.'ctivc quoticnt group operations.

TIm 1101 ntioll t"'IlIls to nhscnln,' t,IIP sintplil.ity (If ollr l'olldIlHion. For the
r('Iull'I' will duull!.ll'sl'l I'(,I'nll !.Imt (Z/(1J, ') il'l jill'll, til" grollp (If illl,egt.f/'I
modulo 4. A dOl'l(!r c'xlunillnt,ioll of I,hn C'Ol'l(,'tl'l ullci OpC!rlltioll in the sYHtmn
:1)/(12), ) n,'v('nls t.his to be not.hing more t.han the group ({O, 3, 6, 9}, +12).
Whtlt we ac:tunlly ImvIJ is n disguiseu versioll of the isomorphism,
PROBLEMS
1. Let (G, *) he the group of symmetries of the square and (G', oLbe the Klein
four-grouJl (see Examples 2-24 and 2-47). The following mapping defines a
homomorphism from (G, *) onto (G', 0):
I(RIKo) = I(R36o) = e, I(Roo) = I(R27o) = a,

1(11) = I( V) = b, 1(1)1) = 1(1)2) = c. /
a) Est.ablish the iHomorphiRm (G/cent 0, 0) ~ (0',0).
b) Write Ollt the indul:ClI mapping l: G/cent G --+ 0' which leads to this i.<ro-
morphism.
2, Prove the following gl'neralization of the Fa,.tor Theorem: I-ct" and 12 be homo-
mnrphislIIH from t.h" ~rnll" (fl, *) 11111.., the groUpH (aI, 1) and (02.2), I'CIIIMlC-
tively. If kl'r (I,) <:;; kC'r (h), HlI'n there exists a unique homomorphism]: GI --+ G2
HatiHfying h = l I,. DiaRrammati('ally,
G------------~--------~ ~
[Uint:
I,(a)
{St
E (/" !ldint'] fly lU,(a = h(a).1
/
G,
""arly the same argument a.~ for Theorem 2-46; that is, for any element
2-7 115
3. Decitl('l' the Fador Theorem from the result of Problem 2.

4. Given II. I!;roup (r., *), establish the followinl!; fads rl'l!;arciing the inner auto-
morphisms uf U.
II) \Vh"lIl'vc'" U:, *) is 1I11111Ollllllutut.ivc', 1(:) ~ (ill).
h) If (/1, *) is I~ suhl!;rollp of (a, *), tJ1C'1I tJI<' plLir (u,,(//), *) is also II. subgroup
for every a EO.
<") A slIhl!;rollp (//, *) is nurmal in (G, *) if anci only if the set II is mapped into
itsl'lf hy ,'ul'h illlll'r autolllorphislll of G.
tI) If till' Pi"lIIelit J' E a is stwit thut u .. (x) = x fur c'very (t E 0, tl\('11 the eyclil'
subv;roup x), *) is normal in (G, *).
5. Let. (G, *) bl' a v;rollp anI! t.he elements x, 11 E G. We Ray x is conjugate t.o II,
writtl'lI .r - !I, if (Lilli ollly if u .. (J') = !I for 1<01111' (/ E a. I'rovl' t.hnt, 1'lllljUl(lItillll
it< 1111 "'1l1ivlll"II1'1' nlllt ill" ill fl.
II. Oht.uill UII' illomorpldsm (S:I, 0) ....... (1(8 a ), .. ).
7. ASHlIme! is a homomorphism from t.he I!;rollP (0, *) into it.self having the propert,y
of c,ommllt illl!; wit.h cwnry inner automorphism of 0; that. is, u" o! = ! 0 u. for
every (t E a. If t.he set. /I is cldinecl by
11= {xE GI/(x) = x},

prove that
a) the pair (II, *) is a norma.l subgroup of (G, *),
b) the quotient group (G/II, ) is commutative. [/lint: [G, G1 ~ II.]
8. Let (//, *) be a normal suhl!;roup of the I!;roU[l (G, *). Further, let (KI, *) and
(K2, *) be 8ubl!;roups of (r., *).such that II ~ KI, II ~ K2. Prove that Kl ~ K2
if and only if nat II K I ~ na.tH Ii: 2.
n. (:iVI'/\ (0, *) is lhe I!;rollP of symlllet.ries uf t,llll sqllare. Exhihit thl' ('orrespolltl-
"11"1' hd.wenll t,hoSI' Imhv;rollps (II, *) of (a, *) wit.h I'I'nt. a ~ II allol UIIl HulI-
groups of (O/l'.Imt G, ),
In I'ruhlc'lIIl< 10 throu~h 14, I clc'lIotl''' a homomorphism from th(' group (a, *) onto
th" I!;I'Ollp (r.', 0).
10. Hhow that till' Flwtor Thl'on'lII implil's the flllH"tion I I,an hc' c'xPrl'ssl'd (non-
trivilllly) as t.11I' I'ompositioll of IlII ollfo flllH"tion Ilnd n Olll'-to-ow' flllll'tioll.
II. If (II, *) is 11 Hllhjl;fOllP of (G, *) for whil'h II = /-1(/(1/, vl'rify that. ker (f) ~ II.
[/lint: I-I (/(/1) = 11* knr (/).1
12. For 11 proof of Thl'orcllI 2-50 t.hat cloeH not depl'lId 011 t.lw Funclalllentlli Theorem,
defille thl' fundion g: 0/11--. a'/IUI) hy takinl!;
g(a * II) = I(a) 01(11).

G -----.!..-----
.. G' = fiG)
al Show that, g i" WI'U-oh'filll'd, ClIw-tn-OIlI',
opl'ration-pn'sprving, ancl onto G'//(II);
noff/H)
11('1\('1', (0/11, ) ~ (O'//UI) , '). notH
II) Estllhlish that g is thc' IIl1iqll(, mappinl!;
whi"h nUlk,'s till' ,!ingram at till' right 9
l'OllllHlltlltivl'. G/H-----=~---- G'/f(HI
13. If ker (J) k [G, G), prove that (G/[G, G), 0) ~ (G'/[G', G'), 0').
14. Suppose (/I, *) and (K, *) are normallluhgroups of the group (G, *) with II k K.
Prove that
a) (II, *) is a normal suhl{roup of (K, *),
b) (K/Il, 0) is a normal subgroup of the quotient group (G/II,0),
e) (G/II / K/II, 0') ~ (G/K, 0).
[llint: Apply Theorem 2-50 with natll and (G/ 11,0) replacing f and (G',o).)
15. Givcn (//,.) anti (K, *) are subwoups of the group (G, *) with (K, *) normal.
AsslIllling II n K = {eJ, derive the isolllorphism (II, *) ~ (1/ * K/K, 0).
16. In the Kymrnetric~ IotrOUp(S4, 0), Int the Ket K conHist of the four permutations
(I 2 4),
123 4
!l
( I 2 3 4),
2 I 4 3
(I 2 3 4)
3 4 1 2 '
(I 2 3 4).
432 1
a) Show that the pair (K, 0) is a normal subgroup of (84,0).

b) Establi!!h that (S4/K,0) and (8:1, 0) are hlOmorphic groups. [I/int: Define
1/ = {fE 841/(4) = 4} and use Problem 15.)
17. Let (G, *) and (G',.) be two groups with identity 'lements e and e', respectively.
Recall that th'ir direct product is the group (G X G', .), with the operation'
definE"d on the ('artesian product G X G' in t.he natural way:
(a, a') . (b, b') = (a * b, a' b')

for all (a, a'), (b, II') E aX G'. Prove the following statements:
a) If // = G X c' anti II' = eX G', 'then (II,) an(1 (II',) are both normal
Huhlotroll(lH of (0 X 0', .).
h) (1/,.) '"" (0, *) Ilnd (1/',.) ' " W', 0).
e) Every 1'\I'IIII'nt of /I eOlllllllltl'K wit.h I'very e\ellllmt of II'.
d) )':adl IIwmlJl"r of (/ X 0' ('un hi) ulliqul'ly CX(lrl'SKCd B.'< I.IH' product of an element
of /I hy an (\emnut. of 1/'.
e) (G X 0'/11, 0) ~ (II',) and (G X G'/II', 0) ~ (II, .). Derive these iso-
morphisms in two wayR: use the Fundamental 1hcorem, and then Theorem
2-51.
18. IlIwltrate the varioml parts of Probll'm 17 hy considering the direct product of
till, IotroU(lH lib, I :\) 1111.1 (Z4,1 4). In addition, Mhow that
(llint: (Z:l X Z4, .) ill a cyclic group of order 12.)

19. HU(I)!o,,!, (II, *) aud (/\, *) art' :mbgroU)!H of thn I{roup (G, *) such that
I) every c\1'1II1'nt of 1/ (ommuteli wilh I'vl'ry e1mnent of K,
2) nvery mClIlhcr of 0 can he IIllilfll!>\Y expfI.sliCd &'5 the product of an element of
/I hy an {,\l"llIl'llt of /\.
Pro\"(' that (0, *1 -.., (II X K, .).
2-8 THE JORnAN-HOLnER THEOREM 117
20. Illustrate the result of Problem 19 wit.h (Zu, -h), the group of integers modulo 6,
and the two subgroups ({O, 3}, +6) and ({O, 2, 4}, +6).
21. Prove that the Klein four-grouJl is isomorphic to (Zz X Z2, .).
22. Hhow that if 711 and n are relatively prime, then t.he direct product (Z .. X Z., .)
is a cyclic group of order mn.
2-8 THE JORDAN-HOLDER THEOREM
AM the !.it.!!! ill(lil~atn!!, the main PIlIlIOH(~ of thi!! brief Hedion ill to estn.hlish the
Higllifil'l1l1t. I1nt! hil>wrie .Jordan-Holder Theorem. For the sake of simplicity,
we Hhall lilllit Olll'lielV!'H tll 1,111' I'II..'~ of finite gJ'()\IJlH; 1.111' inl.l~J'(~Ht.ed fI~n.der ill
referred to n lIIore gmwrtll lreutnwllt in [WJ. BI!('nuSt~ the theormn is ruthel'
involved, it will be eOllvellicllt. to begin by introdueing t!Ollle special terminology.
Definition 2-30. By n. dlain for a group (G, *) il> 1II('l\nt any finite sequence
of SUhsetH of a,
(proper inclusions),
descending from G to {e} with the property that all the pairs (Hi, *) are
subgroups of (0, *). The integer n is called the length of the chain.
What we are really interested in, and henceforth IIhall confine our attention
to, are the so-called normal chains. These are chains in which each group
(Hi, *) is a normal subgroup of its immediate predecessor (Hi_\, *). For grouP!!
(a, *) with two or more clemellts there is always one normal chain, namely
the trivial e1uLin a:J (e) ; however, this may v(~ry W('lI be the only such chain.
Example 2-55. In UII' group (ZI2, +12) of intl'gl'l'li modllio 12, the following
('hnilU~
ure normal dmillH:
Z12:::> (Ii) :::> (O}, Z.2:::>(2):::>(4):::> (O},

z 12 :J (:J) :J (6) :::> (O}, ZI2:::> (2) :J (6) :J (O}.
All subgroups are automatieally normal, since (ZI2' +12) is a commutative

group.
Among other t.hingR, this pnrtil:ular exnmp!e indinnt.efll t.hat II. p;ivcn chain
lIIay be lellgthened 01' refined by the ill&!rtioll of admissable lIubl>Ct.!!. In tech-
nical terms, a second chain
0= Ko:::> Kl :::> ... :J K m- 1 :J K". = {e}

is said to h(~ It l'efinement of the (hnin
a= Hu:::>ll. J'" :::>Hn- I :::>lln = [e}

provided there exists a oJl(_~to-one function] from :0, I, ... ,n} into :0,1, ... , m)
118 mwul' THEORY 2-8
I'IlIl'h that If i ~~ K/(i) for all i. Whut w(~ :lrI~ rl'Cjllirillg, ill elT(!!'t., iH thltt every
If i ('oilH:idl' with OIl(' of the Kj. The lellgths of the foregoillg ehains mll!;t
('\I'urly l<at il<fy t hI' illl'quality 1/ ~ m, ('quality heing allowed Nilll'C every ('1m in
is trivially It rdin('nH'nt. of itself. A refinement, of a chain is termed proper if
the r!'filll'llll'lIt I'olltaills It set. llOt in the original dmin. A normal dmin which
hillS no propl'l' 11'fiIH'nH'nt. is l'ustonlUrily ('alled a eompol'lition ('haill. We IlUOI-
lIIariw all t.his ill tIll! followillg ddillit.ion.
Definition 2-31. In the gl'Oup (G, *), the descending sequence of sets
G = lin J III J' , . J 11 .. _ 1 J lin = {e}
fornls II (,(}1/I11II.~ilillll I'hain for (a, *) provided

1) (II;, *) is a l<Uhjl;l'OIlP of (a, *),
:!) (IIi, *) is a lIornml suhgroup of (IIi_I, *),
a) the indllsion Ili_1 ;2 K ;2 IIi, where (K, *) is a normal subgroup of
(IIi_I. *), impli('1'1 either K = Ili_1 or K = IIi.
Bl'forl' prol'l'l~d ing t.o dl'VI'lop SOITlI! of till' properties of composition chainN,
I('t us pausl' to I'oll:;id('r l<('v{'ral examples.
Example 2-56. In tIl!' jl;roup (Z24' +24), the norlllal ehnin
Z24 J (:!) J (12) J (O}
is IIOt. It l'Olllpo8ition I'hain, sinee it mlly be further refined by inserting either

of th(' s('h, (4) or i). On the other hand,
Z24 J (2) J (4) J (~) J (O}

and
Z24 J (:1) J (i) J (12) J {OJ
arl' hot It (lIlllpllsit.ion 1'lminN for (Z24, I 24)' One way of verifying this is to
dll'l'k t Iw ordefH of the l'Iuhgroups eOIl('crncd, For instalw(!, to inscrt, a tmbset
b('t.w('t'n (2) and (4) 111('1'(' would have to exil'lt a suhgroup of (Z24' +24) of order
n, Ij < n < I:!, s\II'h that n divides 12 and is it.self divisihle by (i; clearly no
slIeh l<uhp;l'OlIp ('xistl<.
Example 2-57. For':l ~('('OI\(1 iIIust.ration, let (G, *) he the group of symmetries
of till' sIl"an'. III fhil'l ('nl<!', the following S<'C\II(,IWC of sets serves as n composition
.. hain:
(J J : I( I so. I(alll), fl, V} J : Hallllt Il} J .[ H:IIH1}.
It is worth lIutill/( that tIll' slIhjl;l'OllP (:/(:1110. II:, *) is no\. 11111'1111\1 ill till' pnrl'llt,
P;l'OllJl (1, *), bllt only ill its illulH'diaLt' PI'('III'('(I'ISiIl'.
2-8 'rIlE JOnDAN-I10LD~;lt THEOHEM lin
A normal ('IUlin for (G, *) which fails 1.0 Ill' a ('oIllJlosit.ioll ehain is
This ('huill admils allY olle of Ht'vt'ral I,t'finemellts; among others, tlwre is
Example 2-58. To see that not every group possesses u composition chain,
merely ('onsider the additive group of integers (Z, +), We have previously
observed that til(' normal subgroups of (Z, +) are the c:yclic :subgroups (n), +),
II It nOlllll'gal iv(' intl'gPl', Rinf't' til(' i!lf'lUHiCIII (kn) <;;;; (n) holdH for nil k E Z+,
th('n' always ('xisls It PI'OJl('I' suhgroup of any J!:ivell J!:roup. Aecordillgly, each
dillin for (Z, I) Illay 1)(, rdilled ilult'finitt'ly,
Condilion (3) of Definition 2-:n merits e\OS('f attcntion, Looscly speaking,
it prohibits liS from sql\('ezing U normal suhl/:roup hl'tween (l/j_l, *) and (H j , *),
Th<'l'c is a sl)('cial tC'rminoloJ!:y for this situat ion.
Definition 2-32. A norIllal suhgroup (1/, *) is cl1lled It maximal nurmal
SUbyJ'OllJl of tl\(' group (G, .) if H ~ G and ti1l'rc exists no normal subgroup
(K, *) of (G, .) such that II eKe G,
III terms of I.his IWW notion, a chain
is a composition chain for (G, *) if each subgroup (Hi, *) is a maximal normal

subgroup of (lI i - h *),
We :should point out that. Definition 2-:t~ doe8 not, imply (H, *) is maximal
in the sense of being the 8ubgroup of (G, *) with largest order, A given group
may well have many distinct maximal normal IlUbgroups of various orders.
Indeed, ill the group (Z24' +24), the eydie subgrouJls (2), +24) and (a), -h4)
Ilrc hoth maxirnal/lorllllli with orfi('rs 1~ ami x, rps(lpdiv('ly.
The II('Xt. th('orelll dev('lops the eOIlIlI'('tioll ht'twl'ell It maximal nOl'mal sub-
grouJl and its Ils,'>o('iat.ed quotit'lIl. group, For this, r('('all that 11 group is said
to h(' Hilllple if !.IH' ollly lIorlllal subgroups Ilr(' t he two trivial OI1(,S,
Theorem 2-52. A normal subgrouJl (H, *) of the group (G, *) is maximal
if and only if the quotient (G/lI, ) iH simpl('.
Proof. This result follows immediately from the COI'I'(,Hpondence Theorem, We
saw that to elU'h norlllal subgl'oup (K, *) of (G, *) with /l <;;;; K there (~orre
s(lollds a lIorllllll subgroup of t.h(' quoti('nl group (G//I, ) and I.his ('OI'I'('spond-
I'IH'(' is 011('-10-011(', 111'11('(', (//, *) is III:txilllal lIorl11al ill (a, *) if awl (lilly if
Ih('f'(' al'(' ('xndly two 1I0\'llwi Huhgl'Oups in (0/11, ), Ihp ('/llin' v;rnup Ilnd the
idl'llt ily subJ,(l'Oup,
120 2-8
C('rtainly all till' quotient groUpH (Hi_.! 1/ i, ) of a composition chain are

simpl('. Conven,l'ly, any normal chain who!!C quotient groups are all simple
groups is not suhj('d 10 further rpfinemcnt and is therefore a composition chain.
Not evpry j!;rouJl ('ontains a muxinml normal suhgroup, so we eannot always
find a ('ol11position chain for a given group. However, in the case of finite
groups, th(')'(' iH the following result.
Theorem 2-53. Ev('ry finite p;roup (0, *) with more than one clement hUH
a cOlllpoHit ion chain.
Proof. If (a, *) is a simpl!' group, then till' tI'ivial chain O::J {e} iH a com-
posit ion I"!tain. HUJlPos!' (a, *) iH not simple, so t.hat. there exists a normal
suhgroup (II, *) 1111"1'(' may he s(~veral choil:l'H for (/I, *). If (/I, *) it! maximal
in U;, *) nnd (:1': , *) is maximal in (II, *), t.hplI
is n composition ('hnin, and we are through. When (H, *) iSllot already maximal
normal, a Illrger normal subgroup (K, *) with 1I eKe G exists. Now, if
(H, *) is maximal in (K, *) and (K, *) is maximal in (G, *), a::J K::J H ::J {e]
is the <i('sin'lI I'ompositioll chain. Cont.inue to argue along these lines. Sinc'
U:, *) is finitl', t1l1're ar!' only a finit.P lIumber of subgroups and thit! procel:l..'i
must ultimatl'ly tNminat!'. The rCHulting ehain of sets is obviously a com-
position (hain for (0, *).
Definition 2-33. Two composition chains for the group (G, *),
G = 1I0::J HI ::J ... ::J II n _ 1 ::J lin = {e}

and
(} = Ko::J KI ::J ... ::J K m_ 1 ::J Km = {e},
are t('rmcd cquil'aicnt if th'y II/we the same length (n = m) and there exists
1\permutation f E Sn Hueh t.Imt
i = 1,2, ... ,no
In oth('r wOrill', two ('huills ILre equivl1l('nt if t1wir assoeiat!'d quot.ient groups
are isolJlorphi(~ in Snlll!! order.
We are now in a posit.ion, hnvinj!; I1ssemhled the n('C(!HHury machinery, to
att ack the .J()fIlan-IIoldl'r Theon'lll. To simplify our prcsentation, part of the
proof iH scparated I1H u preliminary lemma.
Lemma. If (1/, *) alld (K, *) art' distilwt. maximal normal subgroups of the
p;rollP (a, *), thl'\I
1) t.lU' pair (II n K, *) iH II nmxinl:ll 1I()J"llIul ~lIh~r()lIp of bo\.h (II, *) ami
(K, *),
2) (a/II, ) '" (K/II n K, ) and (O/K, ) ~ (ll/ll n K, ).
2-8 THE JOIU):\:\I-1I0LUER THEOREM 121
J>1"OIIf. Since the suhgroups (11, *) and (K, *) arc both normal, the pair
(II * K, *) is ilHl'lf a normal suhgroup of (G, *) [Problem 11, Section 2-5].
Plainly, we have the ill('lusion II ~ H * K ~ G. By hypothesis, the subgroup
(II, *) is maximal norlllal in (G, *), which implies either H * K = H or
H * K = G. Our eontelltion is that H * K = G. Were this not the case, the
equality }[ * K = H would mean K ~ H (with K ~ II), contradicting the
m:tximlllity of (K, *); therefore, the only possibility left us is that G = H * K.
A stmightforwunl applieation of Theorem 2-51 now establishes the iso-
morphislll (G/K, 0) ~ (II/II n K, 0). But the quotient group (G/K, 0) is
asilllpll' gmup (ThporPIIl 2-!i2),!lO the same must also he true of (H/H n K, 0).
Fmlll I,his, w(~ condudp the group (/1 n K, *) is maximal normal in (H, *),
again ut.ilizillg Tlwol'l'lJI 2--!i2.
If the ldlns /I and K arc interc1umged, the symmetry of the hypothesis
yields the r('/uuining parts of the lemma.
Theorem 2-54. (Jordan-Holder). In a finite group (G, *) with more than
one element, any two composition chains arc equivalent.
Proof. The proof wiII proceed by induction on the order of the group. If (G, *)
is simple, the only pOllsible composition chain is the trivial chain G::) {e}, so
the t1wol1'm is cert,ninly true. This estahlishes the result for groups of order 2,
the I:!mullest admissible order. III general, let
G = Ho::) HJ ::) ... ::) H .. _ 1 ::) Hn = {e} (1)

and
(J = Ko:> Kl :> ... ::) K m_ 1 ::) Km = {e} (2)
be any two composition (~hnins for the group (G, *). Assume further that the
theorem holds for all groups having order less than that of (G, *). We dis-
tinguil:!h two easel:!:
('A~m I. III = K I. In this ('asc, if the Sl't. G is deleted from (1) and (2), the
rcsuItin/l: ehllins
anel
III :>K 2 :> ::)K m_ 1 ::)Km = {e}
hoth r('pre~ent (~()/IIJ1()silioll ehains fOI' the I:!uh/l:roup (Il" *). As the theorem
is as!';lIllll'd true for (// t, *), whose order is l(~ss than that of (G, *), these two
chains are necessarily equivalent. But (G/llt, 0) = (G/K l , 0)j hence, the
given I'Omposit.ion ehains (1) and (2) lIlust, also be equivnlent.
(' AHE 2. II. ~ K I' Eilhpr II, n KI = k!, 0" hy Th('Orp/ll 2-53, t.here exists
a ('ompositioll chain
Il, n K, ::) 1-, :> ... ::) 1-r _, :> l"r = {e}
122 mlOt1P TIII';()(lY 2-S
for the tmbgroup (Ill nK 1 , . ) . Now, a(~(~rding to the lemma just estab-
lished, (H InK 10 .) is a maximal normal subgroup of both (H 10 .) and (K 10 .).
It then follows that the two chains .
nJlli
(4)
are actually composition chains for (G, .). ApJX'aling to the lemma once more,
we see that
and
Hence, the eomposition quotient groups ohtained from (:l) are isomorphie in
pail"!! to those ohlllilwd frolll Uw e1min (4); let Ul! ngrcll to ubbrcviate tlii"
situation by writing (;) ~ (4).
Next, consider the following two composition ehains for the group (G, .):
and
Since these ehains have their first two terms in common, we can concludp
from case 1 that they must be equivalent. In a like manner,
and
are equivalent dmins for (G, .). Combining our results, we observe that
(1) ~ (:l) ~ (4) ~ (2),

from whieh it follows that the original chains (1) and (2) are equivalent.
Let us quickly review what has just been learned. First, the preceding theorem
implies that the composition chains of a given finite group (G,.) must all be
of the same length. !\[oreover, by means of the quotient groups of any sueh
chain, we are able to assoeiatl' with (G, .) a finite sequence of simple groups.
Up to isomorphism, these simple groups depend solely on (G,.) and are in-
dependent of thl' partil'ular eomposition ehain from which they were originally
obtained. The important. point is that the composition quotient groups will
to some dl'grce mirror the properties of the given group and provide a hint
to its algebraic strueturc.
2-8 123
Example 2-59. To illustrate the ,Tordall-lIolder Theorem, eOlll:!ider the group

(Zoo, -ho) of int('gerl:! modulo 60 Ilnd t.he two composition chains:
Zuo J (:l) J j) J (12) J {O},

7,'1111-) (:!) -) (Ii)-) (an) ~ :n}.
After suitable rearrangement, thc il:!omorphic pail'l:! of composition quotient
groups are
(Zao/(a), ) ~ 2)/(f, ),
a)/(f, ) ~ (Z6o/(2), ),
(j)/(12), ) ~ 30)/{0}, ),
12)/ {O}, ) ~ 6)/(30), ).
All th('s(' flHOt.icllt, groUpH nrc simpl!', heing nYI'lie' groups of prime order: the
first pair of iHolllor"hil' groupl:! iH of ol'llel' a, the HI~eOlI(I pair of Imler 5, while
the remaining groupl:! are all of order 2. Note that the product of all these
orden'! is HO.
We 1I0W take a brief look at a wide c\al:!s of groups which contains, among
others, all eommutative groups.
Definition 2-34. A group (q, *) il:! solvable if it has a normal chain (possibly of
length 1)
G=HOJHIJ"'JHn_lJHn= {e},
in which every quotient group (Hi_dH i , ) [i = 1,2, ... , n] is com-

mutative. AI:! a matter of language, we shall call such a chain a solvable
chain for (G, *).
It should be clear at onec that all commutative groups (G, *) with more
than one element arc Holvltble, sinee in this ('/tRe, the trivial chain 0 J {e} is
It solvable ehain. A:; IllI ('xum"le of It lloncomJl1utative solvable group, one need
only eOIlHidl'r the symllletri(' group Oil three' :;ymbols, (Sa, 0); here, a solvable
chain is
Sa ~ {C ~ :), G: D' G~ ~)} ~ {(~ : :)} .

Reccntly, W. Fcit and ,J. Thompson succeedcd in proving the long-standing
eonjecture that all fillite groups of odd order arc solvable. Thus, if we are
interestcd in nonsolvable groups, t1wy will be found among the noncommutative
groups of evell order.
SOllie bal:!ic properties of solvable groupl:! arc given in our next theorem.
Theorem 2-55. If (0, *) is It solvablc group, then every subgroup of
(G, *) is I:!olvahlc and evcry homomorphic image of (0, *) is solvable.
124 catoUl' TlU:OItY 2-8
Proof. Let
G = Ho:::> HI:::>' .. :::> H n_ 1 :::> Hn = {e}
be a fixed solvable chain for (G, .). Given a subgroup (K, .) of (G, .), define
Ki = K n Hi Ii = 0, 1, ... ,nJ. We intend to prove that the chain
K = Ko:::> K 1 :::> :::> K n_ 1 :::> Kn = {e}
is a Rolvahl{' chain for th~ subgroup (K, .). First, observe that the pair (K i , .)
is Illlorlllul ~lIbJ(I'OIlP of (K i _ h .); in fact., for each a E K;-h
(f. Ki a- I = (a. K i a-I) n K
S;;; (a. IIi. a-I) n K ~ IIi n K = Kj.
Also,
K; = K n IIi = K n l1 i_ 1 n IIi = K'_ 1 n Hi,
so Umt
According to Theorem 2-51, we have the isomorphism
But the quotient group (K i - 1 Hi/Hi, 0) is commutative, being a subgroup

of the eomlllutlltive group (l1i_dIli' 0). This implim! all the quotient groups
(Ki_dK j , 0) are commut.ative, as required.
As for tlH' :-;"(""1(1 pnrt. of thl~ t1wormn, let f he a homomorphism from thl!
group (0, .) Ollto t.he group (G', 0). Setting Il~ = f(lI i ) [i = 0,1, ... nJ. we
obtain a chain for (G', 0):
G' = H'o:::> Ht:::>:::> H~-l:::> H~ = {e}.
By the corollary to Theorem 2-39, the subgroup (H~, .) is certainly normal in
(HLI, .). What little diffi(:ulty there is arises in showing the corresponding
quotient group (HLdH~, 0') to be commutative. For this, we define mappings
k Hi_dHi --+ lI';-dm hy taking
fiCa Hi) = f(a) H~, a E Hi-l (i = 1,2, ... , n).
It is easily seen that f; is well-defined; indeed, if a. Hi = b Hi, then
a-I. b E Hi, hence
f(a)-' feb) = f(a-' b) E f(H i) = H~,

which, in t.um, implies
f;(a IIi) = f(a) Ht = feb) 0 H; = f;(b. Hi).
2-8 TilE JOIU)AN-HOI.ln;H TIlEOREM 125
Next, note that each/; is itself a homomorphism; for if a, b E Hi-I,

f;a*H i) 0 (b*H i =j;(a*b*Hi) =f(a*b)oH~
= f(a) feb) m = (I(a) m) 0' (f(b) Hn.
0 0
Finally, because fell;) = 1I~, the function /; maps onto the set H~_dH~. From
th('Hll faetH, W(l ILre ahle to eondu<ie tlllLt
nnd, Hitu!I' (II j . ./11 j, 0) iH n 1()llllllut.nt.iv(' gnlllJl, HlI niHIl iH t.l1Il (Iuot.il'llt. group
(II~-I/lli, 0').
Corollary. If (a, *) ill Hotvabte and (H, *) is a proper normal subgroup of

(G, *), then the quotient. group (G/II, 0) is solvable.
In the way of a convcl'flC to this throrcm, we prove
Theorem 2-56. )Alt. (II, *) hll a lion trivial normal suhgrouJl of (a, *). If
hoth (II, *) atlll (a/II, 0) arll solvabl<l groups, t,hCII (a, *) is ih!clf 1!Olvable.
Proof. To begin, let
G/H = Kl,:::> K1:::>"':::> K~_I:::> K~ = {e * H}

be a solvable chain for the quotient group (G/H, 0). Using the Correspon-
dence Theorem, we obtain a ,sequence of sets
G = Ko:::> K 1 :::>:::> K"_I:::> K,. = H

dL'Scllnding from (J to II with the prop(lrty that (K;, *) is a normal subgroup of
(K i - 1 , *); in fact, Ki = nati?(Ki). Furthermore, by Theorem 2-50,
(Ki-tlK;, 0) ~ (K~_dK~, 0'),
so that the quotient group (K i _tlKi ,0) is commutative. Since (H, *) is
solva},)(!, it haH a solvabl(! ehain running from H to {e}, say
11 = H o :::>H 1 :::> :::>H"'_1 :::>Hm = {e}.
By stringing t.heHll Hl'qlll!necll of setl! togcther, we can eonstruct a solvable
ehain for (G, *):
G:::>K 1 :::>, :::>K"_1 :::>H:::>Hl:::>'" :::>Hm_ 1 :::> {e},
Therefore, (G, *) is a solvable group.
In conjunction, Theorems 2-51> and 2-.')6 tell us that if (11, *) is a nontrivial
normal Hubgroup of (G, *), then (G, *) is a solvable group if and only if both
(II, *) and (a/II, 0) art' HlIlvahlll gt'OllpH. The d"dHion r('garding Holvability
is oft.en facilitated by this criterion.
126 WIOI'I' I'll EOH\" 2-8
TIl(' following I Iwort'llI giv('s fUl'tiwl' illsight. illlo t.he lIatuJ'(~ of t.hc c'omposit.ion
('hains for 11 fillile solvahle group.
Theorem 2-57. Ld (0, *) he a finite solvable group. Then the quotiellt.
groups of nny (omposition chnin for (a, *) nrc ('yclie groups of p"ime or<1c'l'.
Proof. \Vc pro('cl'cI by induetion on the order of (G, *). If order G is a prime,
there is nothing to provc), sinee G ::::> :e~ is the only c~omposit.ion ('hain. (This
remark takes carC' of I he basis for the incluetion when order (] = 2,) In the
contrary <'a~C, (G, *) has a nontrivial, normal ~ubgroup (II, *), [Why?] By thl'
induct.ion as!-mmption, (II, *) ancl (0/11, 0), being solvable, have composition
chains whose quot.iPllt groups are of prime orciN: say, the dmins
If=lIo::::>lI'::::>'''::::>lIn_I::::>lIn= {e}
ancI
0/11 = K;)::::> K; ::::> .. ::::> K:"_l ::::> K:" = {e * ll}.

Taking Ki = nat H' (Ki) [i = 0, 1, ... , m], it follows from Theorem 2-49 that
G = Ko::::> KI ::::>.,'::::> K"'_l::::> Km = H,

where (K j , *) is a normal subgroup of (K i _ 1 , *), As before, Theorem 2-[>0
implies
(Ki_dKi, 0) ~ (K~_dK~, 0'),
when!'e (K; __ I//(;, 0) iH (c'yC'lic') of prillI(' order, Hooking theRe sequnllceH

togethl'r, we ohl aill (aftc~r r(,IIIClvillg the H('c'cII\(1 oeeurrellce of II), a composil,ioll
c,hain for (0, *), all of whosc~ quotient groUpH are c'yelie groUpH of prime order.
By the ,Tordl\lI-l WIder Theor('m I he same is true of every eomposition chain.
ilcfore eOlH'luclilll!; Uw \lI'(,:';1'1I1. H('C'tiOll, \ct Ull :.;t.nt.1' n fcw I'('!mlts, omitt.illg
t1wir proofs. WI' hav{' :.;eclI that ev{'ry pC'rmutation in Sn (n ~ 2) can be written
III' a product of tmllspositiolls. While this expl'<'ssion is not unique, the number
of transpositions o((urrin/!: in the various representations for a given permuta-
tion is always (,VC'II 01' IIlwllYS odd. AC'l'ordingly, we define an Cl'en (odd) per-
mutation ns olle whic'h ('lUI hI' (>xprel"llcclas thc product of an even (odd) number
of transposil ions.
If A,. c\pnoll's t hI' I'<uh:.;et of Sn ,"onsil'<linl!; of all even permutations, then it
Illay he showlI Ihat (A n, 0) i:.; a lIormal suhgroup of index 2 in the symmetric
I!;roup (S", 0); thi:.; suhgl'Oup is tlH' :,;o-('allecl altemaliny yroup on n symbols.
:\Iore imporlanl :.;Iill is the relpbmtcd facl. that for n ~ I) (An, 0) is a simple
group. As s\lC'h, it:.; only normal c'hail! i:.; thl' triviul chain An::::> {e}, We are
thus led 10 ('onduc\e that for 11 ~ Ii (A,,, a) is a solvllhle group if Illld only if
(An' 0) is eommutative. f)ince
(1,2,3) 0 (1,2, 4) ~ (1,2,4) 0 (1, 2,3),

2-8 THE JOIWAN-HOLUJo;R THEOREM 127
the alterrmtilljl; grouJl (An, 0) fails to be commutative for n ~ 4 and hence is

illKolvable for n ~ 5. The Kignificallce of thill obllervation lies in the fact that, by
Theorem 2-!l5, the Kymmctrin group (8", 0) cannot be solvable when n ~ 5.
Tho foregoing remarks may be stated as a theorem.
Theorem 2-58. If n ~ 5, then (8",0) and (An' 0) are not solvable groups.
PROBLEMS
1. Check that the following chains represent composition chains for the indicated
group.
a) For (Zafi, +:m), the group of intcgerH modulo 36:
Zao:) (a) J (9) J (18) J (o}.
b) For (G, *), the group of symmetries of the square:
c) For a), *), a cyclie group of order 30:
d) For (83,0), the symmetric group on 3 symbols:
2. Find a composition chain for the symmetric group (84,0). [Hint: Consider the
Imt of pcrmut,ations on p. 80.)
3. Show that no infinite cyclic group possesses a composition chain.
4. Prove that if (G, *) is a finite cyclic group of order 2", then there is exactly one
('om position ('hain for (G, *).
5. D!'rive the result: if the quotient group (G/ll, ) is of prime order, then (H,.)
is a maximal normal subgroup of (G, *). [Hint: Use the Correspondence Theorem.)
6. Prove that the <:Y('!ic :mbgroup n), +) is a maximal normal subgroup of (Z, +) if
and (lnly if n hi a prime number.
7. Establish that the followinl!; two composition ehains for (Zu, +24) are equivalent:
Z24 J (3) J (6) J ~12) J {O},
Z2.' :) (2) :) (4) J (12) J {O}.
8. Find all COmI)()Rition chains for (a) the group (Zao, +:10) of integers modulo 30,
(h) tIll' group of llymml'tril'" of the llquare, and verify t.he Jordan-Hold!'r Theorem
in both (:ases. [/lint: There are four composition chains for each group.)
128 GROUP Tln:OIlY 2-9
9. Apply the .Jordan-Holder Theorem to the group of integerR modulo n to prove that
a positive integer n may be factored uniquely (apart from the order of the factors)
into. positive primes.
10. Ll't (n, .) be t.he dirl'd prodlll"t nf three nont,rivial groups (nk , *k) Ik = 1,2,3);
that ill to Hlty, G = GI X G z X (fa wit.h t1w biliary oIK,mt.ioll . (Idillcd by
(a, h, c) (a', b', e') = (a *1 a', b *2 h', C *3 e').
a) Verify that
G => f, X G2 X Ga => el X e2 X Ga => el X e2 X ea

if! a normltl ('hain for (0, .).
h) If thc oril!;illal II.rollJlK (h, *k) arc Kimple, prove that the forcl!;oing chain mUllt
be a composition chain for (G, ').
c) State and prove an analogous result for n groups.
II. Suppose (II, *) is a proper normal slIhgroup of the group (G, *) and
is a composition chain for (G, *). Prove that

G/ II => K Ii II:; ... => KrlH => {II}
reprl'sen\.s n l"olllposition rhnin for the quotient group (G/II, ).
12. Show that the symmetric grouJl (84,0) is solvable.
13. Prove that if (G, *) and (G',o) are solvable groups, then their direct product
(G X G',') is also a solvable II;roll)l. [llint: Problem 17, Hedion 2-7 and Theorem
2-56.)
14. Let (II, *) and (K, *) be solvahle suhgroups of the group (G, *), with (II, *)
normal in (0, *). Verify that the subgroup (11* K, *) ill alHo Holvahlc.
15. Prove that a Himple grollp with more than one clement j,,; solvable if and only if
it is of prime order.
16. Establish the following facts concerning the alternating group (.1 .. ,0), n ~ 3:
a) (..tn, 0) is generated by the set of aU3-cycles.
b) Order An = n!/2.
c) (.4 n ,0) is the commutator subgroup of the symmetric group (8n , 0).
2-9 SYLOW THEOREMS
As noted earlier, if m divides n, we eannot he certain that a group of order n

will possess at leuHt one suhgroup of order m. To be sure, under special eir-
cumstanees (for example, given a finite eyc:lie group) it is true that such sub-
groups always do exist. In general, the problem of finding subgroups of a
preserihed order in lin arbitrary finite group is one of eonsiderable difficulty
and constitutl's the subjeet. matter of this, our final section on group theory.
We begin with a quick survey of a numher of results, some previously en-
countered in the exereises, whieh will playa prominant role in the sequel.
2-!I 120
If (H, *) is a subgroup of the finite group (G, *), the illdex of H in G was
d~fined to be the number of distinet left cosets of H (ill light of Problem 3(e),
Section 2-1), the numher of right eoscts of H in G is the same as the number of
Icft C'Oscls, so I hc'r!' is no 1I('('d to dist inJl;uish b!'tw('cn It right IUlclleft index). To
silllplify t.1I" Wl'il illl!; lall'l' 011, WI' sllllll IlI'rI'llfll'l' n~pl'l'l'Il'lIl. til" illdex ur II in a
hy [a: HI. Sin!!!! the ord(!r of the group (G, *) may be interpreted as the index
of the trivial subgroup (re~, *), one might, ill keeping with the foregoing
notation, write order 0 = [G: e). We shall not employ this convention, how-
ever, hut instead conform to the praetiee of denoting the order of (G, *) by the
symbol 0(0).
For any I'IlIhJ!:l'OuJI (IT, *) of tIll' /l;roU(I (0, *) IlllclllllY ('IC'lIl1'lIl, a E a, consider
the followilll!; I'IlIhsl'l. of (,:
a * II * a-I = fa * It * a-I I hEll}.

If x alld 11 arC' memh/'l'H of a * II * a-I, there exist.
x = a * hi * a-I,!I -.-. a * h 2 a-I. Thlm,
"It h2 E H for which,
whprc', sin!!(' (IT, .) is a subgroup, the p ro<i II ('f. hi * It:; I E II. But this mellns
X*y-I Ea*lI*a- l , so that (a*ll*a- I ,*) is its('lf a subgroup of (G,*).
We are thus led to the next theorem.
Theorem 2-59. If (H, *) is a subgroup of the /l;roup (G, *) and if a E G,
t.Il1'lI t.Il1' pair (n * IT * a-I, *) is al::;o a sllbgl'OllJl of (a, *) c~alled the conjuyate
sub(Jroup of (II, *) itll/w'l'Il by the element fl.
If a * II * a-I = II for sonw a E a, Wl' say that the :-mhgroup (II, *) i::;
invariant, or sdJ-conjullatf:, under a. AllY sllbgl'Oll(l i::;, of COUfsc, illvlu-illnt
under each of it::; own clements. From this definition, it is immediate that the
eoneept of It nornml ::;ubgroup can be arrived at in an alternative way: a sub-
group (/I, *) i::; normal in (G, *) if and only if (H, *) is invariant under each
clement of G. \
Observe also that conjugate subgroups are i::;omorphic. If (a * H * a-I, *)
is It conjugate subgroup of (II, *), define J: II --> a * H * a-I by taking
J(h) = a * h * a-I; then J is all i::;olllorphism.
Now, if (K, *) is any other subgroup of (G, *), we may cert.ainly c~onsider
those element::; of K under which (IT, .) is invariant; in ot.IH'r words, the spt
N K(I/) = {k E K I k * H * k- I = l/}.
The rt'adpr Hhould provp t.he theorem below.

Theorem 2-60. If (II, *) and (K, *) al'e two ::;Ubgl'Oll(lS or t.he group (G, *),
then the I}air (N K(l!), *) is also a subgroup, known as the normalizer of H
in K.
1:30 onoup THEOHY 2-!1
When K = G, one customarily writc13 N (H) for N a(H) and refers to th(
suhgroup (N(H), *) simply as the normalizer of H. Although the subgroup
(H, *) i:-< not necessarily normal in (a, *), a simple argument shows it to 1)('
normal in it s normalizer; in fact, (N (H), *) is the largest subgroup of (G, ,.)
in whieh (1/, *) is nomml.
Wit.h t.1t is not.ation ill rn illd, W(~ can now "(lOU!lt" til(! eOlljugate subgroups
(a" 1/ * a-I, *) of (II, *).
Theorem 2-61. The number of distinct conjugates of a subgroup (H, *) of
(G, *) induced by the elements of a subgroup (K, *) is equal to [K: N K(H) J.
the index of N K(ll) in K.
l'I'ol/!, For "'1, 1>2 E K, WP haV<' kl * 1/ * k,1 -= "'2 * /I * k;-I if and only if
/I (I> I I .. k~) * 11 * (k i I * I.''.!) -I, whidl lIol<ll'! if ml(l (Jnly if kil * k2 E N K(1I);
t,his is tme, in turn, if lind only if k\ * N K(H) = k2 * N K(H). Hence, the num-
hl'r of distin<'1, ('onjugate subgroups of (II, *) by clements of K is equal to the
!lumber of distind coseis of N K(H) in K, namely, [K: N K(H)].
Corollary. "Pl. (II, *) and (K, *) he t.wo subgroups of t.he group (G, *),
If (II, ,.) is illvariallt ullder n e1ellJ('nts of K, then (1/, *) has o(K)jn conjugat(~
suhgroups by elements of K.
PI'oof. TIIP hypot.hesis asserts o(N K(lI) = n. But, by Lagrange's Theorem
tI(K) = [K: N K(H)] o(N K(lI),
from whi('h t.I11' ('orollnry foHoWR.
I.('t us I'ont inuI' our dis('w~sion hy introducing It llew elMS of groups.
/
Definition 2-35. A group (a, *) is said to hI! 1\ p-group if the order of
('Iwh 1'1('IlII'IIt. of (l is Jl powl'r of It fixed prinw p.
Example 2-60. Any group of order pn (11 It prime) is It 11-grouP, since till'
(mh'r of I'lli'll 1'11'111('111, IJIlISt. divide t.he or<i(H' of t.he group. In partieular, UII'
group of syntnll't.J'iI'H of a slJuare is It p-group, where p = 2.
Example 2-61. Let (U, *) h(~ It eommutative group and the set H consist of
thosc e1l'l1ll'lIts whosl' orders ar(' powers of a fixed prime p (quite possibly,
/I = :(~1). TllI'n (II, *) fOl'llls a Hubgroup of (a, *) which, by its definition, is
Ilutoillat i(,lllly a 11-l!;l'oup.
0111' llIil!;lIt IIsk wlll't \11'1' till' ('OIIVI'rH(' of EX!ullpl(~ 2-liO holtlt!. More pnwitlely,
if (0, *) is a fI-I!;J'OuP. is I/(U) SOI1W power of p'! The following lemmu will
SI'I'V(' liS Il start illl!; point ill ohtailling til(' :tIlSWl'r,
Lemma. If Ul, ,. ) i:-< a fillitl' ('Onlllllltative I!;I'OUp whose order is divisible hy a

prilll!' /I, tllI'lI r; ('olltaills :tn delllcnt of 01'<1('1' II,
P/'Ooj. We Pl'o('cl'd by illdul'tion on the oruer of (G, *). First, observe that if
0(;) is itsl'lf a pl'inl(', this prime must be II and every delllcnt other than the
2-9 SYLOW THEOREMS 131
identit.y has order 7); this take::! care of the basis for the in<iuetioll when
o(G) = 2. Now, let a E G, with a ~ e. Since (G,.*) is a tinite group, the
element a hUH It finite of(ler n. Either 1) I n 01" fI tn. III case pin, say n = kp,
then (ak)P = an = e. The order of a k therefore divides p, which, because p
is prime, impli(!s /I(ak) = p. (Recall thlLt. ;r m = e if Iwd only if o(x) 1m.)
Next, Il't us SUJlPOS(~ fJ tn. lleclLul'!e (0, *) is commut.ative, !.Iw eydie sub-
group a), .) is surely norlllal, and WI! can form the ~omlllutILtive) quotient.
group (O/(a), ). Allio, sinee (a) ~ {e], o(O/(a < n(O). From
0(C) = [G: (a)]oa = o(G/(an
and till' fnd. 1/ tn, it, follows tlmt. o( a/(al) is divisihle hy fl. lTsinJl; our induction
hypoUH'sis, U/(a) JIlUHt t11('1'('fol'(~ eOlltain l'!onw dl'nwllt. Ii * (Il) IIf llI'd,,!' p. But
the equation
1/' * (a) = (b * (aP = c * (a)
implies bP E (a), 80 t.hat (bn)P = (bP)n = c. Were I)n = Il, then (b * (an =
e * (a) and we would eOlwllld" 1/ I 1t, It I'ontmdi(~t.ion. Thill'! the dement. bn has
order p.
Corollary. Let (G, *) be a finite eOJlllllutative group and ]I It prime dividing
0(G). Then (G, *) hItS IL subgroup of order p.
Our next ohjl'et.ive iH to ('siabliHh tlJ(' preceding lelllllla without. the hypothesis
of commutativity. We puu::!e, hOW(lVer, to develop tllll lIe(lCSKary mllthemt~tical
tools.
Definition 2-36. The centralizer oj an element a of the group (a, *), denoted
hy C(a), is t.Iw s('t. of nil ,,1!IIWII!.t1 in (/ whi/h (Ollllllu1.n wit.h a:
C(a) =- Ix E a I .I: * a = a * .r: .

Note, in"idcntally, that. C(a) = (J if and only if a E "pnt. a. For allY eydie
subgroup a), *), we alwaYH have C(a) ~ Na. The proof of the result
below is routine and is left as un exereise.
Theorem 2-62. For any e1!'llwnt. a E G, the pair (C(a), *) cOllstitutes It
suhj./;l'OlIp of (a, *). .
Bdow (IIt.l'l'inj./; illto a fUl'tlll'l' dis('lIssioll of till' ((nt.l'Illiz(I, lUI additional
eOlwept. IlII1Ht. be intlotiul'l'd.
Definition 2-37. L(,t, (a, *) hI! a j./;101l1> alld u., II E (r'. The dl'lIl1'ut. b il'!
Haid t.o be It ('{Inju(!a/I! of a (ill (l) if j.lwre exi~ts ~()IIW E (J for which
b == x * a * X-I.
The reader shoukl now prove th( following unalog of Thporelll 2-(il which
clarities the rel:ttiollship hetween the last two delillitiollH.
GHOUP TJn:OIty 2-9
Theorem 2-63. If a E G, the number of conjugate clements of a is equal

to [G:C(a)], the index of the centralizer of a in G.
Given a, bEG, we may define an equivalence relation,.., in G by requiring that
a ,.., b if and only if b is a conjugate of a. The relation,.., induces a partition
of the Ht't G illto equivalenee dMSCR, IlRually referred to as the conjugacy cla88e.~
of (a, *). EIC'llll'lItH in thl! Hltm/! I~onjllgu.ey dlt,HM ILrH (:ull(~d clmjugates of 01111
nllot.lwr. By 1.111; prC'I'I~dill/l: 1.lwon~m, t.Iwl'e an! [a: C(a)] ('Iellwlltl! in the COII-
jUII;IWY ('IUHH ('0111 uinillg It.
Certaill of III!'HI! dlLHHeH will (:ollsiHt of eXlLdly OIW mmllber; for example, if
a E ('I'llt. 0, tI"'1I ,r ... a ... X-I = a for every x E 0, HO that the eOlljugaey daSH
('(H1t.aillillg a r..dll(' ..H to !a]. It. Hilould he d(!lLr, Oil the other halld, that
a E (:ellt (J whell tltl' ('olljugaey claHs of a is {a]. From this, we infer that
a group is commut.ative if and only if each of its conjugaey classes is a singleton.
Example 2-62. Tlwre are t.hree eonjugaey dasscH of (8 a,o), the symmetrie
group on a Hymbols. We leave to the reader the tll.l!k of verifying that these
classcl:! ar(' given by
As pach elonwnt of G lies ill one and only one ('onjugaey class, we may deter-
mine the lIumber of (lements in G by eounting t.hem class by class. To do so,
first observe that. there arc exactly o(cent G) dasses which contain one element.
If we add to O(I:OIlt. G) the number of clements in the nonsingleton conjugacy
eiasl:!es, the c1emcnts of G will have all been eoullted. This leads to the im-
portant (conjugacy) clas8 equation:
neG) = o(cent G) + ~ [G: C(a),

where the sUllllllat.ion rum; over a set of represcntlLtives for the distiuet COI1-
jUJ!;acy claHH('H having more t.han one memher; that is to Ray, we sum over a sct
of noncolljugate elements not in eent G.
In the group of 8ymnU'tries of the 8qunre, for inl:!tnnce, the conjugacy classes
are
{H, V},
so I hal III(' ('Im;:-I I'qll:\ I ion would rend
0(0) = o(cent G) + [G: C(R 90) + [0: C(D 1)] + [0: C(H)].
2-!)
Using the dass equation of a group, we are able to ('x tend the last lemma
on commutative groups to a more general setting.
Theorem 2-64. (Cauchy). If (G, *) is a finite group whose order is divisible
hy a prim' 71, Own 0 ('onl.nills an element of order p.
JlrtltlJ. I1t>!C' illdlldioll 011 IIII' III'dl'r of (U, .), If tI(U) :.!, IIII'll (G,.) is It
"Ollllllllinliv,' ).(I'III1P nltd II", 11"'01'('111 I'..dlll'('t>! t.o IhC' 1"III11I1L, HIIJlJlIII!, ill-
dlldivC'ly, 1.11111. till' ,111'01'1'111 holds 11'111' rill' /1.11 ~I'OIIJlt>! of III'dl'l' 11't>!t>! Umn 0(0).
Now ,'ollsid"r t.he dnss "'Illation 1'01' (U, .),
where the summatioll, as noted previously, is made hy ehoot>!ing one represent!\,-

tive from C'll,eh ('onjuJI;!ley ('In.'!s wit.h morn t.han onn df'm'llt,.
If (J =- ('nnl. a, t.11I! (a, .) is ('Ollllllut.al.iv(! and we IlPl'd only apJl(!:d t.o the
lemma to cOlllplete t.h(' proof; in the cont.rary ('asp, t.hem is some element
a E 0 with a fl ('('111. O. For such an a, [a; e'(a)) > 1, so that. by Lagrange's
TIH!orem,
0(0) == rO;C(a)o(O(a > 1I(e'(n.
Hilll'C' t.Ite t.1,,'or,'1lI it>! IlSSllIIlI't! t.o hold for t.hl! HuhJ,!;nlllp (('(It), *), if Jllo(e(a,
then e'(a) has all element of order p, and wc are donc. On tltp ot.her hand, if
1d o(C(a for evpry a fl eentdl, 11 must divide [a; C(a); for JI is prime and
divides 0(0) = [G; C(a)) o(C(a). But then, in the dass equation, 11 divides
each term of t.he summation alld also divides o(G), so that p I o(cent (J). As
(cent G, *) is n comlllutat.ive subgroup of (G, *), it follows (again, from the
II!mom) t.hat. ,~ellt. (J ('ollt.aiIlH :lII 1'1('IIII'II!. of ordl'r fl.
Corollary. (0, *) is:t finit.1' p-J,!;roup if :tll(i only if o( a) = 11k, for some k > o.
Proof. Rupposc (U, *) is a /I-group, but. q I o(G) for some prime q p. Then
by Cauchy's Theorl'lll, 0 has lUi element of order q, I!ont.radil!tin)!; the fact that
(0, *) is a {I-group. Thus, JI is the only prime divisor of o(J), which implies
o(G) = 11k (k > 0). Conversdy, if o(a) = pk, then from Lagrange's Theorem
each clement of G has a power of 11 as its order.
As all appli'at.ioll of C:ulI'hy's Tll<'ol'l'l1I, it. lIlight. Ill! of intl'rl'st. t.o mention
t.he r('sult. hl'lo\\'.
Theorem 2-65. If (a, *) is It finit.!! p-grollJl wit.h 11101'1' Ihall OIW elcl1I('nt., t.hen
(:ellt a f/:.
Proof. As a start in)!; point, consider the class equat.ioll for (G, *),
o( (1) =, o'('nt G) t ~ rG; C(a)],

the SIIIIlIlWt iOIl Iwilll!; ov!'r ('('1'1:1 ill 1'1"11I(,1I1s a for \\'hi('h [0; C(a) I 1. For
a fll'('II(. 0. (C(a), *) is a nOlllrivial subgroup of (U, *); ill fnd, (C(a),.) is
itself a JI-gl'OUp (any subgroup of It 1I-group is It 11-grollp !). By the preceding
IOUOI'I' Tln:OUy 2-!J
('orolhll'Y, it folio",:; that o(C(a = pk for sollie k > O. Theil
[G:C(a) = o(U)/o(C(a
llIu:;t 1)(' divi:.:ihl(~ hy p. ~ow, /I divide:; clwh term of the summation, as well
a:; divicll':; o(l), :;0 that. JlI n(ccnt. G). Thi:; implies o(ecnt G) > 1.
WI' II0\\' :;hifl our I'IlIJ1ha:;i:; frolll nrhit l'ary JI-lI;ronps t.o Sylow p-subgroups.
Definition 2-38. LC'I (G,.) be n fi II if,(' group IUld p It prime. A subgroup
(1', .) of (0, .) is said to be a Sylow p-subymup if (P, .) is a p-group and is
not properly ('()J\jaill!'d ill nny olh!'r p-subgroup of (G, .) for the same prime p.
Example 2-63. Thp :;Ylllllwl.ric group (.'01:1,.) hILS thrpc (eolljuglltc) Sylow
~-snhgl'llup:;, slllpili(ally, t.he Mnhgrnup:.: who:.:c! sf't.s of dmmmts nrc!
Thu:; It Aylo", /I-:;uh!!:l'Oup of n giv('n group Iwed not be unique.

Theorem 2-66. For !'lll'h prim!' p, th(~ finite group (0,.) has a Sylow
11-suhgroup.
Proof. If o(J) = I or ]I t 0(0), (re~,.) i:;, in a t.riviul I:!CIll~e, the required
Sylow p-:;uhgroup. 011 til!' 01 her halld, wlumever 11 I n( G), Cmwhy's Thcorcl)l
gllarlllli!'!':': til<' ('XiKh'IH'(' of lit. 11'1I"'\. OIW lIuhgroup (11, *) of (Jrt\('r p. If (/I, *)
i:; 1I0t alnady a Sylow /I-Kullgl'OUP, Ihl'lI sillcl' a iH fillit(!, we arc led (aft(!r a
lillit!' 1I1II1I1l!'r of ill:;p!'ct i()IIH) to a Hylow l'-Muhgrollp containillg II.
HiJl('c HII' nrllt'r of all ('lelll!'lIt. iH prcservNI under conjugation, it is clear that
:lIIy ('onjllgat!' of a p-group i:; again a II-grouP. Even more is true. The con-
jugatl'x of a Hylow II-subgroup (P,.) arc themselves Sylow p-subgroups (aR
an exC'r('isc', t 1)(' rmd!'l Hhollld v!'rify I his fRet); of (~oursc, HOm!! or all of theRe
(o"jugat.c :;lIhgl'OUPS Illay b(' idclltic'al with (P, .).
III th(' ('ollling tlwor!'llls, our goal iH to show that. if (P, .) is II. fixed Sylow
p-subj!;l'OuJl of th!' fillil!' group (G, *), Ih('1\ allY ot.her Sylow p-RlIhgrollP of
(G, *) Illust ill fad hI' a (()"jugal!' of (/', *). We will also wltnt to determinl',
so far ax Jl0i<sihl<', Ih!' 1ll1l11lll'r of dist.inC'l Rylow p-Ruhgrollps of (G, .). If, for
('xalllpl(" tlwrl' is a ulliqlll' Sylow /I-subgroup ('orr!'xponding to Il parti(mlar
primp fI, tllI'lI t hi:; Kuhgroup IlIUl,olt 1)(' norlllal, Hill('(' it is (,Olljllg!lt(~ to itsl'lL
2-9 I'IYLOW TIIF.0I0;M8 1:15
Utilizing the Hylow Tlworl'ms, we c!tn obt!tin some rat.her general results con-
('('rnill~
IIII' ('xil'<tplH'p of I'<lIh~rollpl'< of rillit.e grollpl'<; for t.his, olle IIl'l'd ollly
kllow sOllldhilig ahout t.l1I~ oJ'(ll'r of tlw grollp.
The next theorelll~ are major ones and require t.wo preparatory lemmas.
Lemma. Let (II, *) h(' a normall'ubgroup of (G, *). If (H, *) and (GIH, )
nrc bot h p-groupH, 1.111'11 (a, *) it.self iH It l'-group.
Proof. For I'llph a ill a, the ('Ol'<ct a *11 E alII has order some power of p,
Ray order pk. Then, apk * II = (a * H)Pk = e * H, so that apk E H. Thus,
the' elelllent. apk abo hm; p-power order, for inst.allce, order pi. This implies
(a,k),,/ = a ,Hi = I', WIWIII'(' o(a) I Jlk+ j Bllt, silwc fI i;; 1\ prinw, it follows
that. 0(0) is II power of /1.
W(~ I'<hall :dl'<o 1I('('d to kllow 1.hl' following:

Lemma. Let. (P, *) he !L Hylow p-Imbgroup of (a, *) and a E (J he Imy
e\enwllt. WhOHI' (lI'Ill'l' is It power of 11. If a * P * a-I = P, thl'lI a E P.
Proof. Since the condition a * P * a-I = l' means a E N(P), the problem is
one of showilll!; there ('nn be no clement in N(P) - P of p-power order. Suppose
sudl an elellll'nt. a Hl'1ually did exist. Now, (1', *) is normal in its normalizer,
so we may ('onsider the quotient group (N (P) I P, ) and the coset a * P.
The order of a ('oset as an elenient in the quotient. group divides the order of
any of its represent.atives, whence o(a * P) is a power of p. This implies the
eyclic subgroup a * P), ) of (N(P)IP, ) hM p-power order and eon-
Rcqu!'nt.ly is a II-group (eoroIlnry to Cmwhy's Theorem). By the CorreRpon-
dcnee Theorem, (N(J'), *) thus has a subgroup (K, *) with K;2 P and
KIP = (a * P). As a G!: I" K properly eont.u.ins P. Furthermore, from the
prcviolls II'mnm, (K, *) Illust be a p-gI"OUp, sillce hoth (P, *) and a * P), ) are
sUl'h. But this dpllrly eOlltradil'ts the ftwt (P, *) is a maximal p-tmbgroup.
AeC'Cmlillp;ly, t1l1'r(' ('1111 1)(' 110 1'I1'I1II'nl. of N(I') -- I' WhOHI' ordl'r iK IL \lower of fl.
WI' an' now I'(ady to statp the fil'sf, of I.he so-(:ItIl(~J Hylow TheOl'cIII S.
Theorem 2-67. (8yI0l{'). LeI (a, *) lw a rillit.c group and p a primc. Theil
thc lIullIlJI'r of dislillet Sylow p-subgroups of (G, *) is eOllgrucnt t.o 1 modulo II
and i:; a divi:;or of o(U).
1'1'110/. Let. (P, *) h(' a fix!'d Sylow JI-sllb~roIlP of (a, *). WI' havl' already
obsl'rved t hat allY ('onjugate subgroup (a * I' * a-I, *) of (I', *) is also a Sylow
71-suhgl'OlIp. Thus, It natural start.illg point is to ('011111. the lIumber of dist.inct
(olljul!:at.cs of (I', *). If (P, *) il'< a 1I01'111al suh~rouJl (that. is, sdf-f'olljugnte),
t.his numhl'r i" I. Othel'Wi,,(',
PI ~ P.
(I"
*) has It ('olljugatl' subgroup (PI, *), with
Hill('(' allY ('olljllgat!' of (1'1, *) is, at. thc SIllIU' tinll', a ('olljugate of (P, *),
we lirst. ('ollsidl'l' (onjugat.!'s of (1'1, *) illlhll'ed hy dl'nwllt.s fl'lllll P. Aeeording
I :~{j (;I{()l'i' Tln;o!!y 2-9
10 till! last, 1('111111:1, Ih" 1'1"lIlent.H of I' 1I1ulel' whidl (1'1'.) IS illvariant an'
prpeisl'iy t.hos(' of 1'1 n I':
:11 r 1'1 (1 /'1 (L I I' I,I 1'1 n I',
Hilll'(' (/'1 n /',.) is II p-sIlIoJ(l'lll/p of (f:, .l, it. follows t.hat. 11(1'1 n I') is a
powl'r of p, ~ow, from Theof'(,111 :!-lil, the number of diHtinct eonjugn\,cs
of (/' 1, *) by d(!llIl'lItlol of P is (!quul to
ThiH "IIII\\';; Ihali/': N1,(I'll] nll/st. III' >11111' (low('r of p, "Ily plr.", Furtill'rlllOre,
Itl > 0, fof' if Itl = 0, Ih('n 0(1') = 0(1'1 n I'), HO l' = PI n 1', or rather
l' ~ 1'\. Bllt I hI' fae! that (1', .) iH a maximal p-subgroup would imply l' = PI,
whieh iH impol'l'ihl('. l'\ote also that (1', .) will not be found among the con-
jlll!;at(' SlIhl!;l'OIlJlH of (1'1, .) by ell'n1l'nls of P; weI'(' P = a. PI a-I for some
a E P, the'n 1'1 = a-I * p. a ~ P, again h':u\inl!; to a eontradietion,
l\OW, if t.hl' ('OIijlll!;ah' ~iUhl!;roups of (1', .) are no\' exhausted by (I', .) and
the pk, eonjugates of (1'1,.) indul'et\ hy nl('mbers of 1', choose ano\'her con-
jugate (1'2, .) distini't frolll any yet ('numerat.cd. As above, we can obtain the
pk2, "'2> 0, di"linl'l eonjugat.(,H of (1'2,.) indll('ct\ by P. No ('onjugate of
(1'2, .) hy an ,,11'1lI1'1I1 of I' will alHo b(, 11I1 (~onjllgal.(! of (1) ... ) by IlII clement
of 1', for if
a, iJ E P,
then (b- I a) '" PI (iJ- 1 a)-I = 1'2, with b- I a E 1', contrary to the
choice of P 2 If nce(,HHary, n'p('at thiH argument onee mor(', Since (G, .) is a
finilc grollp, all the eonjllgates of (I',.) are found af\'er a finite number of
HI('pH, Hay n sl('ps. Tlw ('onjllgate subgroups of (1', .) Ilrc these: (1', .) itself,
the pk, eonjllgal('s of (/'), .) by elements of P, \'he 11 k eonjuglltes of (1'2,.)
by eleml'Tlts of P, ('Ie'. 'I'll(' t.otal numlwr of distinet (!onjugntcs is therefore
I I 1/" I 1/" I , .. I pk. = I 1 mp == I (mod p), k. > 0,
At this st.age, an ohvious qucstion arises: are then! allY Sylow p-subgroups
whieh nrc not. ('onjllgate suh!l;roups of (1', .)? The unswer will be sccn to be
no. Let us llSSlIllW slwh It subgroup (R, .) does exist, anel arrive at a contra-
did.ion. As h('fOl"(, , we eount the eonjugates of (R, .). This is done by first
lilldillJ,!; tI)(' lolljllJ.!:at('~ of (H,.) indlJ('l'c\ hy ('11'1lH'nt.s of P; t.here nre
(I(J/o(N n 1')-= pi,
of them, whel'(> j. > 0 (if .il = 0, then R = 1', n eontradiction). Note that
(R, .) i" its('lf jlll'huh-d in this eOllnt, sinee R = e R e-t, eEl', Following
Ihc proc'('dllrl' ahov(', II\(' I.olnl III1111bN of (~onjugat(' subgroups of (R,.) is
found to be
j; > O.
2-9 SYLOW THEOREMS 137
Thc ilJlport.:Illt. point 1l('I'(' is t.hat no l('rll1 of this SIIIII /'('(ilw(,1-l to 1; if some
j. = 0, t.Il(~n (ll, *) wOllld I)(~ a (~()njllgat.(! of (I', .), whidl is impoH!>iblc, But
we havl' Jll'('viollsly dl'tl'rJIlilH'd Ihat. I hI' nllllll)('1' of ('I)njllgah's of any Sylow
P-HIlItJ,!;I'OIiP i" (,OIlJ,!;I'tIl/tt. to I IIlo<iulo /I, Hi/wI' no illtl'gl'/' I':tll lit. 0111'1' hI'
"'" 0 (Illod /I) IIlId -- 1 (Illod II), WI' havl' t.ll(' dl'sirl'd ('olltl'luli(,t.ion,
Filially, t.Iw lIumher of distinct eonjugal.('s of till' Sylow p-subgroup (/', .)
is, by Theorem 2-61, [G: No(P)]; sinee (Nu(P),.) is Il. subgroup of (G, tit),
[G: NGW)] divides o(G), This proves the theorem in its entirety,
The following fads were proved in the ('ourse of the argument.

Corollary. AllY two Hylow p-Huhgroups of (0, .) (!()ITI'sJ!ollding to till! SlllIIl'
prime p arc conjugate, hence isomorphic,
Corollary. The number of distinct Sylow p-subgroups is [G:N(P)I, where
(P, "') is any particular flylow p-subgroup of (G, "'),
This leads directly to the second major result of the section,
Theorem 2-68. (Sylow), Let (G, "') be a finite group of order pkq, where
p is a prime not dividing q, Then (G, .) has a Sylow p-subgroup of order pk,
Proof, Suppose (P, "') is nny Sylow p-suhgroup of (G, tit), Our (!ontention is
that 0(1') = 11k, For thiK, it is enough to Khow [G: PI has 110 1)-power' divisor.
Sinee (I', .) iH It p-subgroup Qf (G, tit), 0(1') = pi, with j ~ k; henee,
and, if one knows that [G: P] is divisible by no pow('r of p, then j = k,

The strate~ we employ is to prove thnt both flu-tOrs 011 the right of the
equation
IG:P) = [G:N(P)[N(l'): 1') ~ [(]:N(l')()(N(P)/P)
nre prime to p, Now, [a: N(P)] is equal to the number of eonjugntc suhgroups
of (1', tit) IUIII, hy our last. r('su It. , this valuc must. be ((lIIgrUl'nt. to 1 modulo p;
thereforI', HI(' possibility 1'1 [a:N(p)) eannotoeeur,
To :see that o(N(P)/1') ha:s no p-power divisor, let us assume the coset
a P E N(P)/ P is of order 1', Then, as before, a P I' = (a'" P)P = e tit P,
whieh 1l1l'IlnS a P E 1'. As (I', tit) is a p-group, the element a P has order a
pow('r of 1', HO t1mt a itself has [I-power o rill' r, Because a E N (I'), the Inst
lemma illlpliml a E J'; hp/wl', a'" J' -= e 1', or o(a. 1') = 1. From thiR
eontradidion and Cmll'hy'H Theorem, we illfl'r t.hat p t o(N(I')/I'), Since p
is a prime and divides neither of the factors of [G: 1'], it cannot divide [G: PJ
either, thereby eompleting the argument,
,
Example 2-64. There call be 110 simple group (a, *) with o(G) = 42, Sillee
42 = 2, 3, 7, the preceding theorem implies the group ('olltains a :subgroup
(II, .) of order 7, By Throrem 2-()7, the lIumber of (!onjugate subgroups of
mWlJl' TJlEOHY 2-9
(//, *) ii'! of til(' fOl'lll J I 7k, k E Z, anti tlivid('"42; k = 0 i~ the only pO!l8ibilit.y.
11 .. ,11''' (1/, *) il'l (.Fli( lind 'L 1l01'1I11t1 Hllill(I'Oll\l (i .... , HIM-I~onjlll(lLt(l), "0 t.JIILt.
(1, *) ('allllOl 1)(' ~illlpl('.
From Thl'orem 2-(i)';, WI' can obtain a partial converse to Lagrange's Theorem:
If (0, *) is a fillite group whose order is a produet of powers of distinct primes,
Ul('n (G, *) ha~ subgroup~ of ordl'rs p~i (i = 1,2, ... ,n). As a matter of fact,
it enn 1)(' ~howlI t.hat, for I'l\('h prime Pi, (G, *) eontains subgroups of orders
{Ii, {I;, /1;1, ... ,{I~" Thlls, for im,t.ane(, ILIlY p;rollJl of ord..r ]2 = 22. :J will
hav(' Huhgl'llups of ol'deri'! 2, 2~ alld :1; nothing, how(wer, can be concluded ill
regard to IL subgroup of order n.
Example 2-65. Our work up t.o now hus given us sufficient tools to show that
any group (G, *) of order 1.') is cycliC'. Since 15 = 3 5, we first note that (0, *)
has at least, one Sylow :l-suhgroup and at least one Sylow 5-subgroup. The
number of Sylow 3-suhgrollps must, by Theorem 2-67, divide 15 and yet be
== 1 (mod 3). As the only such integer is 1, there is a unique Sylow 3-subgroup,
call it (SYa, *); in other words, (SY3, *) is cyclic (being of prime order) and
normal in (G, *). By the same reasoning, there is precisely one Sylow 5-subgroup,
label it (SYIi, *), whieh is also cyC'lic and normal. We propose m show that
(G, *) ~ (Sy:! X BY5, .).
Detouring slightly, let us record several preliminary observations: Because
(SY3 n SYs, *) is n xuhgroup of both (SY3, *) and (SYI;, *), it follows that
o(Sy:! n By ... ) divid('s hoth :land !i. The only possibility is for o(SYa n SYa) = 1,
whelll'e BYa n SY5 = {e}. In particular, this menns each element of (SYa, *)
rommutes wit.h eReh clement of (SYs, *) [problem 10, Seetion 2-.')].
Next, we considl'r ('osds a * SY5, where the clement a E SY3' These coscts
arc evidently nil distilll't,; for, if a * RY5 = 1) * RY5 (a, b E SY3), then
so t.hat a ~ h. However, [G: BY51 = 3 and SY3 contains just 3 elements,

whieh implil's the (oliets of RY5 in G must be of the form a * Sy/S, a E SY3.
Since each element of G lies in one and only one such eoset, we infer at once
that. cadI clement of G is uniquelY expressible as a product a * b, with a E SY3,
bE SYs.
The results of thes(~ last two pamgmphs permit us to UHe Problem 19, Section
2-7, amI therl'by ('0111'1,,<1(' (G, *) ~ (HY3 X SYs, .); but, on closer scrutiny,
we not(~ that
It .,ydi(~ group of or<il'r I:; (t.he ('qllipnwnt, nl'('<i(~d is Prohlem 22, Section 2-7).
2-9 RYLOW THEOREMR 139
'fhii'! filliKhl'i'! our Kt.lldy of KrullP f.1l1'ory. WI' h/\VI' lint nt,\,l'lllpl.l'd to rnlll/:"
live!" till! whol(~ UU'o!"Y 1101' tu cXlUuilW ill uepth allY pluticular Wlpet:t of it.
Instead, we have hwrely seratched the surface, introducing the reader to a
few of the high points. Needless to say, current research in this branch of
mathemnties is both vigorous and extensive. A variety of dassical problems
still remain unsettled, while in some directions the research has only recently
begun.
PROBLEMS
In the following set of problems, p alwaYR denotes a prime number.

t. Let (/I, *) and (K, *) be two subgroups of the group (0, *). Show that (/I, *)
is normal in (K, *) if and only if 1/ k K k Na(1l).
2. For a finite group (G, *), prove that
a) if (G, *) has exactly two conjugacy classes, then o(G) = 2;
b) if there exists an element a E G with exactly two conjugates, then (G, *)
contains a nontrivial normal subgroup.
3. Prove that a subgroup (II, *) of (G, *) is a normal subgroup if and only if the
set /I is the union of conjugacy classes of (G, *).
4. Suppose (II, *) is a proper'subgroup of the finite group (G, *). Verify that G
contains an element which belongs to no conjugate subgroup of (H, *).
5. Let (G, *) be any group, a a fixed element in G. Define the function fby
f{x * C(a) = x * a * X-I, X E G. Prove that f is a one-to-one mapping from the
left cosets of C(a) onto the set of distinct conjugates of a, thereby deducing
Theorem 2-63.
6. a) Describe the class equation of the symmetric group (Sa, .).
b) Show that, in a p-group, the number of self-conjugate clement'! (that is,
elements whnse eonjugaey daSSel! are singleton>!) mUtlt be a multiple of p.
7. For a finite p-grollJl (G, *), prove the following;
a) Any homomorphic image of (G, *) is again a p-group.
b) (G, *) has a normal subgroup of order p. [/lint: cent G contains an element
of order p.)
c) (G, *) is a solvable group. [Hint: Induct on o(G); show that (cent G, *) and
(G/cent G, ) are hoth !iolvable.)
8. Prove that if o(G) = p", then the group (0, *) has at least one normal subgroup
of order pk for aU 0 :::; k :::; n. [llint: Proeeed hy induction on n and utilize
part (b) of the last problem.]
9. Let (11, *) be a normal subgroup of a finite p-grollp (G, *) and suppose that
0(1/) = p. Establish the indus ion 11 ~ cent G.
10. Prove t.hat if 0(0) = p2, then (G,.) is a commutative group. (llint: Recall
Problem 21, He(~tion 2-5.)
140 (mOlll' TIU;ORY 2-9
11. 1.et (G, *) Ill' a
/(1'11111' such that 0(0) - lIfO. Verify the following assertions:
a) o(cent G) ,.. p .. -I.
b) cent G contains at least p elements.
c) Every subgroup of order p .. - l is normal in (G, *).
12:-netepnine all Sylow p-subgroups of the group (Z24, +24).
13. Let (P, *) be a Sylow p-subgroup of the finite group (G, *). Prove that if (II, *)
is any subgroup of (G,*) with P<;;N(P)<;;ll, then N(l/) = H; in particular,
(leduce that N(N(P = N(I').
14. !'mve t.hat if (II, *) is a. f}-subgroup of (0, *) whi(,h is contained in exactly one
Sylow THllIhgrllup (/" *) of (0, *), then N(l/) <;; N(P).
15. Huppose (II, *) is a Il"rmal p-!Suhgroup IIf the finite group (G, *). Show that
(II, *) is a subgroup of each Sylow p-subgroup (for the same prime p) of (G, *).
16. Prove that
a) any group of order 2p ha.'1 a normalllubgroup of order p,
b) there arc no lIimple groups of orders 20, 30, or 56.
17. Let (G, *) be a group of order pq, where p < q are both primes.
a) Show that (G, *) ha.'1 precisely one normal subgroup of order q.
b) If q I (mod p), prove that (G, *) is a cyclic grollI',
18. Assume (G, *) is a f!;rollp of ordflr p"q, with p ancl q relatively prime. Prove that
a Huhgroup (II, *) of (G, *) is a Sylow p-sub/(l'oup if and only if 0(11) = p",
CIIAPTEH a
RING THEORY
3-1 DEFINITION AND ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF RINGS

In thi!! dlllpler, we shall illve!!tigate algebraie sysh~lII!! having two suitably
re!Stricted binary operation!!. Obvious examples are the familiar number systems
of elementary mathemati('s (the integerM, the rational numbers, etc.) and the
algebra of sets.
Using these systems as models, we shall presently define an algebraic struc-
ture known as a ring. Inasmuch as a ring is basically a combination of a com-
mutative group and a semigroup, our previous experience with groups will
prove to be of ('onsiderable help. As the reader will see, many of the important
notions in group theory have natural extensions to sYlltems with two operations.
When there are two binary operations present, it is real!Onable to expect
them to be related in some way. The usual requirement is that one of the
operations be distributive over the other.
Definition 3-1. Let (8, "', .) be a mathematieal system with binary opera-
tions ... and.. The operntioll ill !!aid to be distributive over the operation ...
if
a. (/) ... c) = (a. b) ... (a. c) (left distributive law)
and
(b ... c) a = (b. a) ... (c. a) (right. distributive law)
for every triple of elpments a, b, c E 8.

If the operation. happens to be commutative, then whenever. is left distribu-
tive over the operation "', it is all!O right distributive (and conversely), since
(/) ... c) a = a. (IJ ... c) = (a. b) ... (a. c) = (b. a) ... (c. a).
Cert.ainly, ordinary Illultiplication is distributive over ordinary addition,

and we usc this fact in the next example.
Example 3-1. Consider two biliary operat.ions ... and defined on the set Z 0
of integer!! by a'" b = a + 2b, a b = :!ab. A !Simple calculation shows the

0
opemtion to be left distributive over "', for

0
a (b'" c) = a 0 (b + 2c) = 2a(b + 2c) = 2ab + 4ac,

141
142 lUNG TIIJWlty 3-1
while
(a b) (a c)
0 0 = (2ab) (2ac) = 2ab + 2(2ac)
= 2ab + 4ac.
Because is a commutative operation, we (!onclude that it is also right distribu-
0
tive over .
Definition 3-2. A rina iH a mathematiell.l system (ll,., 0) eonsisting of a
1J0nempty !let R aud two hinary operntions and. ddined on R such that
1) (H,.) is a commutat ive group,
2) (R, 0) is a scmigroup,
:J) t.he !I(,JIIigrollp olll'ratioll iR distrihutive over the group olwrll.tion .
It is convenient and customary to usc + for the group operation and for
the semigroup operation, rather t.han the symbols. and o. This convention is
long-standing and is parti('ularly helpful in emphasizing the analogy between
result.'i obtained for rings and those of the familiar numher systems. The above
definition then takes t.he following foml.
Definition 3-3. A ring is an ordered triple (R, +, .)
consisting of a non-
empty set R and two binary operations + and on R such that
1) (R, +) is a commutative group,
2) (R,') is a semigroup,
3) the two olwrations arc related by the distributive laws
a (b + c) = + (a c),
(a b)
(b + c) . a = (b a) + (c a)
for all a, b, c E R.
The reader should clt'arly understand that + and . represent abstract un-
specified operations 1\111\ not ordinary addition and multiplication. For con-
venience, however, we shaII refer to the operation + all addition and the operation
as multiplication. In the light of this terminology, it is natural then to speak
of the commut!Ltive group (R, +) as being the additive group of the ring and
(R, .) th(' multiplicative semiyroup of the ring.
The unique identity elem('nt for addition is calIed the zero element of the ring
!Lnd is denoted by the usual symbol for zero, O. The unique additive inverse
of an clement a E H !lhalI he written as -a.
In order to minimiz{' the use of parentheses in expressions involving both
operations, W{' make the Rtipulation that multiplication is to be performed
h('fore addit.ion. Thlls th(' ('xpression a b + c IItands for (a b) + c and not
fOI' a . (b I c).
With this notation in mind, we {'nn now amplify our eurrcnt definition of a
ring. A ring (R, +, .) ('onsists of a nOllempty set R and two operations, called
addit.ion llnd Illult ipli('at iOIl and denoted hy + and " respectively, satisfying
a-I UEHNITION AND ELEMENTAUY PItOPEltTn.;S OF lUNGS
the requirements:
1) R iH closed under audition,
2) a + b = b + a,
3) (a + II) + C = a + (b + c),
4) t.here existl:! an element 0 in R sueh that a + 0 = a for every a E R,
Ii) for <!twh a E R, there cxil:!ts an element -a E R I:!uch t,hat a + (-a) = 0,
(j) R iH dOHed IInder Il1l1ltiplieation,
7) (a b) c = a (/). c),
~) a (II+ +
c) = a b a c and (b + c) . a = b a + t: a,
wlJl'rl' it, is ululerHtood t.hat a, I}, t: represent arbitrary elements of R.
By pl:willl!; further rl'sl.ri(:tionH Oil the opemLion of Illultiplieation, !!everal
special types of rings arc obtained.
Detlnition 3-4. 1) A commutative ring is a ring in which (R,) is a com-
mutative scmigroup; that is, the operation of multiplication is commu-
tative.
2) A rina with identity is It ring in whieh (R,) ill a semigroup with identity;
that is, there exists an identity element for the operation of multiplica-
tion, customarily denoted by the symboll.
In a ring (R, +,.) with identity, we sayan element a E R is invertible if it
possesses an inverse relative to multiplication. Multiplicative inverses are
unique, when they exist, and shall be denoted as before by a-I. The symbol
R* wiII be used subsequently to represent the set of all inyertible clements of
the ring.
Theorem 3-1. Let (R, +,.) be a ring with identity. Then the Jlllir (R*,)
forms a group, known aI:! the group of invertible elements.
Proof. The set R* is nonempty, for at thc very least the multiplicative identity
1 E R*; moreovcr, 1 serves as the identity clement for the system (R*, .). If
a, bE R*, the equation!!
(a b) . (b- I . a-I) = a 1 a-I = 1,
(b- I . a-I) . (a II) = 1>-11 b = 1
show the product a b is also a member of R*. Whenever a is invertible, then

we have a a-I = a-I. a = 1, indicating that a-I is in R*. The allllociative
law for multiplication is obviously inherited since R* S;;; R, so (R*, .) is a group.
Before proceeding to the proofs of the basie results of ring theory, we shall
consider several exampleH.
Example 3-2. Each of the following familiar sYHtems, where + and inuieate
ordinary addition and multiplication, is Il. commutative ring:
(R', +, .), (Q, +, .), (Z, +, .), (Ze, +, .).
144 3-1
The first three of t.he!!C rings have an identity element, the integer 1, for multi-
plication.
Exampl. 3-3. Anotlll'r ('xlunple of a rillK is provided hy the sct
R = {a + bval a, b E Z},
and the operations of onlinary addition and multiplication. The set R is ob-
viously closed under these operations, for
(a + bva) + (c + elva) = (a + c) + (b + d)v3 E R,

(a -I- bv'3) . (c + dva) = (ac + 3bd) + (ad + bc)va E R,
whenever a, b, c, dE Z. We omit the details of showing that (R, +,.) IS a

commutative ring with identity element 1 = 1 + ova E R.
Example 3-4. If P(X) is the power Het of HOnle nonempty !!Ct X, then both
the triples (P(X), u, n) and (P(X), n, u) fail to be rings, Kince neither
(P(X), U) nor (/,(X), n) forms a group. However, the reader may recall that
in Example 2-20 we showed the pair (P(X),~) to be a commutative group;
here, the symbol ~ indi(~at.es the symmetri(~ diff('rence operation
A ~ B = (A - B) U (B - A).
Since (P(X), n) is dearly a nommutative semigroup, in order to establish that

the triple (p(X) , ~, n) constitutes a ring it is only necessary to verify the left
distributivity of n over~. For this, we require the set identity (Problem 6,
Section 1-1)
A n (B - C) = (A n B) - (A n C).
The argument now proeeedK as follows: for all subsets A, B, 0 ~ X,
A n (B ~ C) = A n [(B - C) u (0 - B)
= IA n (B - C) u [A n (0 - B)]
= ((A n B) - (A nO) u [(A n C) - (A n B)
= (A n B) ~ (A nO).
Example 3-5. Let R denote the tlCt of all functions I: R' -+ R'. The sum
I +g and product I . (f of two functions I, g E R are defined as usual, by the
equations
(f + g)(a) = I(a) + !/(a),
(f. g)(a) = I(a) . g(a), a E R'.
In other words, we specify the functional value of these combinations at each
point in tlwir domain. That (R, +,.) is a (~ommutat.ive ring with identity
J)";~'INITION AND ELJo:MENTAUY PROPEIlTlJo:S OF RINGS 145
follows from the fact that the real numbers with ordinary addition and multi-
pliention comprisc 8u(!h a system. In particular, the multiplicative identity
d('lIwnt ill the NIIIHtUllt fUllctioll whoHe value at each real number is 1.
It iH int('rpsting to nof.(! that the triple (R, /-,0), where 0 indicates the opera-
tion of fUllctional eompositioll, fails to be a ring. The left distributive law
f 0 (g + /t) = (f. g) + (f oIt)

does not hold in this case.
Example 3-6. For a more interesting example, let (G, *) be an arbitrary
commut.ative group and hom G be the set of all homomorphisms from (G, *)
into itself. From Theorem 2-36, it is already known that (hom G, .) is a semi-
group with identity. We propose to introduce a notion of addition in hom G
such that the triple (hom G, +, .) forms a ring with identity. To achieve this,
simply (lC'fillc the sum f + (J of two fUlletions f, (J E hom G hy the rule
(f + g)(a) = f(a) * g(a), aE G.
With the possible exception of the closure condition, it is fairly evident that
the pnir (hom G, +) is a commutative group; the trivial homomorphism acts
as the zero element, while the negative of each function I E hom G is obtained
hy taking (-- I)(a) = f(a)-l fOr nil a E G. To estnhlish (llmlllm, (!hooBrlnrbitmry
elt!lIlcnts a, b E (J and fUllctiollti I, y ill hom G. Theil
(f + g)(a * b) = I(a * b) * g(a * b)

= I(a) * feb) * g(a) * g(b)
= (j(a) * Il(a) * (f(b) * {f(b)
= (f + g)(a) * (f + y)(b) ,
so that the sum J + g is also t\ homomorphitllll of (G, *) into itself.
In J'(gard to UI(l left distributive law, we lllwe, fol' /Lny a in 0,
[f. (g + h)](a) = fg + h)(a)

= J(g(a) * /t(a)
= J(g(a) * f(h(a)
= (f. g)(a) * (f. h)(a)
= (f. g + I h)(a).
Therefore, 1 (J - f- It) = I (J - f- I . It. The right distributive law follows in a
0
similar manner, showing (R, +, .) indeed to be a ring.

Necdless to say, eommutativity of the underlying group (G, *) is essential
to our discussion; ill its absence, we could not even prove addition to be a.
binary operation in hom G.
146 RING THEORY 3-1
Example 3-7. In Section 2-3, we considered the group (Z.. , +..) of integers
modulo n. This group was obtained upon defining in the set Z.. the notion of
addition of congruence classes:
fa] +.. fb] = [a + b].

A binary operation '" of multipliHation of e1a.~SC!! may f!qually well be intro-
duced in Z .. by speeifying that for each pilir of clements [a], [b] E Z .. ,
[a] .. fb] = fa b].

This lat,t(1r definition pre!!l1ntR R. problem Rimilar to that of addition in that
we InUloJt Hhow Umt !Jill rmmll.ing produd leI' 1/) iH illlil!)llm<ient of the particular
t('preH(,lIlal,ivl'H I"hOlll'1I fl"OlIl I,he eOllgrlwlwH !!I1I..'!Hl'H [IJ) Itllli [1/). In other WOrtt!!,
it must be established that whenever [a'] = [a] and [b'] = rbI, then
[a' . b'] = [a b].
We first observe that a' E [a'] = [a] and b' E [b'] = [b] imply that
a' == a (mod n), b' == b (mod n).

From Theorem 2-10 we are then able to conclude that
a' . b' == a b (mod n),
and consequently a' . b' E [a b]. This means, in view of Theorem 2-12, that
[a' . b'] = fa b], as desired.
For each positive integer n, the system (Z.. , +.. , '.. ) is a commutative ring
with identity, known as the ring of integers modulo n. The verification that the
ring axioms 11.1"(1 satiRfi(1c1 is very straightforward, depending only on the defini-
tions of the operations +.. and '" and the fact that (Z, +, .) itself is a ring.
For instance, to show the left distributivity of '" over +'" we choose [a];
[b], [e] E Z" and obtain
[a] 'n ([b] +.. [e]) = + e]

[a]'n [b
= [a (b + e)]
= [a b + a e]
= [a b] +.. [a e]
= [a]'n [b] +.. [a] '" fe].
Clearly [1] is t,he multiplicative identity clement. We shall leave the confirma-
tion of the remaining ring axioms and of commutativity to the reader.
As mentioned earlier, it is convenient to remove the brackets in the desig-
nation of the congruence classes of Z", and this shall he our practice subse-
quently.
3-1 DEFINITION AND ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF RINGS 147
Given a ring CR. +.. ), all the results of the previous chapter on groups apply
to the system (R, +). For instance, we know that the zero element a.nd additive
inverses are unique, that the cancellation law holds for addition, and so on. In
the theorems to follow, we shall establish ;;Dme of the fundamental properties
which depelld 011 hot.h ring operations. As usual, we may aSl"lUme nothing about
t.he Hpm:ific IIUI.III"" of t.he KYHt."1lI (R, I,) x:ept. t.hut. it. Hat.iHfies the pOld,ulates
presented in Defillition :J-a.
Theorem 3-2. In any ring (R, +, .), if a E R, then a 0 = o a = O.
Proof. First note that an application of the left distributive law (and the fact
that zero is t.he idl'llt,ity element for addition) yil'lds
It . (I + It () - a (0 -t- 0) = II . () ::: I l ' () -+ n.

By the eancellation law for addition, a 0 = O. In similar fashion, one can
show that 0 . a = O.
The reader may have speculated as to whet.her, in a ring with multiplicative
identit.y, the identity !\Ild zero elements of the ring are Elver equal. It follows
at ollce from Theorem 3-2 that this situation can only occur in the one-clement
ring ( {O}, +, .),the so-called zero ring; the proof is given below:
Theorem 3-3. Let CR, +, .).
be a ring with identity such that R {O}.
Then the elements 0 and 1 are distinct.
Proof. Since R {O}, there exists some nonzero element a E R. Now, if
1 = 0, it would follow that
a = a 1 = a 0 = 0,
whieh is nn obvious contradiction.

Unless stated to the eontrary, we shall tacitly assume that any ring with
idenUty conta7:ns more than one dement,. this will I'xdll<iu tJUl posKihilit.y thttt
1 = O.
Theorem 3-2 indieates that the produet of two elements in a ring is zero
whenever either factor is zero. The converse is not true. As the following
examples will show, it may perfectly well hapPul1 that the product of two 11011-
zero ring elements will be zero.
Example 3-8(a). Consider the set R = R' X R' of ordered pairs of real
number:;. We define addition and multiplication in R by the formulas
(a, b) + (e, d) = (a + e, b + d), (a, b) . (e, d) = (ae, bd).
Theil stmightfOl'ward ealc'lIlat.iolls will Hhow that (R, +,.) is a commutative

ring with identity CICllltJllt (1, 1). Here the zero element is the pair (0,0).
148 RING THEORY 3-1
Observe that while

(1.,0) (0, 1) == (0,0),
neither (1,0) nor (0, 1) is the zero of the ring.
Exampl. 3-1(1)>). Another example in which this situation occurs is the ring
(Z4, +4, '4) of integers modulo 4. The addition and multiplication tables are
shown below:
+4 0 1 2 3 '4 0 1 2 3
o 0 1 2 3 o 0 0 0 0
1 1 230 1 0 1 2 3
2 2 3 0 1 2 0 2 0 2
3 3 0 1 2 3 0 3 2 1
Here, we have 2'42 == 0, the product of nonzero elements being zero. Note
also that 2 . 4 1 = 2 4 3, yet it is clearly not true that 1 == 3. The multiplicative
semigroup (Z4, '4) does not satisfy the cancellation law.
Deftnhlon ~5. A ring (R, +, .)
is said to have diviBor, oj Z6TO if there
exist nonzero elements a, b e R such that the product 0 b == O.
We exhibited two rings in the above example which possess dWisors of zero.
The second ring, in particular, suggests a relationship between the existence
of divisors of zero and the failure of the cancellation law for multiplication.
We shall see shortly that this is indeed the case.
First, several preliminary results concerning additive inverses are required.
+
We shall adopt the usual convention of writing a (-b) as a - b and refer
to this expression as the difference between a and b.
Th.....m 3-4. Let (R, +, .) be a ring a.nd a, b e R. Then
-(a b) == a (-b) == (-a) b.

Proof. From the definition of additive inverse, we know that b + (-b) == o.
Using the left distributive law,
a b + a (-b) == o(b + (-b == a 0 == o.

Inasmuch sa the inverse of an element under addition is unique, this last
equation implies that
-(a b) == a (-b).
A similar argument shows that - (a b) == (-a) . b.
Corollary. For any elements a, b e R,
(-a) (-b) == a b.
Proof. It follows from the above theorem that
(-a) (-b) = --a) b) = -(-(a b) = a b.

The last equality stems from the fact that (X- 1)-1 = x in any group.
Corollary. If a, b, c E R, then
a (b - c) = a b - a c, (b - c) . a = b. a - c a.
''''hat is, multiplication is distributive over differences.

Proof. Since multiplication is left distributive over addition,
a (b - c) = a (b + (-c) = a b + a (-c)
= a b+ (-(a c)
=ab-ac.
In a like manner, a ring distributive law for differences is obtained.
Having thus laid the groundwork, we are now able to establish the following
result.
Theorem 3-5. A ring (R, +, .) is without divisors of zero if and only if
the cancellation law holds for multiplication.
Proof. First, we assume the ring (R, +, .) contains no divisors of zero. Let
a, b, c be elements of R s~ch that a 0 and a b = a c. Then,
a (b - c) = a b - a c = o.
Since a 0 and (R, +, .) has no zero divisors, this last equation implies
b - c = 0 or b = c. In a similar manner, we can prove that b (I = c (I,
~ith a 0, yields b = c.
Conversely, suppose that the cancellation law holds in the semigroup (R,)
and the product (I. b = O. If the element (I is nonzero, then it may be can-
\eeled from the equation (I. b - a 0 to conclude b = O. On the other hand,
b 0 implies (I = 0 by the same argument. This shows (R, +, .) is free of
divisors of zero.
Corollary. Let (R,+, .) be a ring with identity which has no zero divisors.
Then the only solutions of the equation a2 = a arc a = 0 and a = 1.
Proof. The proof is easy. If (12 = a = a 1, with (I 0, then by virtue of
the cancellation law a = 1.
Definition 3-6. An integral domain is a commutative ring with identity
which does not have divisors of zero.
We have just shown that the cancellation law for multiplication is satisfied
in any integral domain. .
150 RING THEORY 3-1
A word of (,llutiOIl: Some authors omit the requirement of an identity and

usc the term integral domain to indieate any commutative ring without zero
divisors. For our JlUrpOKCB, the preceding definition if! more appropriate.
In Section 2-4, we discussed the concept of a subgroup of a group. It is
natural that there should be a corresponding notion of subsystems for rings.
Deftnitlon 3-7. Let (Il, +,.) be a ring and S ~ R be II. nonempty subset
of R. If th(> triple (8, +, .) is itHClf a ring, then (8, +, .) is said to be a 8ubriny
of (R,l ,.).
An examination of the definition of ring as given in Definition 3-2 shows that
(8, +, .)is a subring of (R, +, .)
provid(>d (8, +) is II. subgroup of (R, +),
(8, .) is a suhsemigroup of (R, .), and til(' two dist.ributive laws hold for ele-
mellts of S. But hoth t,he distributive alld assoeiativ(> laws hold automatically
ill S as a ('Ollsequl'll('(> of their validity in R. Sinee these laws arc inherited from
H, there is 110 partirular n('('(>ssity of requiring them ill the definition of II. subring.
In view of this observation, II. subring eould alternatively be defined as
follows: the t.ripl!' (8, -1-, .) is It suhring of the ring (R, +, .) whenever
1) S iF; II nOIl(,llIpty HuhHet of Il,
2) (8, +) is a subgroup of (R, +),
3) S is closed undcr multiplication.
Even this definition may be improved upon, for the reader may recall that
if 0 ~ II ~ G, then the pair (II, *) is a subgroup of the group (G, *) provided
that a, bEll implies a * b- 1 E H. Adjusting the notation to our present
situation, we obtain a minimal set of conditions for detennining subrings.
Definition 3-8. Let (R, +, .) be a ring and 0 ~ S ~ R. Then the triple

(S, +, .)
is a 8ubring of (R, +, .) if and only if
1) a - bE S whl'll('ver a, b E S (closed under differences),
2) a b E .-; wiwlwVI'r a, 1) E'-; (closed under multiplication).
Example 3-9. Evpry ring (R, +, .) has two trivial subrings; for, if 0 denotes
the zero element of the ring (R, -1-, .), then both ({OJ, +, .) and (R, +, .) are
sub rings of (R, +, .).
Example 3-10. In thl' ring of integers (Z, +, .), the triple (Z" 1-,') is U Hub-
rin!!:. while (Zo, +, .) i~ not. In particular, we infer that in It ring with identity,
a suuring does not n('('11 to contain the iden-
tit,y element.
+6 0 2 4 '0 0 2 4
Example 3-11. COllsi(\l'r (Zo, I 0, '6), the - - - - - -
ring of int('gl'rs modulo (i. IfS= ~O, 2, 4) , 0 0 2 4 0 0 0 0
then (8, +6, '6), whost, op<'mt.ioll tables arc 2 2 4 0 2 0 4 2
given at the right, is a subring of (Zo, -h, '6)' 4 4 0 2 4 0 2 4
3-1 DEFINITION AND ELEMF.NTAUY PltOl'lmTIES OF RINGS 151
Example 3-12. Let S= {a+bV3la, bEZ}. Tlwn (S,+,') is a subring

of (R, +, .), since for a, b, c, d E Z,
(a + bV3) - (e + dV3) = (a - c) + (b - d)V3 E S,

(a + bV3) . (e + dV3) = (ac + 3bd) + (be + ad)V3 E S.
This shows that S is closed under both differences and products.

It has already been pointed out that, when a ring has an iuentity, this need
not be true of its subrings. Other interesting situations may arise:
1) Some subring has multiplicative identity, but the entire ring does not.
2) Both the ring and one of its sub rings possess identit.y elements which are
distinct.
In each of these cases, the identity for the subring must be a. divisor of zero in
the parent ring.
To justify this last assertion, let l' denote the identity clement of the sub-
ring (S, +, .); we assume l' is not an identit.y for the entire ring (R, +, .).
Accordingly, there CXiHLs an clement a E II for whilh a I' ;a! a. It is clear
that
(a 1') . .I' = a (I' . I') = a l'
or
(a l' - a) . l' = O.
Since neither a I' - a nor I' is zero, the ring (R, +,.) has zero divisors; in
particular, I' is a zero divisor of (R, +, .).
To give a simple illustration of a ring in which possibility (2) occurs, we may
refer to Example 3-8. There, the system (R ' X R', +, .) was shown to be a
ring provided addition and multiplication are defined by
(a, b) + (e, d) = (a + c, b + d), (a, b) (c, d) = (ac, bd).
It is a routine matter to verify that the triple (R' X 0, +, .) forms a subring

with identity element (1,0); in this case, (1,0) differs from the identity for the
parent ring which is the ordered pair (I, 1).
Regurding ('neh elemcnt of the ring (ll, +, .) a.~ Rimply n. member of the
additive group (R, +), the familiar laws pertaining to integral exponents
(Theorem 2-!) mf.y be translated direetly into properties of integral multiples.
Thus, for a, bE R :,nu arbitrary integers n anu m, the following hold:
(n + m)a = na + ma,
(nm)a = n(ma),
n(a + b) = na + nb.
152 RING THEORY ~1
In addition to these rules, there are two further properties resulting (rom the
distributive law, namely
n(a b) = (na) b = a (nb),
(na) . (mb) = (nm)(a b).
We should emphasize that the symbol na does not neeelJlJ8J'ily represent a

ring product; indeed, the integer n may not even be a member of R. For n > 0,
the notation na is merely an abbreviation for the finite sum a + a + ... + a, n
summands. However, when there is an identity element present, it is possible
to express na &8 the product of two ring elements: na = (nI) a.
DefInition 3-9. Let (R, +, .) be an arbitrary ring. If there exists a positive
integer n such that na = 0 for all a E R, then the least positive integer with
this property is called the characteristic of the ring. If no such positive integer
exists (that is, na = 0 for all a E R implies n = 0), then we say (R, +,.)
has characteri8tic zero.
The rings of integers, rational numbers and real numbers are standard
examples of systems having characteristic zero. On the other hand, the ring
(P(X), !:l, n) is of characteristic two, since
2A = A !:l A = (A - A) U (A - A) =0
from every subset A of X.
Theorem 3-6. Let (R, +,.) be a ring with identity. Then (R, +,.) has
characteristic n > 0 if and only if n is the least positive integer for which
ni == O.
Proof. If the ring (R, +, .) is of characteristic n > 0, it follows trivially that
nl = O. Were mi = 0, where 0 < m < n, then
ma = m(I . a) = (mI) . a = o a = 0
(or every element a E R. This would mean the characteristic of (R, is +, .)
Jeaa than n, an obvious contradiction. The converse is established in much
the same way.
Corollary. In an integral domain, all the nonzero elements have the same
additive order, which is the characteristic of the domain.
Proof. To verify this assertion, suppose the integral domain (R, +, .) has
positive characteristic n. According to the definition o( characteristic, any
a E R (a F- 0) will then poBse88 a finite additive order m, with m S n. But the
equation
o= ma = (mI) a
implies ml = 0, since (R, +,.) is free of zero divisors. We may therefore con-
clude from the theorem that n ::; m. Hence m = n and every nonzero element
of R has additive order n.
A somewhat similar argument can be employed when (R, +, .) is of character-
istic zero. The equation 100 = 0 would lead, as before, to ml = 0 and con-
sequently m = O. In this case, each nonzero element of R must be of infinite
order.
The last theorem serves to bring out another point.
Corollary. The characteristic of an integral domain (R, +, .) is either zero
or a prime number.
Proof. Let (R, +,.) be of positive characteristic n and assume that n is not a
prime. Then n can be written as n = nln2 with 1 < ni < n (i = 1,2). We
therefore have
Since by hypothesis (R, +, .) is without zero divisors, either nil = 0 or n21 = O.

But this is plainly absurd, for it contradicts the choice of n as the least positive
integer such that nl = O. Hence, we are led to conclude that the character-
istic must be prime.
Now, suppose (R, +,.) is an arbitrary ring with identity and eonsider the
set ZI of integral mUltiples of ihe identity
ZI = {nIl n EZ}.
From the relations
nl - ml = (n - m) 1 and (nI) . (ml) = (nm)I
one can easily sec that the triple (ZI, +,.) itself forms a commutative sub-
ring with identity. The order of the additive cyclic group (ZI, +) is simply
the characteristic of the original ring (R, +, .).
In case (R, +, .) is an integral domain of characteristic p > 0, p a prime num-
ber, we are able to show considerably more: each nonzero element of (ZI, +, .)
is invertible. Before proving this, first observe that by Theorem 2-23, the set
Zl consists of p distinct elements; namely, the p sums nI, where n == 0,'
1, ... ,p - 1. Now, let nl be any nonzero element of ZI, 0 < n < p. Since
p and n are relatively prime, there exist integers r, 8 for whieh rp sn = 1. +
Therefore,
1 = (rp + sn)1 = (rl) (pi) + (d) . (nl).
As pi = 0, we obtain 1 = (81) . (nl), so that 81 constitutes the multiplicative
inverse of nI in (Zl, +.. ).
We shall return to a further discussion of the characteristic of a ring at the
appropriate place in the sequel; in particular, the value of this last result will
have to await future developments.
154 lUNG TIH:<Hty 3-1
PROBLEMS
1. Define two binary operations * and 0 on the set Z of integers by
a*b - a+ b+2,
a b - ab
0 + 2a + 2b + 2.
Show that i~ dhltributive over *.
0
2. Let (R, +) b(' any commutative group. Determine whl'th('r (R, +,.) forms a
ring if muitipiieation is dt'finl'd by
a) a' b = a.
h) a' b = O. wh('re 0 is the identity element of the group (R, +).
3. Let (R, + .. ) be an arbitrary ring. In R define a new binary operation by the 0
rule
aob = ab+ba
fllr all a. bE fl. Establish that (fl, +,0) ill a commutative ring.
4. Obtain the group of invertible elements (ZT2, '12) for the ring (ZI2, +12, '12). In
addition, show that (Z!2, '12) is isomorphic to Klein's four-group.
5. Given that a, b, c, d are clements of a ring (R, prove that +, .),
a) (a +
b) . (c +
d) = a' c b.c a' d + + + b . d,
b) -(abc) = (-a) (-b) (-c),
(.) if a . b = b . a = 0, then (a b)" = an + + b" for n E Z+.
(As usual, a" = a' a ... a, n times.)
6. Define two binary op('rations * and 0 on the set Z of integers as follows:
a*b=a+b-l,
a .. b = a + b - abo
Prove that th!' sYKtem (Z, *, 0) is a commutative ring with identity.

7. Let R be the s('t of all ordered pairs of nonzero real numbers. In the following
Casell, dct!'rmin!' wh!'th!'r (R, +, .)
is a commutat.ivc ring with identity. For those
HYHWIllIi failing to he HO, indicatt~ which axiulll!! are not Hatisfil'll:
a) (a, IJ)+ (e, d) (ae, be + d), (a, b) . (c, d) (ae, bd),

b) (a, b) + (e, d) (a + e, b + d), (a, b) . (e, d) (ae + bd, ad + bd),
c) (a, b) + (e, d) (ad + bd, bd), (a, b) . (e, d) (ae, bd),
d) (a, b) + (e, d) (a + c, b + d), (a, b) . (e, d) (ae, ad + be).
8. In a ring (R, +,.) with identity, prove that
a) the Illultiplicative ili!'ntity element ill unique,
b) if a E fl has a multiplicative inverse, then a-I is unique,
c) if the !'l!'mcnt a is invertible, so also is -a and (_a)-1 = -a-I,
d) no divisor of z!'ro can llOSS!'SS a multiplicative inverse.
9. Let (fl, +,.) be a ring which has the property that a 2 = a for every a E R.
Prove that (R, +,.) is a commutative ring. [Hint: First show a + a == 0 for any
aER.)
3-] IlJ<:FINITION ANI> ELEMENTARY PUOPEUTIES OF RINGS 155
10. Prove that a ring (R,+,') is commutative if and only if
(a + b)2 = a 2 + 2(a . b) + b2
for every pair of clements a, bE R.

11. l>iHllover divil!orll of zero to show that (Zo, +0, '0) iH nut an intogral domain.
Mnrel Kenl'raliy, Hhow that (Z., +., '.)
contains divis(ml of zero if n is not prime.
12. a) In an integral domain, show that the only HolutionK of the equation a 2 - 1
are either a = 1 or a = -1.
b) If the set X containH more than one element, prove that every nonempty
proper subset of X is a divisor of zero in the ring (P(X), A, n).
13. An element a of a ring (R, +, .)
is said to be nilpotent if a~ = 0 for Boma n E Z+.
Prove that in an integral domain the zero element is the only nilpotent element.
14. Prove that the system ({O, 3, 6, 9},+12, '12) is a subring of (Z12, +12, '12), the
ring of intRlI;!'rH modulo 12.
15. D('rive the r('Hult: if (S, h,) and (7', -1-, .) are buth Huhrings of tlw ring (R, +, .),
then so also is the triple (8 n T, +, .).
16. Prove that in an integral domain any suhring which containl:! the identity element
is again an integral domain.
17. The center of a ring (R,+, .), denoted by cent R, is the set
cent R = {c E Ric x = x' c for all x E R}.
Prove tJlat (cant R, +, .)
is a /lubring of (R, +, .).
18. For every n > ], show that thera exists at leBllt one ring of characteristic n.
[/lint: Consider the ring (Z", +..,.,,).]
19. a) If a and b are elements of a commutative ring with identity and n E Zh
obtain fihe analog of the familiar binomial expansion for (a b)": +
(a+ b)" = tk-O
G)an-V.
As usual, the hinomial co!'/fieicnt. (~) = (n ~~) !k-! .

b) From this, delduee that in an integral domain of eharuetl'ristic p > 0,
(a +
b)1' = a" b" +
for all a and b.
20. Suppose (R, ., 0) and (ll', .', .') urn t.wo rinll;H. J)('lim' hi nary operations + and
lin the Cart.c>sian procluet Il X Il' as follow!!:
(a, b) + (e, d) = (a. c, b.' d), (a, b) . (e, d) = (a 0 c, b.' d).
a) Prove t.hat th!' system (R X R', +, .)

forms a rin!!;, "ailed t.he direct product of
thc rinll;s (ll, *,0) and (R', .', .').
b) If the original rings are commutative with idl'ntity, show that the same must
bc truc of (R X R',+, .).
156 RING THEORY 3-2
~2 IDEALS AND QUOnENT RINGS
In this section we introduce an important class of subrings, known as ideals,

whose role in ring theory is similar to that of the normal subgroups in the
study of groups. As shall be seen, ideals lead to the construction of quotient
rings which are the appropriate analogs of quotient groups.
Deftnltion 3-10. A subring (I, +,.) of the ring (R, +,.) is an ideal of
(R, +, .) if and only if r e R and a e I imply both r 0eI and o reI.
Thus we require that whenever one of the factors in a product belongs to I,
the product itself must be a member of I. In a sense, the set I "captures"
products.
+, .)
If (1, is a subring of (R, +, .),I is already closed under mUltiplication.
For (1, +, .) to be an ideal, a stronger closure condition is imposed: 1 is closed
under multiplication by an arbitrary element of R.
In view of Definition 3-8, which gives a minimum set of conditiona on I for
(I, +,.) to be a subring, our present definition of ideal may be rephrased as
follows:
Definition 3-11. Let (R, +,.) be a ring and I a nonempty subset of R.
Then (1, +,.) is an ideal of (R, +,.) if and only if
1) 0, bel imply 0 - bel,
2) r e Rand 0 e I imply both r 0 e I and o reI.
In the case of a commutative ring, of course, we need only require r 0 e I.
Before proceeding further, we shall examine this concept by means of several
specific examples.
Example 3-13. In any ring (R, +, .), the trivial subrings (R, +,.) and
({O}, +, .)are both ideals. A ring which contains no ideals except these two is
said to be simple. Any ideal different from (R, +, .)
is termed proper.
Example 3-14. The subring ({O, 3. 6, 9}, +12) is an ideal of (Z12. +12, '12),
the ring of integers modulo 12.
Example 3-15. For a fixed integer 0 e Z, let (0) denote the set of all integral
multiples of o. that is.
(0) = {no I n e Z}.
The following relations show the triple 0). +.. ) to be an ideal of the ring of
integers (Z. +, .):
no - rna = (n - m)o.
m(no) = (mn) 0, n, m eZ.
In particular, since (2) = Z the ring of even integers (Z +..) is an ideal of
(Z, + .. ).
3-2 IDEALS AND QUOTIENT RINGS 157
Example 3-16. Suppose (R, +,.) is the commutative ring of functions of

Example 3-5. Define
1= {fE R If(I) = O}.
For functions f, gEl and hER, we have
(J - g)(l) = J(I) - gel) = 0 - 0 = 0

and also
(h /)(1) == h(I) . f(I) = h(I) 0 = o.
Since hothf - g and h g belong to I, (1, +,.) is an ideal of (R, +, .).
If condition (2) of the definition of ideal is weakened so as to only require
that the product r a belongs to I for every a E I and r E R, then we arrive
at the notion of a left ideal (right ideals are defined in a similar way). For com-
mutative rings, it is plain that every left (right) ideal is an ideal or; as it is
sometimes called, a two-Bided ideal.
We next derive several interesting and useful results concerning ideals of
arbitrary rings.
_ Thearem 3-7. If (I, +,.) is a proper ideal of a ring (R, +, .) with identity,
then no element of I has a multiplicative inverse; that is, I n R* = 0.
Proof. Suppose to the contrary that there is some member a ~ 0 of I such that
a-I exists. Since I is closed under mUltiplication by arbitrary elements of
R, a-I. a = 1 E I. It then follows by the same reasoning that I contains
r
r 1 = r for every E R: "That is, R !; I. Inasmuch as the opposite inclusion
always holds, I = R, contradicting the hypothesis that I is a proper subset
of R.
Theorem 3-8. If (It, +, .) is an arbitrary indexed collection of ideals of
the ring (R, +, .), then IJ!> also is (nit, +, .).
Proof. First, observe that the intersection nli is nonempty, for each of the
sets Ii must contain the zero element of the ring. Suppose the elements a,
bE nIi and r E R. Then a and b are members of It, where i ranges over the
index set. As the triple (It, +,.) is an ideal of (R, +, .), it follows from
Definition 3-11 that a - b, r a and a r all lie in the set h But this is true
for every value of i, so the elements a - b, r a and a r belong to nI., which
implies that (nI., +,.) is an ideal of (R, +, .).
Consider, for the moment, an arbitrary ring (R, +, .) and a nonempty subset
8 of R. By the symbol (8) we shall mean the set
(8) = n{I I 8!; I; (1, +,.) is an ideal of (R, +, .)}.

The collection of all ideals which contain S is not empty, since the improper
158 RING THEORY 3-2
id<>al (R,+, .)
clearly belongs to it; thus, the set (8) exists and is such that
8 ~ (8). Theorem :l-S leads directly to the following result.
Theorem 3-9. The triple 8), +,.) if! an ideal of the ring (R, +, .), known as
the ideal ymeraled by Ihe set S.
It is not.eworthy that whenever (I, +, .) is any ideal of (R, +, .) for which
S ~ I, t.hell (8) ~ I. III view of this, olle frequently speaks of S), +,.) ILS
being the smallesl ideal to contain the set S. An ideal generated by a single
ring clement, say a, is called a principal ideal and is designated by a), +,.).
A natural undt'rtaking is to determine the precise form of the members of
(S). If we impot) the requirement that (R, +, .) he a commutativo ring, it is
a fnirly Hilllpl!' matter to e/wek Umt (8) is givell by
(8) = {1:ri"~i+ 1:njlljlriER;si,l!jE8;njEZ},
where the symbol 1: ill<iieaies a fillite sum with one or more terms. The proof
is left to the rend<>r as all exprcil:!C.
In the eal:!C of the prineipal ideal a), +, .),
this description of (8) reduces to
(a) = {r a + na IrE R, n E Z}.

Obl:!Crve, incidentally, that the clement a is contained in (a), since a = O a la. +
When there ia an identity clement present, the term na becom~ superfluous.
For, in this situation, we mfty write the expression r a + na as
l' . a + na = r' a + n(t . a)
= r a + (nl) . a = (r + nl) . a,
with r1 III a rilll( demellt. ThuH, the Het (a) merely consists of all ring multiples
of a:
(a) = {r a IrE R}.
III actual fnet, the elements 1" a (r E R) compril:!C the set of elements of an
ideal of (R, +,.) evell whell the ring doesllot possess an identity; the difficulty,
however, iH that thil:! i<ieuilleed not l'ontnin a itself. The next theorem formalizes
these idells.
Theorem 3-10. If (R, -f ,.) is 1\ ('ommutative ring with identity and a E Il,
then thc prineipal ideal a), +, .) gencrated by a is such that
(a) = {r a 11' E R}.
The prirll'ipnl ilil'all:! are the only il\l'als of the ring of integers, as the following
theorem will :;how.
Theorem 3-11. If (/, t-,.) is an idl'al of the ring (Z, +, .), then 1= (n)
for some Ilollll('gative integer n.
3-2 IDEALS ANO QUOTIENT RINGS 159
Proof. If I = {O}, Ill(' th{'orpm is trivially tmc, for till' zpro ideal ({O}, +, .)
il:! the print"ipal idml g('ncrateu by O. Suppose then t hal I uoel:! not (~()nsist of
the zero clement alone. :\'ow, if mEl, -m also belong;; to I, so that I contains
pOliit.iv(' illtq(crli. Let It deHignlLte the lellst pmdtiv(' intlger in I. As (I, +,.)
il:! lUi ideal, eaeh intel!;rul multiple of n must. be in I, UlIlt is, (n) ~ I.
On the otIl('r hand, any integer k E I may be exprel-lscd as k = qn + r,
whpre q, 1" E Z and () ~ r < n. Hinee k and qn are nwmbers of I, it follows
that k - qn = TEl. Our definition of the integer n implies T = 0, and
consequently k = qn. Thus every member of I is a multiple of n implying that
I ~ (n). The two inclu!!ions !!how I = (n), eompleting the argument.
Actually, It !lllll'h shortl'r proof of thl' fOll'l(oilll( 'IHUIt. ('lIuld hI' lIiltnilll'(\
using Tlworclll :!-:!4; till' proof, as given, hILS till' advantage of hl'ing HIlf
('ontainI'd.
By It principal ideal Tina is meant a commutative ring with identity in which
every ideal is principal. It is apparent from Theorem ;~-11 that the ring of
integers constitutes IL principal ideal ring.
Now, I:!Uppose that ai, a2, ... , an arc nonzero c1ement.s of (R, +, .),
a com-
mutative ring with identity. An clement a E R il:! said to be a common multiple
of aI, a2, ... , an provided a is a ring multiple of Clwh of t.hese. For instance,
the products al . a2 ... an and - (al . a2 ... an) are both common multiples
of all a2, . . , an. We shalL cull the element a It least common multiple of
all a2, .. ,an if (1) a is It common multiple of these clements and (2) any
other common multiple of a" a2, ... , an is a multjp!l~ of a liS well.
We make immediate use of this terminology to prove the next theorem.
Theorem 3-12. Let aI, a2, ... , an be nonzero elements of It principal ideal
ring (R, I,). Theil
(n(ai),+,) = a),+,),
where a is a lea!!t eommon multiple of ai, a2, ... , an.

PToof. According to Theorem 3-9, the triple (n(ai), +,.) is un ideal of (R, +, .).
But every ideal of (R, +, .)
is a principal ideal; hence, there exists an element
a E R for which (a) = n(a;). Since (a) ~ (aj) [i = 1,2, ... , nl, a = T; a; for
some T; E R. We t.hus I"ondude that a is a common multiple of all a2, ... , an
Next, assume b il:! any common multiple of aI, a2, . .. , an, say b = s; ai,
where S; E R [i = 1,2, ... , n]. If r E R, then
r b = r (s; ai) = (r s;) a; E (a;),
which shows (b) ~ (aj) for eaeh value of i. TheJ"{fo!"1' (b) ~ n(aj) = (a) aAd
accordingly b must be a multiple of a. Our argllntellt. establi!;hes that a is a
least common mult.iple of ai, a2, ... , a".
To illustrate thi!; theorem, eonsider the prinl"ipal ideals 4), and +, .)
6), +,.) generated by the integer!; 4 and 6 in the ring (Z, +, .). The reader
160 RING THEORY 3-2
can easily verify that

(4) n (6), +, .) = (12), +, .),
where 12 is the least common mUltiple of 4 and 6.
We now turn our attention to the matter of cosets in a ring. If (1, +, .) is
an ideal of the ring (R, +, .), then, since addition is commutative, the system
(I, +) is a normal subgroup of (R, +). Thus by the results of Section 2-5, we
may construct the quotient group of R by 1.
In our present notation, the cosets of 1 in R &88Ume the form
a +1 =
+ iii E I},
{a
where a E R. By Thcorem 2-27, two cosets a + I and b + I are .equal if and

only if a - bEl.
As before, the collection of distinct cosets of I in R shall be denoted by
RI I. It follows from Theorem 2-33 and Problem 14, Section 2-5, that if addition
of cosets is defined by the rule
(a + 1) + (b + I) = (a + b) + I,
then (RII, +) becomes a commutative group. An operation of mUltiplication
can a1ao be introduced in RII in a natural way with the result that a ring is
obtained i all we need to do is to specify
(a + I) (b + I) = (a b) + I.
Because (I, +,.) is an ideal, this definition of coset multiplication is well
defined and does not depend on the particular representatives of the cosets
used. Indeed, suppose that
a+I=a'+1
and
b+ 1= b'+I.
Then, as observed above, a - a' = it and b - b' = i 2, where i" i2 E I. From
this, we conclude that
a b - a' . b' = a (b - b/) + (a - a') . b' = a i2 + it . b' E I,
since both the products a it and i 2 b' are in I. Consequently,
ab +1 = a' b' + I.
The closure of I under multiplication by arbitrary elements of R thus leads
to a meaningful definition of coset multiplication j indeed, this is the principal
reason for defining an ideal as we did.
Theorem 3-13. If (l, +, .) is an ideal of the ring (R, +, .), then the system
(R/ I, +, .) is a ring, known as the quotient ring of R by I.
We omit the details of the proof and merely point out that the zero element
of (R/I, +,.) is the coset 0 + I = I, while -(a + I) = (-a) + I.
Example 3-17. In the ring (Z, +,.) of integers, consider the principal ideal
n), +, .), where n is a nonnegative integer. The cosets of (n) in Z take the
form
a+ (n) = {a+ 1m I k eZ} = [a].
That is, the cosets are precisely the congruence classes modulo n. It follows
from the definition of coset addition and multiplication that the quotient ring
of Z by (n) is merely the ring of integers modulo n:
(Z,., +,., .,.) = (Z/(n), +, .).
A homomorphism between two rings (R, +,.) and (R', +', .'), as one might
expect, is a function f: R -+ R' which preserves both ring operations. This
amounts to applying the familiar homomorphism concept to the additive
groups (R, +) and (R', +'), and to the multiplicative semigroups (R,) and
(R', .'). The precise definition follows.
Definition 3-12. Let (R, +,.) and (R', +',.') be two rings and f a function
from R intO R'; in symbols, f: R -+ R'. Thenf is said to be a (ring) h0mo-
morphism from (R, +,.) ~to (R', +',.') if and only if
f(a + b) = f(a) +' feb),

f(a b) = f(a) .' feb)
for every pair of elements a, b e R.

Before proving any theorems concerning homomorphisms between rings, we
pause to examine a few examples.
Example 3-18. Let (R, +,.) and (R', +', .') be arbitrary rings and f: R -+ R'
be the function that maps each element of R onto the zero element 0' of
(R', +', .'). A simple calculation shows thatf is operation-preserving:
f(a + b) = 0' = 0' +' 0' = f(a) +' feb),
f(a b) = 0' = 0' .' 0' = f(a) .' feb), a. b e R.
As with the case of groups, this mapping is called the trivial homomorphism.
Example 3-19. The mapping f: Z -+ Z. defined by f(a) = 2a is not a homo-
morphism from (Z, +..) into (Z., +, .), for while addition is preserved. multi-
plication is not:
f(a + b) = 2(a + b) = 2a + 2b = f(a) + feb),
but
f(a b) = 2(a b) ~ (2a). (2b) = f(a) feb).
162 lUNG THEORY 3-2
Example 3-20. Consider (Z, +, .),

the ring of integers, and (Z", 'n), the +..,
ring of integers modulo n. Define I: Z - Zn by taking I(a) = [a]; that is, map
each integer into the congruence class containing it. Then
I(a + b) = [a + b] = +n [b) = f{a) +.. feb),

[a]
I(a b) = [a b) = [a]'n [b] = I{a) '"/(b),
so that I is a homomorphic mapping.
Example 3-21. Let (R, +,.) be any ring with identity. For each invertible
('Iement a E R, the function la: R - R given by
la(x) = a X a-I
is a homomorphism from (R, +,.) into itself. Indeed, if x, y E R, we see that
la(x + y) = a (x + y) . a-I = a X a-I + a y. a-I = la(x) + la(Y) ,

la{x, y) = a (x y) . a-I = (a x . a-I) . (a y. a-I) = la{x) . la{Y) ,
showing that la has the asserted property.

The next theorem gives the ring-theoretic ana.logs of Theorems 2-38 and 2-39.
We shall give no details, since the proof follows the lines of the corresponding
rcRultll obtained for groups. The parts of the theorem concerning addition
(~arry over with just a dlUngc in notntion.
Theorem 3-14. Let I be a homomorphism from the ring (R, +,.) into the
ring (R', -1-', .'). Then the following hold: .
1) 1(0) = 0', where 0' iR the zero element of (R', +', .').
2) I( -a) = -f(a) for all a E R.
3) The triple (f(R), +', .,) is a subring of (R', +', ").
If, in addit.ion, (R, +,.) !\nd (R', -+', .') a.rc rings with identity elements 1
and 1', respectively, and I( R) = R', then
4) 1(1) = 1',
Ii) J(a- I ) ~ J(U)-I fll/' I'llI'h invt'rtihll,I'II'llI!'n\. 11 Ell.
Two COlllllwntll regarding pnrt (4) of the theorem are in order. First, it is
evident that
J(a) .' l' = J(a) = J{a 1) = J(a) .' J(I)
for all a in R. From this, one might be tempted to (incorrectly) invoke the
cancellation law to mme\llIle that I( 1) = 1'. What iR uctunlly required is the
fact thut Il\ul\.iplicntive idl'ntit.ies lUI' uni1lue.
Secondly, if thl' hypo\.h!'sis tlmt. I mups ont.o t.he 1I('t. Il' ill omitted, then it
can only be inferred t.lmt J(1) is t.he idl'ntity of the subring (I(R), f-', "). Tltl'
:J-2 IDEALS AND QUOTIENT RINGS 163
clement fell need not serve as an identity for the entire ring (R', +', .'); in
faet, it may very well happen thatf(I) ~ 1'.
We also observe, in passing, that by statement (2),
I(a - b) = I(a) - feb), a, b E R.
That is to say, a homomorphism preserves differences as well as sums and

products. We shall need this fact presently.
If f is a homomorphism from the ring (R, +,.) into the ring (R', +', .'),
then the kernel of f is the set
ker (f) = {a E R I f(a) = O'},
where, as usual, 0' designates the zero clement of (R', Ignoring the+', ").
multiplication operations in the rings, this is just the usual definition of the
kernel of a homomorphism between the additive groups (R, +) and (R', +').
As before, f is a one-to-one mapping if and only if ker (f) = {O}.
For our analogy between ideals and normal subgroups to be meaningful, one
would anticipate that the kernel of a homomorphism is an ideal. This is indeed
the content of the following theorem.
Theorem 3-15. If , is a homomorphism from the ring (R, +,.) into the
ring (R', +', .'), then the "triple (ker (f), +, .)
is an ideal of (R, +, .).
:~-14, 0 E ker (f), liO that the kernel is Ilonempty.
Proof. By part (I) of Thcor(!m
Now, any two elements a and b in ker (f); by definition, f(a) = 0' =
COli Hider
feb). Since any homomorphic mapping between rings preserves differences, it
follows that
f(a - b) = f(a) - feb) = 0' - 0' = 0',
and consequently a - b E ker (f). If r is an arbitrary member of R, then
f(r a) = f(r) .' f(a) = fer) .' 0' = 0'.

Accordingly, the product r a E ker (f). In a like manner, we also conclude
that. r a IiI'S ill J.;('r (f). This is Imfficdellt for (k('r (f), -f-,.) to be an ideal of
(Ii, I,,),
Example 3-22. COIIHiJer :til lu'bitmry rillg (Ii, -f-,') with identity clement 1
and the mapping f: Z -+ R given hy fen) = nI. A simple eomput.ation shows
that f, so ddiIlC>d, is a homomorphism from the rillg of int.egers (Z, +, .) into
the ring (R, +, .):
fen I 11/) - (n I 111)1 = nl + ml = fen) I f(m) ,
f(nm) = (nm)l = (nm)12 = (nl) (mI) = fen) f(m).
Since (ker (f),J , ,) is then an ideal of (Z, +, ,), it follows at once from
164 RING THEORY 3-2
Theorem 3-11 that

ker (J) == {n E Z I nl = O} -= (tn)
for some nonnegative integer m. A moment's reflection will convince the reader
that the integer m must be the characteristic of the ring (R, +, .). In other
words, the ideal (ker (J), +, .) is nothing more than the principal ideal gener-
ated by the characteristic of (R, +, .).
In agreement with our previous use of the term, two rings (R, +, .) and
(R', +', .') are said to be iBOmOrpilic if there exists a one-to-one homomorphism
from the ring (R, +,.) onto the ring (R', +', .'). We indicate this by writing
(R, +,.) ~ (R', +', .'). The last example, for instance, implies that any ring
(R', +',.') with identity which is of characteristic zero contains a subring
isomorphic to the integers; more specifically, (Z, +,.) ~ (Zl, +', .'), where 1
is the identity element of (R', +', .').
As we have seen, many aspects of ring theory are considerably simplified
when a multiplicative identity exists. The next theorem shows that there is
no real loss in generality in assuming the presence of such an element, for
every ring is isomorphic to a subring of a ring with identity. Because this
result is often phrased differently, we require another definition.
DeflnlHon 3-13. A ring (R, +,.) is imbtdded in a ring (R', +', .') if there
exists some subring (S, +', .') of (R', +', .') such that (R, +,.) ~(S, +', .').
Theorem 3-16. Any ring can be imbedded in a ring with identity.
Proof. Let (R, +, .) be an arbitrary ring and consider the Cartesian product
RXZ = {(r, n) IrE R, n E Z},
where, as usual, Z designates the integers. If addition and multiplication are

defined in R X Z by means of the equations
(a, n) + (b, m) = (a + b, n + m),
(a, n) . (b, m) = (a b + 1M + nb, nm),
then it is a simple matter to verify that the enlarged system (R X Z, +, .)

forms a ring. This ring has a multiplicative identity, namely the pair (0, 1); for
(a, n) . (0, 1) = (a 0 + la + nO, n 1) = (a, n),
and, similarly,
(0, 1) . (a, n) = (a, n).
Next, consider the subset R X 0 of R X Z consisting of all pairs of the form

(a, 0). Since
(a,O) - (b,O) = (a - b,O), (a,O) . (b,O) = (a b, 0),
it foUowathat the triple (R X 0, +, .) constitutes a subring of (R X Z, +, .).

3-2 IDEALS AND QUOTJlIINT RINGS 165
The proof is completed by showing (R X 0, +,.) is isomorphic to the gi~en

ring (R,+, .). To this end, define the functionJ: R - R X 0 by taking
J(a) = (a, 0).
Evidently, J is a one-to-one mapping of R onto the set R X O. Furthennore,

this function has the property of preserving algebraic structure:
J(a + b) = (a + b, 0) = (a,O) + (b,O) = J(a) + J(b) ,

J(a b) = (a b, 0) = (a,O) (b,O) = f(a) . J(b).
Whence, (R, +,.) ~ (R X 0, +,.) and we may regard the ring (R, +,.) as
imbedded in (R X Z, +, .),
a ring with identity.
A point to be emphasizl..'<i in connection with the preceding theorem is that
the imbedding process may be carried out even if the given ring baa an identity
to start with. Of course, in this case, the construction has no partiCuIa.r merit;
indeed, the original identity only serves to introduce divisors of zero into the
enlarged system (see Problem 15 of this section).
While Theorem 3-16 shows that we could confine our study to riop with
identity, it is nonetheless desirable to develop as much of the theory as poesible
without the assumption of such an element. Thus, unless an explicit statement
is made to the contrary, 'the subsequent discussion will not presuppose the
existence of a mUltiplicative identity.
Earlier in our study, we saw that to every normal subgroup (H, *) of a group
(G, *) there cor~spoqd!! _an homomorphism with H as its kernel; one need
only consider the natural mapping onto the quotient group (GIH, e). In
the same way, each ideal (1,+,,) of a ring (R,+,') determines a quotient
ring (RII, +,.) and a natural mapping natI: R - RII given by
natI(a) = a+1
for all a E R. Paralleling our work in group theory, it is possible to prove:
Theorem 3-17. The natural mapping nati is a homomorphism from
(R, +,.) onto (RII, +,.) with kernel I.
Proof. By the corresponding theorem for groups, Theorem 2-42, natl is known
to be a group homomorphisni of (R, +) onto (RI I, +) such that ker (natI) = I.
Thus, we need simply show that products are preserved by nat/. This follows
immediately from the fact that, for any a, b E R,
nat/(a b) = a b +1= (a + I) (b + I) = natl (a) . natl (b).

Hence, natl is a ring homomorphism.
Without further delay, let us now derive the ring-theoretic version of the
Fundamental Theorem for Groups.
166 RING THI';ORY 3-2
Theorem 3-18. If f is a homomorphism from the ring (R, +,.) onto the
ring (R', +', .'), then (Tl/ker (f), +,.) ~ (R', +', .').
Proof. Just as in the group case, we define a function 1: R/ker (f) --+ R', the
induced mapping, by taking 7(a + ker (f) = f(a); it is this function which
establishes the desired isomorphism. From the proof of Theorem 2-47, we
already know that (R/ker (1), +) ~ (R', +') by]. To complete the argument,
it remains only to settle the question of whether 1 preserves the multiplication
operation in (R/ker (f), +, .); but this is straightforward:
](a+ker(f' (b+ker(f)) =](ab+ker(f)

= f(a b)
= f(a) .' f(b)
= ](a + ker (f) .'](b + ker (f.
Incidentally, note that by virtue of t.he definition of the indu('oo mapping 1,
any ring homomorphism f admits the factorization
Example 3-23. For a simple, but useful, example illustrating some of these
ideas, eonRider the rin~R (Z., +., .) and (Z2, -h, '2)' We define the function
I: Z. --+ Z2 as follows:
f(O) = 1(2) = 0, 1(1) = f(3) = 1.
It is a lengthy procedure to verify that f is a homomorphism and we pass over

the detni\s. ' The reader should cheek several possibilities to satisfy himself
that this property actually holds.
In the present case, the kernel of 1 is the two-element set to, 2}. Moreover,
we see that
Z./ker (f) = {{O, 2}, {I, 3}}.
The operation tables for the quotient ring (Z./ker (f), +, .) are as shown:
-+- {0,2} {I,3} {O,2} {1,3}

{0,2} {O,2} {1,3} {0,2} {0,2} {0,2}
{1,3} {I, :J} {0,2} {I,3} {0,2} {1,3}
Theorem 3-18 asserts that the Ryst('m (Z./ker (f), +, .) must be isomorphic
to the ring of integers modulo 2; indeed, this is reasonably evident from the
nature of the foregoing tables.
As an applicntion of Theorem 3-JR, we propose to show that each homo-
morphism onto the ring of integers (Z, +, .) is entirely determined by the set
a-2 IDEALS AND QUOTIENT RINGS 167
where it 1l1lSIIInes t.he value O. Contrll.!lt this with the case of groups: both
iz and -iz nrc homomorphisms from the additive group of integers (Z, +)
onto itself. The kernel of each of these mappings is {O}, but clearly iz "'" -iz.
We begin hy establishing a lemma which is of independent interest.
Lemma. The only nontrivial homomorphism from the ring of integers
(Z, +,.) into itself is the identity map iz.
Proof. Consider any homomorphism f having the asserted properties. Because
each positive int.eger n may be written II.!! I + + ... +
I 1 (n summands), the
operation-preserving nature of f implies fen) = nf(l) for each n E Z+. On
the ot.her hand, if n ill lUI arhitmry negative integer, -n E Z+, and accordingly,
fen) = f(-(-n) = -f(-n) = -(-n)f(1) = nf(l).
Finally, f(O) = 0 = Of(1). The net result of all this is that
fen) = nf(l)
for every n in Z. As the function f is, by hypothesis, not identically zero, we

must have f(l) = 1. Therefore, fen) = n = iz(n) for a.ll n, so that f is just
the identity function on Z.
Corollary. There is at most one homomorphism under which an arbitrary ring
(R, +,.) is isomorphic to (Z, +, .).
Proof. Suppose the rings (R, +, .) and (Z, +, .) are isomorphic under two
functions f and 0, where f. g: R --+ Z. Then the composition f. g-1 is a homo-
morphic mapping from the ring of integers (Z, +, .) onto itself (we leave the
verification of this fact as an exercise). It follows at once from the lemma just
proved that f. g-1 = iz or f = g.
We now have all the necessary information to prove the following result.
Theorem 3-19. Any homomorphism from an arbitrary ring (R, +,.) onto
the ring of integers (Z, +,.) is uniquely determined by its kernel.
Proof. Letf and g be two homomorphisms from the ring (R, +,.) onto (Z, +,.)
with the property that ker (I) = ker (g). Our aim is to show that f and g
must, in actual fact, be the same function. Now, by Theorem 3-18, both the
quotipnt. ringll (Riker (I), +, .) and (Riker (g), +, .) are isomorphic to the'
ring of int('gers under the illlltH'ed mappings 7and g, respectively. The assump-
tion thatf lLnd g have a common kernel, taken in <!onjunction with the preceding
corollary, implies 7 = g. It then becomes apparent from the factorizations
g = g natker(Q)
that the funetiolls f and g arc themselves identical.
168 RING THEORY 3-2
As a final topic in this section, we look briefly at the problem of extending

a function from a subsystem to..the entire system. In practice, one is usually
eoncerned with extensions which retain the characteristic features of the given
function. The ncxt theorem, for instance, presents a situation where it is
possible to extend a homomorphism in such a way that its extension also has
this property. But first, one more definition is needed (see Problem 17, Sec-
tion 3-1).
DefInition 3-14. The center of a ring (R, +, .), denoted by cent R, is the
center of the multiplicative eemigroup (R, .) j that is,
cent R = {r E R I r a = a r for every a E R}.

We are now in a position to state and prove our theorem.
Theorem 3-20. Let (I, +, .) be an ideal of the ring (R, +, .) and I a homo-
morphism from (1, +,.) onto (R', +', .'), a ring with identity. If I s;;; cent R,
then there is a unique homomorphic extension of I to all of R.
Prool. As a starting point, we choose u E I so that I(u) = 1', where l' is the
identity element of the ring (R', +', .'). Since (1, +,.) is an ideal, the product
a " will be a member of the set I for each choice of a E R. It is therefore
possible to define a new function g: R -+ R' by setting yea) = I(a u), a E R.
In particular, if the element a belongs to I, then
g(a) = I(a. u) = I(a) .' I(u) = I(a) . l' = I(a),

showing that the restriction y I I agrees with I. What we are observing, in effect,
is that g extends the given function J to all of R.
The next thing to establish is that both ring operations are preserved by
the function g. The case of addition is fairly obvious: if a, b E R, then
g(a + b) = Ia + b) . u) = I(a u + b . u)
= I(a u) +' I(b u) = g(a) +' g(b).
As a preliminary step to demonstrating that g also preserves multiplication,
note that
Ja' b) u 2 ) = Ia b u) . u) == Ia' b) u) .' I(u) == Ia b) . u).
In licht of this, we are able to conclude
g(a b) = Ia' b) u) = Ia b) u2 )
= Ia u) (b u = I(a u) .' I(b u) = g(a) .' g(b).
The third equality is justified by the fact that u E cent R, hence commutes
with b.
3-2 IDEALS AND QUOTIENT RINGS
Only the uniqueness of U remains unproved. Let us therefore suppose the

function h is another homomorphic extension of f to the larger set H. Since
f and h are required to coincide on I and, more specifically, at the element u,
h(u) = f(u) = 1.
With this in mind, it follows that
h(o) = h(o) .' h(u) = h(o u) = f(o . u) = g(o)
for all 0 in H, 80 hand 9 must be the same function. Hence there is one and
only one way of extending f from the ideal (I, +, .) to the entire ring (H, +, .).
PROBLEMS
1. Determine all ideals of (Z12. +12. '12). the ring of integers modulo 12.
2. Show by example that if (11,+.') and (12,+,) are both ideals of the ring
(R.+ .). then the triple (11 U 12,+.') is not necessarily an ideal.
3. For any ideal (1.+,,) of the ring (R,+, .). define C(l) to be the set
C(I) - {r e R I r . a' - a . reI for all a e R}.
Determine whether (C(l),+.) forms a subring of (R,+ .).
4. If (11,+,') and (12,+,') are ideala of the ring (R,+,') such that 11 n 12'" {O},
prove a b = 0 for every a E 11, bE 12.
5. a) Verify thanlienng--orreal numbers (R', +, .). is a simple ring.
b) Prove that for each n e Z+, tho rin, (Z .. ,+..,'..) of intepre modulo" It a
principal ideal ring.
6. Let (1,+,,) be an ideal of the ring (R,+.) and define
ann 1 :- {r E R ! r a - 0 for all a E l}.
Prove that the triple (ann 1,+.,) constitutes an ideal of (R,+ ). called the
annihilator ideal of 1.
7. Let (1,+.') be an ideal of (R.+, .), a commutative ring with identity. For an
arbitrary element a in R, the ideal generated by 1 U {a} is denoted by
(I, a), +, .).
Assuming a Ii! I. show that
(I,a) - {i+ra!iEI.rER}.
8. Suppose (II, +,.) and (12,+,') are ideals of the ring (R.+, .). Define
/11+12 - {a+blaElt,bE I 2}.
Show that (11 + 12,+.) is an ideal of the ring (R.+ .); in Tact, (11 + 12.+,)
is the ideal generated by 11 U 12.
170 RING THEORY 3-2
9. In the ring of integers, consider the principal ideals n),+,) and m),+,)
generated by nonnegative integers nand m. Using the notation of the previous
two problems, verify that
n), rn) = rn), n) = (n) + (m) = ({m, n}) - (d),
where d iR !.he grl'at.l'lit common rlivillor of nand m.

10. ConRider th,' ring (I'(X), ~,n) of ExamJllll3-4. For a fixed BuhllCt.~!;; X, definll
the function I: I'(X) -+ P(X) by
I(A) = Ii noS.
Show that I ill a homomorphism and determine its kernel.

11. THilizI! Prohl/'1Il 19, Hl'dinll 3-1, to Rhnw that in an integral domain (R, +, .) of
characteristic p > 0, the mapping
I(a) = aP , aE R,
is a homomorphism of (R, +, .)
into itself.
12. Given thatf is a homomorphism from the ring (R, +, .)
onto the ring (R', +', .'),
prove that
a) if (1, +, .)
is an ideal of (R, +, .),
then the triple (f(l), +', -')
is an ideal of
(R',+','),
b) if (1', +', .') is an ideal of (R', +', -'), then the triple (f-l(1'), +,.) is an ideal
of (R, +, .) with ker (f) !;;f- 1 (1'),
c) if (R, +, .) is a principal ideal ring, then the same is true of (R', +', -'). [Hint:
ForaER,fa = (f(a.]
13. Let I be a homomorphism from the ring (R, +, .) into itself and oS be the set of
elements that are left fixed by /:
oS = {a E R I f(a) = a}.
Establish that (oS,+,) is a subring of the ring (R,+, .).
14. For a fixed element a of (R, +, .), a ring with identity, define the le/t-muUiplicatio7J
/unction/.: R -+ R by taking
fG(x) = a x, xE R.
If F H denotes the set of all sllch functions, prove the ring analog of Cayley's
theorem:
a) The triple WH, +..) +
forms a ring. where denotes the usual pointwise addition
of funct.ions and. denotes functional composition.
b) (R,+,) ~ (FH,+, .). [Hint: Consider the mappingf(a) = fG.]
15. Let CR, +, .)be an arbitrary ring and (R X Z, +', .')
be the ring constructed in
Theorem 3-16. Establish that
a) (R X 0, +',.') is an ideal of (R X Z, +', .'),
b) (Z, +, .)
~ (0 X Z, +', .'),
e) if a is an idempotent element of R, thl'n the pair (-a, 1) is idempotent in the
ring (R X Z, +', .')
and (a, 0) .' (-a, I) "" (0,0).
16. Suppose (/,,+,.) and (/2,+,') are both ideals of the ring (R,+, .). Define the
set 1,12 by
where:E denote!! a finitl~ Rum with olle IIr IlIOfe term",. Prove that (h, 12, +, .)
is an ideal of (R, -+, ').
17. GiVl'II that. (/. -I, .) iH all idllal of the ring (R, -/-, .), Khow that
a) whenevllr (ll, -I,,) ill Cllllllllutative with idellt.ity, then 1111 ill the quotiont ring
(Rl1, +, .),
h) the ring (Rl1, +,.) lIIay have ,livitlorll of Z(,fO, I,vell though (R, -t,.) does
not hav" a.ny,
c) if (R, +,.) is a principal ineal rinJ!;, then so is the quotient ring (RIT,+, .).
IH. IAlt (ll, I , .) till " (!IIlIIlIIutu.tive rillK wit.h hlt'lltity u.nl! I"', N ,It'notl' the 81~t of
nilpotent clements of R. Verify that
a) the triple (N, +,.) is an ideal of (R, +, .). [lJint: If an = b'" = 0, consider
(a - b)n+"'.)
b) the quotient ring (RIN, +,.) has no nonzero nilpotent elements.
19. Assume (R, +, .)
is a ring with the property that a 2 +
a E cent R for every
element a in R. Show that (R,+, .) is a commutative ring. [Hint: Make use
of the expression (a b)2 + + +
(a +
b) to prove, first, that a' b b . a lies in the
center.)
20. Illustrate Theorem 3-18 by considering the rings (Zo, +6, '0), (Za, +a, 'a), and
the homomorphismf: Zo -> Za defined by
f<O) = f(3) = 0, 1(1) = f(4) = 1, f(2) = f(5) = 2.
21. Let (S, +, .) be a subring and (1, +, .) an ideal of the ring (R, +, .). Assuming
S n 1 = {O}, prove that (S, +, .) is isomorphic to a subring of the quotient ring
(Rl1, +, .). [llint: Use the mapping f(a) = a + I, where a E S, in conjunction
with Theorem 3-18.)
22. a) Let f be a homomorphism from the ring (R, +,.) into the ring (R', +', .').
Given that a E R is nilpotent, show its image f(a) is nilpotent in R'.
b) Suppose (R, +, .)
is a ring which has no nonzero nilpotent elements. Deduce
that all the idempotent elements of R bcJong to the center. [llint: If a2 = a,
then (a r . a - a r)2 = (a r . a - r' a)2 = 0 for all r E R.J
23. A ring (R, +, .)
ill Raid to be the direct BUm of the two ideal!! (/ .. +, .)
and (12, +, .),
indicated by writing R = 11 ~ 12, if R = 11 + 12 with h n 12 = {O}. Given
R = I, ~ 12, show that
a) It 12 = 12' I, = {O},
b) every element a E R can be uniquely expressed as a sum
where
24. Let (R, +,.) hI' a commut.ative ring with identity and a E R he an idempotent
whil'h ill dilT('rl'nl from II IIr I. Prove that (R,I , .) is thl' direct 1111111 of the principal
ideals a),+,') and (I - a),+,.): R = (a) ~ (I - a). [llint: Utilize the fact
a' (I - a) = 0.)
170 RING THEORY 3-2
9. In the ring of integers, consider the principal ideals n),+,') and m),+,')
generated by nonnegative integers nand m. Using the notation of the previous
two problems, verify that
n), 711) = m), n) = (n) + (m) ... ({m, n}) - (d),
where d ill the grl'atl'Rt common rlivisor of nand m.
10. ConMilier t1w rinJl; (1'(:\), ~, n) of Example 3-4. For a fixed subset S ~ X, definn
the function I: I'(X) -+ P(X) by
I(A) == An 8.
Show that I is a homomorphism and determine its kernel.
II. Utilize Prohll'll1 10, HI'(:tion 3-1, to Hhnw that in an integral domain (H, +, .) or
characteristic p > 0, the mapping
I(a) = a", aEH,
is a homomorphism of (R, +, .)
into itself.
12. Given that f is a homomorphism from the ring (R, +, .)
onto the ring (R', +', .'),
prove that
a) if (1, +, .)
then the triple (f(l), ,I) is an ideal of+',
(R', +', .'),
b) if (I', +', .') is an ideal of (R', +', ,I), then the triple (f-I(1'), +,.) is an ideal
of (H, +,.) with ker (f) ~rl(1'),
c) if (H,+,') is a principal ideal ring, then the same is true of (R',+', ,f). [Hint:
For a E H, f( (a = (f(a) ).J
13. Let f be a homomorphism from the ring (H, +, .)
into itself and 8 be the set of
elements that are left fixed by f:
8 = {a E R I f(a) = a}.
Establish that (8, +,.)
is a subring of the ring (R, +, .).
14. For a fixed element a of (R, +, .), a ring with identity, define the lelt-multiplication
functionf,,: H -+ R by taking
f,,(z) = a z, zE R.
If Fit denotes the set of all such functions, prove the ring analog of Cayley's
theorem:
a) The triple Wit, +, 0) forlns a ring, where + denotes the usual pointwise addition
of funct.ions and denotes functional composition.
0
b) (R,+,') ~ (FR,+, 0). [Hint: Consider the mappingf(a) = f ... )

15. Let (R, +, .)be an arbit.rary ring and (R X Z, +', .')
be the ring constructed in
Theorem 3-16. Estahlish that
a) (H X 0, +', .')
is an ideal of (R X Z, ,I), +',
b) (Z, +, .)
~ (0 X Z, +', .'),
c) if a is an idempotent element of R, then the pair (-a, 1) is idempotent in the
ring (R X Z, +', .')
and (a, 0) .' (-a, 1) >= (0,0).
16. Suppose (/1, +, .) and (/2, +, .) are both ideals of the ring (R, +, .). Define the
set h . 12 by
wh('re :E llenott~1'I a finitl~ slim with 0111' IIr 1II0fll terlllH. Prove that (Ii 12, +, .)
is an ideal of (R,-t, ').
17. Give'll that. (/,1,') iH nil ideal of the ring (H,+, .), Khow that
a) whcnevI~r (Ii, -I,,) ill commutative with idclltity, then 1111 ill the quotiont ring
(HI I, +, .),
h) the ring (RI I, +,.) may hav{, divisors of Z(,fO, nVCJl though (H, +,.) dOCB
not have, II.ny,
c) if (R, +, .) is a principal icieal rin!!:, then so is the quotient ring (RII, +, .).
I~. (A,t (Ii, I , .) he a e'"lIIlIlutat,ive rinK with hit'ntity and II!\. N ,Ie'uotl' tho set of
nilpotent clements of H. Verify that
a) the triple (N,+,') is an idell.l of (H,+, .). [/lint: If an = b'" = 0, consider
(a - b)n+ .... ]
b) the quotient ring (HIN, +, .)
has no nonzero nilpotent elements.
19. Assume (R, +, .) +
is a ring with the property that a2 a E cent R for every
element a in H. Show that (H, +,.) is a commutative ring. [Hint: Make use
of the expression (a b)2 + + +
(a +
b) to prove, first, that a' b b . a lies in the
center.]
20. II1ustrate Theorem 3-18 by considering the rings (Z(l, +6, '6), (Za, +a, '3), and
the homomorphism f: Z6 --+ Za defined by
f<O) = f(3) = 0, f(l) = f(4) = 1, f(2) = f(5) = 2.
21. Let (S, +, .)

be a subring and (I, +, .)
an ideal of the ring (R, +, .).
Assuming
S n I = {O}, prove that (S, +, .)
is isomorphic to a subring of the quotient ring
(RI I, +, .). [/lint: Use thc mapping f(a) = a + 1, where a E S, in conjunction
with Theorem 3-18.]
22. a) Let f bc a homomorphism from the ring (R, +,.) into the ring (R', +', .').
Given that a E R is nilpotent, show its image f(a) is nilpotent in R'.
b) Suppose (R, +, .)
is a ring which has no nonzero nilpotent elements. Deduce
that all the idempotl'nt elements of R belong to the center. [/lint: If a 2 ... 0,
then (0' r . 0 - o r)2 = (0' r . 0 - r a)2 = 0 for 11.11 r E R.]
23. A ring (H, +, .)
iH Rair\ to be the direct Bum of thc two idealll (/ .. +, .)
and (/2, +, .),
indicatl'd by writing H = II ~ lz. if R = I, + 12 with Ii n 12 = {O}. Given
R = II ~ 12, show that
a) II' lz = 12' 11 = {OJ,
b) every clement a E R can be uniquely expressed as a sum
where
24. I.Rt (H,+,') he a commutativ(' ring with identity and aE R he an idempotent

whilh i" rliff,'rl'nt fWIII () IIr I, Prove that (Ii, . f-, .) is the direct slim of t.he principal
ideals a), +, .) and (0 - a), +, .): H = (a) ~ (l - a). [llint: Utilize the fact
o (1 - a) = O.J
172 RING THEORY 3-3
3-3 FIELDS
In the preceding two sections, a hierarchy of special rings has been obtained
by imposing more and more restrictions on the mUltiplicative semigroup of a
ring. One might be tempted to require that the multiplicative semigroup
actually be a group. Such an assumption would be far too demanding, for this
situation can only take place in the trivial ring consisting of the zero element
alone. It turns out, however, that there do exist rings in which the nonzero
elements form a group under mUltiplication. This leads us to the notion of a
field.
DefInition 3-15. A ring (F,+,.) is said to be a field provided the pair
(F - {O},) forms a commutative group (the identity of this group will be
written as 1).
It should. be evident that any field (F, +, .) must contain at least one non-
zero element, for F - {O} is nonempty, being the set of elements of a group.
Moreover, since a 0 = 0 = O a for every a e F, all the elements of F com-
mute under multiplication and not merely the nonzero elements. In brief, a
field is a commutative ring with identity in which each nonzero element has
an inverse under multiplication. Observe also that if the zero element were
allowed to possess a multiplicative inverse, then 0 = a 0 = 1 for some element
a e Fj this would imply F =' {O}, contrary to our convention that any ring
with identity contains more than one member. -
As before, to distinguish the two inverses of a nonzero element a in F, we
shall denote the mUltiplicative inverse by a-I and use the notation -a for its
inverse relative to addition.
Example 3-24. Both the systems (R', +,.) and (Q, +, .), where + and
indicate ordinary addition and multiplication, are examples of fields.
Example 3-25. Let F be the set of real numbers of the form a + by'3, with
a and b rational: F = {a + by'3 I a, b e Q} . It is straightforward to check
that the triple (F, +,.) is a commutative ring with identity (see Example 3-3).
The additive and multiplicative identity elements in this case are
0= O+oy'3,
To show that (F, +,.) is a field, we must verify that each nonzero element of
F has an inverse belonging to F. Suppose then that a + by'3 e F, where
a and b are not both zero. Under these circumstances, a 2 - 3b2 ,.s 0, for
otherwise y'3 would be rational. This means that
a-bV'3
1
a+bV3a-bV3
,
a -b _ r.;
::= a2 _ 3b 2 + a2 _ 3b 2 v 3 e F.
3-3 J'IBLD8 173
Since a/(a' - 3b') and -b/(a' - 3b') are both rational numbers, the resulting
inverse docs have the required fonn to be a member of F.
Note that if a and b were restricted simply to the set of integers, then (F, +, .)
would no longer be a field, for then the element
a -b
a' - 3b' + a' - 3b'
va3
would not necessarily lie in F.
Example 3-26. Consider the set 0 = R' X R' of ordered pairs of real num-
bers. To endow C with the structure of a field, we define addition and multi-
plication by
(a, b) + (e, d) = (a + e, b + d),
(a, b) (e, d) = (ae - bd, ad + be).
The reader may verify without difficulty that the triple (0, +, .) is a com-
mutative ring with identity. Here the pair (1,0) serves as the mUltiplicative
identity and (0,0) is the zero element of the ring. Now, suppose (a, b) is any
nonzero member of C. Sioce (a, b) ~ (0,0), either a ~ 0 or b ~ 0, 80 that
a2 + b' > OJ thus
for we plainly have
(a, b) ( a 2
a
+b2 ' a2
-b)
+ = (a +
b2 + b -00
a +
+ 00) =
a2
2 2
b" l b2 (1,0).
This shows that the nonzero elements of C have inverses under multiplication,
proving the system (C, +, .) to be a field.
The field (C, +, .) contains a subring which is isomorphic to the ring of real
numbers. For if
R' X 0 = {(a, 0) I a e R'},
it follows that (R', +,.) ~ (R' X 0, +,.) via the mapping I defined by
I(a) = (a, 0), aeR'.
(Verify this!) As the distinction between these systems is one only of notation,
we customarily identify the real number a with the corresponding ordered pair
(a, 0) j in this sense, (R', +, .) may be regarded as a subring of (C, +, .).
The definition of the operations + and enables us to express any element
(a, b) E C a s '
(a, b) = (a,O) + (b,O) . (0, I),
where the pair (0,1) is such that (0,1)' = (0,1) (0,1) = (-1,0). lntto-
174 RING THEORY 3-3
ducing the symbol i as an abbreviat.ion for (0, 1), we thus have
(a, b) = (a,O) + (b, 0) . i.

If it is agreed to replace pairs of the form (a, 0) by the first component a, this
reprcsentation heeomcs
(a, b) = a -1- bi,
with i 2 = - 1. In otlH'r WOrthl, the field (e, +, .) lUi defined above is nothing
more than the familiar complex number system.
The following th('ormn shows that a field is wit.hout divisors of zero, and
consequently it! a system in which the cancellation law for multiplication holds
(see Theorem 3-5).
Theorem 3-21. If (P,! , .) is a field ILnd a, b E F with a' b = 0, then cithcr
a = 0 or b = O.
Prooj. If a = 0, the th('on'm is alreudy est.ublish(!d. So let us suppose that
a ;r6 0 and prove that b = O. By the definition of a field, the element a, being
nonzero, must have a multiplicative inverse a-I E F. The hypothesis a b = 0
then yields
o= a-I. 0 = a-I. (a b) = (a-I. a) . b = 1 . b =-b,
as desired.
Since a field is a commutative ring with identity, and we have just proved
that it contains no divisors of zero, we conclude that any field is an integral
domain. There obviously are integral domains which are not fields; for instance,
the ring of integers. However, an integral domain having a finite number of
clements must necessarily be a field.
Theorem 3-22. AllY finite integral domain (R, +, .) is a field.
Pl'Ooj. Suppo!!C at, a2, ... , an are the members of the set R. For a fixed non-
zero clement a E R, consider the n products a alt a a2, ... , a an. These
products are all distinct, for if a ai = a aj, then aj = aj by the cancellation
law. It follows that each clement of R is of the form a ai. In particular,
there exililts some aj E R stwh t.hat a aj = 1; since multiplication is com-
mutative, we thus have ai = a-I. This shows that every nonzero element of
R is invertible, so (R, +, .) is a field.
It was previously seen that for each positive integer n the system (Zn' +.. , '..)
is a commutative ring with identit.y. Our next result indicates for precisely
what values of n this ring is a field.
Theorem 3-23. The ring (Z", 1-", 'n) of integers modulo n is a ficld if and
only if n is 1\ prime number.
3-3 FIELDS 175
Prooj. We first show that if n is not prime, then (Zn, +n, 'n) is not a field. Thus
assume n = a b, where 0 < a < nand 0 < b < n. It follows at once that
[a) 'n [h) = [a b] = [n] = [0),
although hoth [a) .,& (0), [b) .,& [0]. This means that the system (Zn, +n, 'n) is
1I0t lUI intl'p;ral domain, and hcnce not a fidd.
On Ow ol,hN hand, SIlPJlOSP that n is It prime number. To show that
(Z", -I n, ',,) iH a fidd, it. sufliccs to pl'ove here that each 1l0llZt'ro e1emcnt of Z ..
has a multiplicative inverse in Zn. To this end, let raj E Zn, where 0 < a < n.
Aeeording to Theorem 1-1:~, Rinee a and n have no common factors, there exist
intcgerH r and II lmdl tlmt
ar+n8=1.
Thill implies tlmt.
[a] .. [rJ = [a r] -1-.. [0] = [a 1'] -1-.. [n s]

= [a r -I- n 8]
= [1],
showing the congruence class r1"] to be the multiplicative inverse of [a]. There-
fore (Zn, +n, 'n) is a field, aH required.
There is an interesting relationship between fields and the la.ck of ideals;
what we shall show is that fields have as trivia.l an ideal structure as possible.
Theorem 3-24. Let (R, +,.) be a commutative ring with identity. Then
(R, +,.) is a field if and only if (R, +,.) has no nontrivial ideals.
Proof. ASHume first that (R, +, .)
is a field. We wiHh to show that the trivial
ideals ({O}, +, .) and (R, +, .)
are its only ideals. Let us assume to the con-
trary that there existH some nontrivial ideal (I, +,.) of (R, +, .). By our
assumption, the subRCt I is sueh that I .,& {01, and I .,& R. This means there
is some nonzero clement a E I. Since (R, +, .) is a field, a has a multiplicative
inverse a-I E R. By the definition of ideal, we thus obtain a-I. a = 1 E I,
which in turn implies I = R, contradicting our choice of I.
Conversely, suppose that the ring (R, +,.) has no nontrivial ideals. For an
arbitrary nonzero clement a E R, consid!'r the principal ideal a), +, .)
generated by a:
(a) = {r a IrE R}.
\
Now a), +,.) cannot be the zero ideal, since a = a 1 E (a), with a"& O.
It follows from the hypothesis that the only other pORsibility is a), = +, .)
(R, +, .);
that is, (a) = R. In particular, since 1 E (a), there exists an element
,. E R for whieh i'. a =, 1. Multiplication is eommulative, so that,. = a-I.
Hence e:wh nonzero {'Iement of R hn" a lIlult.iplientive inverse in R.
176 RING THEORY 3-3
In view of this last result, the ring of integers (Z, +, .)

fails to be a field,
since it possesses the nontriviaNdeal (Z., +, .).
Theorem 3-24 is useful in revealing the nature of homomorphisms between
fields.
Theorem 3-25. Let f be a homomorphism from the field (F, +, .)
onto the
field (F', +', ").Then either f is the trivial homomorphism or else (F, +, .)
and (F', +', .') are isomorphic.
Proof. The proof consists of noticing that since (ker (1), +, .) is an ideal of
the field (F, +, .), either the set ker (J) == {OJ or else ker (f) = F. The con-
dition ker (1) = {OJ impliesf is a one-to-one function, in which case (F, +, .) ~
(F', +', .') via f. On the other hand, if it happens that ker U) == F, then each
element of the field (F, +, .) must map onto zero i that is, f is the trivial homo-
morphism.
Plainly, any ring with identity which is a subring of a field must in fact be
an integral domain. We now tum our attention to the converse situation i
specifically, one may ask whether each integral domain can be considered (apart
from isomorphism) as a subring of some field. More formally, can a given
integral domain be imbedded in a field? In the finite case, there is obviously
no difficulty, since every finite integral domain already forms a field.
Our concern with this problem arises from the desire to solve equations of
the type a . x = b, a #- O. A major drawback to the notion of an in~l domain
is that it does not always provide us with a solution. Of course, any such solu-
tion would' have to be unique for a XI = b = a X2 implies XI = X2 by the
cancellation law. It hardly seems necessary to point out that when the integral
domain happens to be a field, there is always a solution of the equation a . X = b
(a #- 0), namely X = a-I. b.
We begin our discussion of this question with a definition.
Definition 3-16. By a aubfield of the field (F, +,.) is meant any subrinl(.
(F', +,.) of (F, +,.) which is itself a field.
For example, the ring (Q, +, .) of rational numbers is a subfield of the field
(R', +, .).
Surely, the triple (F', +, .) will be a subfield of the field (F, +, .) provided
(1) (F',+) is a subgroup of the additive group (F,+) and (2) (F' - {O},)
is a subgroup of the multiplicative group (F - {O},). Recalling our minimal
set of conditions for determining subgroups (Theorem 2-17), we see that
(F', +,.) will be a subfield of (F, +,.) if and only if the following hold:
1) F' is a nonempty subset of F with at lcast one nonzero clement.
2) a, b E F' implies a - b E F'.
3) a, b E F', where b #- 0, implies a b- I E F'.
It should come as no surprise that if (Fi' +, .)
is an arbitrary collection of
subfields of the field (F, +, -), then (n Fi, + . ) is also a subfield.
3-3 I'IIILDS 177
The next theorem furnishes some clue to the nature of the field in which we
wish to imbed a given integral domain.
Theorem 3-26. Let the integral domain (R, +, .) be a subring of the
, +, .).
field (F, If the set F' is defined by
F' = {a b- 1 I a, b E Rj b ~ O},
then the triple (F', +,.) fonns a subfield of (F, +,.) such that R ~ F'. In
fact, (F', +,.) is the smallest subfield containing R.
Proof. Note first that the definition of the set F' is meaningful; indeed, if
a, b E H with b ~ 0, the product a b- 1 must be in F by virtue of the fact
(F, +,.) is a field. Since 1 = 1.1- 1 E F', F' ~ {O}. Now consider two
arbitrary elements x, y of F'. We then have
for suitable a, b, e, d E R, where b ~ 0, d ~ O. A simple calculation shows

x - y.= (a d - b c) . (b d)-l E F'.
Also, if y is nonzero (that is, whenever c ~ 0),

X y-l = (a d) . (c b)-l E F'.
In light of the remarks following Definition 3-16, this is sufficient to establish

that the triple (F' , +, .) is .a subfield of (F, +, .). Furthennore,
a = a 1 = a 1-1 E F'
for each a in H, so that R S;;; F'. Any subfield of (F, +, .) which contains R neces-
sarily includes all products a b- 1 with a, b '" 0 in R, hence contains F'.
Theorem 3-26 began with an integral domain already imbedded in a field.
In the general case, it is actually necessary to construct the imbedding field.
Since the expression a b- 1 may not always exist, one must now work with
ordered pairs (a, b), where b ~ O. Our thinking is that (a, b) will playa role
analogous to a b-1
As a starting point, let (R, +, .) be an arbitrary integral domain and K the
set of ordered pairs,
K = {(a, b) I a, bE Hi b ~ O}.
A notion of equivalence may bc introduced in K as follows:

(a, b) = (e, d) if and only if ad=be.
(We have in mind the foregoing theorem in which a b- 1 = c d- 1 jf and only
if a d = b c.)
178 RING THEOHY 3-3
It is not difficult to verify that the relation =, thus defined, is an equivalence

rl'lation in K; that is to sny,
1) (a, h) = (a, h),
2) if (a, h) == (e, d), then (e,l1) == (a, h),
3) if (a, h) == (e, Ii) and (e, II) == (e, f), then (a, h) == (e, f).
The leaRt obvious statenlC'nt is (3). In this case, the hypothesis (a, h) == (e, d)
and (e, rJ) = (e, f) implies that
a d = h e, e f = d e.
l\Iultiplying the first of these equations by f and the second by h, we obtain
a . d . f = h . e . f = b d e,
and, from the eomlllutativity of multiplication, a f d = b e d. Since

d ~ 0, this flletor may be clUwelled to yield a f = b e. But then (a, h) == (e, f),
as required.
Next, we lahel those elements which are equivalent to the pair (a, b) by the
symbol la, bl; in other words,
la, hI = {(e, d) E K I (a, b) == (e, d)}

= {(e, d) E K I a . d = b c}.
To empha.'1ize the similarity between what follows Ilnd the familiar construction
of thc rational lIumi)('rs, many nuthors prefer to write alb in place of la, bl;
the rcader will realize the difference is merely a matter of notation.
The collection of all equivalence classes la, b] relative to == will be designated
by F. From Theorem I-!i, we know that the elements of F constitute a parti-
tion of the set K. That is, the ordered pnirs of K fall into disjoint classes, with
eneh dnss ('onsist illl( of (quivnll'nt pairs, Ilnd noncquivalent pairs belong to
different classes. Further, two Hueh classes la, hI and Ie, rll are identical if and
only if a . d = h e.
},('t us proceed to introduee suitable operations of addition and multiplication
in F. We do these by nlC'ans of the equations
la, hI +' Ie, d] = la d + b e, b . ri],

la, bl' Ir, til = [a e, b 11).
Note, incidentally, that sin('e b ~ 0 and tl ~ 0 imply b d ~ 0, the right-hand

sides of tiH's(' formulas are :l('tually eielllen!!; of F.
WI! must, as mmnl, first justify that thpsp olwrntiolls an' well-defined. Other-
wise expresS(d, w(, 11('(,.1 to show that. t II!' sum nnd produet. are independent of
til(! pnrt.i.ular I'I('nl('lIts of H uspd ill til(' dp(init iOIl. To aehicve this, let
3-3 FIELDS 179
[a, b] = [a', b/] and [e, d] = [e ' , d/l. From the equations
a b' = b a', e d' = d e' ,

it follows that
(a d + e b) . (b' el') - (a ' el' + c' b') . (b el)

= (a b' - b a'l . (d d' ) + (c d' - d e' ) . (b b')
= O (d d') + 0 . (b . b') = O.
Thus, by the definition of equality of classes,
[a d + e b, b d] = [a" d' + e' b', b' d/],

proving addition to be well-defined. In mueh t.he ~mnle way, one can show that
[a e, b dl = [a' e' , b' . d').
The next lemma estabHs}les the algebraic nature of the triple (F, +', ./).
Lemma. The system (F, +',.') is a field, generally known as the field of
quotients of the integral domain (R, +, .).
Proof. It is an entirely straightforward matter to establish that the triple
(F, +', .')
is a commutative ring. We leave the reader to make the necessary
verifications at his leisure, and merely point out that [0, bl serves as the zero
element while [-a, b] is the negative of [a, b].
That the equivalence class [a, a], where a is any nonzero element, constitutes
the multiplicative identity is evidenced by the following:
[a, a]' [e, d] = [a e, a d] = [e, d],
with [e, dl arbitrary in F.

To show that every nonzero clement of F has all inverse under multiplication,
suppose that [a, b] is not the zero of (F, +', .'). Then a ~ 0, whence the class
[b, a] is a member of F. Accordingly,
[a, bl ., [b, a] = [a b, b . a] = [a h, a b].
Since the product a b is not zero, [a b, a . bl is the identity clemcnt, so that

[a, b]-I = [b, a].
We wish to show next that the field (F, +', ./) contains a subsystem isomorphic
to (R, +, .);
this will estnblish the requil1'd imbedding t,heorcm.
Theorem 3-27. Thc integral domain (R, +, .) CIlII be imbedded in its
field of quotients (F, +/, ./).
180 RING THEORY
Proof. Consider the subset F' of F consisting of all elements of the form [a, 1],
where 1 is the multiplicative identity of (R, +, .):
F'- {[a,I]laeR}.
It is readily checked that the triple (F', +', .') is a subring of (F, +', .') and,
in actual fact, is an integral domain. Now, let /: R -+ F' be the onto mapping
defined by
lea) - [a, 1]
(or each a E R. Since the condition [a, 1] - [b, 1] implies a 1 - 1 b or

a - b, we see that f is a one-to-one function. Moreover, this function pre-
serves addition and multiplication:
f(a + b) = [a + b, 1] = [a, 1] +' [b, 1] = f(a) +' f(b),

f(a b) = [a b, 1] = [a, 1]' [b, 1] == f(a) .' feb).
Accordingly, (R, +,.) ~ (F', +', .') under f, and the proof is complete.
Several remarks are in order. First, note that any member [a, b) of F can be
written in the form
[a, b) = [a, 1] .' [1, b) = [a, 1] .' [b, 1]-1.
Since the systems (R, +, .) and (F', +',.') are isomorphic, one customarily
identifies the element [a, 1] E F' with the element a of R. The above equation
then becomes [a, b] = a' b- 1 The point is this: we may now regard the set
F as consisting of all quotients a.' b- 1 , with a and b '" 0 in R. It should also
be observed that for any a '" 0,
[a, 1] .' [b, a] = [a b, a] = [b, 1].
Again writing [a, 1] simply as a, we infer that the equation a' s == b always
has a solution in F, namely s = [b, a) = b' a-I.
A final fact of interest is that the field of quotients (F, +" .') is the smallest
field in which thc integral domain (R, +, .) can be imbedded, in the sense that
any field in which (R, +, .) is imbeddable contains a subfield isomorphic to
(F, +', .') (Problem 14 of this section).
The field of quoticnts constructed from the integral domain (Z, +, .) is, of
course, the rational number field (Q, +, .).
Definition 3-17. A field which does not have any proper subfields is called
a prime field.
Example 3-27. The field of rational numbers, (Q, +, .),
is a prime field. To
see this, suppose (F, +, .) is a subfield of (Q, +, .) and let a e F be any non-
zero element. Since (F, +, .) is a subfield, it must contain the product
3-3 FIICLDS 181
a a-I = 1. In tum, n = n 1-1 E F for any n in Z; in other words, F con-

tains all the integers. It follows then that every rationaillumber n/m = n. m- 1,
m ;o! 0, also belongs to F, so that F = Q.
Exampl. 3-28. For every prime p, the field (Zp, +p, .p) of integers modulo p
is a prime field. The reasoning here depends on the fact that the additive
group (Zp, +p) of (Zp, +p, .p) is a finite group of prime order, and therefore
has no nontrivial subgroups.
We r.ondudc this section by showing tha.t the rational number field and the
fields (Zp, +1" .p) are, in a certain sense, the only prime fields. The proof relies
heavily on earlier results.
Theorem 3-28. Any prime field (F, +, .)
is isomorphic either to (Q, +, .),
the field of rational numbers, or to one of the fields (Zp, +p, .p), where p is
a prime number.
Proof. Let 1 be the identity clement of (F, +, .) and define the mapping
f: Z-Fby
fen) = n1
"
for any integer n E Z. Then I is a homomorphism from (Z, +, .) onto the

subring (f(Z), +,.) consisting of integral multiples of 1 (Example 3-22). By
Theorem 3-18, we see that
(Z/ker (f), +, .) ~ (f(Z), +, .).

But the triple {ker (/h +,'.) is an ideal of (Z, +, .), a principal ideal ring.
Whence, ker (f) = (n) for some nonnegative integer n. The possibility that
n = 1 may be ruled out, for otherwise I would be the trivial homomorphism j
that can only happen if F = {O}.
Note further that if n ;o! 0, then n must in fact be a prime number. Suppose
to the contrary that n =, nln2 where 1 < ni < n (i = 1,2). Since n E ker (I),
(nIl) . (n21) = (nln2)1 = n1 = 0,
yielding the contradiction that the field (F, +, .) has divisors of zero. (This
result is not entirely unexpected, because n is the characteristic of (F, +, .)
and as such must be prime.)
The preceding discussion indicates that two possibilities arise: either
\ 1) (f(Z), +, .) ~ (Z/(p), +, .) == (Zp, +p, .p) for some prime p, or
2) (f(Z), +, .) ~ (Z/(O), +, .)
= (Z, +, .).
. Turning to a closer analysis of these C8.ses, suppose first that (f(Z), ~ +, .)
(Zp, +p, .p), with p prime. Inasmuch as the ring of integers modulo a prime
forms a field, the subring (f(Z), +, .) must itself be a field. But (F, +, .) con-
tains no proper subfields. Accordingly, feZ) = F and (F, +, .)
~ (Zp, +", .,,).
182 JUNll TIfI<:OltV 3-3
Next, consider th(~ sit.uution (f(Z), +, .) ~ (Z, +, .). Under these circum-
stances, the subring (f(Z), +, .) is an integral domain, but not a field. Theorem
3-26, in conjunction with the hypothesis (F, +, .) is a prime field, then implies
F= {ab-1Ia,be/(Z);b;><!O}
[(nl) (ml)-t In, me Z; m ;><! O}.
It is now 1\ JI\m'ly routinc mattcr to Khow that the fields (F, +, .)

and (Q, +, .)
are isomorphi(' UlI(I(~r the mapping fI{nfm) = (nl) . (ml}-l; we leave this as
an exercise.
Since each field has a prime subfield, we get the following subsidiary result.
Corollary. Every field contains a subfield which is isomorphic either to the
field (Q, +,.) or to one of the fields (Zp, +p, 'p), p a prime.
PROBLEMS
I. If, + and denote ordinary addition and multiplication, for which of thp. following
sets It' is (F, +, .)
1.1. field?
1.1.) F = {a - bv'21 a, b e Z}
b) F = {a+ b01 a, beQ}
+ +
c) F = {a b0 c~ I a, b, ceQ}
+, .),
2. In a fi!'ld (F, Hhow t.hat 1IH1 !''Iuation (,2 = a impli('!! eithl'r a - 0 or a -
3. Define two binary operations * and on the set Z of integers by letting
0
a* b = a +b - 1, a,bei.
Prove that the triple (Z, *, 0) forms 1.1. field.

4. In the field (e, +, .)
of eomplex numbers, define the mapping I: e -. e by the
rule I(a, b) = (a, -b); in other words,
/(a+ bi) = a - bi.
Determine wheth!'r the function 1 is 1.1. homomorphillm.
5. A division ring is 1.1. ring with identity in which every nonzero element has a multi-
plicative inv!'rRe. As.'Juming (H, +, .) is a division ring, prove that (cent H,+, .)
forms a field.
6. Let (H, +, .) be an integral domain and consider the set Zl of all integral multiples
of the identity:
Zl = {nl In e Z}.
Vl'rify that (ZI, +,.) is a fi!'ld if and only if (H, +,.) has positive characteristics.
7. a) Prove that ev!'ry field is a principal ideal rinl/:.
+
b) Consid!'r the set of numbers H = {a by'21 a, b e Z}. Show that the ring
(H, +, .) ill not a field by exhibiting a nontrivial ideal of (H, +, .).
CERTAIN SPECIAL IDEALS 183
S. Derive the following rellults:

a) The identity element of a subfield is the same as that of the field.
h) If Wi. +.. ) it! an indexed collection of 8uhfiC'ld8 of the field (F. then +..).
(n Pi. -\ . ) is ulso a subfil'ld of W. +.. ).
9. Lei. I he a homomorphism from the field W. + .. ) into itllelf and K be the set of
ell'ments left fixed by I:
K = {a E P I Ita) = a}.
Given K # to}, verify that the triple tK. + .. ) ill a Muhfield of (l<'. +, .).
10. a) Cnm'lider the subset S C R' defined by S = {a -I- byp I a. b E Q; p a prime}.
Hhow that (8. +..)
is a sub field of (R',+ ..).
b) Prove that any subfield of (R'. +..)
must contain the rational numbers.
II. Prove that if the field W. +.. ) is of characteristic p > O. then every subfield of
W. +..) has characteristic p.
12. Let I be a homomorphillm of the ring (R. +..)
into the ring (R'. and sup-+'.. ')
pOMe (R.l.J hll.,. a !lubring W.+.) which is a fhld. Hhow that either
F ~ k('r (f) or "Is(' (R'. +'. .')
cont.ains a lIubring isomorphic to W. J. +..
13. If R = {a +by21 a. b E Z}, then the system (H. +..)
is an integral domain,
but not a field. Obtain the field of quotients of (R, +, .).
14. Suppose the integral ddmain (R.+,) is imbedded in the field (F'.+' .'), say
(R. +..) ~ (R', +', .')under the mapping I. Define the set K by
K = {a'.' (b')-I I a', b' E R'; b' # O}.
Prove (I) (K, +', .')

is a subfield of W', +',.') and (2) (K, +', .') is isomorphic
to the field of quotients of (R. +, .).
[Hint: For (2), consider the function g defined
by gIla. b = I(a) .' I(b) -1 where a, bE R, b ;t6 0.)
15. Show that any fi(Jrl ill isomorphic to its field of quotiE'nts. [Hint: Make use of
the previous exercio;e with I as the identity map.]
16. Prove that if (R,+,) and (R', +', .')
are illOmorphic integral domains. then their
fields of quotient!! arc also i!!omorphic.
17. From Problem S(h), deduce that every field W, +, .)
has a unique prime subfield.
Is this result still true if (p, + .. ) is assumed mefl'ly to be a division ring?
IS. Estahlillh the following a.~sertion. thereby completing the proof of Theorem 3-28:
+, .)
If (/", is a field of eharactcristic zero and (K, +, .)
t.h" prime Imbfi('ld generated
by the identity element., then (Q,+.') ~ (K,+,') via the mapping I(n/m) =
(nl) (ml)-I, where n, 111 EZ, m ;t6 O.
19. Use the preceding problem to prove that any finite field (i.e., a ficld with a finite
number of elements) has nonzero characteristic.
3-4 CERTAIN SPECIAL IDEALS

The present sedioll il:! largely devoted to a study of eertaill special types of
ideals, most notably maximal amI prime ideals. 011 UlP whole, our hypothesis
will restrict us t.o eommlltative rings with identity. The requirement is moti-
184 RING THEORY
. vated to some extent by the fact that many of the standard examples of ring
theory have this property. A,further reason, which is perhaps more important
from the conceptual point of view, is that the moat satisfactory and complete
results occur here. We begin by making the following definition.
DeflnlHon 3-18. An ideal (I, +,.) of the ring (R, +,.) is a maximal ideal
provided I jI6 R and whenever (J, +,.) is an ideal of (R, +,.) with
I C J ~ R, then J = R.
Expressed rather loosely, an ideal is maximal if it is not the whole ring and
is not properly contained in any larger nontrivial ideal. The only ideal to
contain a maximal ideal properly is the ring itself.
Assume, (or the moment, that (1, +, .) is a proper ideal of the ring (R, +, .)
and a is an element which does not belong to 1. Then the ideal I, a), +, .),
the ideal generated by the set I u {a}, is such that I C (I, a) ~ R. These
inclusions imply that if (I, +, .) were a maximal ideal, the set (I, a) must be
all of R, (I, a) = R. On the other hand, suppose (J. +,.) is an ideal of
(R, +, .) for which I C J ~ R. If a is an element of J not in I, then
I C (I, a) ~ J. The condition (I, a) = R would therefore force J = R and we
could conclude that (I, + .. ) is a maximal ideal. Summing up, the ideal (I, +, .)
is a maximal ideal of (R, +, .) if and only if I jI6 R and (I, a) = R for every
element a ~ I. This fact will prove quite helpful a little later.
To illustrate the concept, let us show that in the ring of intege.. the maximal
ideals correspond to the prime numbers.
Theorem 3-29. Let (Z, +, .)be the ring of integers and n > 1. Then the
principal ideal n). +,.) is maximal if and only if n is a prime number.
Prool. First, suppose n), +,.) is a maximal ideal of (Z, +, .). If the integer
n is not prime, then n = nln2, where 1 < nl ~ n2 < n. This implies the
ideals n1), +, .)and n2), +, .)
are such that
contrary to the maximality of n), +, .). /

For tho opposite direction, &8Sume now that the integer n is prime. If the
ideal n), +, .) is not maximal in (Z, +.. ),
then either (n) = Z or elae thero
exists some proper ideal m), +, .) with (n) C (m) CZ. The first case is
immediately ruled out by the fact that 1 is not a multiple of a prime number.
On the other hand, the alternative po88ibility (n) C (m) means n = km for
some integer k > 1 i this also is untenable, since n is prime, not composite.
We therefore conclude that n), +,.) is a maximal ideal.
An additional illustration may be of some interest: Let R denote the col-
lection of all functions I: R' -+ R'. For two such functions I and g, addition
and multiplication are defined by the formulas '
U + g)(x) = I(x) + g(x), (f. g)(x) = I(x)g(x), xER'.
Then (R, +, .) is a commutative ring with identity (see Example 3-5). Consider
the set M of functions in R which vanish at 0:
M = {fE R 1/(0) = OJ.

Evidently, the triple (M, +,.) forms an ideal of (R, +, .); we observe that it
is actually a maximal ideal. For, if I e M and i is the identity map on R', one
may easily check that (i 2 + 12)(x) ."" 0 for each x E R'. Hence, the sum
i 2 + 12 is an invertible element of R. This implies that
(M, f) ;2 (i, f) = R,
and therefore (M, f) = R for every Ie M [here (i, f) designates the elements
of the ideal generated by i and I; that is, (i, f) = {r. i + 8 I 1 r, 8 E R} J.
Our immediate goal is to obtain a general result assuring the existence of
suitably many maximal ideals. As will be seen presently, the crucial step in the
proof depends upon the maximal element principle, or what is commonly termed
Zorn's Lemma. It would take us somewhat far afield to do much more than
merely formulate thislcmma as an axiom; the reader who wishes to pursue the
topic further is directed to the comprehensive discussion in [38].
For ease of reference, let us recall that by a chain is meant a collection e
of sets such that A, BEe implies either As;;; B or B S;;; A. We now state
Zorn's Lemma in a form best suited to our present needs.
Zorn '. Lemma. Let (1 be a nonempty family of subsets of some fixed set
with the property that for each chain e in (1, the union ue also belongs to (1.
Then (1 contains a set which is maximal in the sense that it is not properly
contained in any member of (1.
The significant point, needless to say, is that this lemma asserts the existence
of a certain maximal element without actually giving a constructive process for
findjng it.
Theorem ~30. (Krull-Zorn). In a commutative ring with identity, each
proper ideal is contained in a maximal ideal.
Proof. Let (I, +,.) be any proper ideal of (R, +, .), a commutative ring with
identity. Ddino n family of subsets of R by taking
(1 = {J 1 IS;;; J; (J, +,.) is a proper ideal of (R, +, .)}.
This family is obviously nonempty for I itself belongs to (1.
Now, consider an arbitrary chain {l;} in (1. Our aim, of course, is to establish
that ul; is again a member of (1. Notice first that UI; ."" R, since 1 e I, for
any i. Next, let the elements a, bE UIi and r E R. Then there exist indices
i ~nd j for which a Eli, bE Ii' As the collection {Ii} forms a chain, either
Ii S;;; Ii or else Ii S;;; Ii; say, for definiteness, Ii S;;; Ii' But (Ij, +,.) is an ideal,
ISH It! Nil 'I'll EOilY :J-4
:-;0 the difference a - bE I j S;;; uh For the same reason, r a E I j This

shows the triple (uh +, .) to be a proper ideal of the ring (R, +, .). Finally,
IS;;; uI i , hellce the union UI. E Cl.
Thus, on the basis of Zorn's Lemma, the family Cl contains a maximal
element lIf. It follows directly from the definition of Cl that the triple (M, +, .)
iR a proper ideal of the ring (R, +,.) with IS;;; M. We assert (lIf, +,.) is in
faet It maximal ideal. To see this, suppose (.I, +, .)
is any ideal of (R, +, .)
for whi('h 111 C.l S;;; R. Sinl'c AI is a mnximal I'lenH'nt of the fnmily a, the
set .I cnnllot belong to a. Accordingly, the ideal (.I, +, .) must be improper,
whieh implies .I = R. We therefore cOllclude (ill, +,.) is a maximal ideal of
(R, +, .), ('ompleting tIl<' proof.
Corollary. All 1'11'1111'111. is illvC'rlihll' if 1~lId oilly if it 1)(lolIII;M 1.0 1If) maxillllli
idl'lll.
Proof. The C'OIl('IIlSioll i:; immediatc by Theorem a-7.
One rC'nlllrk: TIII'orl'm a-30 docs not extcllcl to rings without. identity. The
pre('cding argumcnt i:; no longer adequate, since the union of a chain in a
('an not be :-;hown to be a proper subset of R.
Although IlIl1ximal iil('als were defirwd for arbitrary rings, we shall abandon
a degree of p;enerulity and heneeforth limit our discussion to commutative
rings with idellt ity. The advantage in doing so stems from the fact that each
iilC'al, otlwr thall tIl<' parent ring itself, will he contained in a m~imal id{~1.
'1'11111'1, unt.il furllwr notice, Wl' shall assume that
all given rin(/.~ are commutatille with identity,
even when t.his if< 1101. (xplicitly ml'nlioned. To he Rum, some of the s\lb~q\lent
material coulc! he prcsC'lItl'd without this additional restridion.
In a striet sl'n s<, , it. i:-; inC'orrect to speak of an ideal being eontained in a
maximal iilpnl. for til!' irwlusion aet.ultlly rl'fl'rs to t.he underlying sets of ele-
nH'nts. "Nevl'rtlH'lpss, the phra.sing is eonvenient and we ('ommit this inaccuracy
frcPly.
As an applieation of t.lw Krull-Zorn TheorC'm, we next I!;ive an elementary
proof of a somewhat slweial result; while the fad invoivpd is rather interCt!ting,
tll('rl' will be no oec'asion to nlake lise of it..
Theorem 3-31. In It ring; (fl, +, .) havinl!; eXIlC't.Iy one maximal ideal
(.11. ".), HIl' only idC'lIIpolC'nt. 1'1(,1II1'1I1H are 0 and I.
Proof. ASSUlll(' til(' theorl'lll iH false; t.hat. is, HUppOse t.here exists an idempotent
a E R with a 0, 1. The rplatioll a 2 = a implies a (I - a) = 0, so that
a and 1 -- a af(' zl'ro divisors. Hem'c, hy Problem S(d), Redion :~-l, neither
thl' elemenl a nor 1 - a iH illvl'rtible in R. But. this means the prin('ipal ideals
Ua), +,.) and (1 -
a), 1-,) are bot.h proppr icipalH of the ring (R, +,.).
As su(h, t1wy mllst. he ('ontained in (III, I,'), t.hc solt' maximal ideal of
3-4 CEH1'AIN SPECIAL WEALS 187
(R, +, .); (a) ~ 1If and (1 - a) ~ M, Accordingly, both a and 1 - a lie in M.

whence
1 = a + (1 - a) E M,
This leads at once to the contradiction ltf = R.

While more clementltry proofs are possible, Theorem 3-31 can be used to
show 1\ field has no idempotents except 0 and 1. A full justification of this
statement consists of first establishing that the zero ideal is the only maximal
ideal in It field .
We now come to a characterization of maximal ideals in terms of quotient
rings, It fundamen tal r(sult.
Theorem 3-32. 1.1'1. (I, , . ) 1)(, IL "rOI)(~r iII'1I1 (If I.llI' rilll( (ll, oj, .). Then
(/, "', .) is a IlIIlXillllL1 ideal if and only if the quotient ring (Ill I. +.. ) is a
field.
Proof. To hegin with, let (I, +.. ) he a maximal ideal of (R. +, .). Since
(ll. +.. ) is 1\ commutative ring with identity, the quotient ring (RII, +.. )
also has these properties. Thus to prove (RI I, +, .)
a field. it suffices to show
each nonzp!'o element of RI I has II. multiplicative inverse. Now. if the coset
a + I ~ 0 + I. then a fl"I. By virtue of the fact (I. +.. ) is a maximal ideal.
the ideal I, a). +,.) generated by I and a must be the whole. ring (R, + . ):
R = (I, a) = {i + r a liE I, r E R}.
That is to say, every element of R is expressible in the form i r' a, where +
i E I and r E R. The identity element 1, in particular. may be written as
1=~+f"a
for suitable choice of i E I. f' E R. But then the difference 1 - f" a E I. This
is obviously equivalent to
1+ I = f'. a +I
+ I) . (a + I),
= (f'
which asserts f' + I = (a + 1)-1. Hence (RI I. +, .) is a field.

For the opposite direction, suppose (RI I, +, .) is It field ami (J. +, .) is any
ideal of (R, +, .) sueh that I C J !; R. The argument consists of showing
thnt J = R, for then (/,1-,') will be a maximal ideal. Since I is It proper
suhset of .I, thl'l'l' 'xists lUI element. a E.I with a fl I. Consequently, the
co!!Ct a + 1 01 1, 1,lle zero clement of (Rll, +,.). All (1l11, +,.) ill assumed
to bc n field, a + I must havc :m illvenic under multiplicntion.
(a -1- J) . (b + J) = 1 + J
for some coset b + IE RI I. It then follows that 1 - a bEl C J. But the
product a b also bdongs to J (recall a is an element of the ideal (J, +.. ,
implying the identity 1 E J. This ill turn yields J = R, as desired,
188 RING THEORY
Example 3-29. Consider the ring of even integers, (Z., +, .), a commutative
ring without identity. In this'ring, the principal ideal 4), +,.) generated by
the integer 4 is a maximal ideal.
The argument might be expressed as follows: If n is any element not in (4),
then n is an even integer not divisible by 4; consequently, the greatest common
divisor of nand 4 must he 2. By Problem 9, Section 3-2, we then have
4), n) = (2) = Z.,
so that the ideal generated by (4) and n coincides with the whole ring. This
reasoning shows that there is no ideal of (Z., +, .)
contained strictly between
4), +, .)and (Z., +, .).
Now note that in the associated quotient ring (Z./(4), +, .),
(2 + (4. (2 + (4 = 0 + (4).
The ring (Z./(4), +, .) therefore has divison; of zero and cannot possibly be a
field. The point we willh to make is that the asllumption of an identity element
is essential to Theorem 3-32.
Wo now shift our attention from maximal to prime ideals. Before formally
defining this notion, let us tum to the ring of integers (Z, +, .) for motivation;
specifically, consider the principal ideal p), +, .) generated by a prime p. If
ab E (p), where a, be Z, then ab = np for some integer n. Since the product
ab is divisible by p, either p divides a or else p divides b (corollary to Theo-
rem 1-4). This being so, it follows that either
a = niP E (p) or b = n2P E (p)
for suitable choice of n., n2 E Z. The ideal p), +,.) thus haa the agreeable
property that whenever (p) contains a product at least one of the factors must
belong to (p). This observation serves to illustrate and partly to suggest the.
next definition.
Definition 3-19. An ideal (1,+,,) of the ring (R,+,') is a prime ideal if
for all a, b E R, a bEl implies either a E I or bEl.
+, .) are precisely the ideals
Example 3-30. The prime ideals of the ring (Z,
p), +, .), where p is a prime number, ,together with the trivial ideals
({O},+,') and (Z,+,).
Example 3-31. A commutative ring with identity (R, +,.) is an integral
domain if and only if the zero ideal ({O} , +, .)
is a prime ideal.
The prime ideals of a ring may be characterized in the following manner.
Theorem 3-33. Let (1, +,.) be a proper ideal of the ring (R, +, .). Then
(I, +,.) is a prime ideal if and only if the quotient ring (RIl, +,.) is an
integral domain.
Proof. First, take (1, +, .) to be a prime ideal of (R, +, .). Since (R, +, .) is a
commutative ring with identity, so is the quotient ring (R/1, +, .). It remains
therefore only to verify (R/1, +, .) is free of zero divisors. For this, assume that
(a + 1) . (b + 1) = I.
In other words, thll product of these (lOsets equals the zero element of the ring
+
(R/ I, +, .). The foregoing equation is plainly equivalent to a b I = 1, or
what amounts to the same thing, a bel. Since (1, +, .) is a prime ideal,
one of the factors a or b must lie in I. But this means either the coset a + 1 = 1
or else b + I = I, hencc (R/ I, +, .)
is without zero divisors.
To prove the convcl'!lC, we just reverse the argument. Accordingly, suppose
(R/ I, +, .)
is an integral domain and the product a bel. We then have
+ J) . (b + I) = a b + I = I.
(a
By hypotiwsis, (R/ I, +, .) contains 110 divisors of.zero, 80 that either a + I = 1

or b + I = I. In finy event, one of a or b belongs to I, forcing (I, +,.) to be
n prime idolLl.
There is an important 'class of ideals which are always prime, namely the
maximal ideals. From the several ways of proving this result, we choose
the argument given below; another approach is indicated in the problems at
the end of this section.
Theorem 3-34. In a commutative ring with identity, every maximal ideal
if! 0. prime ideal. ..
Proof. Assume (I, +, .) is a maximal ideal of the ring (R, +, .) and that
a bel with a fl I. We propose to show bel. The maximality of (1, +,.)
implies that the ideal generated by I and a must be the whole ririg: R = (I, a).
Hence there exist elements i e I, r e R for which
l=i+ra.
Since both a band i are in I, we conclude
+ r a) b ~ i b + r (a b) e 1,
b = (i
from which it is clear that (I, +, .) is a prime ideal.

We should point out that in rings without an identity element this ~t
does not remain valid; a specific illustration is the ring (Z., +, .), where
4), +,.) forms a maximal ideal which is not prime.
One more definition is required: a principal ideal domain is a principal ideal
ring which is also an integral domain.. Otherwise expressed, a principal ideal
domain is an integral domain in which every ideal is a principal ideal.
190 RING THEORY 3-4
Let us remark that the converse of Theorem 3-34 need not hold; there exist
examples of prime ideals which are not maximal ideals. The special properties
of the principal ideal domains, however, guarantee that the notions of primeness
and maximality are equivalent for this important class of rings. Sinee every
integral domnin contains the two trivial prime ideals, the use of the term prime
ideal in a principnl ideal domnin customarily excludes these from consideration.
Theorem 3-35. Let (R, +, .)

be a principal ideal domain. A (nontrivial)
ideal of (R, +, .)
is prime if and only if it is a maximal ideal.
Proof. In vi(!w of Theorem :J-34, it iR Ruffieient to Khow that if a), +, .) is a
prime ideal of (U, 1-, .), UJ('n a), 1-,') iK also maximal. To this end, SUPPORC
(1,1-,.) iK !lny idpal with (l) C I (.~ U. Hinee (ll, I,') it! a "rill(~iplLl ideal ring,
t.here exist!> an clement bE R for which I = (b). Now a E I = (b), hence
a = r b for Rome choice of r in R. But a), +, .) is a prime ideal, so either
r E (a) or b E (a). The pORsibility that b E (a) immediately leads to the contra-
diction (b) ~ (a)_ Therefore r E (a), which implies r = 8' a for suitable 8 E R,
or a = r I, = (.~. a) . II. Since a 0 alld (Il, +, .) it! all integral domain, we
then have 1 = 8' b. This meanK the identity 1 E (b) = I, or equivalently,
1= R. Since no ideal lies between a), +, .) and the whole ring, we conclude
that a), +, .) is a maximal ideal.
Corollary. A nontrivial ideal of the ring (Z, +, .) is prime if IMld only if it

is maximal.
Note that in asserting the equivalence of prime and maximal ideals, Theorem
3-35 fails to actually identify these ideals. The situation is easily remedied
though by introducing the idea of a prime element.
Definition 3-20. A nonzero ('Il'l1Ient a of the ring (R, +, .) is called a
prime element of R if a is not invertible and in every factorization a = b . c
with b, C E R, cit.hcr b or c is invertible.
The nonpriml's thus ('(Insist. of zero, clements having inverses, and all elements
which can be written as the product of two factors neither of which iR invertible.
In rings 11\1eh IUl diviKion rillj!;s and fields, where each nonzero element pORRCsses
a multiplicative inv('I'/!{', the eOlwppt of a prime clement is of 110 sigllificanee.
The theorem providing the bridge between prime elements and prime ideals
may now be stated as follows:
Theorem 3-36. Let (R, +, .)

be a principal ideal domain. The ideal
a), +,.) is a prime (maximal) ideal of (R, +,.) if and only if a is a prime
plcmcnt. of R.
Proof. The Ht.l'\let,ure of the first. part of the proof i~ similar to that of Theorem
3-35. In other words, suppose a is a prime element of Rand (1, +, .)
is any
ideal for which (a) c I ~ R. By hypothesis, (R, +, .) is a principal ideal ring,
:i-4 CEHTAI:-.I SPECIAL mEAL!'! HH
so there is an c1PlJlent b in R with I = (b). As a E (b), a = r b for some

r E R. It followli from the fact that a is a prime clement that either r or b is
invertible. Were l' to have a multiplicative inverse, then b = r- I . a E (a),
which implies I = (b) ~ Cal, an obvious contradiction. Accordingly, the
clement b must he invertible, so thut (b) = R. This ar~ull1ent shows thnt
((a), +,.) is a maximal ideal of (R, +,.) and consequently prime, by Theorem
3-34.
On the other hand, let (a), +, .) be !\ prime ideal of (R, +, .). For a proof
by eontmdietion, aHsume thnt a iH not. n prime element of U. Theil a admits
the fad.orizat.ion a = Ii c, where h, C E fl, and ncith(!r h nor c is invertihle.
(The alt,('I'lIlltivn pOHHibilit.y t.hat. a hUH lUI illv"!'",, implics (a) = fl, HO it may
hI! 1'lI1('I oul..) Now if till' d(,III1'IIt. b w('rn ill (Il), t.h(,11 b ,.. a for SOIlW r E R,
and a = b c = (r a) . c. From the cancellation law, we could infer 1" C = 1.
But this f('Hulis in the contradiction that c is invertible. By the same reasoning,
if c IiI'S in (a), t.hell b possesses an invef/o;e, eontrnry t.o assumption. We then
have b C E (a), with b fl (a) and c fl (a), whi('h denies that (a), +, .) is a
prillle id"al. Helice our o!'il(inal supposition is fal,,1' alld a must be a prime
clemen L of H.
As might be expected, prime clements in a prilwip:d ideal domain playa role

analogous to the prime numbers in the ring of intl~gers. To give one illustra-
tion, the following genernlization of the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
('lUI be obtained: every nonzero element of a prineipal ideal domain is either
invertible or can be written as a produet of prime clements in an essentially
unique way (up to invertible clements as fai:tors and the order of factors);
the proof of this fact is omitted.
It. would s('cm irmppropriat,e to eoneiudc this scetion without some brief
nU'lIt.ioll of t.he radil'nl of n rilll/;. The notion ('lUI he ehamderize<i in vnrious
ways and in more generality than is done here, but at the cost of cumbersome
arv;unwntK. For our present purposes, a definition phrased in terms of maximal
ideals is preferahle.
Deftnition 3-21. The mdical of a ring (R, +, .), denoted by rad R, is the set
md U = niM I (AI, /,.) is II llIaximal ideal of (R, +, .)}.
If rad R = to}, then we say (R, +, .) is a ring wilhout radical or is a semi-

simple riny.
Th(' rluli('al always ('xist.s, sinee we know by Tlwofl'm 3-30 that any ring con-
tains at, h'ast one maximal ideal. It is abo imnwdiale from the definition that
the t.riple (rad Il, f-,.) forms :tn i<iml of (Il, -/-, .).
Example 3-32. The ring of integers (Z, +, .) is a semisimple ring. For,

accOI'dillg to Theorem 3-:lU, the maximal ideals of (Z, /-,.) are precisely the
192 BING THEORY
principal ideals p), +, .), where p is a prime; that is,

radZ = n{(p) I p a prime number}.
Since no nonzero integer is divisible by every prime, rad Z - {O}.
First, let us establish a connection between the radical and invertibility of
ring elements. At the risk of being repetitious, we recall our convention that
"ring" always means commutative ring with identity.
Theorem 3-37. Let (1, +,.) be an ideal of the ring (R, +, .). Then the
set I s;;; rad R if and only if each element of the coset 1 + I has an inverse
in R.
Proof. We begin by assuming that Is;;; rad R and that there is some element
a E I for which 1 + a is not invertible. Our object, of course, is to derive a
contradiction. By the corollary to Theorem 3-30, the element 1 + a must
belong to some maximal ideal (M, +, .) of the ring (R, +, .). Since a E r&d R,
a is also contained in M, and therefore 1 = (1 + a) - a is in M. But this
means M = R, which is clearly impossible.
To prove the converse, suppose each member of 1 + I has a. multiplicative
inverse, but 1 ~ rad R. By definition of the radical, there will exist a nWtimal
ideal (M, +,.) of (R, +,.) with 1 ~ M. If a is any element of 1 which is not
in M, the maximality of (M, +, .) implies that (M, a) = R. 'Fhe identity
element 1 can therefore be expressed in the form
l=m+ra
for: suitable choice of m E M and r E R. But then m = 1 - r a E 1 + I, so
that m possesses an inverse. The conclusion is untenable, since no proper ideal
contains an invertible element.
The form this result takes when (1, +, .) is the principal idelif generated by
an element a E rad R deserves special attention. While actually a corollary to
the theorem just proved, it is impOrtant enough to be singled out as a theorem.
Theorem 3-31. In any ring (R, +, .), an element a E rad R if and only if
1 + r a has an inverse for each r E R.
This theorem adapts itself to many uses. Three fairly short and instructive
applications are presented below.
Corollary 1. An element a is invertible in the ring (R, +,.) if and only if
the coset a + rad R is invertible in the quotient ring (Rlrad R, +, .).
Proof. Assume the coset a + rad R has an inverse in (Rlrad R, +, .), so that
(a + rad R) . (b + rad R) = 1 + rad R
for some b E R. Then a b - 1 lies in rad R. We next appeal to Theorem 3-38,
3-4 CERTAIN SPECIAL IDEALS 193
with r = 1, to conclude that the product a b = 1 + 1 (a b - 1) is in-

vertible; this, in tum, forces the element a to have an inverse. The other
direction is el!8entially trivial.
Corollary 2. The only idempotent in the radical of the ring (R, +, .) is O.
Proof. Let the element a E R with = a. Taking r = -1 in the preceding
a2
theorem, we see that 1 - a has an inverse in R; say, for purposes of argument,
that (1 - a) b = 1, where b E R. This leads to
a = a2 + a b - a b = a (a + a b - b) = a (a - 1) = 0,
which completes the proof.
Corollary 3. Let N denote the set of all noninvertible elements of R. Then
the triple (N, +, .) is an ideal of the ring (R, +, .) if and only if N = rad R.
Proof. The inclusion rad R ~ N clearly holds. Suppose, therefore, that the
element a E N. If the system (N, +,.) forms an ideal of (R, +, .), then
r a E N for any r E R. Moreover, the element 1 + r a E N, for otherwise
1 = (1 + r a) - (r a) ~ould be in N. From the definition of N, it follows
that 1 + r . a must be invertible, implying a E rad R. This shows N s; rad R,
whence the equality N = rad R. The other direction of the corollary is im-
mediate.
We close this section with a result which provides a convenient method for
manufacturing semisimple rings. Its proof utilizes both implications of the
last theorem.
Theorem 3-39. For any ring (H, +, .), the quotient ring (Hlrad H, +,.) is
semisimple.
Proof. Before beco~ing involved in details, let us remark that since (rad H, +, .)
is an ideal of (R, +, .), we Pl&Y certainly form the quotient ring (H/rad R, +, .).
To simplify notation somewhat, we will denote rad H by 1.
Supposo the coset a + 1 E rad (HI 1). Our strategy is to show that a e 1,
for then a + f = I, which would imply that rad (HI J) consists of only the
zero coset. Since a + flies in rad (RI f), Theorem 3-38 asserts
(1 + f) + (r + J) . (a + J) = 1 + r a + 1
is invertible in Hl1 for each r E H. Accordingly, there exists a coset b + f
(which, of course, depends on both r and a) such that
(1 + a r + 1) . (b + 1) = 1 + 1.
This is clearly equivalent to
b + a . r b - 1 E 1 = rad H.
194 3-4
Again appealing to Theorem 3-38, we conclude that the element

b + a r b = 1 -I- 1 (b + a r b - 1)
hUH un illVl'rfW! c ill fl. But then
(I + r a) . (b c) = (b + a r b) . c = 1,
IiOthat 1 -I- r a iii inwrtible in R. Bt'Cl\use this argument holdH for every
r E R, it follows that a E rad R, as desired.
PROBLEMS
In thl' fullowill~ ~t of prohll'm>!, all rings arll aSflllmlld to bl' (~ommutativll with
idl'ntity.
J. Show that the only maximal ideal in a field <p,+,.) is the zero ideal ({O},+, .).
2. Givl'n I is a hnmomnrphi~m from the ring (Ii, -1-,') nnto the ring (R', +', .'),
prove that
a) if (1,+,,) is a maximal ideal of (R,+,'), then the triple (f(l),+',.') is a
maximal idl'al of (R', +', .'),
b) if ([',+',J) is a maximal ideal of (R',+',.'), then the triple (f-l(1'),+,')
is a muxiulltl i,lplLl uf (Ii, 1-, .).
a. If I i!l IL hOlllolllurphi"m from the ring (R, -1-,') onto the fidd W, show +', .'),
that (k('r (fl, -L .) is a maximal ideal of (R, +, .).
4. With the aid of Thl'urems 3-29 and 3-32, obtain another proof of the fact that
(Z", +", ',,) is a field if and only if p is a prime number.
n. An idl'al (1, +, .)
of Ihe ring (R, -1-, .) is said to be minimal if I # {OJ and there
exists no idl'al (J, +,.) of (Ii, +,.) such t.hat {OJ C J C I.
a) Prove the idl'al (/, +, .)
is a minimal ideal if and only (a) = I for every non-
zero elenll'nt II E I.
h) Verify thlLI. Ill<' ring of intl'gers (:I., +, .)
ha.~ no minimal ideals.
fl. I?ur any i<l"nl (/, I,') of tlil' ring (fl, I .. ). Ildin" Hl<' ",It \l'i hy
\1'1 = {rElllrnE/fnrRomenEZ+}.
Estahlish I.hl' following assl'rtion!l:
a) The triplt (\1'1, -1-,') is an i,II'al of (R, +,.) such that I r;; Vi.'
b} If (J, +,'J i" an ill('al uf (Ii, -1-,') fur which I r;; J r;; vI, then vJ = Vi.
c) If (II, +, .) 0.011 (12, -1-. ) arl' both ideals of (R, then +, .),
vII n 12 = VYin vI2'
7. If f is IL homomorphism from the ring (R, +, .)
onto the ring (R', -1-', .'), show t.he
following:
a) If (/,-1-,') is a prime ideal of (R,+,') with 12 ker(j), then the triple
(fU), +',
J) is a prime idl'al or (R', +', .').
:l-4 CJ<:HTAIN SPI<;CIAL IDEALS 195
b) If (I', +', .')

is a prime ideal of (R', -+', .I), then the triple (f-'(I'), +, .) is a
prime ideal of (ll, +, .).
H. Lf't (Ii, I,') 1m lin indf'xf'l\ eollectinn of prime illl'lIls of 1.11(' ring (R, +, .). If
tlH' fllIllily of st!t>! {I,: for illS admin, proVt' t.hat bot.h (U/;, I,') alit \ (n/;, +, .)
arc prime icleal~ of (R,+, .).
9. Prove that if (1,,+,,) and (12,+,') are two ideals of the ring (R,+,') such
that neither the Het I, nor the set 12 is contained in the other, then the idea!
(I, n I:l,t,) is lint prime. [llint: Piek aE II - 12, bE 12 - II, and con-
sidl'r a . b.]
)(1. lTtilize Tlll'nrems 3-32 and a-33 to give an altt'fnativ(' pronf of the fact that every
maximal idl'nl is IL prime id(nl.
II. An idl'ul (I, 1 , .) of IL ring (fl, 1 , .) i" ,,"id to I,, u ",':/Il11rl/ idm/ if a . II E 1 with
It fl. I illlplit'" /," E I for SO III" positivI' intl'gl'r 11. Jo:"tllhlish tlw following faett!
('OIlCl!rJlillJ!: prilllllry ideals:
a) Every prim!' idl'1I.1 is a prirnnry idnal.
b) If (I, +, .) i>j a primnry ideal of (ll,I', .), l.hl'lI thl' i,leal (0, +, .)
is prime.
c) H t.he illeal (I, +,.) is such that (VI, 1 ,.) for illS a maximal id('al of (Ii, +, .),
tI}(,1l (I, 1-,') is a pri llIary ill(al.
12. Let (I, +, .)

be an ideal of the ring (R, +, .).
Prove that (I, +, .) is a primary
ideal if and only if every zero divisor of the quotient ring (RI I, +, .) is nilpotent.
I a. An ideal is called a nil ideal if 1'lIeh of it.t! f'leml'nt.s is nilpot.(nt. Prove t.hat if
(1,1,') iH a nil idt'ILI of (.III' ring (ll, I, .), tlll'lI 1 c;:: rad U. [llint: If rEI with
rn = 0, tll('l1 (I - r) . (I -I- r -I- r2 j ... 1 rn-I) = 1 - r" = I.]
14. Describe the radiea! of (Z., +., ',,). II/int: Considl'r the prime factorization of n.)
15. Given (I, +,.) is all ideal of the ring (R, +,.) such that the quotient ring
(RI I, +, .)
is semisimp!e, prove that rad R ~ I. [Him: If a E rad R, show that
a +
IE rad (Ill I) by usc of Theorem 3-:J8.)
16. Prove that if (I, +, .)is an ideal of t.he ring (R, +, .),
thell rad I = I n rad R.
17. a) Hhow that the annihilator of a semisimple ring (R, +,.) is zero; in other words,
ann R = {O}.
b) Let (R,+,') h(, a ring with the property that I = aIm (ann 1) for every ideal
(/, +,.) IIf (/i, I, .). (In gl'lIl'rlLl, WI' IInly IlILvl' I.h. illl'itl"ioll I!; unn (ILnn 1).)
Pro v,' I,hat. if (.II, I,) is a maximal ideal of tl", ring (Ii, I, .), then (ann .11, +,.)
iH a minimal idl!al.
IH. Let (1,+,,) hi' an ideal of ti\(' ring (R,+,') 8.nd S~ Il he a Het that is closed
under multiplication and is disjoint from I.
a) Using Zorn's Lemma, show that t111're t'xiHts all icleal (/', +,.) of (R, +, .)
which is maximal with respect to the,;e prop('rtiell:
(i) I ~ P, (ii) P nS = ~.
b) Prove that (/', +,.) is n('cl'Hsarily a prime ideal. [/lint: If a fl. P, b fl. 1', then
(I', a) and (I', b) intersect S, whieh implies a . b fl. P.)
19. Prove: 8.11 ideal (I, +,.) of (R' +,.) i~ the intersection of prime ideals if and
only if a 2 E I implies a E 1. [/lint: Foreadl a fl. I, there is a prirneideal (P,+,')
196 RINO THEORY 3-5
of (R, +,.) which is maximal with respect to"disjointedness from the set
\a,
," a,
2 ... , a"
, ...
}
and such that P"2 I.]

20. Verify that an ideal (1, +,.) of (R, +,.) contains a rime ideal if and only if,
for every n, al . a2 ... a" ... 0 implies that some a. E I. [Hint: Use Problem 18
with S - {bl' b2' .. b.. 1 b. E -I, n ~ I}.]
21. +, .)
A ring is said to be a local ring if it has a unique maximal ideal. If (R, is a
local ring and (M,+,) is its maximal ideal, prove that any element a EM is
invertible.
22. If I: R -+ R' is a homomorphism of the ring (R,+,) onto the ring (R',+', .'),
prove that I(rad R) ~ rad R' and, whenever ker <I) ~ r&d R, that rad R -
1-1 (rad R').
23. If N denotes the set of noninvertible elements of R, prove that the following
conditions are equivalent:
a) (N, +,.) is an ideal of (R,+, .),
b) the quotient ring (RIN, +,.) is a field,
c) (R, +,.) is a local ring.
3-5 POLYNOMIAL RINGS
The next step in our program is to apply some of the previousty developed
theory to a certain class of rings, the so-called polynomial rings. For the moment,
we shall merely remark that these are" rings whose elements consist of poly-
nomials with coefficients from a fixed, but otherwise ar\>itrary, ring. (The
most interesting results occur when the coefficients are specialized to a field.)
The matter of formalizing the intuitive idea of what is meant by a poly-
nomial always presents a serious problem. We propose first to put this notion
on a sound basis, then to discuss the properties of polynomials and polynomial
rings. Our investigation will culminate with a survey of the basic facts relating.
roots of polynomials and field extensions. En route, the reader will see that
many of the familiar results of elementary algebra are but special cases of
general theorems to be obtained.
For an arbitrary ring (R, +, .), let poly R designate the set of all infinite
sequences
of elements of R in which at most a finite number of the ak ~ 0; in other words,

(ao, at. a2, . .. ) E poly R if and only if there is some nonnegative integer N
such that a" = 0 for all k ~ N. The elements of poly R are called polynomials
over the ring (R, +, .), or just polynomials over R.
At times, it will be cOllvenient to use the notation
(ao, a" ... , all, 0, 0, ... )

3-5 POLYNOMIAL RINGS 197
for the polynomial with last nonzero term an; when n = 0, we permit ao = 0
in order to include the zero polynamial (0, 0, 0, ... ) each of whose terms is
zero. With this agreement, the set of polynomials over R may be regarded as
the IKlt
poly R = {(ao, ai, ... ,an, 0, 0, ... ) I at E R, n ~ O}.
Thus, the sequence (1, 1, 1,0,0, ... ) would be a polynomial over (Z2, +2, '2),
but (0, 1,0,1, ... ,0,1, ... ) would not.
We next introduce operations of addition and multiplication in the set
poly R, 80 that the resulting system is a ring containing (R, +, .) as a subring.
Let us first, however, make clear that two polynomials
and
arc equal if and only if their corresponding terms are equal: / = g if and only
if ak = bk for every integer k ~ O. Now, define the sum / + (J by the rule
/ +g = (ao + bo, al + bl, a2 + b2, ... ).

The reader may easily verify that the pair (poly R, +) forms a commutative
group. We state only that the zero element is the zero polynomial (0,0,0, ... )
and that the additive inverse of (ao, al, a2, ... ) is (-ao, -ai, -a2, ... ).
Finally, we specify an operation of multiplication in poly R by taking
/. g = (ao' bo, ao . b 1 + al . bo, ao . b2 + al . b + a2 . bo, ... )

1
= (co, -CI, c~::-:-.),

where
C" = L
iH-t
ai' bi = ao . bt + al . b"-l + ... + 'at . boo
Note that if ai = 0 for i> n and bi = 0 for j > m, then c" =
k +
> n + m (i j = k > n + m implies either i > n or j > m), whence /. g
for all
is once again a polynomial. A routine computation, which we omit, estab-
lishes that this multiplication is associative as well as distributive with respect
to addition; in fact, these properties follow almost at once from the correspond-
ing properties in (R, +, .). All this may be summarized in a theorem.
Theorem 3-40. The triple (poly R, +, .) forms a ring, known as the ring
0/ polynomial8 over R. Furthermore, the ring (poly R, +, .)
is commutative
with identity if and only if (R, +, .) is a commutative ring with identity.
At the risk of belaboring the obvious, let us point out that while the operations
in (poly R, +, .) are defined in terms of those of (R, +,.), these are entirely
new operationR; we have used the same symbols only to avoid unnecessary
notational complications.
198 3-5
If 8 rl!prcHcmtH Ule HPj, of all constant TJolyrtomials,' that is, the set
8 = {(a, 0, 0, ... ) I a Ell},
then it is not particularly difficult to show that (S, +, .)

constitutes a subring
of (poly R, +, .) whieh is isomorphic to (R, +, .); one need simply consider the
mapping that scnds the eonstant. polynomial (a, 0, 0, ... ) to a. In this sense,
(poly R, +,.) eont.ains (R, +,.) as a suhring.
As 1\ result of the uforementioned imbedding, we shall no longer distinguish
between an clement a E R and the constant polynomial (a, 0, 0, ... ) of poly R.
By developing IlOme additional notation, it is possible to express polynomials
in Hw fl1ll1ilillr form usually PIII'Oulltl'rpci ill f'lf'mnntary COllrHHS in algebra. As
a firHl. HI.IJI ill this dind.iulI, wC' Id a.c del:liI(IIILf.c~ til(! polynomial
(0, a, 0, 0, ... ).
That is, ax is the spcdfie nu'mber of poly R which has the element a for. its
8('cond term nnel 0 for nil other terms. :\[ore genemlly, the symbol ax", n ~ 1,
will dC'lIot.e tlw polynomial
(0, ... , 0, a, 0, ... ),
wll(~re t.he ('Iem('nt a iH t.Iw (n + I )Ht. tc'rm in this polynomial; for example, we
have
ax 2 = (0, 0, a, 0, ... )
and
ax:! = (0,0,0, a, 0, ... ).
Utilizing these conventions, ench polynomial
mny be uniquely represcnted in the form
f = (an, 0, 0, ... ) -I- (0, alt 0, 0, ... ) -I- ... + (0, ... ,0, a", 0, ... )
= an -I- alx -1 a2x2 + ... + a"x",
with, of course, ao repl:wing (an, 0, 0, ... ). Thus, there is no harm in regarding
t.he polynomial rillj!; (poly n,l, .) IlS consisting of all formal expressions
where the ('1('nI('IIts all, aI, ... , an (t.he cl)('.jJidcnts of f) lic in R.

WC' Hhould pllll'liaHizp Ihal It('c'ordilll( to our dl'finil.ion, x is Himply 1\ new
symbol, or indctcrmina7l', totally 1I11Tf'lated to the rillg (R, +, .), and in no
Hellse r('pn'spllts all ('\('nwlIl of H. To indimte the indeterminnnt x, it is com mOil
prac~tic'e to write Rf.rJ for \.Iw 1'11'1. poly R, ulld f(.c) for any member of the Rl1mC'.
From 1I0W 011, W(' Hlmlllllalw exclllsivl' use of this IIotation.
Remark. If t.IlC rillg (U, +, .) has a llIult,ip\i('utive identity 1, many authors

will identify the polynmnilll Ix with the ill(let<~rminltnt. x, thereby treating x
itself as It sp('pilie IlIl'mber of Rlxj, namely, t.he polynomial x = (0,1,0,0, ... ).
From this view, ax becomes an actual product of clements in Rlx]:
ax = (a, 0, 0, ... ) . (0,1,0,0, ... ).
To simplify the writing of 1\ polynominl, it is custolllary to omit terms with

zero coefficients and to replace (-ak)x" by -akx". Thus, for example, 1 - 23;2
would stand for 1 Ox + + (_2)X2.
An important. definition in connection with polynomials is that of degree,
givl'll Iulow.
Deftnition 3-22. If
is a nonzero polynomial in Rlx], we call the coefficient an the le(J(iing coefficient

of f(x) and tlH' inl.('gl'r n, t.he de(II'ec of the polynomial.
Thl' d(~grt,1' or ILIly nOlY.!ero polynomilll is therefore a nonnegative integer;
no degf'(~e is assigned to the zero polynomial. It will be observed that the poly-
nomials of degree 0 are precitICly the nonzero constant polynomials. If the ring
(R, +, .)has an identity clement, a nonzero polynomial of degree n whose
leading eoeffieient an = 1 is said to be a monic polynomial; ill this case, we take
the liberty of dropping the 1 and writing/(x) = ao +
ajX + ... xn. +
As a matter of notation, we shall hereafter write deg/(x) for the degree of
any nonzero polynomial I(x) E Rlx].
SUPl>OtIC I(x), g(x) E Rlx] with deg/(x) = n and <leg (I(x) = m, so that
I(x) = ao + ajX + ... + anxn, an ~ 0,
g(x) = bo + hr + ... + bmx m , b", ~ O.
From the definition of multipliention, the reader mny ensily check t.hat all
coefficients of I(x) . g(x) beyond the (n + m)th arc zero, whence
I(;c) . g(x) = ao bo + (ao' b + a . 1Jo)x + ... + (an' bm)xn+m

j
If we 1l.,'i,'IIUne that at least olle of the leading eoeffi(~iellt.i'! an or bm is not a divisor

of zero ill (R, I, .), thell a tl bm ~ 0; lLl'eol'dillgly,/(x), g(;r) ~ 0 and
deg (/(;r) . !I(.,. = n + lit = <leg/(x) + dcg !I(x).

This ('ertainly holds if (R, +, .) is an integral domain, or again if (R, +, .)
has
IlII id('II!ily "IPIIlI'II! and 0111' of till' polynomials I(x) or fI(.r) hili'! all illvertihle
lead ing l'oeHil' iell t.
200 BING THEORY
The foregoing argument serves to establish the first part of the next theorem;
the proof of the second auertion is left as an exercise.
Theorem 3-41. Let (R, +,.) be an integral domain and I(x), g(x) be two
nonzero elements of (R[x), +, .). Then
I} deg (f(x) . g(x = deg/(x) + deg g(x), and
2) either I(x)+ g(x) = 0 or deg (f(x)+ g(x ~ max {deg/(x), deg g(x)}.
The notion of degree may be used to prove the following corollary.
Corollary. If the ring (R, +, .) is an integral domain, 80 also is its polynomial
ring (Rlx), +, .).
Proo/. We observed earlier that whenever (R, +, .) is a commutative ring with
identity, these properties carry over to (Rlx], +, .).
To see that (R[x], +,.)
has no zero divi80rs, choose/(x) p4 0, g(x) p4 0 in R[x]. Then deg (f(x) . g(x =
+
deg!(x) deg g(x) ~ 0, hence the product I(x), g(x) cannot be the zero
polynomial.
Example 3-33. As an illU8tration of what might happen if (R, +, .)
baa aero
divi80rs, considcr (Zs, +s, 's), the ring of integers modulo 8. Taking
I(x) = 1 + 2%,
g(x) = 4 + x + 4x 2 ,
we then have/(x), g(x) = + x + &;2,80 that

4
deg (f(x) . g(x = 2 < 1 + 2 = deg/(x} + deg g(x).
While many of the properties of the ring (R, +, .) carry over to the poly-
nomial ring (B[x], +, .), it should be observed that for no ring (R, +, .) is
(B[x], +, .) a field. In fact, no element of B[x] which has positive degree can
have a multiplicative iuverse. For suppose I(x) E B[x] with deg I(x) > 0; if
I(x} . g(x) = 1 for 80me o(x) E B[x], we would obtain thc contradiction
o = deg 1 = deg (j(:f) . ,(x = deg/(x) + deg g(x} p4 O.
For polynomials, we have .. MUtt analogous to the division "algorithm for

integers.
Theorem 3-42. (Diviaitm Algorithm). Let (R, +, .)
be a commutative ring
with identity and I(x}, g(x) p4 0 be polynomials in Blx], with the leading
coefficient of g(x) an invertible clcmcnt. Thcn there exist unique polynomials
q(x), rex) E Rlx] such that
I(x) = q(x) . g(x) + rex),
where either rex) = 0 or dcg rex) < de,; (1(x).
Proof. The proof proceeds by induction on the degree of f(x). First note that
if f(x) = 0 or degf(x) < deg g(x), then a representation meeting the require-
ments of the theorem exists with q(x) = 0, rex) = f(x). Furthermore, if
degf(x) = dcg g(x) = 0, f(x) and g(x) are both elements of R, and it su1ficea
to take q(x) = f(x) . g(x)-t, rex) = O.
So, suppose the theorem is true for polynomials f(x) of degree less than n
(the induction hypothesis), and let deg f(x) = n, deg g(x) = m, where n ;;:: mj
that is,
f(x) = ao + alX + ... + a..x", a.. 'F 0,
g(x) = bo + b1x + ... + b".x"', b", 'F 0, (n;;:: m).
The polynomial
lies in R[x] and, since the coefficient of x" is a.. - (a..' b;l) . b", = 0, has
degree less than n. By induction, there are polynomials ql(X), rex) E R[x]
such that
. !I (x) = ql(X) . g(x) + rex),
where rex) = 0 or deg rex) < deg g(x). Substituting, we obtain the equation
f(x) +
= (91(X) (a..' b;I)X"-IR) g(x) + rex)
= q(x) . g(x) +
rex),
which shows that the desired representation also exists when deg f(x) = n.
As for uniqueness~ suppoSe
f(x) = q(x) . g(x) + rex) =' q'(x) g(x) + r(x),

where rex) and rex) satisfy the requirements of the theorem. Then
rex) - r'(x) = (q'(x) - q(x g(x).
If rex) - r'(x) 'F 0, we would have
deg (r(x) - r'(x = deg ((x) - q(x + deg g(x)

;;:: degg(x).
On the other hand, since the degrees of rex) and r'(x) are both less than that
of g(x), it follows that
deg (r(x) - r'(x < deg g(x).
This contradiction implies rex) = r'(x), which in tum yields q(x) = (x).
202 ItINO TIU;OIlY :J-5
The polynomialll q(x) and rex) appearing in the represcntation
f(x) =" q(x) . (I(x) f- rex)
givl'n hy the Divillioll Algorithm arc (~alled, rcllpectively, the quotient and
remainder on dividing f(x) hy g(x). Obscrve also that if g(x) is a monic poly-
nomial, or if (R, +, .) is a field, it is not necessary to assume the leading co-
cffident of fI(X) t.o he invl'rt.ihlE'.
Bl'forc~ dilll!lIll~illg HII' l'OII~I'qllmwclI of Theorem :~-42, wr~ paulii' to intl'odlle(l
I"\CIIl\(' nddit.illlllli (IIII1"I'ptS. To this I'lId, II!L (Ii, I,) h(~ n eonullut.ntivc ring
with idellt ity allll,' he nil nrhitrnry d!'llJ('lIt of N. For e:wh polYllominl
ill R[x), WI' llIay dpfint' fer) E R hy
fer) = ao + (II r + ... + an' rn.

The clement J(r) is said to he the result of su/,slituling l' for x in J(x). Suffice
it to Ray, the addition and multiplieation used in defining fer) arc those of the
ring (R, I, .), 1I0\. t.holl/! or (N[x), 1-, .). If J(r) -~ 0, WI! ('nil the e1l'1ll1mt r It
"oot or zero of t.he giv('11 polynomial/(x).
Hllpposc J(.r), g(r) arl' in R[r) and I' E R. The reader should prove that if
It(x) = J(x) + g(x), k(x) = f(x) . g(x),

t.hen
her) = J(r) + (I(r), k(r) = fer) f/(r).
In partirmlar, it. llIay hI' C'OIlI"llIded t.hat t.he mapping whieh III'nds f(x) to J(r)
is a hOlllomorphisllI from (lllr), +, .) into (Ii, +, .);
the range of this homo-
morphism will he (It'noted hy R(r).
Some diffi('uIt.y arisl'M whell t.h(' ring (R, +, .)
fails t.o he (!ommutative; in
this case, the above result lIeed not hold. Observe that if we let
hex) = (x - a) . (x - b) = x2 - (a + b)x + a b,
UlI'n
"(I') .,.- ,.2 (I I I,) 1'1 a . II.
Without the hypothesis of ("ommlltativity, it ennnot be conduded that
(r - a) . (I" .- /1) = 1'2 - a 1" - 1" /, -I- a b
will (~qual her); ill ot.hpr wordR, hex) = J(x) fI(X) docs not always imply
her) = J(r) . (1(1').
0111' IIIC1fI' r1 .. finit iOIl Hhollirl I", illfl"llrilll'l'ri: H J(r) mill I/e,) rtf () Ilre ill Rlx),
W(~ Hay that fI(X) iH a Jactor of J(x) [or !ICc) dil'irle.~ f(x)] provid(~d there ('xists
some IlOlynominl h(.r) E ll[x) for whi('h J(x) = hex) . g(x).
:J-5 J'Ol,vNOMIAL RINGS
With this terminololO' in mind, we cOllie to IL sCI'iell of t.heorems conl:crninl(

tlw fal'forizllt.ioll prop!'r!.i!';; (If N[x/.
Theorem 3-43. (Il(:mairuler Theorem). Let (R, -t , .) he a eomlllutative
ring with identity. If f(x) E R[x] and a E n,
then there is a unique poly-
nomial q(x) in nIx] such that
f(x) = (x - a) . q(x) -I- I(a).

I'roof. Applying UII' c1ivi"ioll algOl'it hIll t.(I f(.r) nlllt x (I, W(' o!ltnin
f(x) = (x -- a) . q(x) + I'(X),

\\,1\('1'1' r(.r) ~ 0 or d('1!; r(.r) < del( (x - a) = 1. It. followli in either caMe that
rex) is a eonstant polynomial r E n. Substituting a for x, we have the desired
result:
f(a) = (a - a) . q(a) + rea) = 0 +
r = r.
Corollary. (Factorization Theorem). The polynomial f(x) E nIx] ill divisible

hy x - fl if anel ()nly ir a ill n root of J(x).
ProoJ. The ('orollary follows immediately from the theorem, since
J(x) = (x - a) . q(x)
if and only if J(a) = O.
Let us next show t.hat t.he number of root.s of a polynomial over an integral
domai II call not ('xcccd i ts d~gf(~e.
Theorem 3-44. Let (fl, 1-,') be lUI integrnl elomnin and J(x) E nIx] be a
nOllzero polynomial of degl'ee n. Theil I(x) has at mO!:lt n dilltinet roots in n.
ProoJ. We proC!l!Cd by indu(~t.ioll on til(! degree of f(J:). When degJ(x) = 0,
the result is trivial, silll'e J(x) eallllot have any root.s. If degf(x) = 1, say
J(x) = ax + b, a ~ 0, t.hen J(x) Ims at most olle 1'00t; indeed, if a is invertible,
_a-I. b ill the only root, of J(x). Now, suppose the theorem is t.rue for all
polYllolllinls of dl'grcl' n - 1 ~ 1, and let dcgJ(x) = n. If f(x) has a root r,
the prl!eeding ('())'olhu'y I!;iv!'s
J(x) = (x - I') . q(x),
where the polynomial q(x) haR degree n - 1. Any root 1'1 of J(x) distinct from
r must be It root. of q(x), for, by substitut.ion,
allll, sill(!(~ (ll, I,') has 110 zero divisors, Q(I'I) =- n. FI'OIII our illlilwtioll
hypothesis, q(x) has at. most. n - 1 distinet roots. AI! the only root!! of f(x)
are r anu those of q(x), J(x) cannot have more than n distinct roots in R.
204 RING THEORY 3-5
Corollary. Letf(x) and g(x) be nonzero polynomials of degrees ~n over the

integral domain (R, +, .). +
If there exist n 1 distinct elements a. E R
+
(Ie = 1, 2, ... , n 1) for which f(ak) = g(a.), then f(x) = g(x).
Proof. The polynomial hex) = f(x) - g(x) is such that deg hex) ~ n and has
at least n+ 1 distinct roots in R. By Theorem 3-44, this is impossible unless
hex) = f(x) - g(x) = 0, or f(x) = g(x).
Example 3-34. Consider the polynomial x" - x E Z,,[x), where p is a prime
number. Since the nonzero elements of (Z", +", ',,) form a cyclic group, under
multiplication, of order p - 1, we must have a,,-l = 1 or a" = a for every
a O. But the last equation clearly holds when a = 0, so that every element
of Z" is a root of the polynomial x" - x. This furnishes an illustration of a
nonzero polynomial which "vanishes identically.
Using the terminology of the present section, we now state the result known
as the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.
Theorem 3-45. Let (C, +, .) be the field of complex numbers. If f(x) E Crx)
is & polynomial of positive degree, thenf(x) has at least one root in C.
While many proofs of this theorem are available, none is strictly algebraic
in nature; thus, we shall assume the validity of Theorem 3-45 without proof.
The reader may however establish the following corollary.
Corollary. If f(x) E C[x] is a polynomial of degree n > 0, then f(x) can be
expressed in C[x) as a product of n (not necessarily distinct) linear factors.
Throughout the remainder of the section, we shall focus our attention on
polynomials with coefficients from a field (F, +, .). In this important and
interesting case, the associated polynomial ring (F[x], +, .) is an integral
domain (but not a field I); in fact, (F[x), +, .) is a principal ideal domain.
Theore~ 3-46. If (F, +, .) is a field, then the ring (F[x), +, .) is a principal .
ideal domain.
Proof. By Theorem 3-41, it is already known that (F[x1, +,.) is an integral
domain. To see that any ideal (I, +, .)
of (F[x], +, .)
is principal, we need .
oiuy mimic the argument of Theorem 2-24: If 1= {O}, the result is trivially
true, since I = (0). Otherwise, there is some nonzero polynomial p(x) of lowest
degree in I. For each polynomial f(x) E 1, we may use the Division Algorithm
+
to writef(x) = q(x) . p(x) rex), where either rex) = 0 or deg rex) < deg p(x).
Now, rex) = f(x) - q(x) . p(x) lies in 1; if the degree of rex) were less than that
of p(x), a contradiction to the choice of p(x) would result. With this possibility
ruled out, rex) = 0 and f(x) = q(x). p(x) E (p(x; hence, I ~ (p(x. But
the opposite inclusion clearly holds, so that I = (p(x.
Corollary. A nontrivial ideal of (F[x), +, .) is maximal if and only if it is a
prime ideal.
By custom, the prime elements of the principal ideal domain (F[:c], +, .)

are referred to as irreducible polynomial8. Translating Definition 3-20 into the
language of the present section, we see that f(x) is an irreducible polynomial
if and only if f(x) is of positive degree and in any factorizationf(:c) = g(x) hex),
with g(x), hex) E F[x], either g(x) or hex) must be a constant polynomial (recall
that the invertible elements of F[x] are precisely the nonzero constant poly-
nomials); the constant polynomials are neither reducible nor irreducible. Let
us record this observation as a formal definition.
Definition 3-23. A nonconstant polynomial f(x) E F[x] is said to be
irreducible in F[xl if and only if f(x) cannot be expressed as the product of
two polynomials of positive degree. Otherwise, f(x) is reducible in F[x].
The dependence of this definition upon the domain (F[x], +, .)
is essential.
It may well happen that a given polynomial is irreducible when viewed as an
element of one domain, yet reducible in another. One such example is x 2 1; +
it is irreducible in (R'[x], +, .),
but reducible in both (C[x], +, .),
where
x2 + 1 = (x + i) (x - i), and (Z2[X], +, .), +
wherex 2 1 = (:c 1) (x+ 1). +
Thus, to ask merely whether a polynomial f(x) is reducible is incomplete and
meaningless. For the ques~ion to make sense, one must indicate what c0-
efficients are to be allowed in the factorization.
It is often quite difficult to decide whether a particular polynomial is irreduc-
ible relative to a specific field. If (F, +, .)
is a finite field, say one of the fields
of integers modulo a prime, we may actually examine all of the possible roots.
To cite an illustration, x 3 x + +1 is irreducible in Z2[X); in this case, the
only possible roots for a polynomial are 0 and 1, but 0 +2 0 +2 1 pi! 0,
1 +2 1 +2 1 = 1 ;oil O.
Example 3-35. Any linear polynomialf(x) = ax +
b, a;oll 0, is irreducible in
F[x]. Indeed, since the degree of a product of two nonzero polynomials is the
sum of the degrees of the factors, it follows that a representation
ax +b= g(x) . hex),
with 0 < deg g(x) < 1,0 < deg hex) < 1 is impossible. Thus, every reducible
polynomial has degree at least 2.
Example 3-36. The polynomial x 2 - 2 is irreducible in Q[xl, where (Q, +, .)
is the field of rational numbers. Otherwise, we would have
x2 - 2 = (ax + b) . (cx + d)
= (ac)X2 + (ad + be)x + bd,
where the coefficients a, b, c, d E Q. Accordingly,
ac = 1, ad + be = 0, bd = -2,
:.!fl(j :l-5
whl'llee c = I/a, Ii = --2/b. Rubst.ituting in thc relation ad I-- be = 0, wc

obtain
o= -2a/b +- b/a = (-2a 2 +- b2 )/ab.
Thus, - :!a 2 -1- b2 = 0, or (b/a)2 = 2, which is impossible bec~ause V2 is not a
ratiorllli number. While irreducible in Q[x], the polynomial x 2 - 2 is nonethe-
Il's." r<'dueihle in R'[x]; in this case, x 2 - :! = (x - V2)(x +- V2), where both
fal'lors arl' in R'[X).
For easl' of rdcren(:l', let us summarize in the next theorem some of the
rl'sult.s of till' pn'vious s('(d,ion (sp('(~ili('ally, TIH'ormns :i-:i2 IUld :i-ali) in Uw
(~nlll' of (P[x], I,')'
Theorem 3-47. If (F, I,,) is IL lipid, t.he following st.af,ements are (ljuivalcnt.:
1) f(x) is an irreducible polynomittl in F[x).
:!) TIH' prin(~i"al idl'al f(x, +,.) ill:t maximal (prime) ideal of (F[x], +,.).
a) The quot.ient ring (F[xl/(f(x, +.. )
is It field.
A further faet whieh we Hhall require shortly is that every nonconstallt
polynomial ('1111 hl' faetor('d into irredueible polynomials.
Theorem 3-48. (Unique Factorization Theorem). Eaeh polynomial f(x) E F[x]
of positive degree is the produet of a nonzero clement of F and irreducible
monic' polynomials of F[x]. Apart from the order of the factors; this faetor-
izat ion is unique.
Proof. We prove our thoorem by induction on the degree n of f(x). If n = 1,
Ihl'n f(x) = ax +- b = a' (x +- a-I. b), where by Example 3-35, x +- a-I. b is_
a monic irrl'dwihle polynomial. Next, suppose f(x) has degree n > 1 and that
the thoorem holds for all polynomials of degree less than n. If f(x) is irreducible
in F[x], WI' are through Ilfh'r factoring out. its IC'uding (oeffi(ient. Otherwise,
.r(x) ill rt'.hll'ihl(~ and it. ill pORllihl(l t.o writ(~ f(x) = !I(x), hex) with y(x),
hex) E F[x], 0 < d('g y(x) < 11, 0 < d('g hex) < n. Therefore, by the induction'
hypothesis,
(/(.r:) = flJ OI(X)' 02(X)' .. O,(;!:),
hex) = a2 . h, (.1') h2(.r) ... h.(x),
whC're a" a2 are nonzero elemen!.s of F (in fact, the leading (:oefficients of o(x)
and h(x) al\ll (I.(:c), ".(x) art' irr('(hwihle monic polynomial!:!. Thus,
/(./,) (11'1' (I:.d . f/.(./,) .. Yr(./') . h,(.c) .. 1I.{.r)
i!:! a faelorizllt ion satisfyinl!; the condit.ions of the t.heorC'lll.

Tht' IIniqll('n('~s of th(' flldors still rt'lll11inl< t.o he shown. W(, again proceed
hy indudion on 1/ = thgf(x}. Th(' r('slllt is lrivial for n = 1: if
POLYNOMIAL RINGS 207
then a, = a2 and a, . b, = a2' b 2, whellC~e b, = b2 by the cancellation law

for multiplieation. Now, let n > 1 and
f(;l') = c p,(.r) . P2(X) ... Pr(x) = d q,(x) . Q2(X) . q,(x)
be any two faetorizations of f(x) into irreducible monic polynomials. Surely

C = d, for euch is the leading coefficient of f(x). Furthermore, Pl(X) divides
the produc!t q,(x) . q2(X) .. q.(x) and must thercfof<l divide some qi(X) , for
instaru!e, lJ, (J'). HirH'e these arc inetluciblc monie polynomials, it follows that
7Ir(X) =, fJ,(x); hence, we may elUwd to eondude that
Hi'lI'e dt'gf,(x) < n, its fadol'ization iM unique by the induction ILHSumptioll,

so that the seqlleJwe q2(X), ... ,q.(x) iM simply 11 rearrn.ngem(mt of P2(X),
... ,1Ir(X). Together with the observation HlIlt c p,(.x) = d ql(X), this
completes the proof.
Needless to lillY, Theorem 3-48 can b(' made more explicit when one knows,
for n given fi(ld (ft', +, .), exactly what polynomials are irreducible. If F = C,
for instance, the Fundamentnl Theorem of Algebra implies that the only
irreducible polynomials in C[xl arc the linear polynomials. In the event (F, +, .)
is the real field, we have the following corolInry.
Corollary. If f(x) E n'[xl is of positive degree, then f(x) can be factored into
linear and irreducible quadratic factors.
Proof. Since f(x) also helongs to C[x], f(x) factors in C[xl into a product of
linear polynomials x - CIc, Cic E C. If Cic E n', then x - Cic E n'[x]. Otherwise,
Ck = a -/- bi, where a, b E n' and b ~ O. But the complex roots of real poly-
nomials O('I~ur iu I!oujugate pairM [problem H(b) I, so t.hat ~k = a -- bi is also
a root of f(x). Thu8
(;1: - Ck) (x - ~k) = x 2 - 2ax + (a 2 -/- b2 ) E n'[.r)
iM Il fad-or of f(x). The 1IIlIldmti!! polyuomial x 2 :!ax 1 (a 2 1 02 ) is im~dudulc
in R'[xJ, sirll:e any factorization in Rt[xl is also valid in C[xl and (x - Ck) . (x - ~k)
is it.s unique factorization in C[xJ. .
An interest.ing remark, to be rec!orded without proof, is that if (F, +, .) is
I~ linit.l~lipId, 1.111' polynolllial rinl( (FIx), I,') I'ontains irrpl!wihlp polynolllials of
I!VI!"Y tllgr!!I'.
By an extension (F', +,.) of a field (F, +,.) wc :;imply mcltn any field which
eontains (ft', I,') ml It sublil'ld. For inst.:uwl', the field of J'l'lLl numbers is lUi
l!xt.l"usion of (J, I,')' t.lw lil'ld of rational UllIlllll'rs. In vipw of Theor('1l\ a-2R,
it Illay hi! ),I'marketi that (!very lield (F, 1-,') i:; an extcn~i()n of a field i:;olllorphic
to (Q,I,') or to (ZI" h,,' p), aCI'ortiiug as thl" dl:lradl"'i~tie of (F, +, .) is
zero 0)' a ).lriulI ]I.
208 RING THEORY
Given a field (F, +, .) and an irreducible polynomial J(z) e FIz], we may ask
whether one can construct an 'extension field (F' , +,.) of (F, +,.) in which
J(z), thought of as a member of F/[z), has a root. (If degJ(z) = 1, then, in a
trivial sense, (F, +,.) is itself the required extension.) Our n~t theorem
anawen this question in the aftirmative.
Theorem 1-49. (Kronecker). If J(z) is an irreducible polynomial in F[z],
then there is an extension'field of (F, +, .)
in which J(z) has a root.
ProoJ. Let (I, +,.) denote the principal ideal of (F[z), +, .) generated by the
polynomial/(z); that is to say, I = (f(z. SinceJ(z) is assumed to be irreduc-
ible, the corresponding quotient ring (FIz]/ I, +, .) is a field. To see that
(FIz]/ I, +, .) constitutes an extension of (F, +, .), consider the natural map-
ping natl: F[z] - F[x)/l. According to Theorem 3-25, either the restriction
nat, I F is the trivial homomorphism or else the triple (natl (F), +, .) is a
field isomorphic to (F, +, .), where
nat, (F) = {a + I I a E F}.
But the fint possibility is immediately excluded by the fact that
natl (1) = 1+ I I,
the zero element of F[z]/ I. Therefore, (F, +, .) is imbeddable in the quotient
field (F[z]/ I, +, .) and, in this sense, (F[z]/ I, +, .) becomes an extension of
(F,+,')'
Next, we need to show that the polynomiaIJ(x) actually has a root in F[x1/ I.
If
J(z) = ao + alx + ... + a,.x",
then, from the definitions of coset addition and mUltiplication,

(ao + 1) + (al'+ 1) (x + 1) + ... + (a.. + I) (x + 1)"
= ao + alx + ... + a,.x" + 1
. = J(x) + I = 0 + I.
Using the identification, justified above, of the coset a",:+ I with the corre-
sponding element a", E F, we obtain
ao+ al (x + I) + ... + a.. (z + 1)" = 0
or J(x + 1) = O. In other words, the coset x + 1 = Ix + I is the desired
root of J(x).
Since each polynomial of positive degree has an irreducible factor (Theorem
3-48), we may drop the restriction that J(z) be irreducible.
Corollary. If the polynomial J(x) E F[x] is of positive degree, then there
exists an extension field of (F, +, .)
containing a root of J(x).
3-5 POLYNOMIAL RIN08 209
Before illustrating this theorem, let us take a closer look at the nature of the
cosets of I = (f(x) in F[x], with the view of expressing F[x]/ I in a more COD-
venient way. As usual, these cosets are of the form g(x) +
1, with g(z) E F(z).
By the Division Algorithm, for each g(x) there is a unique polynomial r(z)
such that g(x) = q(z) . fez) + r(z), where r(z) = 0 or deg r(z) < degf(x).
Evidently O(x) - r(z) = q(x) . f(x) E I, which implies g(x) and rex) must
belong to the same coset,
g(x) + I = rex) I.+
From this, we draw the following conclusion: each coset of I in F[x] contains
exactly one polynomial which either is the zero polynomial or has degree less
than that of f(x). In fact, the cosets of 1 are uniquely determined by remainders
upon division by f(z), in the sense that g(x) + I = hex) + I if and only if
o(x) and h(x} leave the same remainder when divided by f(z}.
If degf(x) = n > 1, say f(x) = ao alX + + ...
+ c..x", the quotient field
+, .)
(F[x)/ I, may therefore be described by
F[x]/I = {b o + blx + ... + b.. _Ix..- + I 1 I b" E F}.
Identifying b" + I with the element b", we see that a typical coset can be
(uniquely) represented in the form
bo + bl(x + I) + ... + b.. _l(x + 1)"-1.

As a final simplification, let us replace x + I by some new symbol X, so that
the elements of F[z)/l become polynomials in X:
= {b o + blX + ... + b.. _IX.. - I I bl: E F}.

F[xJ/ I
Observe that since X = x + I is a root of f(x) in F[x)/I, calculations are carried

out with the aid of the relation Co + alX + ' .. + a,. X.. = o.
We pause now to examine two concrete examples of the ideas just introduced.
Example 3-37. Consider (Z2, +2, '2), the field of integers modulo 2, and the
+ +
polynomial f(x) = x 3 X 1 E Z2[X). Since neither of the elements 0 or 1 is
+ +
a root of Z3 x 1, f(x) is irreducible in Z2[X]. Theorem 3-49 thus guarantees
the existence of an extension of (Z2, +2, '2), specifically the field
(Z2[X]/(J(X), +, .),
in which the given polynomial has a root. Denoting this root by X, the dis-
cussion above tells us that
Z2[X]/(J(X) = {a + bX + eX21 a, b, e EZ2}

= {O, 1, X, 1 + X, X2, 1 + X2, X + X2, 1 + X + X2},
where, of course, X3 + X+ 1 = '0.

210 lUNG THEORY 3-5
As an exnmple of opcrnting in thilJ field, let UK calculate the inverse of

1 t-)" + ),.2. Before starting, observe that by using the relations
),.:1 = -(),. + 1) = ),. -I- 1,
(our ('o('fIi('i('nts ("ollie from Z2, whence -1 = 1), the degf(~ of any product
can he kept h-ss than:t Xow, the problem at hand is to determine elen\('lIt.s
a, /1, f E :x ~ f(II' whi(~h
C:U'ryill~ out. t.he lJIult.ipli('atioll I\nd I'mhsLituting for ),. 3 , ),. 4 in terms of 1, ),.
allll ),. 2 , we ohtain
(II 1 /1 1 c) 1 a),. 1 (a 1 11,.2 =, I.
Rinec 1 is Ilniqudy f(~pn-liCnted by 1 = 1 + 0)" + 0),.2, thilJ yields the system

of linear equnl ions
( 1 /1 1- e = 1, a= 0, a+b=O
with solution a = b = 0, e = 1; therefore, (1 + ),. + ),.2)-1 = ),.2.

Finally, note that x 3 + x + 1 factors completely into linear factors in
Z2[xll(j(x) and has the three roots),., ),.2, and),. + X2:
x3 +x +1 = (x - X) . (x - X2) . (x - (X + X2)).
Example 3-38. Tlw quadratic polynomial x 2 + 1 is irreducible in H'[x]. For,
if x 2 + 1 wert' r('(itll'ihll', it wOII)d be of the form .
'1: 2 -I- 1 = (a.r + I~ . (ex + d) = acx 2 1- (arl + be)x + bd,

where a, b, e, d E R'. It follows at once that ae = bd = 1 and ad + be = O.
Therefore be = -(ad), and
1 = (ae)(bd) = (ad)(be) = - (ad) 2
or rather, (ad)2 = -1. which is impossible.

In this instance, the extension field (R'[x]/(x 2 -f 1), +, .) is described by
R'[x]/(x 2 1 I) = (a + b)" I a, b E R' i),.2 + 1 = OJ.
Performing the usual operations for polynomials, we see that
(a + bX) + (e + d),.) = (a + e) + (b + d)X

and
(a + b),.) (e + clX) = (ae - bd) + (ad + be)X + bd(X 2 + 1)
= (ae - bd) + (ad -I btl)X.
:3-5 POLYNOMIAL RINGS 211
TIll' Milllilarity of theMe formulas to the rules for addition and multiplication
of eompl('x numbers should be obvious, As a mattcr of fact, the field
(R'[x]!(x 2 + 1), +,') is adual\y i";olllorphi(, to (C, +, ,)
under the mapping
4>: Jl'[.cI/(x 2 1 1) --> (,' givell hy
4>(a -1- bA) = a + bi,

H(forl pro('('pding, two ('0111111('111.,.; 1t"P in OI'd("', l'it"Ht, EXlllllpl(~ :J-:17 HhoW8
that there ('xist finite fields other than the fields (ZI" -h, ',,) of integers modulo
It prime 71, TIll' flu,t that. til(' ficlt! of this example' IUlS 2 3 = 8 e'1e'ments is typical
of til(: 1!;(,II('ral ,.;iflmtion: givl'll II prime Ilullllwr 7' Ilnd It positive int.eger n,
HIP"p is PXI""t Iy Oil(' (lip t.o isolllorphi";Jll) fipld with [I" pic:nwnt.s. Jlldcml, if
j(.r) i,.; /lily irrPlhwiIJl1' polYllolllial of dl'gl"l'l' It ill /'plJt t.llt tjuot.ilmt lidll
(/'p[x]!(J(:r, -1-, ,) eonHiHts of all polynomials bo bRA + + .. , + b,,_lA,,-I,
where bk E Zp; Hillee there arc only 7' choice'S for eaeh coefficient bk , we thus
obtain Il finit(: fi(~ld with p" members,
HI'I'0I1d, til(' IOIlHt.l"lldioll of TllI'orclII a-4!l yiddi'l lUI extelllSioll of a field
(P, 1 , .) ill whil,h a giv('n polynomial f(x) E PIx] splitH off olle lillt'llr fll(,tor.
By repeated application cU this procedure, we can build up an extension (F', +, .)
of (F, +, .) in whichf(x), thought of as a member of F'[x], factors into a product
of linear factors; that is, the field (F', +, .)is large enough to contain all the
roots of f(x) (tedmieally srll'aking, the polynomial splits completely in F'[x]).
We phrase this result ill the form of an existence theorem.
Theorem 3-50. If f(x) E "'[x] iH a polynomial of po::;itive degree, then there

exi,.;t.s UII cxt,ellHion lield W', +,.) of (p, +,.) ill which f(x) factors com-
pletl'ly int.o lil1l'llr polynomial::;,
Proof. The proof iH by iuduction on n = deg/(x). If n = 1, f(x) is already

linC'ur and (F, +, .) is itself th(l required field. Therefore, assume that n > 1
and t.hat t.iw tlworem is t.ruC' for all polynomials of degree less than n. Now,
the polynomial f(x) IlIlIst have some irreducible factor (I(x). By Theorem 3-49,
there is lUI ('xtension liPId (/"1, +,.) of (F, +,.) in which y(x), and hence f(x),
has a root al; specifieally, 1'\ = P[x]/(g(x). Thus, f(x) can be written ill
F l[X] as f(x) = (x - al) , fl (x). Since degfl (x) = n - 1, there exists, by our
induetioll hypothesiH, an (xt.ension field (F', -+ , .) of (F 1, in which +, ,)
fl (x) = ao(x - a~)(.r. - aa) ... (x - a,,), with ak E F', ao O. From this,
we see thatf(x) call he completely factored into linear factors in F'[x].
Corollary. Lt't, f(x) E F[x] with deg f(x) = n > O. Then there exists an ex-
tension of (F, +, .)
in which f(x) has n roots.
Example 3-39. To illustratl: this situation, let us consider the polynomial

f(x.) = X4 - !ix 2 t- (j = (x:.! - 2) . (x 2 - 3) over the field (Q, +, .)
of rational
lIumbers. F"om EXatllpll':3- ali, x 2 - 2 (mid similarly x 2 - 3) is already known
212 BING THEORY 3-5
to be irreducible in Q[~]. So we first extend (Q, +, .) to the field (F 1, +, .), where

Fl = Q[z]/(x' - 2)'== {a + bX I a, b eQ; X' - 2 == O},
and obtain the factorization
I(z) = (z - + X) (x' - 3)
X) (x
= (x - V2) . (x + V2) . (x 2 - 3).
(Aa X' .... 2, one customarily identifies X with V2.)

However,l(x) does not factor completely, since the polynomial Xl - 3 is
irreducible in F I[X], For, suppose to the contrary that X2 - 3 has a root in
F 11 say e + dV2, with e, d E Q. Substituting, we find that
(el +U 2 - 3) + 2cdV2 == 0,
hence
el +U' - 3 == 0, cd== O.
This latter equation implies that either e = 0 or d = 0; but neither c nor d

can be zero, since otherwise we would have d ' = 3/2 or cl == 3, which is
impossible. Thus X2 - 3 remains irreducible in Fl[X].
In order to factor I(x) into linear factors, it is necessary to extend the c0-
efficient field further. We therefore construct the extension (F" where +, .),
The elements of F I may alternatively be expressed in the form
(a + bV2) + (c + dV2)V3 == a + bV2 + cv'3 + dV6.

It follows at once that the original polynomial factors in FI[x] as
I(x) = +
(x - X) (x X) (x - 1') . (x 1') +
== (x - 0) . (x + 0) . (x - v'!) . (x + v'!).
Observe that the four roots all lie in F

Let I(x) E F[x). An extension (F', of (F, +, .) +, .)
is said to be a 'Plitting
field for I(x) over F provided I (x) can be factored completely into linear factors
in F'[x], but not 80 factored over any proper subfield of (F', containing +, .)
(F, +, .). Loosely speaking, a splitting field is the smallest extension field in
which a given polynomial decomposes as a product of linear factors. To obtain
a splitting field for any polynomiall(x) E F[x] of positive degree, we need only
return to Theorem 3-50 and consider the family (Fi, +, .)
of all subfields of
(F', +, .)in which f(x) factors completely (the theorem guarantees the existence
of such extensions); then (nF" +, .)
serves as a splitting field for /(x) over F.
Having thus indicated the existence of splitting fields, it is natural to inquire
about their uniqueness. As a final topic for this section, we shall prove that
any two splitting ficldll of the I!&mc (nonconstant) polynomial are isomorphic;
this being 110, one ill justified ill using the definite article and speaking of the
splitting field of a given polynomial.
Before presenting the main theorem, two preparatory results of a somewhat
technical nature are needed. As previously noted, if r is a fixed element of a
field (K, +,.) and F!',;;; K, we write F(r) for the set of finite sums:
F(r) = {ao + al . r + ... + ~. r"l aAo E F, n ~ I}.
Lemma. Let f(x) be an irreducible polynomial in F[x] and r be a root of

/(x) in some extension field (K, of (F, +,.) +, .).
Then (F(r), ~ +,.)
(F[x]/(/(x, +,.) under an isomorphism whereby the element r corresponds
to the coset x +
(j(x.
Proo/. The mapping II; F[x] - K defined by setting IIf(x) = /(r) is easily
checked to be a homomorphism of (F[x], +, .) onto the ring (F(r), +, .). It
follows at once that
f(x) E ker (II) = {g(x) E F[x] I g(r) = O},
whence (/(x !; ker (II). One observation is quite pertinent: the possibility
that ker (II) = F(x].does not arise, since the identity element of (F[x], +,.) is
not mapped onto zero. Asf(x) is assumed to be irreducible in F[x], (f(x , +, .)
is a maximal ideal of (F[x], +, .), so that (f(x = ker (II); in other words,
(f(x simply consists of all polynomials in F[x] having the element r as a
root. Thus, by the fundamental homomorphism theorem for rings (Theorem
3-18), there exists an isomorphism 8 of (F[x]/(I(x, +,.) onto (F(r), +,.)
such that II = 8 nat(/(:<)l: As regards the last assertion of the theorem. we
0
evidently have
r = II(X) = (8 nat(/(:<)(x) = e(x
0 (I(x). +
Although of some interest in its own right. the value of this lemma is that it
leads almost immediately to the following theorem:
Theorem 3-51. Let t/> be an isomorphism from the field (F, +..)
onto the
field (F', +', .'). Also let f(x) = al + alX + ... + ~x" be an irreducible
polynomial in F[x] and 1'(y) = t/>(ao) + t/>(al)Y + ... + t/>(a..)y" be the
corresponding polynomial in F'[y]. Then1'(Y) is irreducible in F'[y]. Further-
more, if r is a root of f(x) in some extension field of (F, +.. ) and r'is a root
of f'(y) in some extension field of (F', +', .'), then t/> can be extended to an
isomorphism 4> of (F(r), +, .)
onto (F'(r'), +'.. ')
with 4>(r) = r'.
214 UlNH '1'ln;OTty
Proof. Let us first extend 4> t.o a mapping f, between the polynomial rings
(F[x), +, .)
and (F'[y], +', .')
by taking
f,g(x) = f,(b o -I- blx + ... + II"x") = 4>(b o) + I/>(bdy + ... + 4>(b,,)y"
for every polynomial g(x) = bo + blx + ... + b"x" E F[x). Using the fact
that I/> ill an isomorphism, it is an easy matter to verify t.hat f, is an isomorphism
of (F[x), +,.) onto (F'[y], +',
.')j we leave the render to supply t.he necessary
dctni\s. Not i('(! that. for !lny polynomilll Vex) ill FIx}, an clement 0 E F is a
root. of g(x) if and only if 4>(0) iN a root of 4iu(x). Indeed, if (I(x) = bo + blx +
... + b..x", we hnvc
(f,(J(;rJ)(r/>(fl </,(1'11) 1 r/>(/'.)r/>(ll) 1 .,. 14>(I'")'4>(tt)"
"-c 1/>(11 0 -I b l a -I 1- b,. a")
~: 4>(u(a,
from which the nr-;s('rtion follows. In pnrti('ular, the givl'n polynomial f(x) is
irrcdueiblc in FIx} if and only if f'(y) = f,f(x) is irredueible in F'[y].
Now, by !.Ill' fort'going lemma, we know that there exist isomorphisms
a: F(I') -+ F[.rl/(J(x and (3: F'(r') -+ F'[y]/ (J'(y.
Furtlwrmof(', it. is not. diffi('ult to 8how t,hat, thl'1'<' is also an iso1llorphism T of

(F[x]/(J(r, +,.) onto (F'lyl/(J'(y , +', .,)
defined by
T ((I(x) + (f(x) = f,{,(X) + (J'(y , fl(X) E FIx].
OblS('rV<' , parti('ularly, that T ('luries the ('Of;(~t, x + (j(x onto 11 -I- (j'(1J.
WI! (!Ollt(,(ld that (F(I'), I,) ~ (F'(r'), I', .') vin tIl(! ('ompoHition
':
where 1>: F(l') -+ F'(l") j thiR situation is portrayed in the diagram below:
."
-r----~----.
Flx]/(I(x))---..;T---_. F'r,]/(r(y))
O'rtninly I> is an i8()morphism of (F(r), -I,,) onto (F'(r'), +', .'), for th(l
individual mnppinjl;s a, T, and (3-1 nrc themselves isomorphisms. If a is an
nrhitrnry ('I('nlt'lI!. of F, then
I>(a) = uri 0 T) (a(a)) = (rioT) (a + (j(x)
= fj-I(r/>(a) -I (f'(1J) = 4>(a) ,
I'OI.YNOMIAL IUNGR 215
when('e is actually an extension of tJ> to F(r), Finally, we point out that
(r) = ({r l oT)(a(I' = urI OT)(X+ (J(x)

= rl(y+ (J'(y) = 1"
as requin'd, amI tlw t.h"on'lll i:-; 11I'ovl'd in its entirety.
For :l silllpl(' illll:-;tl'lltiOlI of thi:; ..p:-;ult, Ipt both (F,I,') and (F', +', .') 1)('
Ute ..pal number fidd (U', +, .); take f(x) E R'[x] to he the irrcdueihlc poly-
nomial /(.1') = ;1'2 I I, >10 t.h II t. f'(y) = y2 -+- 1 [l'l'('nll that. tllIl identity mil ii'l
thl' only illomorphi>lm of (U', +,.) onto it.III'If.1 Finally, we let. ,. = i Ilnd
r' i. Tlworl'lll:\ :>1 tlu'n :LKS"rt s that.
(U'U), ,1, .) ~ (lif( - i), I,')

IIlull'r llll isonlo .. phislll whidl eu .... il's i OIl!.O i. Hillel! (.' -- H'(i) = R'( --i),
this mapping is just the eorresp0Jl(knee hetwel'lI a eomplex lIumber and its
I'olljllgat P.
\Ve arc now ill a positioll to :;how the uniquenl's:;, to within isomorphislIl,
of splitting fields; actuall~, we shall prove a somewhat more general r('sult:
Theorem 3-52. IA't tJ> be an iiSomorphism of the field (fl, +, .) onto the field
(F', +', .'). Let f(x) = ao + a.x + ... + anx n E FIx] Ilnd f'(y) = tJ>(ao) +
tJ>(a 1)11 -I ... -I- tJ>(u,,)yn hI' the eOrr('sl)Onding 1)OIynomiai in F'ly]. If (K, +, .)
is II splitting field for f(x) and (K', +', .') is It splitting field for f'(y), then
.p eall be extended to an isomorphism of (K, +,.) onto (K', +', .').
Prollf. Ou .. argllllll'lIt. plo(~p(ds by ilHltution on t.Iw nllmbl'r n of roots of f(x)
that IiI' outside of P, hilt, lI(,p(l\e:;s /.0 :-;ay, in K. When n = 0, all the roots of
I(x) belong to F alllI (F, +, .) is itself the splitting field of f (.r); that is, K = F.
This in turn induces !l splitting of the polynomial 1'(11) into a product of linear
fnctors in F'[lI], so that K' = F'. Thus, in the ease n = 0, the isomorphism .p
itself is tIll' dl':<il'(~d pxtl'nsioll to the splitting fields.
Ll't us III'Xt. IUSSUIlll', illdul'!.iveiy, t.hat the theorem holds true for allY piliI' of
corresponding polynomials f(x) and f'(y) owr isomorphie base fi('lds (H, +,.)
and (E', +', -'), provided t.he number of roots of f(x) outside of R is less than
n (n ~ 1).
If f(x) E F[J'] is It polynomial having n mots olltsid(' of F, thl'n not all the
irl'l'dw'ihll' f:wton; of f(x) eUIl be linear ill FIx]; for otlwrwisc, f(x) would split
('oll1pll'tl'ly in P, ('ont fllry to alisumpt ion. A('('onlingly f(x) lIlUlit hav!' some
f:wior !lCr) of IIl'gn'l' 111 > I which iH irredlH'ihll' ill F[.d. LI't. !I'(y) d(,llote the
(~OITl'HpOlldillg irreduciblp fador of f'(y). SineI' (K, +, .) iH a splitting field of
f(x) ()VPl' 1", !I(:r) ill pal'ticulm' must have It root in K, ('all it f. Himilnrly, one
of the motH of thl' polynomial I'(y), Hay,.', is It roo/. of (/'(y) in K'. By Theo-
rpm :I-til, '" (':tn hI' I'xtl'nlil'd to all isomorphism .p'I)('tw{'(n I.Iw liPId!! (F(r), +,.)
and (F'(r'), j ',.'). :\ow (K, -I,') is a splitting field of /(x) viewed llS t\ ))Oly-
216 RING THEORY 3-.
nomial with coefficients from the field (F(r), +, .)

i in a like manner, (K', +', .'
can be regarded as a splitting field of J'(y) over F'(r/). Because the numbc'
of roots of f(x) outside of F(r) is less than n, the induction hypothesis pennit
us to extend the isomorphism .;' (itself an extension of .;) to an isomorphil;u
~ of (K, +,.) onto (K', +', ./). This completes the induction step and thll
the proof of the theorem.
Corollary. Any two splitting fields of a nonconstant polynomial f(x) E Fl.!"
are isomorphic by an isomorphism ~ such that ~ I F is the identity map.
Proof. This is an immediate consequence of the theorem on taking (F, +, .) o
(F', +', ./) and.; to be the identity isomorphism iF.

Let us complete the picture by giving a brief application of these ideas.
Theorem 3-53. Any two fields having p" elements, p a prime, are isomorphic'
Proof. In view of the preceding corollary, it is enough to establish that all,\

field (F, +,.) with p" elements is a splitting field of the polynomia
xl''' - x E Zp[x]. [We remind the reader that (F, +, .),
being of prime character
istic p, has a subfield isomorphic to (Zp, +1" '1').] Now, the multiplicativ(
group (F*, . ) of nonzero elements of F has order p" - 1. By Lagrange's Theorem
one sees that rp"-l = 1 for all r E F* and consequently r P " - r = 0 for ever~
member of F, including O. In other words, the polynomial xl' - x E Zp[)'
possesses p" distinct roots in F. Since the degrec of xl''' - z
is p", this poly
nomial must split completely into linear factors in F[x]. Needless to say, il
cannot split in any proper subfield of (F, +, .),
for no proper subfield contaill'
p" elements. Hence (F, +, .)
is a splitting field of xl''' - x over Zp, as asserted
A related result, which 'we shall not stop to prove here, is that any finit(
field has p" elements for some n > 0, where the prime number 11 is the character
istic of the field. Granting this, Theorem 3-53 may be interpreted as assertilll!
that any two finite fields having the same number of elements are isomorphi(',
PROBLEMS
1. For an arbitrary ring (R, +, .)

with identity, prove that
a) the polynomial 12:" E cent R[x],
b) if (1, +, .)
then (l(x], +, .)
is an ideal of the polynomial
ring (R(x],+, .),
c) if (R, +,.) and (R/, +/,.') are isomorphic rings, then (Rlx], +,.) is isomorph ii'
to (R/(x],+', .').
2. Given (R, +, .)
is an integral domain, show that
a} the only invertible elements of R(x] are the constant polynomials determined
by the invertible elements of R,
b) the characteristic of (R(x],+,) is equal to the characteristic of (R,+, .).
3. Prove that no monic polynomial can be a zero divisor in (R[x], +, .).
4. Show that the relation - defined by taking f(x) - g(x) if and only if
deg fex) = deg g(x)
ill an equivalence relation in the set of nonzero polynomials of R(x].
5. a) Let P be the set of all polynomials in Z(x] with constant term 0:
P = {a\x + a2x2 + ... + a"x" I a. E Zj ft ~ I}.
Establillh that the triple (P, +, .)is a prime ideal of (Z[x1, +, .).
b) Show the principal ideal 12:),+,') is a prime ideal of the polynomial ring
(Z[x], +, .),but not a maximal ideal.
6. If (Il, +,.) iM a commutative ring with identity, prove that the polynomial I +
ax
is invertible in R[x] if and only if the element a is nilpotent.
7. Let (R, +,.) be a commutative ring with identity and the element r E R be
fixed.
a) If R(r) denotes the set
R(r) = U<r) I f(x) E R[x]},
prove that the tripJe (R(r), +, .)forms a subrlng of (R, +, .).

b) Show that the mapping.: R[x) ..... R(r) defined by.(f{x = f(r) is a homo-
morphism of (R[x), +, .) onto (R{r), +, .).
+
8. a) Given that fex) - x~ + 22:3 - U + 1 and g(2:) - 22:2 u + 1, find poly-
+
nomials q(x), rex) E Z5[2:] for which f(x) - q(x) g(2:) rex).
b) Returning to the ring (R,+,) of Example 3-8, show that the polynomial
(a, 0)x2 E R(x] has infinitely many roots in R.
+ + +
9. For f(x) = Go 412: ~-.- a"x" E 0[2:], define the polynomial lex) by
+ 41X + ... + 4"x",
lex) ... c10
where 4. indicates the complex conjugate of CI. Prove that

a) rEO is a root of f{x) if and only if , is a root of lex). [Hint: f{rj - 1(1').]
b) if f(x) E R'[x] !; C[x] and rEO is a complex root of f{x), then I' is also a root
of f{2:).
10. Assume that p/q (where l' and q are relatively prime) is a rational root of the
polynomial f(x) .. Clo + CltX + ... + CI"x" E Z[x). Verify that p I Go and q I a,..
11. Let (R,+,) be a commutative ring with identity and f(x), g(x) be two poly-
nomials in R[x] which are not both zero. Then d(x) E R[x] is said to be a greate8t
common difli_ (gcd) of f(2:) and g(x) provided
i) d(x) is a divisor of both f(x) and g(x), and
ii) every polynomial which is a divisor of fex) and g(x) also divides lI(x).
Prove that any two polynomials fex), g(x) E R[x], not both aero, have a unique
monic gcd dex) in R[x) which can be expressed in the form
d(x) = f(x) p(x) + g(x) . q(x)
for some p(x), q(x) E R[x]. [/lint: Follow the pattern of Theorem 1-12.1
218 UINe; TIIEOlty a-5
12. Let (R, +,.) 1)(' a commutative ring with identity, and let f(x) E Rlx). The
function ]: R -+ R defined by taking ](r) = fer) for all r E R is called the poly-
nomial function associated with f(x). Assuming that S denotes the set of all poly-
nomial functions alisoeiated with elements of Rlx), prove that
a) the triple (S, +, .)
forms a ring,
b) the> mapping a: R[xl --> S given by af(x) = ] is a homomorphism of thC'
rinl( (RlII, I.') 0111.0 (S, I, .),
e) if rE U i>! fixed aud Ir = {]ES!](r) = 01, then (lr,l,') ill an idC'al of
(8,+,')'
13. a) ~how that if the> integral domain (R, +,.) ha.'! an infinite number of elC'mentH,
tlwn distinct polynomial>! in Rlx) ineluce distinct polynomial functions.
h) Givll an "XILlIlph~ or two di",tirwt polynomialH whil:h induce the flame Jlo\y-
nowild fundioll.
14. J.d. (Il, I,') I"'IL ,olllll\ut.atiVl' rillg with idl'"t.it.y. IAt. Ow flllwtioll 6: Ulx) -+ HlrJ.
t 11l' 1l0-"ILIII.1 dt'Til'III1:,'c fllIlrtiOll, ht, dl'filll'd IL>! follows: if
f(x) = ao + alx + ... + anx" E Rlx),

then
!Jf(x) = al + 2a2X + ... + na"x,,-I.
For any f(x) , g(x) E Rlx) and any a E R, verify that
a) /J(f(x) I g(x = flf(r) + !Jg(x),
h) fI(af(x = a!Jf(x) ,
c) fI(f(x)' g(x = of(x) . g(x) + f(x) . og(x). [/lint: Induct on the number of
nonz('fO t('rms of f(x).)
15. ),et W,I, -) he a commutativ(' ring with identity, and let r E R be a root of the
nonz('ro polynomial f(x) E R[x). We call r 0. multiple root of f(x) if
f(x) = (x - r)" . g(x), n> I,
wh('re g(x) E Rlx) is a polynomial such that g(r) ~ O. Prove that an element
r E R i.. 0. multiple root of f(x) if and only if r iii 0. root of both f(x) and of(x).
16. Determine
a) 0.1\ irreducibl{' Jlolynomials of degree 2 in Za[x], and
b) all irreducible polynomials of degree 3 in Z2[X).
17. Let (f', +, .)
b(' a fie>l.l anll/(x) E F[x) be a Jlolynomial of degree 2 or 3. Establish
that f(x) is irre>ducihle in FIx) if and only if f(x) ha.'i no root in F. Give an l'xample
which >!howH that this fI'sult IU'C't\ not he true if t\eg fIx) ~ 4.
IS. Prov!' tluLt if f(x) is all irn'dllcible polynomial in Z[xl. then f(x) i>! also irredllcibl('
whf'n rf'gardf'd 1\." all 1'1C'lIll'lIt of Qlx).
19. Df'riw Iht following analog of Euclid's LI'llIma: L.. t (R, +,.) be a commutative
ring with iell'nlhy and f(x) be all irrC'ducihlt' polynomial ill Rlx). If f(x) divides
the prulhH't g}(x) . U2(:r) . g,,(x), then !(x) divi.l(s gk(X) for some k, 1 ::; k ::; n.
20. In regan 1 to ProblC'm 7, show that the ring (R(r), +, .)
is a field if and only if
ker (I/ = (f(x where I(x) is an irreducible polynomial in R[x).
219
21. a) Prove thl' Eisl'nstein Criterion for irreducibilil,y: If
f(x) = ao -I- alx + ... -I- anxn E Z[X)

and p is a prime number such that pi ak (k = 0, \, ... , n - I). pt an. p2 tao.
then fix) is irrl'ducible in Z[x). [!lint: Proof is by contradiction.)
h) 1l1<1' pllrt. (11) t.o Rhow I.hat. t.he polynomii~1 2xa -- fi.r. 3 +
9.r. 2 - 15 ill irreducible
ill XI.d.
22. Civl'n fer) = .c 2 j .c -1- 2, an irredudhll' polynomial in Za[x), conMtruct the
multiplieation tahle for the field (Za(xl/(j(x , +, .).
2:1. Vt'fify that the polynomial f(x) = x!! -I- x 2 -I- 1 E Z2[X) fad,ofl~ into linl'ar factors
ill X21r.1/(j(;r.
:.!-l. I'rov," thnt. t.lll' tripl" (JI.I'I/Ir. 2 - 2), I,,) forlll'" IL li .. ld j,mlllorphi,. to tl ... fi"lo!
W, I, .), wlll'ro o I,' ~ [II I !Jv'21 II, b E: (J:.
25. DeRcrihe the splitting fields of the following polynomials:
a) x 3 - 3 E Q(x), b) x 2 + +
X I E Zs[x),
c) x4 + 2X2 + 1 E R'[x), d) (x 2 - 2)(x 2 + \)
E Q[x).
26. Let f(x) E FIx) be irreducible and r. 8 be twu roots of f(x) in some splitting field.
Show that (F(r). -1-, .) ~ (P'(8). -1-, .) by a unique isomorphism that leaves every
clement of F fixl'd.
27. Hhow that if g(x) i,; a factor of the polynomial f(x) E FIx), then any splitting
field of f(x) over F contains a subfield which i!l a Hplitting field of g(x).
2H. Prove: An extl'nsion field (K, of (Ti'.+..) +, .)
is a splitting field of the polynomial
fix) E F[x) if and only if both
i) fix) factors eompletely into lim'ar faetors in K[x), and also
ii) (K, -I,') ill gem'mh',1 by F and all til(' roots of fix) in K.
29. Let hex), hex) be two irreducibl!> polynomials of degree n in Z,,[x) , p a prime
nlllllbl'r. If ri is a root of ''(x) in 80m!> splittin~ fi('ld (i = I, 2), establish that
(Zp(rll,+,') ~ (X,,(r2).-I-. ).
30. Derive Fermat's Little Theorem: If p is a prime number and a 0 (mod pl.
then a,,-l == 1 (mod pl.
3-6 BOOLEAN RINGS AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRAS

The thcory of Boolean algebras is IlII algehmie eOlillt.erpart to thc logical
theory of the I'l\lelllllll of propm;itiolU;. It.s origius lit' in the work of the English
mat.lwnmti('ian Gcorge Boole (ISI!i-1Sfl4), who first attcmpted 1.0 give a system-
atic t.reatnH'nt of lop;i(~ by abstract methods. Siu('(' su(~h n strueture ma.y be
viewed as t,hc postulational ahHt.met ion of the rules gov!'rning the algebra of
sets. it providcs a suitable topie with whi('h to eonelude our discussion of two-
opcrat.ional systemll. Indecd, as will be evidenced shortly, Boolean algebras
may be subsumcd undcr thc gcncral theory of rings.
220 RING THEORY 3-6
We begin by studying the properties of a special class of rings, which we shall

designate as Boolean rings. '.
Definition 3-24. A Boolean ring (R, +, .) is a ring with identity every
element of which is idempotent; that is, a 2 = a for every a E R.
It should be pointed out that the existence of an identity is frequently omitted
in the definition of a Boolean ring. (One can show that if the number of ele-
ments in a Boolean ring is finite, then an identity element always exists.) The
definition given here, however, will be more convenient for the applications we
have in mind.
Let U8 pause to give several examples of the concept just introduced.
Example 3-40. The ring of .integers modulo 2, (Z", +:h .,,), forms a Boolean
ring, since 0" 0 = 0 and 1 ." 1 = 1.
Example 3-41. The ring (P(X),.1, n) of subsets of a nonempty set X is
easily verified to be a Boolean ring. In this case, we have A n A = A for every
subset A ~X.
Example 3-42. For It. 1~1!H obvious example of a Boolean ring, let R consist of
all (unctioll8 from lUI arbitrary noncmpty set X to Z" with the operations
defined pointwise; specifically, if I and g are in R, then
(J + g)(x) = I(x) +" g(x),
(f g)(x) = f(x) ., g(x), (x EX).
Under these operations, the triple (R, +,.) is a commutative ring with identity;
the proof is straightforward and will not be given in detail. To establish the
idempotency condition, we proceed as follows: If the function fER is such
that f(x) = 0, then
(J2)(X) = I(x) '"/(x) = 0. 2 0 = O.
While if lex) = 1, then
(J")(x) = lex) ,/(x) = 1,1 = 1.
In any event, (J')(x) = f(x) for every x in X, whence'" = f.

Our ultimate purpose is to prove the celebrated theorem of Stone which
asserts that each Boolean ring may be represented by a ring of sets. Looking
forward to this result, we first develop a number of the fundamental properties
of Boolean rings necessary to the proof. While the conclusions obtained are
somewhat restrictive (Boolean rings have an almost embarrassingly rich struc-
ture), they bring together much of the material developed earlier.
Theorem 3-54. Every Boolean ring (R, +, .) is a commutative ring of
characteristic 2.
3-6 BOOLEAN RINGS AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRAS 221
Prooi If a and h are arbitrary elements of H, then
a +h = + h)2 = a2 + a h + h a + h2 = a + a h + b a + b,
(a
and hence a . b + b . a = O. In particular, setting a = h, we obtain
2a = a + a = a 2 + a 2 = 0
for every a E H. This shows that (H, +, .)

is of characteristic 2. But then by
adding a . b to both sides of the equation a . b + b a = 0, we obtain
We proved earlier that, in any commutative ring with identity, maximal

ideals are automatically prime ideals. For Boolean rings, the converse is also
true.
Th.....m 3-55. Let (H, +, .) be a Boolean ring. A proper ideal (1, +, .)
of (H, +, .) is prime if and only if it is a maximal ideal.
Proof. It is sufficient t.6 show that if the ideal (I, +, .) is primo, then (1, +, .)
is also maximal. To see this, suppose (J, +, .) is an ideal of (H, +, .) with the
property 1 e J s; H; what we must prove is that J == H. If G is any element
of J not in 1, then a (1 - a) = 0 E 1. Using the fact that (1, +, .) is a prime
ideal with a e 1, we conclude
1- aE IeJ.
As both the elements a and 1 - (J lie in J, it follows that

1= a + (1 - a) E J.
The ideal (J, +,.) thus contains the identity, and consequently J == H.
A natural undertaking is to determine which Boolean rings are also fields. We
may dispose of this question rather easily: up to isomorphism, the only Boolean
field is the ring of integers modulo 2.
Theorem 3-56. A Boolean ring (H, +, .) is a field if and only if (H, +, .) ~
(Z2' +2, '2)'
Proof. Let (H, +, .) be a Boolean field. For any nonzero element a E H, we
then have
This argument shows that the only nonzero element of H is the identity; in
other WOrdR, R = {O, I}. But any two-element field is isomorphic to (ZI' +1, '1)'
The opposite direction of the theorem is fairly obvious.
222 lUNG TIIF..olty 3-6
Corollary. A proper ideal (I, +, .)

of the Boolean ring (R, +, .) is a maximal
ideal if nnd only if (RI I, +, .) ~ (Z2' +2, '2).
Proof. Fil'8t, note t.hut the quotient ring (HI I, +, .) is itself a Boolean ring,
since
(a + 1)2 = a 2 + I = a +I
for each clement a in R. By Theorem 3-32, (I, +,.) is a maximal ideal if and
only if (HI I, +, .)
is a (Boolean) field. An appeal to the above theorem now
completes the proof.
The next theorem is a major olle and re1luires a preliminary lemma of some
difficulty.
Lemma. Let (H, I,') he a Boolean ring. For cnch nonzero clement a E H,
there exiHtH a homomorphiHm f from (H, +, .) onto the field (Z2, +2, . 2)
such thatf(a) = 1.
Proof. Let (I, +, .) be the principal ideal generated by the clement 1 + a,
that is,
1= {r(l+a)lrER}.
The set I ~ R, sinee the identity is not a member of I. Indeed, if 1 E I, then

1 = r (1 + a)
for some choiee of r in H; this means
1 = r (I + a)2 = (r (1 + a) . (1 + a) = 1 (1 + a),
from which it folloWH that a = 0, contrary to hypothesis.
BCCIUlHe (/, ~I . ) is a proppr iil(,lLl, Theorem a-ao aHHurefl the ()xistence of 1\
mnximal ideal (111, +,.) of (fl. + .. ) sud, that I ~ M. In light of the result
just proved, the associated quotient ring (RI 1II, +, .)
will be isomorphic to
(Z2, +2. '2) vin KOIlW homomorphism g.
W(~ may thl'refom define I~ funet.ion f: U --+ Z2 hy t.aking f = !I natM, where0
nlLtM ill Himply the lIatural mapping of U Ollto Illlll. The situation ill con-
veniently depicted by the following diagram of maps:
'~/Z',~
RIM
._
The rcmllinil('r of till' proof amounts t.o showing that t.he function I, flO
i1efillC'i1, hUH t hI' 11I'/)pI'rlil's ILH.'!I'rted in till! statement of the tlwormn. Plainly,
f is hoth 1\1\ unto mup and a homomorphism I)('illg the composition of two such
:~-6 223
functions. Rillce 1 + a E 1 ~ Af, the ('oset 1 +a+ Af = Af, so that
1 +2 f(a) = f(1) +2 f(a)

= f(l + a)
= g(1 + a + 111) = (!(III) = O.
But, 1 -h f(a) = 0 if and only if f(a) = 1, which finisheR the proof.

An immediate consequence of this lemma is the following corollary.
Corollary. Every Boolean ring (R, +,.) iR a semisimple ring; that is to say,
rad R = {O}.
I'roof. In order to n.rrivl! at a cOIlt.rll.didion, w(~ aliHulnc t.hltt a E rad Il with
a "., O. Thrn t.here exi8t.8 a homomorphism f from (R, -1--, .) onto (Z2, +2, '2)
for whi<h f(a) = 1. It follows that the ideal (ker (f), +, .) must be a proper
ideal of the ring (R, +, .). Henee there is some maximal ideal (111, +,.) of
(R, +,.) with ker (f) ~ M. In particular, the element 1 - a E ker (f) ~ M.
But also a E rad R ~ 111, which implies
1 = a + (1 - a) EM.
This leads at once to M = R, the desired contradiction.
Having a!i.'iembled the necessary machinery, we now Ret ourselves the principal
taHk, that of showing that each Boolean ring is (~8sentially a ring of sets. This
theorem, now considered a landmark, was first proved in 1936 by the American
mathematician, l'larshall Stone.
Theorem 3-57. (Stone Representation Theorem). Every Boolean ring (R, +, .)
ill isomor(lhie t.o a ring of Ilubllets of !rome fixed 8<!t.
Proof. To begin the attack, let H denote the collection of all homomorphisms
from (R, +, .) ont.o the field (Z2, +2, '2)' Next define It flllWtioll h: R -. P(H)
hy assigning to caeb element a E R t.hose members of II which assume the value
1 at a; in other wordll,
h(a) = {fEHlf(a) = I}.
While the notation is perfectly clear, let us emphasize thll.t h is a set-valued

function in the sense that its functional values are certain subsets of H. By
means of this function, we shall establish the isomorphism mentioned in the
theorem.
Let us now give some details: FOl' any fEll, the productf(a) '2 feb) = 1 if and
only if both f(a) = 1 and feb) = 1. This being so, we eon('lude
h(a b) = UE H I f(a . b) = I}
U E II I f(a) '2 feb) I:
UE II I f(a) = 11 n U E II I feb) = Il = h(a) n h(lI) ,
224 RINO THEORY
showing that the function h preserves multiplication. The verification that
h(a + b) = h(a) 11 h(b)
is equally straightforward, depending chiefly upon the observation that the

sum/(a) +2/(b) = 1 if and only if one of /(a) or /(b) is 1, while the other is 0;
the reader may easily fill in the steps for himself. These remarks demonstrate
the fact that h is a homomorphism from (R, +,.) into the ring of sets
(P(H), 11, n).
All that is needed to complete the proof is to show that h is a one-to-one
function or, what amounts to the same thing, that ker (h) = {O}. But this
follows immediately from the preceding lemma which asserts that the set h(a)
is empty if and only jf a = 0, whence,
ker (h) = {a E R I h(a) = 0} = {O}.
The pieces all fall into place, and we see that the ring (R, +, .) is isomorphic
to a subring of (P(H), 11, n).
The definition of a Boolean algebra which we are about to present is based
on a structure introduced by E. V. Huntington in 1904. A variety of other sets
of postulates could be chosen that would define the algebra equally well; indeed,
few areas of mathematics have received more diverse postulational treatment.
Aesthetically speaking, it seems desirable to build our theory on is few assum~
tions as possible. The axiom system quoted below was therefore selected with
the intention that no axiom could be derived from the others.
Definition 3-25. A Boolean algebra is a mathematical system (B, V, 1\) con-
sisting of a Donempty set B and two binary operations V and 1\ defined
on B such that
(PI) Each of the operations V and 1\ is commutative; that is,
aVb=bVa, al\b=bl\a for all a, b E B.
(P 2 ) Each operation is distributive over the other; that is,
a V (b 1\ c) = (a V b) 1\ (a V c),
a 1\ (b V c) = (a " b) V (a 1\ c) for all a, b, c e B.
(P.) There exist distinct identity elements 0 and 1 relative to the operations
V and 1\, respectively; that is,
aVO=a, al\l=a for all a E B.

(P,) For each element a E B, there exists an element a' E B, called the
complement of a, such that
a V a' = 1, a 1\ a' = O.
BOOLEAN RINGS AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRAS 225
Example 3-43. An obvious example of a Boolean algebra, but nonethe1eas an

important one, is the system (P(X), u, n), where X is a nonempty set. It is
apparent that we should take 0 = 0, 1 = X, and whenever A!;;;; X, A' = X-A.
More generally, if B is any family of subsets of X, including 0, which is closed
under unions and complements, then (B, U, n) will be a Boolean algebra, in
fact, a Boolean subalgebra of (P(X), n, U).
Example 3-44. For an illustration quite removed from the algebra of sets,
consider the set B of positive integral divisors of 10, that is, B == {I, 2, 5, IO}.
Given elements a, bE B, we define a V b to be the least common multiple
(lcm) of a and b, a A b to be the greatest common divisor (gcd) of a and b:
a V b = lcm (a, b), a A b = gcd (a, b).

The tables for these operations are given below.
V 1 2 5 10 A 1 2 5 10
1 1 2 5 10 1 1 1 1 1
2 2. 2 10 10 2 1 2 1 2
5 5 10 5 10 5 1 1 5 5
10 10 10 10 10 10 1 2 5 10
The formal verification that the triple (B, V, A) constitutes a Boolean algebra
is left as an exercise. (We should caution the reader that in this example the
integer 1 plays the role of the identity element for the operation V, while the
integer 10 serves as the identity element for the operation A.) A quick in-
spection of the foregoing tables will reveal the various complements to be
l' = 10, 2' = 5, 5' = 2, 10' = 1.
We ca.ll attention to the fact that a' is simply the quotient when 10 is divided
bya.
The first thing one notices on inspection of the axiom system for a Boolean
algebra is the perfect symmetry or duality between the properties of the two
operations V and A. That is to say, if V and A are interchanged in the axioms
and if, at the same time, 0 and 1 are also interchanged, then the properties are
merely permuted amongst themselves. This principle of duality permits us to
state all theoreIns in dual pairs (unless, of course, a statement happens to be
its own dual) and guarantees that the proof of one of the pair of statements
will be sufficient for the establishment of both; the proof of the dual theorem
is obtained by maki~g the appropriate interchange of symbols in the proof of
the original theorem.
We now proceed to deduce from the postulated properties of the operations
in a Boolean algebra a series of further properties, including, for instance, the
226 lUXG THEORY 3-fi
aSHOciative laws for V and 1\. Dual statements are placed side by side; ill
view of the principle of duality, only one statement from each dual pair need
be proved. In order to condense the demonstrations, we shall arrange the steps
80 far as possible one under another, citing to the right those I>ropositions used
in passing a('ross succcssive equality signs.
Theorem 3-58. III !LilY Boolc!L1I ILlgchra (8, V, 1\), the following prolK!rtil'H
hold:
1) The c1cmellts 0 and 1 are unique.
2) For each clement a E B,
a V a = a, al\a=a.
:J) For l'll.{'h dement a E B,
a V 1 = 1, a 1\ 0 = o.
4) For eaeh pair of elements a, b E B,
a V (a 1\ b) = a, a 1\ (a V b) = a.
Proof. To establish (1), we need only appeal to Theorem 2-1. The proof of
(2) is indicated below:
a=aVO (by P a)
= a V (a 1\ a / ) (by 1>4)
= (a V a) 1\ (a Va') (by P2)
= (a V a) 1\ 1 (by P 4 )
=aVa (by Pal.
We obtain (3) as foIlows:
l=aVa' (by P4)
= a V (a' 1\ 1) (by )la)
= (a Va') 1\ (a V 1) (by P2)
= 1 1\ (a V 1) (by P4)
=aVI (by Pal.
The proof of (4) requires the use of (3):
a=al\l (by Pa)
= a 1\ (b V 1) (by 3)
= (a 1\ b) V (a 1\ 1) (by P 2 )
= (a 1\ b) V a (by P a)
= a V (a 1\ b) (by PI)'
We did not include the 8II8Ocint.ive laws for V and 1\ among our axioms for
a Boolean algebra, as is frequently done, since they arc logical consequences of
the properties listed. This is demonstrated in our next theorem.
Theorem 3-59. In any Boolean algebra (B, V, 1\), each of the operations
V IUlIl 1\ is I\IIHOdat.iv(; thl~t. is, for pVl'ry t.ripll of I'll'tnc'nts a, b, c e B,
a V (b V c) = (a V b) V c, a 1\ (b 1\ c) = (a 1\ b) 1\ c.
Proof. First, set x = a V (b V c) and y = (a V b) V c. We wish, of course,

to prove that x = y. Note that
a 1\ x = (a 1\ a) V la 1\ (b V c) (by 1'2)
= a V fa 1\ (b V c) [by Theorem 3-58(2)
=a [by Th(.'Orem 3-58(4)1
and also
a 1\ Y = [a 1\ (a V b)] V (a 1\ c) (by P 2 )
= a V (a 1\ c) [by Theorem 3-58(4)
=a [by Theorem 3-58(4)].
Therefore a 1\ x = a 1\ y. Now,
a' 1\ x = (a' 1\ a) V [a' 1\ (b V c)] (by P 2)

= 0 V [a' 1\ (b V c)] (by Ph P,,)
= a' 1\ (b V c) (by P a)
and also
a' 1\ y = [a' 1\ (a V b) V (a' 1\ c) (by P 2)

= (a' 1\ a) V (a' 1\ b) V (a' 1\ c) (by P2)
= [0 V (a' 1\ b)] V (a' 1\ c) (by Ph p.)
= (a' 1\ b) V (a' 1\ c) (by Pa).
Therefore a' 1\ x = a' 1\ y. From these observations, we conelude that
(a 1\ x) V (a' 1\ x) = (a 1\ y) V (a' 1\ y)
(a 1\ a') V x = (a 1\ a') V y (by Ph P 2)
IVx=IVy (by P,,)
x=y (by Pa),
proving the associative law for the operation V; that 1\ is also associative
follows by a dual argument.
228 BING TBJlORY 3-6
As yet nothing has been said about the properties of complementation. In

the next group of results, we sIuill prove, among other things, that each elem6nt
has & unique complement; thus, ' may be viewed as & function from B into
itself (as & matter of fact, onto the set B).
Theorem 3-60. In any a E B Boolean algebra (B, V, 1\), the following hold:
1) Each element a E B has a unique complement.
2) For each element a E B, a" = a.
3) 0' = 1 and l' = o.
4) For all a, b E B,
(a V b)' = a' 1\ b', (a 1\ b)' = a' Vb'.
Proof. For (1), asaume there are two elements x and y of B such that
a V x = 1, a 1\ x = 0,
a V 11 = 1, al\y=O.
We then have
x=xl\1 (by Pa)

= x 1\ (a V y) (by hypothesis)
= (x 1\ a) V (x 1\ y) (by P,)
= (a 1\ x) V (x 1\ y) (by p.)
= 0 V (x 1\ y) (by hypothesis)
=xl\y (by Pa).
In the 8&11le manner, 11 = 11 1\ x = x 1\ y, 80 that x = 11. Accordingly, any

two elements asaociated with a as specified by axiom p. must be equal; in
other words, the complement a' is uniquely determined by a.
From the definition of the compleinent of a, a V a' = 1 and a 1\ a' = O.
Hence, by Pit
a' V a= 1 and a' 1\ a = O.
From this, we conclude that the element a is the complement of a':
(I," = (a')' = a.
Using the uniqueneaa of the complement and the relatioDB
o VI = 1, 01\1=0,
it follows that 0' = 1. But then 0 = 0" = 1'.

Finally, we prove the first statement of (4). Note that, since complements
are unique, it is enough to establish
(a V b) V (a' A b') = 1, (a V b) A (a' A b') =0
Now,
(a V b) V (a' A b')
= [(a V b) Va'] A [(a V b) Vb'] (by P 2 )
= [(a Va') V b) A [a V (b Vb')] [by Ph Theorem 3-59]
= (1 V b) A (a V 1) (by p.)
=lAI [by Theorem 3-58(3)]
= 1 (by Pa).
Furthermore,
(a V b) A (a' A b')
= (a' A b') A (a V b) (by PI)
= [(a' A- b') A a] A [(a' A b') A b) (by P 2)
= [(a' A a) A b'l
A [a' A (b' A b)] [by Ph Theorem 3-59]
= (0 A b') A (a' A 0) (by Pl. p.)
=OAO [by Theorem 3-58(3)
=0 (by Pa).
These considerations imply that (a V b)' = a' A b'.

The last three theorems do not, in any sense, exhaust the theory of Boolean
algebras; we could continue to deduce a large number of results. This brief
outline should serve, however, to give some idea of the structure of the system,
as well 8.8 to I>repare the way for our final objective-that of showing that every
Boolean algebra can be transformed into a Boolean ring and vice versa.
As a first step in this direction, we indicate how, by the introduction of
suitable definitions of addition and multiplication, a Boolean algebra may be
converted into a Boolean ring. The argument relies heavily on the results of
the previous three theorems.
Theorem 3-61. Every Boolean algebra (B, V, A) becomes a Boolean ring
(B, +, .) on defining addition and mUltiplication by the formulas
a +b= (a A b') V (a' A b), a b = a A b, (a, b E B).
Proof. It is obvious that addition as defined above is commutative, for
a +b= (a A b') V (a' A b) = (b' A a) V (b A a')

= (b A a') V (b' A /I) = b + a.
230 RING THJo:OllY 3-6
Furthl!rmore,
a +0 = (a A 0') V (a' A 0)
= (a A 1) V (a' A 0)
=aVO=a
and
a +a = (,I A a') V (a' A a) = 0 V 0 = O.
This shows that the element 0 acts as the identity for the system (B, +), while
each element is its own (additive) inverse.
To establish the associativity of addition, let us first perform a preparatory
calculation:
(a + b)' = [(a A b') V (a' A b)]'
= (a A b')' A (a' A bY
= (a' V b) A (a Vb')
= [(a' V b) A a) V [(a' V h) A b']
= (a A b) V (a' A h').
Utilizing this relation, we then have
(a + b) + e = [(a + b) A e') V [(a + b)' A e) _

= [a A b') V (a' A b) A e] V [a A b) V (a' A b' A e)
= (a A b' A e) V (a' A b A e) V (a A b A e) V (a' A b' A e).
Note, however, that the foregoing expression is symmetric in a, band e; that is

to say, it is unaltered by permuting these clements. Thus, after interchanging
a and c, we obtain
(a + b) + c = (c + b) + a
= a + (b + e).
From all this, one may infer that the pair (B, +) is a commutative group.
Turning next to a discussion of multiplication, it is evident that both the
commutative and associative laws hold, while 1 serves as the mUltiplicative
identity. Because
a2 = a a = a A a = a,
each element a in B is also idempotent.

Finally, to establish that the triple (B, +,.) is a Boolean ring, it remains
only to verify that multiplication is distributive over addition. We may dispose
of this rather easily, since
a (b + e) = a A [(b A c') V (b' A c)]

= (a A hAc') V (a A b' A c),
a-Ii JlOOLEAN IUNUR ANI> 1I01ll:AN ALUEDUAS 231
wher('IUI
a b + a e = (a /\ b) + (a /\ e)
= [(a /\ b) /\ (a /\ e)'] V [(a /\ b)' /\ (a /\ e)]
= [(a /\ b) /\ (a' V c')l V [(a' Vb') /\ (a /\ e)]
= (a /\ b /\ a') V (a /\ b /\ e') V (a' /\ a /\ e) V (b' /\ a /\ e)
= (a /\ b /\ e') V (a /\ b' /\ e).
The proof of the theorem is therefore complete.
We now reverse this process; in other words, we start with a Boolean ring
and transform it into a Boolean algebra by suitably defining the opera.tions
V and /\.
Theorem 3-62. Every Boolean ring (B, +,.) becomes a Boolean algebra
(B, V, /\) on defining
a V b = a + b + a b, a /\ b = a' b, (a, b E B).
Proof. That V and /\ are both commutative followli immediately from the
commutativity of the operations in (B, +, .).
A simple calculation will show
that /\ is distributive over V :
a /\ (b V e) = a . (b + e + b . e)
= a b + a . e + (a b) . (a e)
= (a b) V (a e) = (a /\ b) V (a /\ e).
The verification of the other distributive law relics on the fact tha.t, since
2x = 0 for every clement of the ring (R, +, .), it is ullnecessary to distinguish
betwccn addition and subtraction:
(a V b) /\ (a V e) = (a + b + a ' b) . (a + e + a . e)
= a+ab+ab+ae+be+abc+ac
+abc+abc
= a+bc+abc
=a V (b c) = a V (b /\ e).
If 0 and 1 are the additive and mUltiplicative identities of (B, +, .), then
a V 0= a+O+a'O= a, a/\l=al=a
for every a E B. Filllllly, we hllve
a V (1 + a) = a + (1 + a) + a . (1 + a) = 1 + 4a = 1,
a /\ (1 + a) = a' (1 + a) = a + a 2 = 2a = 0,
232 RING THEORY 3-6
which implies 1 + a is the complement of a in (B, V, 1\), that is

a'=l+a.
Theee computations show that the postulates of Definition 3-25 are all 88.tisfied
and, consequently, the triple (B, V, 1\) is a Boolean algebra.
Taken together, Theorems 3-61 and 3-62 indicate that the theory of Boolean
algebras is equivalent to the theory of Boolean rings. What is to be considered
remarkable is the identification of a. notion a.rising out of questions of logic
and set theory with a. system amenable to the powerful techniques of modem
algebra.
PROBLEMS
1. Prove that in a Boolean ring (R, +, .), every triple of elements a, h, c E R satisfies
the identity
(a + h) (h + c) (c + a) = O.
2. If a Boolean ring (R,+,) has at least three elements, show that every nonzero
element except the identity is a divisor of zero. [Hint: For a, hER, consider the
+
product (a h) a h.]
3. Prove that any ring (R,+,) in which each element is idempotent can be imbedded
in a Boolean ring. [Hint: Let R' - R X Z2 and mimic the argument of Theorem
3-16.]
4. a) Let (R, +,.) be a commutative ring with identity and S the set of idempotents
of R. For a, h E S, define the operation * by taking
a * h .. a +h- 2(a . h).
Prove that the triple (8, *, .) forms a Boolean ring, known &8 the idempoUnt.
Boolean rifl(J of (R, +, .).
b) In particular, obtain the idempotent Boolean ring of (Z12,+12, '12)'
5. Suppose (1,+,) is an ideal of the Boolean ring (R,+, .). Show that (1,+,.) is
a proper prime (maximal) ideal if and only if for each element a in R, either a E I
or 1 - a E I, but not both.
6. Given (R,+,) is a Boolean ring. For an element a E R, define the set I(a) by
I(a) >= {I 1(1,+,,) is a maximal ideal of (R,+, .); a E I}.
Verify that the sets I(a) have the following properties:
a) I (a) ,. ., whenever a ,. O.
+
b) l(a h) - l(a) ~ l(h).
c) l(a' h) - I(a) n I(h).
d) l(a) - I(b) if and only if a-h.
[Hint: a E 1 if and only if 1 - a E 1.]
BOOLEAN RINGS AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRAS 233
7. In reference to Problem 6. prove that if

M = {I 1(1.+.') is a maximal ideal of (H.+. n.
then the ring (H. +..) is isomorphic to a subring of (P(M), A, n). [Him: Con-
sider the mapping I: H -+ P(M) given by I(a) - I(a).]
8. Establish that there is no Boolean ring having exactly three elements.
9. In any Boolean ring (R. +, .). an order relation ~ may be defined by taking
a ~ b if and only if a . b = a. If the elements a. b. c. d E H, establish the following
order-properties :
a) a ~ a, 0 ~ a:S 1 for every a E H.
b) a ~ band b ~ c imply a ~ c.
c) a:S b and b ~ a imply a-b.
d) a :S c and b ~ d imply a . b ~ c d.
e) b c = 0 implies a c = 0 if and only if a :S b.
10. a) Let (H. +..) be a Boolean ring and I be a nonempty subset of H. Show that
(1,+,') is an ideal of (H,+,') if and only if
i) a, bel imply a bel,+
ii) a E I and r E H with r :S a imply r . a E I.
+, .)
b) If the set la is defin.ed by I ... {r E HI r ~ a}. verify that the triple (1.,
forms an ideal of (H, +, .).
11. Suppose that (8,+.,) is a subring of a Boolean ring (R,+, .). Prove that any
homomorphism I from (8, + . ) onto the field (Z2, +2, '2) can be extended to all
of (H. + .. ). [Him: The ideal (ker (f), +,.) is contained in maximalideal (M,+, .),
where (H/M,+.) ~ (Z2, +2, '2).]
12. For elements a. _~. and__c_~t a Boolean algebra (B. V, A), prove that
a) (a A b) V (b A c) V (c A a) - (a V b) A (b V c) A (c Va),
b) a A c = b A c and a A c' == b A c' imply a - b,
c) a = b if and only if (a A b') V (a' A b) - 0,
d) a ... 0 if and only if (a A b') V (a' A b) - b,
e) a A b = a if and only if a V b = b.
13. Let the set B consist of the positive integral divisors of 30, that is,
B = {I, 2, 3, 5, 6.10,15, 3O}.

If V and A are defined by
a Vb,. lcm (a, b), a A b - gcd (a, b),
show that the triple (B, V, A) is a Boolean algebra.

14. Given that X is an infinite set. Let B be the family of all subsets A !;;; X such that
either A or X - A is finite, plus ~ and X. Determine whether the triple (B, U, n)
forms a Boolean algebra.
15. Prove that if (B, V, A) is a Boolean algebra having identity element 1 for the
operation A, then every Boolean subalgebra must contain 1. Contrast this with
the case of rings.
234 RING THEORY
16. By means of Theorem 3-61, convert the Boolean algebra (B, V, A), as defined
below, into a Boolean ring.
V abc d A abc d
a abc d a a a a a
b b b b b b abc d B == {a, b, c, d}
c c b c b cae c a
d d b b d dad a d
17. Suppose a Boolean algebra (B, V, A) is made into a Boolean ring (B, +,.) via
Th('orem 3-61, and then (B, +,.) is convertt"d baek to a Boolean algebra
(R, V \,1\ \) via Tlworem 3-62. Verify that (R, V, 1\) ... (B, VI, 1\ .).
18. Suppose (B, V, 1\) is a Boolean ring and 0 ;o!i I\; B. The triple (I, V, 1\) is
said to be a (Boolean) ideal of (B, V, 1\) if and only if
i) a, bEl implies a V bEl,
ii) aE I and bE B imply a 1\ bE I.
a) Prove that every Boolean algebra (B, V, 1\) has two trivial ideals, namely,
({O}, V, I\) and (B, V, 1\).
b) If (Ii, V, 1\) is a collection of ideals of (B, V, 1\), show that (nIi, V, 1\) is
also an ideal.
e) Prove that if (I, V, 1\) ill an ideal of (B, V, 1\) and 1 e 1, then 1 - B.
19. Let (P(X), U, n) be the Boolean algebra of subsets of a nonemptlt set X and Xo
be any element of X. Prove that
a) if I is the family of all subsets A \; X such that Xo ~ A, then the triple (1, U, n)
is an ideal of (P(X), U, n),
b) if X is infinite and I is the family of all finite subsets A \; X, then the triple
(1, U, n) is an ideal of (P(X), U, n).
20. Let (B, V, 1\) and (B\, V \,1\ \) he two Boolean algebras and I a mapping from
B into B.. Then I is Haid to be a Boolean homomorphiam from (B, V, 1\) into
(Bl' VI, 1\.) provided
I(a V b) = I(a) V. I(b),
I(a 1\ b) = I(a) 1\. I(b) ,
I(a') "" I(a)'
for all elements a, bE B. (The formation of complements may be regarded as a
unitary operation.) Show that such a function has the following properties:
a) 1(0) ... 0.,/(1) = 1\.
b) (f(B), V., 1\.) is a suhalgebra of (B., VI, 1\ .).
c) If a :S b is taken to mClI.n a 1\ b .. a, then I(a) :S I(b) whenever a :S b.
d) The triple (ker(!), V, 1\) is an ideal of (B, V, 1\), where
k('r (f) = {a E B I/(a) = Od.

e) If (It, VI, 1\ 1) is an ideal of (Bl, VI, 1\ .), then (f-l(It), V J 1\) is an ideal
of (B, V, 1\).
CHAPTER 4
VECTOR SPACES
4-1 THE ALGEBRA OF MATRICES
The theory of matrices has long occupied a strategic position in various branches
of mathematics, physics, and enginccring. Only in reccnt years has its im-
portance in the social and biological sciences as well hecome apparent. Thc
subject t.oday has become an indispensable tool ill :mcll new field!! as game
theory, linear programming, and statistical decision theory. Part of the reason
for the widening applicability of matrix theory is no douht the role it plays in
the analysis of di!!eretc'obHcrvations and the case with whieh matric operations
may bl~ progmmmed for modern highapeed computen;.
We do not intend to give a complete nnd systcmatie aeeount of the problems
of matrix theory and its diverse applications. Rather, the operations and the
basie properties of veetors and matrices arc approached from an algebraic point
of view with the aim of illustrating some of the conccpts of the previous chap-
ters. One result of sueh a study will be t.hc formulat.ion of a mathematical
sy!!tcm, somewhat more complicated than tho!IC st.udied earlier, known as a
v~tor spa(!e.
The basic definition whieh atl1rts U!! ofT ill that of II. vector, the fundamental
object in our study.
Deftnitlon 4-1. An n-componcllt or n-dimensional vector over a field (F, +,.)
is un ordered n-tuple (aI, a2, .. ,an) of clements ak E F.
The clements ak E F ure called the comTllInents of the vector and we say n is
its dimension. Clearly, the set of all one-dimensional veetors over (F, +, .) can
be identified with F itself. To have to write out the whole vector is somewhat
awkward; hereafter, we will condense our notation and designate the vector with
(~OmpollentR ak by (a,,). It is hardly necessary to point out t.hat two n-component
V(,(,t.()rtI (ak) and (Ilk) Iln~ (~qlllll, ill whidl ellS(. w/' writ./' (nk) ~ (lJd, if Illld only if
t.hcir eorrcspolldillg eompOltelltll arc equal: (ak) = (I)k) if and only if ak = bk
for k = 1, 2, ... , n.
Definition 4-2. n) The sum of two n-component vectors (ak) and (b k) , denoted
by (at) + (b,,), is the veetor obtained by adding their corresponding com-
ponents. Thus, (at) + (b,,) = (a" + bk).
235
236 VECTOR SPACES .4-1
b) The product of a vector (a,,) and an element r of F, denoted by rea,,), is the

vector obtained by multiplying each component of (a,,) by r. Thus,
real) = (r a,,).
Here, we conform with the standard practice of using the plus sign in two
different contexts, for vectors and for their components. It should be perfectly
clear in any given situation whether we are adding vectors or elements of F.
Note, incidentally, that the difference of two vectors may be expressed in
terms of the operations already given:
For a simple illustration of these ideas, consider vectors over (R', +, .); in this
case, we have
(1,2,3) - 2(1,0, -1) = (1,2,3) + (-2,0,2) = (-1,2,5).
Definition 4-3. Any vector whose components are all zero is called a zero
vector and is represented by the symbol O.
Let V,,(F) denote the set of all n-component vectors over an arbitrary field
(F, +, .). Inasmuch as vector addition enjoys the basic additive properties of
its components, the following theorem concerning the algebraic nature of
the pair (V,,(F), +) is obvious. -
Theorem 4-1. The system (V,,(F), +) is a commutative group, having the
zero vector of dimension n as its identity element and (-a,,) as the inverse
of a vector (a,,) E V,,(F).
The operation of multiplication of vectors by elements of F, as defined above,
has the following properties: if r, E F and (a,,), (b,,) are vectors in V,,(F), then
1) (r + .)(a,,) - r(a.) +.(aAl),
2) r[(a,,) +(b,,)] = rea,,) +
r(b.),
3) r[.(a,,)] = (r 8) (a.,) ; l(a.) = (a,,); O(a.) = o.
Verification of these facts is not particularly difficult and is left to the reader.
Vectors may also be combined under a rule of composition known as inner
product multiplication.
Definition 4-4. The inner product of two vectors (a,,), (b,,) E V,,(F), denoted
by (a,,) (b.), is defined to be
0
(aAl) 0 (b,,) =
.
L al . bl;.
1-1
According to this definition, inner product multiplication may be regarded

as a function from V,,(F) X V,,(F) onto F; that is, the inner product of two
vectors is an element of F. Note also that the product of two nonzero vectors
4-1 THE ALGEBRA OF MATRICES 237
may be zero, as in Va(R'), where
(1, 2, -3) 0 (3, 6, 5) = 1 . 3 + 2 6 + (-3) . 5 = O.
However, one should not jump to hasty conclusions concerning divisors of zero,
for on the right-hand side we have the real number zero and not a 3-eomponent
zero vector.
While failing to be even a binary operation, inner product multiplication
nonetheless enjoys some interesting properties, several of which are listed in
the next theorem.
Theorem 4-2. If rEF and (at), (bt ), (Ct) are vectors in V .. (F), then
1) (a.,) 0 (bAo) = (bAo) 0 (at),
2) 0 (a,,) = 0 = (a,,) 0,
0
3) r[(a.,) (b t )] = (r at) (b t ) = (a,,) (r bAo),

0
4) (a.,). [(b,,) +
(Ct)] = (aAo) (bAo) (al;) (CI;).+
Proof. Let us illustrate the type of argument involved by establishing the last
statement; the remainjng parts of the theorem are left as an exercise. We
proceed as follows:
..
(a.,) 0 [(b.,) + (CI;)] = (al;) (bl; + CI;) = L aAo' [bl; + Ct]
.. .. "-1
= E a., . b., + E a., . c.,
"-1 "-1
= (a.,) (b.,) + (a.,) (c.,).
Definition 4-5. By an m X n matriz (plural: matrice.) over the field (F, +,.)
we mean a function from {I, 2, ... ,m} X {I, 2, ... I n} into F.
In the case of matrices, one customarily arranges the functional values block
fashion in a table made up of m rows and n columns. S~cifically, if the value
of the matrix at the ordered pair (i,j) is denoted by aij, where 1 ~ i ~ m,
1 ~ j ~ n, then the matrix is indicated by the following rectangular array:
all a12 ... a l .. )
(
~21 ~22 ... ~2. . .
a... 1 a...2 ... a.....

Abusing terminology, we shall hereafter refer to the above display of mn elements
of F as the matrix itself (in the strict sense, this display is simply a representa-
tion of the matrix). Further, we will call 4;, the ijth entry or element of the
matrix, and we shall speak of the integers m and n, the number of rows and
columns, as its (limenBiona.
238 VECTOR SPACES 4-1
Note that clements are located ill the matrix by the use of double subscripts.
the first subscript indicating ttHl row. and the second subscript the column in
which the element is found. For instance. the element a23 is in the second row
and third column.
To avoid cumbersome notations. it is convenient to abbreviate a matrix aH
(ai;)",X", to be read "the matrix of dimension m X n whose elements are the
ai/s." When the numbers of rows and columns are clearly understood. we may
instead simply write (aij). If m = n. the mntrix is snid to be square of order n.
Definition 4-6. Two m X n matrices (ai;) and (b i ;) are equal, for which we
write (ai;) = (b i ;) , if and only if their corresponding elements are equal;
Lhllt iH, flij l)ij fill' ILII i ILIIII j.
Since the rowl'! of all m X n mlttrix may be regarded as clements of the vector
space V,,(F) , it iH 1I0t HlIl'priHing that the operations defined in V,,(F) have
natural generalizations to matrix operations.
Definition 4-1. a) The Hum of two m X n matriceH (ai;) and (bij). denoted
by (aii) + (b i ,), is the matrix obtained by addillg their corresponding ele-
ments. Thus, (aij) + (b i;) = (ai; + bi ;).
b) The product of the matrix (ai;) and the element rEF. denoted by r(ai;),
is the matrix obtaitwd by mult.iplying each element of (aij) by r. Thus,
r(ai;) = (r ail)'
Observe that by its definition, addition is a binary operation on the set of
all matrices of a given size; that is, the sum of two n X m matrices is again an
n X m matrix.
Example 4-1. Taking (ll', +, .) as the base field, let
~) , :).
-6 4
A=e B= (:
3 0 -1
Then
2A + = (:
B
-12
0
:)+(: 4
-1 ~)
= (:
-8
-1
:).
A matrix each of whose elements is zero is called a zero matrix and is denoted
by O. Accordingly, a zero matrix need not be square. For the zero matrix
whose dimensions are those of (ai;), we have
(ai;) +0 = = 0 + (a;j).
(ai;)
(ai;) -I- (-I)(aij) = 0 = (-I)(a;j) + (aij).
Let. us denote the set of all m X n matrices over the field (F, by the +, .)
symbol M ",n(F). The following theorem establisheH the algebraic properties of
(M",,,(F), +) under matrix addition.
Theorem 4-3. The system (JIf ",,,(F), +) is a commutative group, with the
m X n zero matrix as the identity element and (-aij) as the inverse of a
matrix (aij) E M ",,,(F).
Proof. Definition 4-7 indicates that each property of matrix addition is derived
from the correHpondillg ndditive property in the field (F, +, .). For instanoe,
to establish the commutative law, let (aij), (bij) EM",,,(F). Then
The rest of t.he proof proceeds along similar lines and is left to the reader.
Although multiplieation of matrices by a field element is not a binary opera-
tion on M ".,,(F) lunless, of couI"s(~, m = n = 1), this operation has several
int.eresting features. Specifieally, if (aij), (b ii ) E JIf ".n(<') and r, 8 E /I', then
r[(aij) + (bij)] = r(aij) + r(bij),
(r 8)(aij) = r[8(aij)],
(r + 8)(ai;) = rea,;) + 8(a,;),
l(a,;) = (a,j), O(ai;) = O.
Our main purpose for introducing inner product multiplication for veetors
becomes apparent with the following definition.
Definition 4-8. If (aij) is an m X n mntrix and (b ij) is an n X r matrix, then
their product (Cii) = (aii)' (bi') is an m X r matrix whose elements are given
hy the formula
.
Cij = ~ ail, . bk ; for i = 1,2, ... ,mi j = 1,2, ... , r.
k-1
As the SUbscripts indicate, the ijth entry c'l in the product matrix (ai;) . (b i ;)
is obtained by taking the inner product of the ith row of (aii) and the jth
column of (h ij):
eii = (ail, ai2, ... , ain) [;::].
b"J
As we observed previously, the inner product of two vectors is defined only
if the vectors involved have the same number of components. Thus for the
matrix produet (aij) . (bij) to exist, the number of columns in the matrix (ai;)
[which determines the number of elements in a row of (1Ji,)) must be equal to

the number of rows in the matrix (b tJ ) [which determines the number of elements
in a column of (b,,. This means that we could not, for example, multiply a
4 X 3 matrix and a 2 X 3 matrix.
Restricted to the set of square matricea of order n, matrix multiplication is
a binary operation. For if (IJiJ) and (b'/) are both n X n matricea, then 80 is
their product (a.ii) (bi/)'
Before going on, it would be worthwhile to consider an example in detail.
Exam.... 4-2. Again taking (B', +, .) 88 the field, let
A = (: 2 -11) and
Then
2X3
2, 3 + O (-1)
3X2
+ 1 0 21+00+12 )
- (6 4 )-
=
(
33+2(-1)+(-1)0
31 + 2 + (-1)2 - 7
1
2X2
On the other hand,
1)
2 ~1
3X2 2X3
3.2+1.3 30+1-2
3.1+1.(-1>]
= 1-12+0-3 -10+02 -1 . 1 + 0 (-1)
02+23 0-0+2-2 01 +2 (-1)
3X3
-[-: :-~l6 4-2

We next dispose of one natural question that arises here, namely, the question
of commutativity of matrix mUltiplication. First of all, given an m X n matrix
(ao/), the matrix products (a'/)' (bu) and (b'/)' (O(/) are both defined if and
only if (b ii ) is an n X m matrix. When the latter condition holds and it is a.t
least possible to form these two products, (aii) (bi/) and (bii) (4;i) will be of
different dimensions unless m = n. Even if this is the case, where it is mean-
ingful to ask whether (ail) . (bi i ) a.nd (b ii ) . (aii) are equal, matrix mUltiplication
will not as a rule be commutative. One need only consider the computation
Due to the asymmetric way in which two matrices combine in a product, such
an outeome is not totally unsuspected. It is quite possible, of course, that a
particular pair of matrices may commute.
I'or the zero .matrices of appropriate dimensions, (aii)' 0 = 0 and
O (ail) = O. In particular, if both (aii) and 0 are square matrices of the
same order, then (aii) . 0 = O (aii) = O.
If (a;j) is any square matrix, then that part of the matrix consisting of the
the elements ali is called the (main) diagonal of the matrix.
DefInition 4-9. The identity matrix oj order n, designated by I .. , or simply I
when there is no chance of confusion, is the square n X n matrix having ones
down its diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
It is helpful to have some notation for the elements of the identity matrix.
Consequently, we will denote the element in the ith row and jth column of I ..
by the symbol o;/t where
I for i = j,
'il ={ (the Kronecker delta)
o for i ~ i,
and thus write Ifl = (O;i)' To illustrate,
For each positive integer n, the set of all square matrices of order n over the
field (P, +, .) will be represented by M fI(F), rather than M .... (F). The identity
matrix I .. serves as an identity element for the operation of matrix multiplica-
242 VI<lCTOIt I'IPAC!EFI 4-1
tion in the set M,.(F). Indeed, if (a;i) E M,.(F), then
(aii) . I,. = (aii) . (8;i) = (tk-l

aik . 8ki) = (aii),
and similarly I,. . (a'j) = (a;i)'

We have just proved part of the following theorem.
Theorem 4-4. The system (M,.(F), +,.) is a ring with identity.
Proof. It has already been observed that (M,. (F), +) is a commuta.tive group
and that mat.rix multiplication is a bin&~ operation on M ,.(F). What remains
1M to verify tlw RHMOdl\tlvity of multiplication and tho distributive laws. To
establish thnt muItiplieation is left distributive over addition, let (a;;) , (bij ),
and (e;i) E Mn(F). Then
(a;i) . [(b.;) + (e;i)] = (a;i) . (b;; + eli)
(t
k-l
a;k . [liki + eki])
The rest of the proof offers 110 diffilmlty and is omitted.

For our next theorem we need the following notation: define Eii to be the
n X n matrix having 1 as its ijth entry and zeros everywhere else. Thus for.
n = 2,
The reader may readily prove that
In = Ell + E22 + ... + En,.

and
E.. IJ
L'
.l~., -
_ {Eit if j = 8,
o if j -F 8.
4-1 THE AWEBIlA OF MATRICES 243
This last relation shows, incidentally, that the ring (Mn(F), +, .)

has divisors
of zero.
The proof of TheorC'm 3-24 indicates that nny commutative ring with
ident.ity whieh iH not a field ILlwu.YI! POSHCHllCI! nontrivial ideals. There is no
real!on to u.SHume thnt in the nbHence of (!ommlltat.ivity the Harne conclUl!ion
followH. Indeed, as we Hhall sec, the Hystcm (Mn(F), +,.) provides an example
of a lIoncommutative ring without nontriviu.l ideu.ls.
Theorem 4-5. The ring of matrices (Mn(F), +,.) has no nontrivial ideals;
that is, (M,.(F), +,.) is IL simple ring.
Pro,,!. Ruppofl(! t.hlLt (l'<I, +,.) ill any Ideal of tho ring (M,,(F), +, .), where
S ~ {O}. Then S must (!ontll.in some nonzero matrix (aij), with, SlLy, a., ~ O.
Now consider the matrix product
where til!' nllltrix (lJij) IIml the value a;jl down itt! llIain diltgonnl lUll I zeros
elllwhN(~. Due to t.he presnrwc of nil the 1:ero elll.rieH in the variout! fnetors,
thit! produet is equal t.o H. t l\Iorcover, Hilwe (S,I-, .) is an ideal, the matrix
g., belongH t.o S. The relation
i,j = 1,2, ... , n,
shows further that all n 2 of the matrices Eij arc contained in S. The set S,
being closed under addition, then has the identity mlLtrix In as a member,
from which we conelude that S = 111n(F), In other words, if S ~ {O}, then
S = M,.(F).
In passing, let. us remark that while the ring (llf,,(p), +,.) fails to have
nontrivial (two-sided) ideals, it may very well possess one-sided ideals. For
example, the set of all matrices of the form
a, b EF,
compriHCs t.he elcmcnt.s of Il left ideal of (111 2(P), .1-, .).

Matrices which have a multiplicative inverse are said to be nonsinyular;
otherwise they are ealled sinyular. Sinee a nonsingular matrix (aij) eommutes
with its inverse [by definition (aij) (aij)-I = (aij)-I . (aij) = I], it follows
that both the matrix and its inverse must be square and of the same order.
While only square matrices can possess an inverse, not every square matrix
is nonsingu\ar. For instance, eonsider the 2 X 2 matrix
If this matrix were nonsingular, we would then ha.ve
On the other hand, the associative law yields
which leads to an obvious contradiction.

This argument shows that, without further restriction, the system (M,,(F),')
does not constitute a group. The obvious thing to do is to consider only those
matrices having mUltiplicative inverses, so that the object of interest becomes
the group of invertible elements of (M ..(F), +, .).
Theorem 4-6. If M:(F) denotes the set of nonsingumr matrices of order n,
then the pair (M:(F),') forms 8: group.
By further limiting the set of matrices under consideration, one can obviously
obtain more specialized results, as is evidenced by the next two examples.
Example 4-3. Consider the set S of all matrices in M 2(F) of theJorm
a,beF.
We propose to show that the system (S, +,.) is a field. If the matrices
are arbitrary elements of S, then
d)c = (a-c b- d) eS,

-(b - d) a-c
d) = (a. c-b d a d + bc) eS.
e -(ad+bc) ae-dd
Consequently, S is closed under both differences and products. This makes
(S, +, .) a subring of (M 2 (F) , +, .), the ring of square matrices of order 2.
It is easily checked that the elements of S commute under matrix multiplication.
Since the 2 X 2 identity matrix 12 is plainly a memoor of S, the triple (S, +, .)
thus forms a commutative ring with identity. All that remains is to establish
that each nonzero element of S has a multiplicative inverse in S.
4-1 THE ALQ,EBRA OF MATRICBS
Now if
(-: :) ~ (~~),
either a ~ 0 or b ~ 0, 80 that a 2 + b2 ~ o. Accordingly, (as + b')-l exists
and, as a direct computation will show,
( a b)-l = (a2
-b a
+ bS)-l(a
b
-b) S.
a
e
An interesting observation is that the additive groups (S, +) and (V s(F), +)

are isomorphic under the mapping f: S - V.(F) given by
f( b)-b
a
a
= (a, b).
This function is obviously a homomorphism, lor

f[( b) + (
a
-b a -d
Cd)] =
e
j( a+
+ d)
-(b
C
= (a+ e, b + d)
= (a, b) + (e, d)
=f(-b b)+1"'\-d d).
a
a
e
e
Moreover, if
I( b) .f( Cd),
a
, -b a -d e
then from the definition of equality of the vectors (a, b) and (e, d), we must
have a = e, b = d. This implies that
8Ojisaone-to-onemapping. It is clearly onto Vs{F),hence (S,+) ~ (V.{F),+).

Example 4-4. Let the set T consist of all real matrices of order two having
equal integral entries. A routine argument, which we omit, shows the triple
(T, +,.) to be a subring of the ring (M 2(R'), +, .). Hereafter, a matrix
(: :), neZ,
246 VECTOR Sl'ACES 4-1
in T will hc~ cll'llot{~d Hilllilly hy (n); while thit! iH 11I1 incorll'c~t notation, it ill much
leHl! ullwiddly than the I~orrect olle.
WllIlt we willh to show here is that the mapping J: T - Z. defined by
Jn = 2n yield!:! an isomorphism between (T, +,.) arid (Z., +, .), the ring
of even integers. The demonstration that J preserves addition is straight-
forward, so we shall consider only multiplication: for n, m E Z,
Jn) . (m = J2nm = 4nm = 2n 2m = !n . Jm.

Thull, t.he funl:tioll f is a (ring) hOlllomorphi!:!m, ILnd is evidently one-to-one.
Next, let m 1)(' lUI arhitrary evcm illt.egl'r, NO tlmt m = 2n for some n E Z; thCII,
hy UI(' 1I1111111C'r ill whil~h f WII~ dclilllII, f( (n) =, m. Thill HhoWA t.hat f(T) = Ze
ILnd illdc~(~d ('1', I,') ..... (Z., I,') vin f.
PROBLEMS
1. Determine the values of a and b for which the following matrix equation holds:
[30]
1 I . (4 7) + 2 0
[a -3] [20 15]
5 10 25
5 2 6 8 4 b 40 25
2. C'omputt' .t . B, .1 2 , B 0, O A, and O B for the matrices
..J ... [~ 0 -:] B- [ : : ] ,

I 0-1
3. Show that ('ach of the following matrices from J\'h(R') is a solution of the matrix
+
t'qllation .\'2 - 5.\' 41 = 0:
and ( 3-2).
-I 2
4. a) l~illcl a matrix in .I/2(R') whoH(, Hqllare iH tht' matrix
(3-4).
1 -I
b) Obtain all matrict's t.hat. commut.e with

,-1 THE .u.(a~mtA OF MATIUCJ<;S 247
a) Show that the pair (G,) is a group, where indicatcs matrix multiplication.
b) Ruppose II and K denote the sets of matrices of the type
nnd
n"IH{!i\,!ly. I'ru\'t'I.hnl (II,J i.. "l<uhl('""uI' "f Hit, I(rulll' (I, .J, wllil!' (1\,,)
i.. II lI"rltlnl .. llh~,..HI" .. f (tI, .J.
6. Uivt'n til(' matrix (a,j) E .Hm.(ft') and r, 8 E 10', prove t.hat
a) (r+8)1 .. = rl .. +81., b) (r8)/. = (rl.)(81 .. ),
c) I", (ao) - (a;j)' I .. "" (aiS).
7. Let thl' Ret 0 conKiHt. of the six 3 X 3 matrices
~] ~]
0 0
[: 0 [:
0
[:
0
0 :]
[~
0 0
0
0
;] [:
0
:] [; 0 :]
EHtahliKh t.hat thl' pair (G, .) formll a group illmorl.hic to (Sa, .), the symmetric
grllu p on a HymholM.
:
8. ConHidt'r setH Ganci /I conHiHting of all matrices rrom M a(/") of the form
[: ::] and
[~ ;]
reHIK'(:tivl!iy. Vt'rify that I.htl pair (G,') is a group and that (II,') formH a normal
I!ubgroup of (0, .).
9. In quantum mechanics, the Pauli theory of electron spin utilizes the following
complex matrices:
248 VECTOlt SPACES 4-1
where, of course, i 2 = -1. Prove that the Pauli matrices, together with matrix
multiplication, consititute a group.
10. A square matrix (aii) is said to be diagonal if au - 0 for i pi. j; in other words,
(41/) - (a,8i/). Assuming diag M ,,(F) denotes the set of all diagonal matrices of
order n, prove that the triple (diag M ..(F),+,) forms a commutative subring
of (M ..(F),+, .).
11. By a ICalar matrix is meant any diagonal matrix (4i/) having equal diagonal
elements: (aii) - (diJ). If S ..(F) is the set of scalar matrices of order n over the
field (F,+, .), show that
a) the triple (S.(F),+,) is a field isomorphic to (F,+, .),
b) S .. (F) - cent M .(F). [Hint: Consider the products (41/) E., - E., (41/)']
12. If M:(F) designates the set of nonsingular matrices of order n, verify that the
triple (M:CF), +, .) does not form a subring of the ring (M ..(F), +,.).
13. A square matrix (aii) is upper triangular if ail - 0 for i > j and atricll" upper
triangulm- if ail = 0 for i ~ j. Let T,,(F) and n(F) denote the sets of all upper
triangular and strictly upper triangular matrices of order n, respectively. Prove
the following:
a) A matrix (ail) e T .. (F) is nonsingular if and only if 4i1 '" 0 for i - I , 2, ... , n.
b) The triple (T,,(F),+,.) isasubringofthering (M ..(F),+,).
c) Each matrix (aii) e T:(F) is nilpotent; in particular, (41/)" - o.
d) (T:(F),+,') is an ideal of the ring (T ..(F),+, .).
14. The trampoae of a matrix (41/), designated by (ail)', is the matrix whose ijth
entry is the jith entry of (a,;), that is, (aii)' .. (alf)' Given matrices (ail), (h#) e
M ..(F), verify that
a) (41/)" - (41/), b) [r(ai/) +
.(hi/)]' ., r(ai/)' +
.(hi/)', r,. e F,
c) [(4i/)' (bi /' - (bi/)' (4ii)',
d) whenever (a#) is nonsingular, 80 also ill (a#)', with [(44/)'1- 1 - (4#)-11'.
15. Show that the field (S, +,.) of Example 4-3 is isomorphic to the complex numbers
(C, +, .)
under the mapping
j
I\_b 4 h) =
a
(a, b).
16. In the ring (M2(C),+, .), let D be the set of all matrices having the form
where 4 is the complex conjugate of a. Prove that the triple (D, is a division +, .)
ring, but not a field.
17. Show that for any element a e F, the following matrices are both idempotents in
(Al2(F),+,'):
and
4-2 ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF VECTOR SPACES 249
18. A matrix (a.;) E M,,(F') is said to be aymmetric if (a.;)' - (atj) and ,kew-.ym-
metric if (ai;)' ... -(ail)' Establish the following assertions:
+
a) If (a.;) and (bij) are symmetric matrices, so also is r(ai;) .(bo;).
b) The products (ai;) . (ail)' and (ai;)' . (aij) are both symmetrio.
c) If (aij) and (b ij) are symmetric, then (aij) . (bij) is a symmetrio matrix if and
only if (ail) . (bii) - (bi;) . (ail)'
d) The diagonal elements of a skew-llymmetric matrix are all sero.
e) Every (square) matrix can be written as the sum of a symmetrio and skew-
symmetrio matrix.
19. Let the set 0 be comprised of the following matrices:
I - (~ :), 8 - (_: :), T - (-: _:),
U = e-:), e_:), V = w - (: :),
y = (0 -1).
-1 0
a) Prove that the pair (0, .) forms a group.
b) If II = {I, 8, T, U}, show that (H, .) is a normal subgroup of (0,) and find
the cosets of H in O.
4-2 ELEMENTARY PROPERnES OF VECTOR SPACES

-
We saw in the last section that the collection Mn(F) of square matrices of
order n over a field (F, +, .), together with the operations of matrix addition
and multiplication, constitutes a ring. At the time, our third matrix operation,
mUltiplication of a matrix by an element of F, seemed relatively unimportant-
particularly, since it failed to be even a binary operation on M n(F). However,'
by abstracting the essential features of this operation, we now define a mathe-
matical structure having the set M .. (F) [more generally, the set M ..... (F)]
under matrix addition and multiplication by a field element as a model. Basi-
cally, this is a matter of combining two different algebraic systems into a single
entity known as a vector space.
Due to the availability of a number of excellent texts on the subject, there
is no need for us to develop the theory of vector spaces in any great detail.
Instead, our goal shall be to give a survey of some, but by no means all, of the
main ideas. The pace will frequently be brisk and much is left to the reader.
Definition 4-10. A vector space (or linear space) over a field is an ordered
triple V, +), (F, -t-,.), .) consisting of
1) a commutative group (V, +) whose elements are called vector.,
2) a field (F, +, .)
whose elements are called acalar.,
250 VECTOH SPACES 4-2
3) an operation of scalar multiplication conneeting the group and field

0
which satisfies the properties:

a) for each c E F and x E V, there is ctefinpd an element cox E V; that
is, V is closed under left multiplication by scalars;
h) (CI + C2) 0 x = (CI 0 x) +(C2 0 x);
c,) (el' C2) 0x = CI 0 (C2 0 x);
d) co (x + = y) (c x)0 + (c y);0
e) 1 o:r = x, wh('re I is the fi('ld id('utity element.
While the addition symhol has been used in two contexts in the above defini-
tion, to d!'signate the operation of the group and one of the operations of the
fi!'ld, no eOllfllsioll should arise from thiN pmdil'e. It will alwaYII he dear in
any giv('n :-;it.uatioll wlwtlwr v('(t.ors or sealars are being added. When both
veetor additioll and sealar multipliention are involved in an expression, we
follow our usual understanding in omitting parentheses: multiplication takes
precedence over addition.
In the Sl'qu!'l, a vector RP:WC over the fi!'ld (F, +,.) will be denoted merely
by l"(F), rather than the corred but cumbersome notation (V, +), (F, +, .),0).
The ('onveniellC'e rmmlt.ing from this convention more than outweighs its lack
of pl'('('i8ion. For fu.-Owr simplicity, we shall hel'('aftcr drop the and write cx
0
for the procluet r. x. 0
It should be apparent that a veetOl' space is markedly diffel"Cnt from the

previous systems we have discussed in that the products of scalar multiplication
employ clements from both F and V. Part (3) of the definition relates the
possible wayR th('se prorlu('tR ('ombine t.he operation + of (V, +) with + and
of (P, 1-, .). l'\ot.1' all'lo tlmt t.!IC' hYIHIt.llPsil'l Ix = X il-l quite el!RCntinl; without
it, every field and c'ommutative jl;roUJl would yield a vector space under the
trivial scalar multiplicat.ion ex = 0 for all C E P, x E V.
Before discussing the implications of t.he axioms of a veetor space, let us
give It sel('ction of ('xamples. The formal verification that each example de-.
sl'ribed aetually I'ollstitutes a vee\.or SPIlC'!! iH left as all exercise.
Example 4-5. Let t.he commutative grollp be (Vn(P), +), where Vn(F) is the
IlCt of all n-('ompOII<'llt row vedorH over an arbitrary field (F, and is +, .) +
the usual compon('nt.wise addition of veet.ors. For C E F and (ak) E Vn(P),
define s('alar multiplication by
In view of th(' r('sults of the lnst. seetion, we thus obtain Il vector space, which
will hl'nc~pfOl'f.h hI' denoted simply hy 1" "(F).
Example 4-6. If /tf", .. (F) rcpre'spnts t.hl' c'oll('dioll of m X n matriccI-I over
(P, +, .)
and I is t.he op('rntion of matrix additioll, thl'n (At mn(P), +) is a
4-2 ELEMENTAItV PROPERTIES OF VECTOR SPACES 251
commutative group. A vector space rcsulUi on defining scalar multiplication

as in the previous example:
ceF.
The particulur v('(:tor lipaee whieh arilles when m = 7~ will, in the future, be
indicated by !Ifn(F).
Example 4-7. Given a field (F, +, .), take V to he all functions from an
arbitrary llet X into F. For f, g e V and c e F, define the functions f + g and
cf by spe(!ifying their vnlues at each point of X:
(J -I- g)(x) = f(x) + ,,(x),

(cJ)(x) = c f(x), xeX.
With vector addition and scalar multiplication so defined, we obtain a vector

space V(F).
Example 4-8. Let (F, +, .) be a field and W[x), +, .) be the ring of poly-
nomials in the indcterminant x with <!oeffi!'icntH from F. The operations neees-
snry to give F[x) n vector space structure am the expnctcd ones: if
and
where m ~ n, then
p(x) + q(x) = + bo) + (a1 + b 1)x + ... + (a... + b...}x"',
(ao
cp(x) = (c ao) + (c a1)x + ... + (c a,.)x".
(Needless to say, ill the sum p(x) + q(x), we sct ak = 0 for n + 1 :S k :S m.)
Let us retain the symbol F[x) for this vector space, in preference to the correct
but awkward (F[x])(F).
Example 4-9. For any field (F, +, .), Example 4-5 may be generalized by
using infinitdy many elenumts of F: jUtit. take V .. (ft') to be the totality of all
illfiniw 1IC<lIlClJ(!(lS from F. The members of If.. W) may be eonvcniently identified
wit.1I row V('(:\.Ofti
ak e F,
having infiniwly IlIlLny (!omponents. In this ('ILIIC,
if and only if ak = bk for all k e Z+.

Vector addition and multiplication by a scalar c e F are perfonned component-

wise:
(ah a2, aa, ... ) + (b., b1h b., ..) = (at + bt, a2 + b2, a. + ba, . ),
c(a., a2, Ga, ) = (c a.. c . a2, c aa, ... ).
Using these operations, V.(F) becomes a vector space over (F, +, .).
Example 4-10. As a final, and not quite 80 simple, example of a vector space,
consider a commutative group (V, +) in which every nonzero element baa order
p (p a prime); that is to say, px = 0 for all x e V. If In] e Z. and x e V, we
take the product [n)x to mean
[n]x = x + x + .. : + x (n summands).
With scalar multiplication defined in this way, V(Z.) may be regarded as a

vector space over the field (Z., +., .).
A further comment on notation: To avoid a proliferation of symbols, 0
will be UIIed to designate the zero element both of (V, +) and of (F, +, .). The
additive inverae of a scalar c e P is denoted by -c, while the inverse of a
vector x e V is also represented by its negative, -x. These conventions should
lead to no ambiguity if the reader attends closely to the contexHn which the
notation is employed. For the sake of brevity, we shall frequently speak of a
vector space over a field F when, in aCtual fact, we mean over a field (F, +, .).
Some immediate consequences of Definition 4-10 are embodied in our first
theorem.
Theorem 4-7. If V(F) is a vector space and x e V, c e P, then
1) Oz = 0,
2) cO = 0,
3) -(CI:) = (-c):t = c( -:t).
Proof. To establish (1), we use the field result 0 + 1 = 1. Then
Oz + x = Ox + Ix = (0 + l)x = l:t = :t = 0 + x.
Since (V, +) is a group, the cancellation law yields Ox = o.
The proof of the second part of the theorem follows from the group result
o+ x = x. We have
cO + CI: = c(O + x) = CI: = 0 + CI:.
Again the cancellation law gives the desired conclusion.
Finally, to obtain (3), observe that
o= Oz = [c + (-c)]x = CI: + (-c)x.
4-2 ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES 01' VECTOR SPACES 253
This means that (-c)z = -(ex). Similarly,
0= cO = c[z + (-z)] = ex + c(-z),

which proves
c(-z) = -(ex).
As the reader should expect by now, a formal investigation of vector spaces

involves consideration of such notions as subsystems, operation-preserving
functions, quotient structures, etc. Following our standard pattern of presenta-
tion, we begin the study with the question of subsystems. In the case of
vector spacc!!, the subvcctor spaces are customarily referred to as subspacee.
Definition 4-11. Let V(F) be a vector space over the field F and W!; V
with W ' 0. Then W(F) is a BUbBpacB of V(F) if, under the operations of
V(F), W(F) is itself a vector space.
Since W!; V, much of the algebraic structure of W(F) is inherited from
V(F). The minimuJD conditions that W(F) must satisfy to be subspace are:
1) (W, +) is a subgroup of (V, +);
2) W is closed under scalar multiplication.
The usual criterion for deciding whether (W, +) is a subgroup of (V, +) is to
see if W is closed under differences. The second of the above conditions implies
that -z = (-1) z will belong to W whenever z is an element of W. Because
z - y = z + (-y), condition (2), together with the closure of W under addi-
tion, is sufficient to guarantee that W be closed under differences. This observa-
tion allows U8 to recast Definition 4-11 as follows:
Definition 4-12. W(F) is a subspace of the vector space V(F) if W is a non-
empty subset of V such that
1) z, yEW implies z +YEW,
2) z E Wand c E F imply ex E W.
Example 4-11. Every vector space V(F) has two trivial subspaces, namely
V(F) itself and the zero subspace {O} (F). Subspaces distinct from V(F) are
said to be proper.
Example 4-12. Consider the set W of vectors in Va(F) whose components add
up to zero:
If (alt a2, aa) and (b l , b2, ba) are arbitrary elements of W, then their sum
(al + bit a2 + b2, aa + ba) is such that
(al + bl) + (a2 + b2) + (aa + ba) = (al + a2 + aa) + (bl + b2 + hi)
= 0+0 = O.
254 .
VECTOR SPACES 4-2
This estnhlishcH the eJosure of W under addition. It is equally clear that W is

closed under scalar multiplication, hence W(F) is a subspace of V(F).
Example 4-13. Let W denote the collection of all elements from the space
M 2(F) of the form
It follows immediately from the definition of the matrix operations in M 2(F)

that W(/") is a subspaee, for
k( a b)_( k'a k.b)EW

-b a - -(kb) k'a .
The two conditions of Definition 4-12 may be combined into a single easily
applied criterion.
Theorem 4-8. W(F) is a subspace of the vector space V(F) if and only if
o W ;;; V and ex +
dy E W whenever x, YEW, e, d E F.
Proof. If W(F) is a suhspace, t.hen hy definition W is nonempty and contains
ex + fly for all x, YEW, e, dE F. Conversely, if thi!! condition holds, W must
contain Ix +- ty = x + y and ex + Oy = ex for every x, YEW, C E F. Accord-
ingly, W is c1osl'd wit.h rl"slled In t.lm vl'dor HIl'U~!l ClI)(!rUUoIIH.
We next consider operations on the subspaces of a vector space that produce
other subspaccs, the mOlolt important of which are sum and intersection. If U
and W are nonempt.y suhsets of thc veetor space V(F), their (linear) sum is
defined to be the set .
IT +W = {u + W I U Ell, W E W}.
The following simpl<', hut quite uS<'ful, fact. will be needed on several occasions.
Theorem 4-9. If P(F) and W(F) arc suhspace!! of the vector space V(F),
then (If +W)(Ji') is also a subspace.
Proof. The sum l! + W is plainly not empty, for U and W each contain the
zero vector, hence 0 = 0 + 0 E U + W. Suppose x and y are arbitrary vectors
in U + W. Th!'n x = UI + WI and y = U2 + 102, where Ui E U, Wi E W. For
scalars c, d E F,
ex + dy = c(?lJ+ WI) + d(U2 + W2)
= (CUi + dU2) + (ewJ + dW2).
alHl WW) are hoth to!UhHPIlCI!H of V(ft'), it followH Umt CUI + dU2 E l!
Hj'l!'l~ (l(ft')
and CWI + dW2 E W. Thus cx + dy is again in U + W, implying that
(U + W)(F) is a subspace.
From our earlier work with other subsystems, one would expect the inter-
section of subspaces to be also a subspace and, indeed, this is the content of
the next theorem. As it would be repetitious to present the details again, tpe
proof is left to the reader.
Theorem 4-10. If Wi(F) ito! an indexell eollcction of to!uhsplwes of the vector
Kpuce V(I<'), then (nWi)(I<') is a :mbspace of V (1<').
In analogy with the corresponding ideas for groups and rings, this result
provides an effective means for generating subspaces: Given a nonempty subset
8 of the vector space V(F), we define
[8] = n{W I 8 ~ Wi W(F) is a subspace of V(F)}.
There is at least one subspace containing 8, namely the whole space V(F), 80
that [8] c(~rtainly exists and is unique. We infer at once from Theorem 4-10 that
[S](F) is a subspace of V(F), called the subspace generatell or spanned by the
sct, S. More important still, [SJ(F) is the smalIl'st :mbHpttee containing S, in the
scnHe of being ineluded in every subspace which contaim; S.
1'he coming theorem gives an alternative and more constructive d('J~criptioIl
of rSJ(/i'); before obtaining this, one more definition is required.
Definition 4-13. Huppose V(F) is It vector spaee nnd X" X2, ,X" E V.
AllY !inite MUIlI of thc form
where eneh Ci E F is suid to be a linear combination (over F) of the vectors

X., X2, , x". A linear combination is called trivial if all its coefficients
Ci = 0 and nontrivial if at least one (~oefficient i8 differellt from zero.
Using this new terminology, Theorem 4-8 may be rephrnscd in another way:
W(/<') is a HuhHplwe of the vec:tor space V(F) if and only if W'is a nonempty
8uhsct. of V whieh if( dosed under t.Il1l formation of linear combinations.
For our preSellt purpOHes, the significance of the notion of linear eombinations
MtemH from the next result.
Theorem 4-11. If S is a Ilonempty subset of the vector space V(F), then
[8](F), the subspnce generated by S, cOllsiHts of all (finite) linear combinations
of element,8 of S:
[SI={ECkXkICkEF,XkEs,nEz+}.
Proof. For the moment, let us denote the set on the right by lin S. Evidently
a linear combination of lin~llOmbinations of elements from S can again be
written as a linear combination of members of S, so (lin S)(F) is itself a sub-
space of V(F). Moreover, for each % e S, we have % = be lin S, hence
S !; lin S. As (8)(F) is the smallest subspace of V(F) to contain S, it follows
that (8) s;;; lin S. On the other hand, since [SJ(F) is a subspace containing S, it
must contain all linear combinations of elements of S. Accordingly, the in-
clusion lin S ~ (8) also holds and the proof is complete.
Exampl.4-14. Let S be the subset of V,,(F) whose elements are the n vectors
~l =
(l,O, .. , 0), e2 =
(O, 1, ... , 0), ... , en = CO, 0, .. , 1); in general, e. is
the vector with 1 in the kth component position and 0 elsewhere:
k = 1,2, ... , n.
Here [S](F), the subspace spanned by these vectors, is all of V,,(F). Indeed,
for any n-tuple (alo a2, .. , a,.) over F, we have
(alo a2, . ,a,,) = + a2(O, 1, ... ,0) + ... + a,.(0, 0, ... , 1)
al(l,O, .. ,0)
= aiel + a~2 + ... + a,.e" e (8).
Let us lee what happens when we generalize this situation to the eequenee
space V.(F). In this context, e. now denotes the infinite aequence whose kth
term is I, while all other terms are 0:
k = 1,2, ...
As before, let S be the set of all elc. Recall that in forming the linear span [8],
only finite linear combinations of elements of S are utilized. It follows therefore
that [8](F) is not V .. (F), but rather the (proper) subspace consisting of those
vectors having only a finite number of nonzero entries:
[8] = {(ai, a2, . , a", 0, 0, ... ) I a. E F, n e Z+}.

The first part of this example serves to suggest, as well as to illustrate, the
next definition.
Definition 4-14. A vector space V(F) is finitely generated when it contains
a finite subset which spans V; if V is spanned by the vectors %It %2, ,:t",
this will be indicated by writing V = (%1,2:2, , z,.].
The union of subspaces, unlike their intersection, is not necessarily a sub-
space. For instance, in the vector space M 2(F), take U to be the subSet con-
sisting of all scalar matrices
aeF,
and W to be the set of all matrices of the form
beF.
That U(F) and W(F) are both subspaccs of M 2(F) is easily verified. Note,
however, that while the matrices
and
belong to U u W, their sum
( 1 0) + ( 0 1) _ ( 1 1)
o 1 -1 0 -1 1
fails to be a member of the union. From this, we conclude (U U W)(F) is not

a subspace of M 2(F).
While the union of subspaces need not be a subspace, the subspace generated
by the union always exists and equals the sum of the given subspace... We
now establish this fact.
Theorem 4-12. If U(F) and W(F) are 8ubspaces of the vector space V(F),
+
then (U W)(F) is the smallest subspace containing both U and W; in
+
symbols, (U W)(F) = [U u W](F).
Proof. Since 1. + W = 11. + lw, any vector in U + W can be expressed as a
linear combination of elements from U U W. But Theorem 4-11 asserts that
[U U W] consists of all such linear combinations, hence U +
W S;;; [U u W]. For
+
the opposite inclusion, observe that both U s;;; U W and W s;;; U W, 80 +
+ +
their union U U W s;;; U W. In other words, (U W)(F) is a subspace of
V(F) which contains U U W. As [U U W](F) is, by definition, the smallest
subspace with this property, we conclude that [lJ U W] s;;; U + W.
This characterization of the linear span of U U W is usually much easier to
apply in specific cases than the definition itself. In the space M 2(F), for example,
where U and W consist of matrices of the form
and
respectively, we have
To see thill, one 11('1'<\ only observe that each of the matrices on the right can be
written 111'1
( -ba ab) = (a0 0)

a
+ ( 0 b) EU+ W.
-b 0
Although caeh vcdor x belonging to the sum U + W admits a representation

x = U +
W with U E l! and wE W, this expression is generally not unique.
The next theorem provides a necessary and sufficient condition for U and W to
be uniquely determined by the vector x.
Theorem 4-13. I",f, P(F) and W(F) h(' two HubHpaces of the vector spacn
V(P). 'flu, II t.he fllllowillj.\IOIulit.i()nH am (,quival(lIIt:
1) Un W = {O}.
2) Every vector x of the sum U + W is uniquely representable in the form
x = U + w, where U E ll, wE W.
Proof. We begin by assuming that Un W = {O}. Suppose further that a
vector x E U +
W has two representations
Ui E U, Wi E W.
Then UI - U2 = 11)2 - W\. But the left side is in II and the righ,t; side is in W,
so both sides belong to l! n W. It follows therefore that
or
In other words, x is uniquely expressible in the form U + w.

Conversely, aR.'!umc statement (2) holds and the vector Z E l! n W. We may
then express z in two different ways as the sum of a vector in U and a vector
in W, namely z = Z + 0 (here z E U and 0 EW) and z = 0 + z (here 0 E U
and z E W). The uniqueness assumption of condition (2) then implies z = ()
or, rather, U n W = {O}.
Two comments on Theorem 4-13 are in order. First, even though the inter-
section of U Itnd W is not empty, we sometimes express condition (1) by referring
to the subspaces IT(F) and W(F) as disjoint; needless to say, U and W can never
be disjoint in the set-throretic sense, for every subspace must contain the zero
vector. Secondly, st.atement (2) assumes, unnecessarily, that each vector of
IT + W must have a unique representation. This condition could be replaced
by the weaker requirement that only the zero vector is uniquely representable.
For suppose a vector x E U + W has two decompositions
UjE U, wiEW.
Subtracting, we obtain
4-2 ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES m' VECTOIt SPACES 259
wlwm the difTprcnee~ UI -- U2, 101 - W2 lie in (! nnd W, respectively. The

assumption that the zpro vector can be exprellscd ill only oue way as a member
of (! + W would fOf<'e Ul - U2 = 0, tvl - 102 = 0 or Ut = Ua, tvl = tva.
Whl'll t.h(~ equivalent eonditions of Theorem 4-1:J are sutillfied, the sum
[T f- W is ('alled riil'('('.t ILnd symholized hy writing {! E9 W. If (T E9 W = V, we
say oneh of t.he subspaeCti UW) and WW) i~ eOlllplementary [in V(F)] to the
other. This coneept ill of sufficient importanee to rate a formal definition.
Definition 4-15. Two subspaees U(F) and W(F) of the vector space V(F)
are romplemenlary if U n W = {OJ and l T + W = V. '
Ollr /wxt lIH'(Jr(~m iH i/wludcd for eomplct.c/leSH; it. is 11Il illlllledilLt(~ ('()u~quence
()f TIH,ormll -1 la ILlld IlCpdH lUI furUuH' justilicatioll.
Theorem 4-14. Let U(F) ILnd W(F) be two subspaces of the vector space
V(F). Every vector x E V is uniquely expressible in the form x = U 10, +
with U E U, tv E W, if and only if U(F) and W(F) are complementary sub:-
spaces.
We should call attention to the fact that a given subspace may possess
several complementary subspaces. In the case of V 2(F), for example, take
(J= {(a,O)laEF), W = {CO, a) I a E F}, W' = {(a, a) I a E F}.
It is not difficult to establish that the subspaces W(F) and W'(F) are both
tOmplementary to U(F).
What is quite signifieant is that every subspace ha.~ eomplementary sub-
spaces, which, to be sure, are not necessarily unique. For the proof of this
assertion, we resort to the powerful tool of Zom's Lemma (sec p. 185).
Theorem 4-15. Every subspace W(F) of the vector space V(F) has a com-
plementary subspace. -
Proof. Define a family of suhsets of V by taking
5' = {S I S nW = {O}; S(F) is a subspace of V(F)}.
This family is nonempty for, trivially, the set {OJ satisfies the defining proper-
ties.
Now, consider any chain {Si} iu 5'. Our object, of course, is to show that
US; is again a member of 5'. To achieve this, let x, y E USi and e, d E F. Then
there exist indices i and j for which x E Si, Y E Sj. Because the collection {S;}
forms a chain, either S; ~ Sj or else Sj ~ Si; say, Si ~ Sj, so that both x, y E Sj.
Since Sj(F) is a subspa('c of V(F), we must then have ex +
dy E Sj ~ uS;.
This proves that (uS;)(F') forms a subspaee of Yep). Moreover,
whence the union US; lies in 5'.

Thus, on the basis of Zom's Lemma, the family fF contains a maximal element
U. Our contention is that the subspace U(F) is complementary to W(F). In
+
order to establish this, it suffices merely to show that U W = V. To the
contrary, suppose there is some vector x e V with x ft U + W. But then
[U, z)(F), the subspace generated by U and x, will be disjoint from W(F), in
the sense that [U, xl n W = {O}. (Verify this!) Since U is a proper subset of
[U, x), we have arrived at the contradiction to the maximality of U in If.
Accordingly, V = U + W, and the proof is complete.
The foregoing ideas are easily generalized to finitely many subspa.ces:
If WI (F), W 2(F), ... , W,,(F) are each subspaces of V(F), their sum is defined
exactly as for two llubllpMClIl,
WI +W2 ++W,,= {WI+W2++ w"l wieWi}.

This may be denoted more compactly by :E Wi. As in Theorem 4-9, we can
prove that (:E Wi)(F) is a subspace of V(F).
The vector space V(F) is said to be the direct BUm of WI(F), ... , W,,(F),
symbolized by
v = WI W 2 ... WIt
if and only if V = WI + W 2 + ... + WIt and W, n (:Ei.... Wi) = {O}. In
this case too, every vector x e V has a unique representation
x = WI + W2 + ... + WIt
with Wi e W (i = 1,2, ... , n).
The concept of a quotient structure carries over to vector spaces as expected.
In the present context, we encounter one slight, but highly important difference.
When fonning quotient groups and quotient rings, it was necessary to introduce
speoial lubaYltcm" (namely, nonnal aub/iCroupa, and ideals) in order to enlure
that the operations of the quotient structure were well-defined. For vector
spaces, no such distinguished subsystem need be defined.
To be more concrete, let W(F) be an arbitrary subspace of the 'vector space
V(F). Since (W, +) is a subgroup of the commutative group (V, +), we may
fonn the quotient group (V /W, +). The elements of this group are just the
cosets x + W, with coset addition given by
(x + W) + (y + W) = x + y + W.
To equip V /W with the structure of a vector space, a notion of multiplication
by scalars is introduced by taking
e(x + W) = ex + W, ceF.
As usual, we must first satisfy ourselves that scalar multiplication is un-
ambiguously defined, depending only on the coset x + Wand scalar e e F.
4-2 ELEMENTARY PROPERTIES OF VEeroR SPACIIlS 261
This amounts to showing that whenever x + W = x' + W, th~n ex +W r=

ex' + W. Our aim would obviously be achieved if we knew that
ex - ex' = e(x - x') E W.
But this follows directly from the fact that x - x' E Wand that W(F) is as-
sumed to be a subspace, hence closed under multiplication by scalars. Thus
scalar multiplication in V /W is independent of coset representatives.
It can easily be checked that (V /W)(F), with the operations 80 defined, forms
a vector space over the field F. Since the pattern of proof is by now familiar,
we omit the formal details.
ThoM(! iciolUl may be (~onvoniolltly Immmnrized in the following thoorcm.
Theorem 4-16. Let W(F) be a subl:lpacc of the vector space V(F) and the
cosets x +
W, y +
W belong to V /W. If vector addition and scalar multi-
plication are given by
(x + W) + (y + W) = x + y + W,
e(x + W) = ex + W, (e E F),
then (V /W)(F) is itself a vector spaoe, known u.s the quotient trpace of V by W.
Example 4-15. For a concrete example, consider the quotient space
(V 3/W )(R'), where
W = {(w, 0, 0) IW E R'}.
In the situation at hand, the cosets of W in Va(R') take the form

(x, 1/, z) +W = {(x + w, y, z) I W E R'}.
The subspace W(R') may be viewed, geometrically, as the x-axis and the coset
(x, 1/, .) + W as a lina through the point (x, 11,') parallel to this axi... Tho
elements of Va/W would therefore consist of all lines parallel to the x-axis.
Since such lines may be identified in one-to-one fashion with the points in the
yz-plane, and these points in tum correspond to ordered pairs of real numberS,
we 8.118ociatc (Va/W)(R') with the vector space V t(B'); that is, we can define
a mapf: Va/W -+ V:a by fx, y, z) + W) = (y, z). The notions involved will
be formalized shortly.
PROBLEMS
In the exercises below, the symbol F denotes an arbitrary field.

1. If V(F) is a vI'r.tor space, establish that
n(a) .. (nc)z ... e(nx)
Cor all :r: E V, c E F, and n E Z.

2112 Vy'I!'I'O" IWA($H 4-2
2. Prove that in any vector space V(P), if :1:, 'Y E V and c E P, then
a) c(x - y) = cx - cy,
b) ex = 0 implies eithl'r c ... 0 or:ll "" O.
3. In any vector spac,' 11(/<'), Hhow that the following cancellation laws hold:
a) If x E l" wit.h .r ~ 0, t.hen CIX "" C2X implies CI '" C2.
b) If x, y art' nonzl'm I'It'ments of V, tht'n cx = cy with c ~ 0 implies z == y.
4. Prove that W(/<') is a subspace of the vector space V(P) if and only if ~ " JV!;;; V
anll ax + /1 E \I" for 1\11 x, 11 E W, a E !-'.
ri. I,'or I'lI.l'h or till' rollowiug ,mlll \1', deu!rminc wlwl.llI'r I\' Ut') ill a 8ubllpacc of the
vector KpacO V nUt').
a) W = {(aI, a2, ... ,an) I al + + ... -/-
a2 a" ~ O}
b) Jr = {(ai, a2, ... ,an) I al = a2 = ... = an}
c) Jr = {(aI, a2, .. , an) I ala2 = O}
d) II' = {(ai, a2, .. ,an) I ak E Z for all k}
6. Let U(F) and II'(/") he slIhl'lPI1Ct'H of the veel,or "pace V(F). Prove that (U U Jr)(Ji')
forms a Hubspace of V(F) ir and only if U!;;; \I' or II' ~ U.
7. Determine whether II' (1<') ill a subspace of the indicated vector space:
a) V 3 (F); for fixt'd scalars aI, a2, a3 E F,
II' = {(XI, X2, X3) I alXI + a2X2 + a3Ia = O}.
b) l'",(F); II' consists of sequt'nces where all but a finite number of the terms are
equal to zero, that is,
I\' = {(al, ... a ..,O,O...)lakEF,nEZ+}.
I') Pix); I\" (~ .. nHiKtfl of all polynomials of degrllll greater than 4.

d) V nW); for a fixed n X n matrix (aij).
II' = {x E V .. (P) I (aij)x = O).
e) !If a(F); JV consists of all matrices of the form
[: a:. :J' a, bEF.
f) M n(F); II' conflists of all uPl>I'r t.riangular matrices of order n.

8. Find all of the suh!lpacl's of V 2(Za) and V 3(Z2).
9. SUppoIIl' FW), II'(F), reF) art' subMpares of the vt'Ctor space l'(F). Prove that
a) if U ~ }', II' ~ r, I,hcn U +
II' ~ r,
b) (U n r) + (II' n 1') ~ (U + 1\') n r,
c) if II ~ }', tht'n U + (II' n Y) = (U +
n Y.
l\')
10. I..ct VCR') he the vector space of real-vahll!d functions on the interval [a, b1 under
pointwise addition and mUltiplication by a real number.
4-:! UAKJo:H ANII IIIM~NSION
a) If Jr is the set of all functions! in V such that !(a) = 0, is IV(R') a subspace

of V(R')?
h) If 11' is the set of all functions/in V for which!(a) = !(b), is lI"(R') a subspace
of V(R')?
11. In l'(Z3), dntermillc all of th(! vectors in the subspace "panned by two vectors
Xl, X2 E V.
12. If V(P) is a vector space over F, and S, T nonempty subijets of V, establish that
a) S ~ T implies IS] ~ IT1,
'" 18 U 7'J - 181 I 17'),
I') \1811 = 18),
d) S ~ 17'1 illll'lil'>l lSI c I TI.
13. In the vector space V 3lF), define the subsets U and I\' by
U = {(a, b, a + b) I a, b E P}, \I' = {(e, e, c) IcE F}.
V(>rify that VaW) is Ow dircet slim of the lIuhspacl'f! U(/") and lI"(F), that is,
Va=UEf>W.
14. Let V(R') be the vector space of all functions from R' into itself and
U = {!E V I!(-x) = !(x)}, II" = {f E V I!( -x) = -!(x)}.
Prove that V = U Ef> II".
4-3 BASES AND DIMENSION
Perhaps the most far reaching notion in the study of vector spa(!es and the
prindpal t1wme of this 1I(,dion ill thnt of a hllllis. As will 1:10011 be evident, this
concept is preeisely the tool needed to formalize the more or less intuitive idea
of what is meant by the dimension of a space. A convenient starting point is
the following definition.
Deftnition 4-16. Let V(F) be II. vector space over the field F. A finite set
{X., X2, , Xn} of vectors from V is said to be linearly dependent (over F)
if the zero vector is a nontrivial linear combination of x.,
X2, , X,,; other-
wise, the set {XI, X2, , xn} is termed linearly independent.
Aecording to our dnfinition, {xt. X2, ,xn } ill a linearly uepenuent set if
and only if there exist scalars c., C2, , r.n E /<', lIot all of whi('h are zero, such
that
In the contrary ease, t.he zero vedor is expressible as a linmu eombination of

independent vectors in only the trivial way where all t.he coefficients are zero;
that ill to !lily, CIXI+ C2X2 + ... 1- ("".r" = 0 implies
CI = C2 = ... = Cn = O.
264 . VIICl'OR SPACES
While linear dependence and independence are properties of sets of vectors,

these tenns are frequently applied to the vectors themselves. Thus, we shall
speak of XIt X2, , z.. being linearly dependent or independent according as
the set {XIt Xli, ... ,xn} is dependent or independent.
Two examples should help to clarify matters.
Ex.m.... 4-16. In R'[x), the vector space of polynomials in z over R', consider
the three polynomials
1 + x+ 2x 2 , 2 - X+XlI, -4 + 5z + xli
of degree two. Since
the given polynomials are linearly dependent.

Ex.mple 4-17. The so-called unit vector8 ell ell, ... , en, where
k = 1,2, ... ,n,

fonn a linearly independent subset of V,,(F). In this case,
tiel + C2tll + ... + cne" = (CII 0, ... , 0) + (0, C2, , 0) + ... +iO, 0, . , c,.)
= (CII C2,"" cn);
hence the condition I:Z-I cj:ej: = (0,0, ... ,0) implies Cl = ClI = ... = c,. = O.
The essence of this concept lies in the fact that if {XII XI, ... ,z..} is a linearly
independent set, then any vector X e [XII XI, ... , z,,) is uniquely expressible as
a linear combination of the xj:'s. Indecd, suppose there are two such repreeenta-
tiona,
X = bixi + +
bllZlI + ... + bnz.. = CIXI ClIZlI + ... + c,.z..i
this leads to the relation
(b l - CI)XI + (b ll - CII)XlI + ... + (b" - c,.)z.. = O.
The hypothesized linear independence of the vectors XI, Xli, .. ,z.. then (orces
or (or all k.
Definition 4-16, as stated, applies only to finite sets o( vectors. It is no

great step to extend these concepts: Given a vector space V(F), a nonempty
subset S ~ V is linearly dependent (over F) if it contains some finite subset
which is linearly dependent. In the contrary case, S is a linearly independent
set; that is to say, S is linearly independent if every finite sUbset is linearly
4-3 BASES AND DIMENSION 265
independent. While S may be infinite, linear dependence is a property of finite

character.
The following lemma is inherent in our definitions.
Lemma. Let V(F) be a vector spa.ce and 0 P! T ~ S ~ V. If S is a linearly
independent set, 80 0.180 is the set T; conversely, if Tis a linearly dependent
set, 80 also is the set S.
There is a minor point to be made here, namely, any set which contains the
. zero vector is always linearly dependent. This follows from the fact
1(0) + OXI + ... + OXn = 0

ill Ii nontrivilll linear combination for arbitrary vectors Xl, X2, , Xn Accord-
ingly, nil v('('tors in IL linl'arly independent l!Ct must be different from lero
The set consisting of a single vector X is, in particular, linearly independent if
and only if X O.
The next theorem in some sense justifies the use of the word "dependent," for
it asserts that in a linearly dependent set one of the vectors belongs to the
subspace spanned by the remaining ones; putting the matter informally, one
of the vectors "depends" on the others.
Theorem 4-17. A set of nonzero vectors {Xl, X2, ,xn } is linearly
dependent if and only if some vector x"
(k > 1) is a linear combination of
the preceding ones, x" X2, ,X"_l'
Proof. Suppose the vectors x" X2, , Xn are linearly dependent, 80 there is a
nontrivial linear relation
where not all the c's are zero. Let k be the largest integer for which CAl O. If
k = 1, we would have C1Xl = 0, hence Xl = 0, contrary to assumption. Thus
k> 1 and
Since C;l exists in F, it follows that
x" = Ct l (-I)(C1Xl + CaXa + ... + C"-lX"_l)

= (-Ct l . CI)XI + (-Ct l . Ca).r2 + ... + (-Ct l . C"_l).l'k_l.
The vector x" i8 therefore expressible 8.8 a linear combination of its predC(~el!8Ors,
as claimed.
The converse is almost obvioml: If the vector Xli: depends linearly on
XIt X2, , Xk-It 80 that
26() VECTOR SPACES 4-3
for suitable scalars b/c E P, then
btxt + ... + bk-1Xk-1 + (-I)xk + OXk-t + ... + Ox" = O.

BecaullC tim (~oeffieicrtt of Xk if! nOllzero, {Xt, X2, , x .. } cOrtHtitutell a dependent
IICt of vcetors.
Theorem 4-18. If VW) iH a finitely generated vcctor space, say
then V is spanned by a linearly independent subset of these vectors.

Proof. If th(' S4't [x I. X2, .. , In} is already indepencient, nothing n(J(~ds to be
pmv('d. OtlwrwillC, Th('orem 4-17 implies that ROmf! ve"f,or Ik is 1\ linear (:om-
hina(.ion of .rt, .1'2 , Xk_I' By hypothesis, any vector x in V can be written
as a linear ('ombination of the n vectors Xt. X2, , Xn; in this combination, Xk
may hf! rt'pln('f!d hy n litmllr ('ombillation of Xt. X2, , Xk-t. thereby showing
x E [Xt, ... , Xk-t, Ik+t. . . . , In). The net relmlt is thn,t the n - 1 vectol'l!
Xt, ... , Xk_l, Xk+t. . . . , In generate the space V(P).
Next, examine t.he set {xt. ... , X/o-t, Xk+t. ... , xn} and repeat the pro-
cess of removing a vector if it can be written as a linear combination of its
predecessors. Continuing in this way, we eventually reach a subset
wiwrI' 1 ~ it < i2 < ... < im ~ n, of the original set of n vectors, still having
lilwnr spall V aJl(1 su(,h thnt no Xi. is a linear combination of the preceding vec-
t.ors. That the set {Xi" Ii 2 , , ,Xi.. } is linearly independent follows immediately
from Theorem 4-17,
Example 4-18. As a simple illustration of some of t1wsc ideas, let us observe
that
l' 3 = [(1, 1,0), (1,0, 1), (0, 1,0), (1, 1, 1)].
The rml.soninJl; h('re is jmltifif!d by t.hc fa('t t.hat. e:wh of t1w unit, vectors et. e2, ea
iM It lillcllr ('(lIllhillul.ioll of I.JIIMI~ Vl'dOrM:
el = (1, 1,0) - (0,1,0), e2 = (0, 1,0), Ca = (1, 1, 1) - (1, 1,0).
Since V 3(P) is spanned by the ullit vedors, we infer that every clement of V 3
I\lUSt. 1)(':\ lilwar ('omhinatioll of (I, 1,0), (1,0,1), (0,1,0), (1,1,1),
The lilJ('ar dl'l)('JI(\I'III'(~ or iIlC\I'JlC'tHII'II('c of t.his SC't. of ve(~t.ors is equivalent
III Ilw exist.ellc'(! or 1I00I1'xisll'lI('(' of S('lIl:trl; (~I, 1'2, ra, (:4 (1I0t. nil zero) sudt thnt
I't(1, 1,0) 11'2(1,0,1) 11:3(0,1,0) 11'.(1,1,1) = O.

Chl'ekillg ('OIllPOlll'lItl'l, we note that. the Ck'S must. sat.isfy the three equations
CI + C2 -I 1'4 = 0, Ct -I- C3 -I- 1'4 = 0,

4-3 BASES ANI> DIMENSION 267
In terms of an arbitrary choice of C4, a solution is Cl = 0, C2 = -C4, C3 = -C4;

for instance, C4 = 1 leads to
0(1,1,0) -I- (-1)(1,0, I) + (-1)(0, 1,0) +- 1(1,1,1) = (0,0,0),
whi('h, of eounw., impli!'s that t.he given set of gem'rut,or!! is linearly dependent.
To obtain a linearly independent subset of the aforementioned vectors, we
need only removc the element (1,1,1). In fact, (1, 1,1) is the only vector
that can be written as a linear combination of those preceding it:
(1, 1, 1) = (1,0,1) + (0,1,0).

Any memh(~r (ai, a2, aa) of V 3 ean obviously be expressed as
wh('nec
Va = [(1,1,0), (1,0,1), (0, 1,0)1.
The next, somewhat technical, result is the key to all that follows.
theorem 4-19. (Steinitz Replacement Theorem). Let W(F) be 8. finitely
gellerau~d subsplwe of t.Il(, vc(:tor I'lpnce V(F), W = Ix., :1:2, ,xnl, and let
{Y1o Y2, .. , Ym} be any linearly independent subset of W. Then m of the
Xt'S, say X10 X2, , X m, may be replaced by Y .. Y2, . ,Ym, so that
W = [y., . .. ,Ym, Xm+1o'" ,xnl, in particular, m ~ n.
Proof. Since {X., X2, , x,.} spans W(F), the vector Yl E W can be expressed
as 8. linear combination of the Xk'S:
Not all the cocffieients ak = 0, for otherwise Yl = 0, contradicting the linear

independenee of t.he I!f1t [lit, 112, .. ,11m}. R('illdexing, if llNCR.'!firy, we may
ILSSllIII(l thllt al ;t6 O. Nuw solve fUl' the V('I~t(IJ' of I in \.(~rllltl of 11 .. X2, , .1:,,:
This relation permits us to replace a linear combination of X10 X2, , Xn by a

linear combination of the vedol'H YI, X2, . ,X"' and leads to the conclusion
that W = rUI, 3'2, .. x,,1.
Rep(ml.l.he repilwenwn\, PI'OCNl:i with the vllC'l.or!1'l nlHl the Het [U .. .1:2 , x,,}.
B('('IUI!'!e 112 belong!! to the Kubspac(' spanlled by y., X2, , X n , we must have
for suitable scalars b., b2 , bn E F. The coeffieiellts b2 , b.. cannot all

be zero, for this would imply that b l r& 0 and, in tum, that
bl 1l1 + (-1)111 + Oys + ... + 011", = 0,
contrary to the independence hypothesis. Hence, one of the coefficients
bl, ... , b" is nonzero; let us, for simplicity, take this to be bl. As before, we
can solve for X2 in terms of the vectors YIo Y2, Xa, . , x" to obtain
W = [1Il> YI, Xa, ... , x,.1.
Continue in this manner: At each stage a y-vector can be introduced and an
x-vector deleted so that the new set still spans W(F). If m were larger than n,
after n steps all the Xk'S could be removed and the set {1Il> 112, . , 11..} would
span W(F). Accordingly, the vector 11"+1 E W could be written as a linear
combination
11"+1 = CIYI + C2112 + ... + c,.1I"
with not all the c" being zero, since 11,,+1 po! O. Once again a contradiction to
the independence of 111, Y2, . ,11.. would arise. It follows that the 1I'S must be
exhausted before the x's (that is, n ~ m) and W = [YIo , Y"., x..+1, , x ..1.
Of course, the possibility that n = m is not excluded; in this situation, the set
{x..+1, , x,.} is empty and the vectors 111, YI, .. ,1/" themselves span W(F).
Corollary. If a vector space V(F) is spanned by n vectors, thea any set of
n +1 vectors from V is linearly dependent; in particular, any n 1 vectors +
of the n-tuple space V,,(F) are dependent.
Proof. A set of n + 1 linearly independent vectors from V would be impossible,
since the theorem would imply n ~ n + 1, an obvious contradiction.
The Replacement Theorem has several notable consequences, but these will
have to await further developments.
DefInition 4-17. A bam for a vector space V(F) is a linearly independent
subset of V that spans the entire space V(F).
Example 4-19. The familiar unit vectors e" e2, ... , ell of V,,(F), the space of
n-tuples of scalars, form a basis (see Examples 4-14 and 4-17). Hereafter, we
shall refer to this particular ba.sis as the natural or standard ba8i8 for V,,(F).
Example 4-20. For a more general example, consider the vector space V.(F)
of infinite sequences of elements from F. If
k = 1,2, ... ,
then the set 8 = {e" e2, ...} is linearly independent. These vectors do not
constitute a basis for V.. (F), however, since it was shown earlier that the linear
span [81 is a proper subset of V.
Example 4-21. Let M,,(F) be the vector space of n X n matrices over a field
F. This space has a basis consisting of the n 2 matrices EiJr where EiJ is the
square matrix of order n having 1 as its ijth entry and zeros elsewhere. Any
matrix (aij) E M .. (F) can obviously be written as
(aij) = (ll1EU + auEu + ... + a,...E .....

Moreover, (ai;) = 0 if and only if all = au = ... = a,... = 0, hence,
Ell, Eu, ... , E .... are linearly independent over F.
Example 4-22. One final example: Consider F[x], the vector space of poly-
nomia.ls in x with coefficients from F. A basis for F[x] is formed by the set
S = {I, x, x 2 , , x .. , . ..}.
By definition, each polynomial p(x) = aol alX +

a,.x" of F[x] is a + ... +
linear combination of elements from S. The independence of S follows from
the fact that, for any finite subset
the relation
holds if and only if Cl = C2 = ... = CIc = o.

These are but a few examples of the more frequently encountered bases and
should amply illustrate the concept; as we continue our discussion, additional
examples will appear.
We ought to point out several things. First, Theorem 4-18 may be rephrased
80 as to assert that any vectOr space which is spanned by a finite subset, linearly
independent or not, possesses a finite basis. Since a basis S for a vector space
V(F) is by necessity a linearly independent subset of V, it is possible to express
each vectorj Vasa linear combination of elements from S in exactly one
way. The u ique scalar coefficients which occur in this repreeentation are
called the c dinateB of x with respect to the given basis. Thus the notion of
a basis enables us to coordinaliie the space.
Finally, let us observe that a. given vector space may have more than one
basis. Example 4-18, for instance, shows that the vectors
Xl = (1, 1,0), X2 = (1, 0, 1), xa = (0,1,0)
constitute a second basis for Va(F). In this case, an arbitrary vector (alJ all, 4a)
of Va can be written as
(aJ, all, aa) = (al - aa)Xl + 4aX2 + (all - al + aa)xa.

While the coefficients in the above linear combination are uniquely determined,
they obviously differ from those which represent the same vector relative to
the standard basis ell e2, ea; roughly speaking, a vector has different coordinate.
with respect to different bases.
270 4-3
We next dispose of a natural question that arises here: is it possible to obtain

a basis for a given vector space? A closely related question is this: presuming
one can seleet two differ('nt bases for a space, must each contain the same
number of c1!'n1('nt.s? When our vector space is the zero space {O} (F), no sub-
set is linearly independent and certainly no basis exists. On the other hand,
t.he coming th!'or!'m guarantees that a nonzero space will always have a basis.
The proof ill II. stl'llightforward application of Zorn's Lemma.
Theorem 4-20. (Ba.~i.~ Theorem). Every nonzero veetor space V(F) possesses
a basis.
I'roof. Let a he the family of all linearly independent Hubsets of V. If x "" 0,
then {:r} E , so t.hat. (t is plainly nonempty. Our immediate aim iH to show
that for any chain of Sl't.s f11 j} in a. their union UA j also helongs to a. To do
so, we aSSlIllH' th .. vl'etors .rl, X2, , .rll E UA j and that. UH' lilwar combination
('I.rl 1 r2'(2 1 ... 1 r":e,, = O. Now, each vllct.or Xk lieH in some member Aik
of {/1,}. As : A,: forms a chain, one of the sets Ai" A ;2' .. A i. contains all
the others. call it A j'. This means that the given vectors Xlr X2, , Xn arc
nil in A j'. Bill. the linear ilHlependence of A j' then impli(~s that the Hcalar co-
efficients rk = 0 for all k = 1, 2, ... ,n. Thus the union uA i is itself a linearly
independent subset. of V, whence a ml'mher of thc family a.
The hypoth!'s('fol of Zorn's Lemma being Ratifolfied, there exists a maximal
clement S in a. As a m('mber of a, S is a linearly independent ""subset of V,
folO to complet!' the proof it remains simply to establish [S) = V. To see this,
let x be any v!'dor of V not in S. Because th!' set S' = S U {x} properly con-
tains S, it mUfolt be linearly dependent (the maximality of S enters here). There-
fore, for folome finite suhs!'t :!lI, 112,' .. ,lIm1 of S. It dependence relation
exists in which not all the cocffieicnts are zero. Were a = 0, we would contradict
th~ lill<'ar indl'II('II<i!'nc'e of S; h(,llee a "" 0, whi(~h le/HIR to
.r = (-a-I. al)lIl -t (-- a-I. a2)112 -1-"'1 (--a-I. am)Ym
or x E [.'I). WI' eOlll'hlll(' from this that t.he lin('ar spnll of 8 is the whole folpac('
V(F), finiHhing the proof.
The ItrgllJnf'nt lIS<'d in Th('orem 4-:W slIgg('st,s t.he following ehll.rnderizntion
of a hasis: S is :l hasis ror 1,111, Vf'C'lor Spill'" reF) if llllli only if S i~ IL nlllxilllal
linearly in<iI'pl'IIIIPnt suhs('t of V (maxilllal, in the sense t.hat any foluhset of V
which properly ('ollt.ains S is itself linearly dl'p('ndent). One direction having
alrcady h('('n ('stahlislw<i, let. liS ohs('rv(' t,hat if S is a basis for V(F), thcn any
set. S U {x}, wherl' x E V -- S, is linearly d('pendent.. In fact, since V = IS),
4-3 DASES AND DIMENSION 271
for some finite set {XI, X2, ,Xn } of vectors from S and suitable scalars
CIcE F. But then
is a nontrivial dependence relation among veetors of S u {x} and leads to the

eondusion t.hat S U {xl is linearly dependent.
A set. S of generat.ors for It vedor space V(F) is termed minimal if every
suhset. fortllt'd frolll S hy removing one or more vectors fails to 81)l\n V. This
idea gives rise to another characterization of a basis:
Theorem 4-21. A set S is It bw;is for a vector splu:e V(F) if and only if S is
It minimal g('nemt.ing set. of V.
The proof of til!' t.heon'nl is rOlltin<', and we 1<'lLve til(' det.ails to the reader.
WI' arl' 1I0W pnpan1I III ('iiI ahlilih tllP Illain t.hl'lIl'('nl of I his iiI,('tion: all hlU!<!s
for It givl'lI vl~etor spal'(! have 1.111' SILIIIP nlllllher of dl'nU'lIt.s (for the IIstute
reader', t.he sam!' eurdilllllity). As the proof ill full g(ncmlit.y is somcwhut
sophh;tieated, we shall deal with the finitl' easc only.
Theorem 4-22. If V(P) is u. finitely g<'lH'rtlted nOllzero vee tor spaee, then
any two bases for V(F) have precisely the same number of clements.
Proof. Let {XI, :r2, ... , xn) he one basis for thl' spaee V(F) and {YI, Y2,' .. ,Ym}
be unother. Beeause the vedors YI, !/2, ... , 11m are linearly independent and
V(F) is spannell hy :rl, X2, .. , Xn , it follows from t.h(~ Rephwcmcnt Theorem
t.hat t.he integer m is no larger than n, tlmt. is, m ~ n. Simply revertling the
roles of {XI, X2, , .. ,xn } and {Yb Y2, .. , Ym) in the argument, we also con-
dude n ~ In, whClII'e n = m.
Theorem 4-22 ean be used to define dimenllion. For if II vedor space V(F)
has a finite basis, then every ballill for the IlJlace wiII have the sallle finite number
of clemen til. This unique integer is called t.he dimension of V(F) anti dellignatcd
by dim V. Although UII' notion of hmlis iH IlOt ltpplimhlc to the z(~\'O space, it
is (~IIKt.omary t.o t.n'llt. :0) (P) lUI finit.e-dinwllliiollal, wil h Zf'ro dimellsion. A
(nollzcro) v('ctor sJllwe ill ~tid to be injinite-dill/.fIt.~il}Ttal if it. ill not spanned by
any fillite sllhiil~t., that. is, if it iH not finite-dimellsiollal. Not every spnce is of
finil.t, dilll('IISioll, II..'! ('videlll(d hy F[.rj, t.I\(' vpdo\' KpIU'(' of' polynomials ill x.
III lIIost of what. follows, we lihall for 1.1", sakI' of I(llll'ppl.llal HilllJlli"ily eOllfille
ollr alll'lItioll t.o fillitl!-dilll('IIHiolllll VI'I'I.OI liJlIU~I'S.
'1'111' IIl'xl I hl'fl 1'('11 I illdi":lII'K t.Iml al II':llit r'JI' lillill'-,liIlII'IIHioll:l1 HJlIU'I'H, Oil'
"lUI f01'1II haiil'" without. 100 I11I1I'h dilli,ulty.
Theorem 4-23. Let \'(F) 1)(' It fillite-dillll'lI"ional V('dOl'''JlIU'I', liay dim V = n.

Thl'll
I) I'vl'ry iiI't. of n Vf'f'lors whil'h KJlall V iH a haHiH,
:!) ('V\'ry Ii!'t of /I lilll'ady illlll'Jllmcll'lIt V\'dorH frolll \' is Il hllSiK.
Proof. Suppose V = [Zl, Z2, .. ,Zt&J. According to Theorem 4-18, some sub-
eet of {Zh Z2, ... ,Z,.} is a basis for V(F). But the previous result implies that
this subeet must contain n elements and accordingly is the entire eet
{Zh Z2, ... , z,.}.
For a proof of the second assertion, let Zh Z2, ... ,Z.. be n linearly inde-
pendent vectors of V. If Z E V is arbitrary, the set {z, Zh ... , z,.} is dependent,
since the mwcimalllumoor of linearly independent vectors in V is n. Thus some
nontrivial dependence relation exists among theee vectors:
ex + C.Zl + ... + C,.z,. = o.

Were the coefficient c = 0, a contradiction to the linear independence of
Zh Z2, ... ,Z.. would arise. Hence c ~ 0, and we may solve for the vector Z
in terms of Zit Z2, ... , z .. to obtain
This argument shows that
making the eet {Zit Z~h ... ,z,.} a ; ; . for V(F). ...
Theorem 4-18 told us that it is ble to chooee a basis for a vector space
V(F) from any set of generators of V. In the opposite direction, the coming
theorem asserts that any linearly independent subset of V is either a basis or
else can be extended to a basis for V(F), in the sense that vectors may be added
to it to fonn a basis.
Theorem 4-24. If V(F) is a finite-dimensional vector space and {ZltZ" ... ,Z,.}
is a linearly independent subset of V, then there exist vectors 1I,.+h ... ,II...
such that {Zl, ... ,.z,., 1I.. +h ... ,II..} forms a basis for V(F).
Proof. The proof is short: Since V(F) is finite-dimensional, it has a finite basis
IIh IIllt .. ,II.. As V = [lIh 112, ... , II..], we may apply the Steinits Theorem
to replace n of the II's by z's and obtain a eet {ZI, . , z,., 1I"+l, . , II..} whose
linear span is atill V. But any generatin, set with m elements in an m-dimen-
sional space is a basis.
Corollary. Every basis for a subspace of a finite-dimensional vector space
can be extended to a basis for the entire space. .
Example 4-23. As a particular case of this last point, consider the vector
space M,(F) and the three matrices
4-3 BABES AND DDlJ!lNBION 273
To check the linear independence of these matrices, let
On equating corresponding entries, we see that
Cs - 0,
which implies CI = C2 = Ca = O.
Theorem 4-24 now tells us that the given matrices will form at least part of
a basis for M 2(F). We shall leave the details to the reader and content ourselves
with this one comment: the addition of any fourth matrix having a nonzero
element in the (2, 2)-position will yield a linearly independent set. For instance,
among the many possibilities, the matrices
are linearly independent and, being four in number, must therefore be a basis
for the 4-dimensional space M 2(F). This illustrates the wide latitude of choice
for bases of M 2(F).
We terminate the present section by giving some useful results concerning
the dimensions of subspaces of a given vector space. The reader should first
prove the following theorem.
Theorem 4-25. If W(n is a subspace of a finite-dimensional vector space
V(F), then
1) W(F) is also finite-dimensional with dim W S dim V.
2) dim W = dim V if and only if W = V.
The next theorem relate~ the dimensions of the sum and intersection of two
subspaces.
Theorem 4-26. If U(F) and W(n are 8ubspaces of a finite-dimensional
vector I!plwe V(F), then
dim (U + W) = dim l! + dim W - dim (U n W).

In particular,
dim (U E9 W) = dim U + dim W.
Proof. Before entering into the details of the proof, we observe that by Theorem
4-25 the four subspaces involved in the statement of our theorem all have
finite dimension. Now, let {xa. X2, ,x,,} be a basis for (If n W)(F). Accord-
274 VECTOU SPACES 4-3
ing to Theorem 4-24, there will exist vectors u., U2, , u'" such that
{X., .. , Xn, u., ... , u"'} is a basis for the subspace U(F) and vectors
1/'., 11'2, , //', ~\wh that {Xb' , X"' WI, , w,} i~ a bu.sis for the subspace
W(F). Combine these two bases into a single set
Becausc the finlt m + n vectors of the foregoing set are a basis for U(F) alld
th(' last TI -I r vect.ors are a basis for W(F), any c1f1ment of the sum (! + W
may I)(~ cxprN;sc!\ ItS It lincar eomhirmtion of the vectors of thi" sct, that is
F / W = [UI, ... , U"', XI, , xn , w., ... ,w,l.

We wish to show that the vectors on the right are also linearly independent and
conRequent.iy a 1>I\sis for the subspace (U + W)(F); once this is established, it
would follow that
dim (fT + W) = m+n +r = (m + n) + (n + r) - n

= dim II + dim W - dim (11 n W).
Thereforc, let us suppose
Settinp; 2 = C111'I + ... + C,II'" we would t.hen have

z~ - (alul -/ .... / a,nu", I fIlII / ... t- bnxn)
or 2 E [X., . .. , In, ttl, . , uml = [T. Since the vector 2 ulao belongs to W, it
lIIust hI' 1\ lilll'ar (llIl1hiIlHj.ion of Hw hnsiIl1'1!'lIl1'lIt.S X" X2, , Xn of I,he Imbllpal'1'
(i! n W)(/"), lIay,
so that
But the set {XI, , X"' till, ... , til,} is linearly independent, being a basis for
the subspace lV(F), hell(~e d l = ... = dn = CI = ... = Cr = O. In con-
junction wit-h the IinC'ar indl'pcIHI!'n('e of fx., ... , Xn, U" , u m }, this fon~es
al = ... = am = II. = ... = b" = O. We havl' thus sueeccded in provinj!;
that t.I\I~ vcclol"ll I l l , " " Itn" .r" ... , .r", w" ... ,
!t., arc linearly independent,
!l.S required.
Theorem 4-27. If W(F) is a subspace of It finite-dimensional vcetor spa(:c

V(F), then the quotient space (V /W)(F) is allID finito-dirnelll~ional and
dim V = dim W + dim V/W.

Proof. Let {Xl. X2, ,XII} be a basis for W(F). By adding vectors
Yt. Y2, .. , y"" we may extend this set to a baliis {x!, ... , X,,, Yh . ,y",} for
the whole !!pacc V(/t'). Any vector x E V can then be written in the form
x = atXl + ... + a"x" +
b1Yl + ... +
b",y", for appropriate choice of co-
efficients. Since x - (b'Yl + ... +
b",y",) E W, the coset x + W is expressible
as
In othn!" words, i1w demcnl.li Yl + W, 712 + W, ... ,!1m + W span the quotient
Rpuee (V /W)(P).
The remainder of t.he proof amounts to showing th('HC coset!! to be linearly
independent and heIl(~e a basi!! for (V /W)(F). To see thill, we suppose
where, of course, t') +W = W is the zero clement of V /W. Thus
elY I + C2Y2 + .. , + CnY", E W

and must he :~ linpur ('ombilllLtioll of the basis v('ctors Xl, X2, , , x" of W, say
But the lincar indepcndence of the set {x!", . , x"' YI, .. , y",} then implies
1:, ~ . = em = (I, = ... = till = O.
The foregoing urgulllcnt. indicates that the quotient space (V /W)(F) has a
basis eonsisting of the m cosets Yl + W, Y2 + W, ... , y", + W. The conclusion
of Uw U\('orem followH imml'diutcly from this, sirwil
dim V /W = m = (m + n) - n = dim V - dim W.

Example 4-24. We iIIustmte the above by looking again at Va(F) and the
one-dimensional subspace W(F), where
W = {(a, 0, 0) I a E F}.
In this case, the quotient space (Va/W)(F) has dimension 2, for the equation
of Theorem 4-27 reads
dim V 3/W = dim V 3 - dim W = 3 - 1 = 2.

To actually obtain a basis for the quotient space, one need only employ the
procedure of the theorem. First, extend the basis of W(F)-that is, the vector
(1,0, O)--to a basis for the entire space V(P), say by adjoining vectors (0, 1,0)
and (0,0,1). The corresponding cosets
(0,1,0) +W and (0,0,1) +W

then serve as a basis for (Va/W)(F). Indeed, it is easy to show that any element
+
(CllI Cl2, CIa) W of Va/W m&y be written in the form
(CllI CI" CIa) + W = CI,[(O, 1,0) + W) + Cla[(O, 0, 1) + W).
PROIUMS
In the problems below, F will denote an arbitrary field.

1. For each of the following vector spaces, determine whether the lets listed are
linearly dependent or independent.
a) V.(F): {(I, 0, 0, 0), (1,1,0,0), (1, 1, 1,0), (1,1,1, I)}
+
b) F[%]: {%' % - 1, %2 - % - 2, %2 + %+ I}
c) Va(Za): {(4, 1,3), (2,3, 1), (4, 1, On
+
d) Va(C): {(I, 2 i, 3), (2 - i, i, 1), (i, 2 3i,2)}+
2. Prove that if each vector % e [%1, %" ,%..] is uniquely representable in the
form % - 41%1 +
42%, + ... e
+ 4,.2: .. (4t F), then the vectors %1, %2, , %..
are linearly independent.
3. Given vectors %1, %2, ,%.. e V, establish the &8IIertioDB below:
a) If %i ... %j for some i ~ j, the set {%1, %2, ,%..} is linearly dependent.
b) If {%1' %2, ,%..} forms a linearly independent set and aI, a2,'" , a ..-1 e F,
then
is also an independent set of vectors.

c) If {%l' %2, ,z ..} is linearly independent while {%1, , %., %.. +1} is linearly
dependent, then the vector %.+1 e [%1, %" , %J.
+
4. Show that the vectors (3 - i, 2 2i,4), (2,2+ 4i, 3), and (1 - i, -2i, 1) form
a buis for the apace Va(C) and determine the coordinatee of each of the .tandard
basis vectors (1,0,0), (0,1,0), and (0,0,1) with respect to this basis. .
o. a) Find a basis for the vector space C(R') and all bases for the space Va(Z,),
b) For what values of 4 do the vectors (1 +
a, 1, 1), (1, 1 +
a, 1), and (1,1,1 a) +
form a basis of V,eR'>?
6. Assume {%1, %2, %a}is a basis for the vector space Va(R'>. Verify that the sets
{%1 + %2, %, + %a, %a + %I} + +
and {%1, %1 + %2, %1 %, %a} &lao serve as bases
of Va(R'). Is this situation true in the space Va(Za)?
7. Prove that the subspace of F[%] consisting of all polynomials of degree at most n
is finite-dimenaional.
8. If diag Jf.. denotes the set of all diagonal matrices of order n (over the field F),
show that (diag M ..)(F) is a subspace of the vector space M ..(F) and determine
its dimension.
I
9. Prove that if W(F) is a proper subspace of the finite-dimensional vector space
V(F), then dim W < dim V.
LINEAR MAPPINGS
10. Assume the space V(n is finite-dimensional with basis {~l, ~2, ... ,z,,}. If
W.(n is the subspace generated by the vector Zk (Ie - I, 2, ... , n), verify that
V - WIE9 W2E9 . E9 W".
11. Let U(n and W(n be subspaces of V,,(F) such that dim U > n/2, dim lV > ,,/2.
Show Un w pi {OJ.
12. Suppose {~l, ~2, ... ,~,,} is a basis for the subspace U(n of V(F) and
{Ill, 112, ,II.. } is a basis of the subspace W(F). Given that the set
{~l, ... , X", Ill, .. ,II..} forms' a basis for the entire apace V(F), prove that
V - U E9 W.
13. Let (F[x),+, .) be the ring of polynomials in X over F and p(~) E F[~) be a poly-
nomial of degree n. If p(~, +, .) is the principal ideal generated by p(x),
establish that (F[~1I(p(~)(F) is a veotor space of dimension n. [Hint: Consider
the cosets 1 + (p(~, Z + (p(x, ,X,,-1 + (p(x) ).]
14. Determine the dimension of the quotient space (Va/W)(F), where the set W is
defined by W - {(a, h, a+ h) I a, h E F}.
15. In the vector spaCe M,,(n, let T ..(F) be the subspace of upper triangular matrices
[matrices (a.,) such that a., - 0 for i > j) and T~(/") be the subspace of lower
triangular matrices [matrices (ai,) such that a.i == 0 for i < j), Find dim T",
dim T~, dim (T" n n), dim (T.. + T~), and verify the truth of Theorem 4-26
in this particular case.
4-4 LINEAR MAPPINGS

In this section, which is our last, we examine the vector space analog of the
familiar homomorphism concept. Since a vector space V(F) is comprised of
two algebraic systems, a group (V, +) and a field (F, +, .), there may be BOrne
initial confusion as to what operations are to be preserved by such functions;
the answer is only those operations which explicitly involve vectors: vector
addition and scalar multiplication. Traditionally, vector space homomorphisms
are called linear mappings or linear transformations, and we adhere to this
terminology.
DefInition 4-18. Let V(F) and W(F) be vector spaces over a field F. A
function f: V - W is said to be a linear mapping from V(F) into W(F) jf
f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) and f(cx) = cf(x)
for all vectors x, y E V and all scalars C E F. The set of linear mappings from
V(F) into W(F) wiIl subsequently be designated by L(V, W).
Simply put, a linear mapping from the space V(F) into W(F) is a homomor-
phism from the additive group (V, +) into the additive group (W, +) which, at
the same time, preserves scalar multiplication. This is plainly equivalent to
the single requirement that
f(az + by) = af(x) + bf(y)

278 VECTOR SPACES
for all x, Y E V and a, b E F. Suffiee it to say, the above definition makes sense
only when both vector spaces are taken over the same field.
Before proceeding to the theory of linear mappings, let us illustrate to some
extent the great variety of possible examples.
Example 4-25. Let M m,,(F) be the vector space of all m X n matrices over a
field F, and let (ai;) he!\ fixed m X m matrix (again, over F). Define a function
I: 1If rn" -+ 111 mn by
Then I is seen to be a linear mapping, because

fHII,j) I II(:,} = (aij)' [r(lli,) I II(C,,)
- r{a,;) (/Iii) I- lI(aj/) . (r.ii)
.,.,- r!aij /- 1I/r.iJ'
Example 4-26. In the Rpll('e V",(F) of infinite Heqlwnees of elements from a
field F, we define thc shifl function f as follows: for each sequence
x = (at. a2, aa, ... ), take
I(x) = (a2' a3, a4, ... ).
The reader may easily verify that I is a linear mapping from VlI (F) to V..,(F).
In fact, any power of I is again linear, Hinee
Example 4-27. Next consider F[x], the space of polynomials in the indeter-
minant x with coefficient,s from F. A lillear mapping 011 F[x] is given by means
of Uw Ho-{:nlInd dijJerentiat1:on functilln. That. iH, for lUI arhitrary polynomial
p(x) = ao --j- alx + a2x2 + ... -f- a"x" ill ~'[x], let
I(p) = a1 + 2a2x + ... + nanx,,-l.

Example 4-28. One more example: Suppose W(F) is a subspace of the vector
space V(F). Then the familiar natural mapping natw: V -+ V IW defined by
taking
natw (x) = x + W
is a linear tranHformation. By virtue of the definition of the operations in
(V IW)(F), we easily dlCck that
natw (a.x + by) = + by + W

ax
= a(x + W) -I- bey + W) = a natw (x) + b natw (y).
One fact which follows almost immediately from Definition 4-18 is that if
dim V is finite, then any linear transformation f from V(F) into W(F) is com-
4-4 LINEAR MAPPINGS 279
pletely described hy specifying its values on a basis for V(F). For suppose
{Xli X2 ,;r n } is It basis of the space V(F) j then Mch vector X in V has the
form
for suitable t;("alars ak E F. By the linearity condition, extended to n vectors,
Thus,! is completdy determined onee its cITed on the bu.'lis vectors Xl, X2, , Xn
is known. The next. theorem indicates that this effeeL may be prcserihed
nrhil.rllrily.
Theorem 4-28. 1,,'1. :.r I, .r~, ... ;r,,: be! IL bMiH fOl t,lIn fillit~,-clillloIlHi()tll\l
V("'IIII'HIII\I'" 1"(/<') 111111 :111, II~, ,/I,,: 1111 nl"l,il.nLl'Y Hill. Ill' " VC,d.IIIH frllIll
w(/,'). '1'111'11 I.\wn. iH lxlIl!t.ly (lI1() Iillellr II IllppiIIg f E LO', W) sllch thnt
(k=l,:l, ... ,n).
Proof. To prove that there d(){.s exist such a lllapping f, we proceed as follows:
Since {Xb X2, , xn) is u basis for V(F), each vector x E V is uniquely express-
ible in the form
Let us simply define a function f: V - W at the vector x by taking
J(x) = alYI -j- a2Y2 + ... + anY..

To see that this function is actually linear, let x, Y E V, where
Then
and 'so, hy definition,
f(x + y) = (al +b1)YI + ... (an +

bn)Yn +
= (alYI + ... +
anYn) + (b1Yl + ... + bnYn) = f(x) + f(y)
One establishes similarly that f(ex) = rf(x) for each scalar e ill F.
Now, suppose 0 is any other lillcnr t.mnsformutioll from V(F) to W(F) with
the propert.y that O(x,,) = Yk. Thcll, for any vcet.or x = alxl + a2x2 + ... +
anx,,, till' lillL'urit.y of (f implies
o(x) = alo(xl)+ a20(x2) + ... + anU(xn)

= alYI + a2Y2 + ... + anYn = f(x).
280 VECTOR SPACES
We therefore conclude that the linear mapping I for which I(z,,) - 11" is the
only one possible.
To see how closely linear mappings arc associated with matrices, let us now
suppose the space W(F) is also finite-dimensional, say, with basis {Yh Y2, .. , y",}.
Then each vector I(Xi), being in W, is a unique linear combination of these
basis vectors:
I(Xi)
'" ai;Yi,
= :E (j = 1, 2, ... , n).
i-I
(Observe that, in contrast with many texts, the summation is on the first index
of 4;j.) In this fashion, we produce an m X n matrix (aii) called the matrix
representatiun of I relative to the bases {Xl, X2, ,XII} and {Yt. Y2, .. , y",}.
Notice particularly that the matrix (aii) depends on the pair of bases used for
V(F) and W(F) as well as oni; any change in the basis elements, even in their
order, would lead to a different matrix. Accordingly, the same linear mapping
(whose definition, after all, does not depend on any basis) might be represented
by several matrices.
Now, any vector X E V can be expressed as a linear combination of the basis
{zt, X2, , XII} : . ,
Hence,
Once the bases are picked, the effect of I on each vector of V is therefore com-
pletely determined by the scalars Ci and the representing matrix (4;j).
On the other hand, two bases {Xl, X2, , X..} and {Yt. Y2, ... , y",} for V(F)
and W(F), respectively, along with an m X n matrix (4;/) of elements from F,
give rise to a unique linear transformation IE L(V, W). All we need do is
define the proposed mapping on the basis of V(F) by specifying
I(z;) '" aiiYi,

= :E
i_I
then extend I to all of V by the condition that it be linear.

The reader may well feel, in view of these remarks, that it is unnecessary to
distinguish any longer between a linear mapping and its representing matrix,
and that all subsequent results could be phrased in the language of matrices.
The utility of this approach is diminished by the fact there is no unique cor-
respondence between linear mappings and matrices; before we can introduce
the matrix representation, we must first pick bases for the underlying vector
spaces, and the matrix depends strongly on the bases chosen. Since most
aspects of the theory are best treated as independent of any basis, we shall
study linear mappings in the abstract, without reference to matrices.
As a linear mapping I e L(V, W) is, in particular, a homomorphism of the
additive group (V, +) into the additive group (W, +), the results of Chapter 2
may be utilized. I'or instance, by Theorem 2-40, we already know that I will
be a one-to-one function if and only if ker (f) = {OJ; as usual, ker (f) consists
of all vectors mapped onto t.he zero element of W:
kcr (J) = {x e V If(x) = O}.
Recall also that 1(0) = 0, whence ker (f) oF- 0, and f( -x) = -/(z}.
By this stage, the first two parts of the following theorem should come as
no surprise; their demonstration is not difficult a.nd we ask the reader to fill
in the details.
Theorem 4-29. Let V(F) and W(F) be vector spaces over the field F and
the mapping I e L(V, W). Then
I} (ker (J)(F) i~ a subspace of V(F);
2} (f(V(F) is a subspace of W(F);
3) dim V = dim ker (f) + dimf(V) [Sylvester's Law].
Proof. ,We establish assertion (3) only in the case where dim V is finite. Suppose
first that ker (f) oF- {O}, so that a basis {Xlt X2, , z,.} may be selected for
the subspace {ker (f(F). Using Theorem 4-24, this set can now be extended
to a basis {Xh ,z,., Yl, ... , Y... } for the entire space by adding new vectors
Yl, Y2,"" Y.... Given any element Y e/(V), there will exist some x in V such
that Y = f(x). In terms of the basis for V(F), the vector x is representable as
x- =::- 41Xl + ; .. + a,.z,. + blYI + ... + b".y....

But,/(x,,) = 0 for k = 1,2, ... , n, which implies
Y = lex) = at/(xI) + ... + a,.f(x,.) + bt/(Yl) + ... + b... f(y ...}

= b./(YJ) + ... + b... f(y ... )
From this, we deduce that
We maintain further that the vectors f(Yl), I(Y2), .. ,/(y... ) are linearly in-
dependent and consequently a basis for (f(V (F). Assume some linear com-
bination of them is t~e zero vector, say
'.,; .
Then,/(cIYI + C2Y2 + ... + c...y",) = 0, or expressed otherwise,

CIYI + C2Y2 + ... + c...y ... e ker (f).
282 v ~;C'r()1l foll'ACI';H 4-4
Since XI, XZ, ,X" are a basis for (ker (f)) (F), there must exist scalars
dJ, ... , d" such that
Were any of th!,H(~ N)('f1i(~i!'ntH nonzero, Il. eontradiction to the linear indepen-
denee of t.he lief, {x I, . , X n, Y I, , Ym} would result. Hencc CI = ... = C m = 0
and we have Slle('('eded in proving that the m vectors f(Yl), f(Y2), ... , f(Ym)
form a basis for the image space (J(V)(F). This means
dim V = n+m= dim ker (f) + dimf(V).

If ker (f) = {O), f hNl eSH(mtildly the same argument shows that f maps any
hlLHil'! for r(F) ont.o IL hasil'! for (J(V) (F); thui\uim V = dimf(V), establishing
Hylv('sf('r's LuI\' for t.hit' ('HKI' nlKo. !
Corollary. Let V(P) ILnd W(F) he tinite-dimensional vector spaces with
dim V = dim W, and let f E L(V, W). Then f is a one-to-one function if
and only if f maps onto V.
Proof. To begin with, I'IUppose f is one-to-one, so that ker (f) = {O}. Then
dim ker (f) = 0, and Sylvester's Law reduces to dim W = dimf(V). It now
follows from Th('orem 4-2!i that W = f(v), whence f is an onto mapping. Con-
versely, if the range of f is all of W, the same equation yields dim. ker (f) = 0,
or equivalently ker (f) = {O}, so f is one-to-one.
Remark. Neither one-to-one nor onto implies the other for linear mappings
between spaces of infinite dimension.
Example 4-29. We illustrate Sylvester's Law with the linear mapping
f: V 4 -+ V 3 given by
The kllrncl of J iH el~Hily 1'41l1'l1 to lin thn flCt of VClltOrH ()f tho t,ypc (a, a, a, a),
while itH range is all of V 3' Hcncc,
dim 1'4 = 4 = 1 -I- 3 = dim ker (f) -I- dim V 3'
The terms isomorphil' alHl isomorphism have the obvious meanings for
V(Itor KIIIUC'S. Two V<'dor spaees V(F) and W(F) ILre isomorphic, written
V(F) ~ lV(F), if and only if there exists It one-to-onc mappingf: V -+ Wof V
onto lV whidl preS('rv('s the basic vector space operations; that is to say, we
rcqllin' f E 1.( r. lV). AI'I wit h our earlier Kysiems, Sill'll It funetion f is eltlled un
isomo/'ph iSIll.
The ('ollling t.heorem il'l of ('oJll'li<ierahle interest in that it r('veals the n-tuple
t'pu('(' F ,,(f') to 1)(' the prototype of all n-dimensiotlltl Ve(ltor spu.ces.
4-4 1,INt:AIt MAI'I'INUH
Theorem 4-30. If V(F) is a finite-dimensional vector space of dimension n,

then V(F) is isomorphic to V,,(F).
Proof. For Hakn of argument, let {XI, X2, ,xn } be n basis for the space
V(F). Then cnch veetor x E V has n uniqun repro8(Jntat.ion of the form
Since the n-tuple of scalars (a" a2, .. , an) is uniquely determined by X (relative
to the given basis), we may define a function f: V - V n by taking
f(x) = (a" a2, ... , an).
A routine (lnl(mlntioll eHtahlhdw8 that this mapping dTe(lts the required iso-
morphism.
Corollary. Two fillil.n-dimnnHionnl vC(!tor HplweH V(/<') unci W(F) arc 180-
morphic if and only if dim V = dim W.
Proof. If dim V = dim W = n, then each spaee is isomorphic to Vn(F), hence
isomorphic t.o one another. Conversely, if V(F) ~ W(F) under the linear
mapping f, Sylvester's Law yields
dim V = dim knr (f) + dimf(V) = dim {OJ + dim W = dim W.
A remark in passing: The isomorphism between V(F) and V.. (F) was obtained
by arbitrarily choosing one particular basis for V(F) in preference to all others.
If we were to confine further study of finite-dimellsional vector spaces ex-
clusively to the n-tuple spaces V.. (F), as the above theorem suggests, we would
always be restricted to a prescribed basis. Since this would be contrary to our
policy of giving, so far as possible, a basis-free treatment of vector spaces, we
shnll for thn most part ignore Thl.'Orem 4-30.
The corollnry 1.0 Thnorem 4-:JO ennblm~ 11M to establish I~ relationship between
qllotilllij. HPIU!()H nllIl (!omplmnelltnry HuhHpaC()H.
Theorem 4-31. Let U(P) and WW) be c:omplemnntnry Hubspaces relative
to th() finite-dimensional ve(,tor spac:e V(F); that ill, V = II 9 W. Then
(V /W)(F) ~ U(F).
Proof. We nlretuiy know from Theorem 4-26 that dim V = dim U + dim W.
Appealing to Theorem 4-27,
dim V/W = dim V - dim W = dim (T.
Hence, the last corollary implies that (V /W)(F) ~ lI(F), as alleged.

Corallary. All subspaces eomplementary to a given subspace are isomorphic.
VEcroa SPACES
80 rar we have gathered certain infonnation concerning individual linear

mappings, but have imposed -1)0 structure on the set L(V, W) itsele. This will
now be remedied by showing that L(V, W) inherits a natural vector space
structure from the underlying spaces V(F) and W(F).
The sum 1+ g or two linear mappings I, g e L{V, W) is defined, as one
+
might expect, by the rule (I g)(z) = I(z) +
g(z) for all z in Vj similarly,
when c e F, the scalar product cJ is given by means or (cJ)(z) == cj(z). (We
+
shall not bother to distinguish between the various uses of the sign, since the
context will ordinarily suffice to make clear which spaces are involved.)
With these operations, one can verify that L(V, W)(F) does indeed satisfy
all the axioms for a vector space. What little difficulty there is arises in showing
that L(V, W) is closed under the operations. But this poBe8 no real problem,
for if z, y E V and a, b E F, the fact that I and g are themselves linear implies
that
(f + g)(az + by) = I(ax + + +
by) g(az by)
= af(x) + +
bl(y) + ag(x) bg(y)
= a(j(x) + +
g(x) + b(j(y) g(y)
+ + +
= a(f g)(z) b(1 g)(y),
whence 1+ 9 E L(V, W). An equally easy computation, which we omit,
establishes that cl lies in L(V, W) for each scalar c. The point of all this is
summarized by the following theorem.
Theorem 4-32. Let V(F) and W(F) be vector spaces over the field F. With
addition and scalar mUltiplication defined in the usual way for mappings,
L(V, W)(F) is itself a vector spo.cc.
We can prove considerably more by taking the underlying spaces to be
finite-<iimensional.
Theorem 4-33. If V(F) and W(F) are finite-dimensional vector spaces over
F, then the space 14(V, W)(F) is also of finite dimension with
dim L(V, W) = dim V dim W.

Prool. Assume {Zh Z2, .. , z,.} and {Yh Y2, , y",} are bases for V(F) and
W(F), respectively, 80 that dim V = n, dim W = m. Our strategy is to con-
struct a specific basis of nm elements for L(V, W)(F). According to Theorem
4-28, for each pair of integers (i, j), where 1 SiS n, 1 S j S m, there is a
unique linear mapping hi: V -+ W satisfying the conditions
!ii(X,,) = ai"Yi = {o .
if i '" k,
.
Yi If ,== k.
The contention is that these nm functions serve as a basis for the space L(V, W).
4-4 LINEAR MA.PPINGS
First, let f be an arbitrary linear transfonnation from V(F) into W(F). For
each index i (1 ~ i ~ n), fez,) lies in W, hence is a linear combination of the
basis vectors 11" 112, , 11"" say
G'I eF.
In this fashion, we produce a set of nm scalars Gil; the problem is now to IIhow
that f can be represented as
Evaluating the right-hand side of this equation at the basis elements Zll leads to
'" GlliYi =
=~ I(XII).
i-I
Since the linear mappings I and Ei.l (E:.. l t!.tj/ii) both have the same effect
on the basis of V(F), they must be identical. From this, we conclude that the
functions hi span the space T.I(V, W)(F). .
To establish the linear independence of the hi> suppose some linear oombina-
tion of them is the zero mapping: .
(Cij E F).
If this expression is evaluated at the vector ZII, it follows, as above, that
However, {y" 112, , 11",} is a basis of W(F), hence a linearly independent

set, which fonles Clll = ... = CII". = O. By varying Ie, we conclude that all
the coefficients Cij must be zero, and the theorem is proved in its entirety.
Let us take a closer look at two special classes of linear mappings which
occur frequent.Iy, namely L(V, V) and L(V, F). In view of our latest results,
we aln!udy know that f.l(V, V)(F) is Il. Ve(ltor "pace over F, and if V(F) is of
finite dimension n, then dim L(V, V) = n 2 There is, however, more algebraic
structure 011 L(V, V) than the vector space structure just described. By re-
286 VECTOlt SPAC.~ 4-4
HI riding the imllJl;l' "'PIWI', we arc ahle to introduce stilll~nother hinnry operation:
composition of mappings. Indeed, if j, g E L(V, V), it is ensy to see that
(f. g)(ax + by) = j(g(ax + by

= j(ag(x) + bg(y
= aj(g(x + bj(g(y
= a(f. g)(x) + b(f. g)(y)
for all x, y in V and all a, b in F. This establishes the linearity condition, thereby
showing j. (I to be a member of L(V, V).
TIll' haHi( alg('braic properties of the sum and composition operations arc
contained in the following theorem; we omit the proof, which consists of little
more than eopying th(' r('sult.s of Example 3-6.
Theorem 3-34. For each vector space V(F), the triple (L(V, V), +,.) IS a
ring with identity.
There is another important fact which is suggestcd by this discussion.
Corollary. If GL(V) denotes the set of invertible mappings in L(V, V), thcn
(GL(V), .) forms a group, called the general linear group.
Theorem 4-:J4 can he sharpencd considerably by limiting 01U' attention to
finite-dimensional spaces.
Theorem 4-35. If dim V = n, then (L(V, V), +,.) is isomorphic to
(Mn(F), +,.), thc ring of n X n matrices over F.
[)rooj. Fix n hasis (XI, X2, ., J"n} for V(F). Wo daim thnt thc function
<1>: L( V, V) -+ M n (F) whieh afI.'1igmlto ench linear mapping its matrix reprc-
sentation relative to this particular hasis is 8. (ring) isomorphism of
(L(V, V), +,.) onto (Mn(F), +, .). From our previous discussions, it is
already known that the correspondence is one-to-one and onto M n(F); what
remains to be checked here is whether preserves the ring operations.
To begin with, suppose the mapsj, g E L(V, V) po&'lCSS representing matrices
(aij) and (bj j ), respectively, so that
n n
I(xj) = 2: ajjXi, g(Xj) = 2: iljjXi, (j = 1,2, ... ,n).
i_I i_I
Then, for the sum j + (/, we have
n n n
= 2: ajp:j + 2: bjjxj = 2: (ajj + bjj)xj.
i ...... l i-I i==1
It follows from what is meant by the matrix of a linear transformation relative

to lL given hnllis that. (aii I- lI ij ) mUllt be the matrix ('orr('/iponding to! + g;

in cOIll;equencc,
(f + g) = (aij + bij) = (a,j) + (b ii ) = (f) + (g).

The problem of representing the composition fog is a little more complica.ted.
First, we compute (f g) (Xj) :
0
(f g)(Xi)
0 = f(g(xj) = f ( t bkiXk)
k-I
= t
k-1
bki!(Xk) = t
k_l
bkj(t aikXi).
i_I
By reversing the order of summation, this can bc expr<lsliCd ill the form
(j= 1,2, ... ,n).
Thus, the ijth entry of the matrix t\Ssociated with f (J is IiCCIl to be I:t=1 aitb"iI
which is alllo the ljt.h ent.ry of the product (a'j) . (bij ). Ac(~ordingly, we conclude
that
(f. g) = (t k=1
a,kbk j ) = (a'i) . (b i ;) = (f) . (g),
implying that is a ring homomorphism from (L(V, V), +, 0) Ollto

(111 n(f), +, .); this substantiates our contention and proves the theorem.
A Uiseful cOJlsequcnce of this last th('orcm is that, if dim V = n, the genera.l
linear group-now !\C'not.ed by (OL .. ( V), 0) ~- ill isomorphic to the group of all
nOlIl-lingullU' n X n IIlntri(~(~s ovm' F.
The proof of Theorem 4-3.5 brings out a point worth mentioning: The opera-
tions for mat.riees were purposely definr.d to agrC'r. with our operations for
linear mappings. To be precise, Definition 4-8 was formulated in such a manner
that the matrix of a product of two linear transformations would be the product
of their representing matrices.
When V(F) is of finite dimension n. there is another natural way of relating
the algebraic structure of L(V, V) to that of AI n(F). Namely, since
dim fAV, V) = 112 = dim AI .. (F),
fAV, V)(F) mul AI .. (F) IIIUSt. also I}(' isolllorphi(' liS vedOl' splwell; in fact, a
stmightJorw/1J"(1 ('alcuilltion shows the funet.ioll outaill(d in Theorem ..-a!) to
be a Vl'ctor space isomorphism, not only a ring iHolllorphism.
The structure of L(V, V) can be approached f!"Om olle more direction. For
this, let liS define what. is meallt hy all (assoeiativ(~) aJI(Jwa over a field.
Deftnition 4-19. A vee tor SPIU'!' V(F) i:,llittid t.o he lUI alyeill"a ovel' tltefielrl F
if its elements can be multiplied in Iml'h It way that I'(F) becomes a ring in
VEC'rOa SPACES
which scalar multiplication is related to ring mUltiplication (denoted by .) by

the following mixed a88ociatif1e law:
e(% . y) = (C%)' Y = %. (cy) (%,yeV;eeF).
Our immediate goal is to establish that, for any vector space V{F), the ring
(L(V, V), +,0) has the structure of an algebra over F. In light of earlier results,
all that really need be demonstrated here is the mixed assoeiative law. To
obtain this, we let e e F,f e L(V, V), and % E V; a straightforward calculation
then yields
(j. (eo(x) = feo)(x = f(cg(% = cj(g(%}) = e(f g)(%).

0
Since this equality holds for every x E V, we conclude that
f 0 (cg) = e(J. g).
Verification of the property (ef) g = e(J g) follows in a similar vein and is

left as an exercise.
Iurther examples of rings which are also algebras are the ring (M ,,(F), -t, .)
of matrices of order n, the ring of real-valued functions on as well as the n',
real and complex number fields.
As the reader is 80 well aware, since an algebra is basically a rinI and vector
space combined, any homomorphism between aIiebras must preserve both the
ring and vector space operations; more specifically, if f is a homomorphism be-
tween two algebras over the same field, then
f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) , f(% y) = f(x) fey), f(C%) = ef(x).
The following example affords a good illustration of this idea.

Example 4-30. Let T 2( n') denote the set of all 2 X 2 upper triangular matrices
with elements from n':
It iM already known that T 2 (R') is the HOt of clements of a noncommutative

ring with identity [Problem 13(b), Section 4-1] as well as of a vector space over
the real numbers [Problem 7(f), Section 4-2]; in other words, (T 2 (R'), +,.)
may be regarded as an algebra over R'. Our purpose here is to obtain a com-
plete description of the homomorphisms from this algebra into the real numbers.
AH 1\ Mimplifying devi(~e, note that upon setting
y- _-(0o 0) , 1
each element of T,(R') may be expressed in the form
(: :) = al + bX + (c - a)Y.
Now, if I is any nontrivial homomorphism from the algebra (T 2 (R'), +,.) into
the algebra (R', +.. ), then
1(: :) = ai(l) + bl(X) + (c - a)/(y).
Since I(T) = I(T) . l{l) for all T E T,(R'), and I is not identically zero, we
must have 1(1) = 1. What can be said about the functional value I(Y)? Ob-
serve first that the matrix Y is idempotent with respect to multiplication; this
means
I(Y) = I(Y') = I(Y)',
which in tum implies I( Y) can only assume the values 0 or 1 (Problem 2,

Section 3-3). Finally, the fact that the matrix X is nilpotent (specmc&lly,
X 2 = 0) leads us to conclude I(X) = O. The effect of these remarks is that
1(: :) = a or c.
This suggests consideration of mappings /;: T 2 (R') --. R' (i = 1,2) defined
by
A routine check establishes that I. and It actually are algebra homomorphisms

from (T 2 (R'), +,.) into (R', +, .); barring the trivial homomorphism, our
argument shows them to be the only such functions.
Now is perhaps an appropriate point at which to say a brief word about
idempotent linear mappinglJ, that is, functions IE L(V, V) such that r- I
(hore /2 IltallUIi (or / f). Our object ill to show the intimate connection be-
tween transformations of this type and direct sum decompositions of the vector
space. The precise statement follows.
Theorem 4-36. If V = U $ W, then the function/w: V - W which assigns
to each vector x E V its uniquely determined component X2 in the represen-
tation x = Xl + X2(Xl E U, X2 E W) is an idempotent linear mapping with
ker (fw) = U, Iw(V) = W.
Conversely, every idempotent linear mapping IE L(V, V) defines a direct
290 VECTOU SPACES
sum decomposition
v= ker (f) C!> f(V).
Proof. We start hy showing that the function fw, as defined in the statement
of the theorem, is actually in [,(V, V). Suppose x, Y E V, so that x = UI + Wit
Y = u21 '/1'2, with 14" E P, Wt E W (k = 1,2). Theil for scalars a, b,
wh('rf' au, -\ bU2 E U, alOI + bW2 E W, This mealls that

fw(a;r I hy) = aWl I bW2 ~ ajw(x) I IJfw(Y),
hell(,l~ fw E L(V, V). In fad, morc is true: Since U = 14 + 0 and W = 0 + W

serve as the uniquc dncompo!litiolls for elements 14 E 1rand wE W, we must
htwe
1) fw(u) = 0 if alld only if 14 E P,
2) fw(w) = W if and only if til E W.
This leads to the mo!:!t significant property of the function fw, its idem potency ;
given x = It -+ w, with U E U and W E W, .
fa,{x) = fw(Jw{x = fw{w) = W = !w{x),

resulting in If., = fw.
For the eOnVI!J'IIe, suppose that f E /,( V, V) with P = f, Taking U = x - f(x)
and 10 = f(x), we may write each vector x E V as a sum x = U w. By +
hypothesis I is an idempotent map, so
feu) = f(x) - f2(X) = 0,
while
few) = f2(x) = f{x) = 10.
This shows that V = ker (f) + W, where the set W is given by

W = {x E V I/(x) = x}.
Our cont.ent.ion is that the foregoing l-1um is direet; in other words,
ker (I) n W = {o}.

Thi!:! is easy: If a vector x lies in ker (f),f(x) = 0, whercas if x is in W,f(x) = x.
Thus, whenever x belongs to both ker (f) nnd W, we must have x = O. To
('Oll('hlll" 1.1t" proof, it rl'mnini'l to h" 1-11'1'11 that, lV = f(v), The in('lll!lioll
JV k f( n il'lllli imm(~(lintc COnSl''1I1CIH'(' of the definition of the set W; Uw r(!VI~rs(!
ineiullion il'l ('(lluLlly ohvioul-1, !lilw(' til(' (',!uutioll f2 = j Jl\elU11'I f(x) E W for
every x E V,
It is natural to think of the function fw as projecting V(F) onto the subspace

W(F). For thiN roUI!()Il, the term 111'ojectiCln iH (mstomurily used to refer to any
idempotellt lilll'nr nlllppillg 011 V(F). Sirwe every Huhspaee of a vector space
f>OHHesscs a (~()llIplemcllt./lry Hubspnec, Th(lor('m 4-36 asscrts the exitltence of a
proj(etion of t.h(l foIJlIL(~(! ont.o any of it.1I IIl1hHpaccs; IwmlleHH to MY, (:omplementtl
Iir(l not Illliq\l(~, 110 t.henl mlLy (lxiHt. s('veml proj('(~t.ionR onto the same 8ubspru:c.
For a simple CMe of the above idea, considcr the projection f: V. -+ V 4
defined by
It ill fnirly (!vid('Ilt. tlmt
ker (f) = {(O, 0, aa, a.) I a3, a. E F}

and
The reader may verify that t.he corresponding sllbspaces are actually comple-
mentary.
Throughout the remainder of this section, we restrict our attention to linear
mappings on V (F) which assume values in the associated scalar field F [if
scalar multiplication is defined to be the multiplication in F, then F may be
viewed as /I. ono-dim(lnsional Ve(ltor space over itself]. It is customary to use a
special terminology for such scalar-valued functions and to refer to them 8.B
linear functionals, or merely functionals, on V(F).
Definition 4-20. The vector spaee L( V, F)(F) eonsisting of all linear fune-
tionals on V(F) is called the dual space (often called the conjugate space)
of V(F) and is denoted by V*(F).
Example 4-31. Let (a;j) be an n X n matrix. The sum of all elements on the
main diagonal is known as the trace of the matrix and is represented by tr (aij):
n
tr (aij) = 1: au
k_1
It is not difficult to verify that the function tr: M n -+ F, defined in this way,
is a linenr functional 011 the spnce 111n(F); for, if (aij) , (b ij) are two matrices of
order n alld r, 8 E F, then
n
t.r [r(aij) +- s(b ij) J = tr (raij + sb ij) = 1: (rau + sbu )
k_1
= r t
k-l
au +s t
k_1
bu = r tr (ai;) + 8 tr (b i ;).
292 VECTOR SPACES
From Theorem 4-33 we already know something about the space V*(F) j
namely, that if V(F) is finite-:dimensional, then dim V* = dim V. Moreover,
the proof of this theorem provides an explicit way of constructing a basis of
V*(F): Given a particular basis {Xl. X2,' ,x..} for V(F), a unique linear
functional h is defined on V by prescribing
(j = 1,2, ... ,n).
Theorem 4-33 then tells us that the n functions It, f 2, , f" form a basis for
V*(F), the so-called dual bC&8ie to XIo X2, , x.. or dual basis of V*(F).
The definition of h is somewhat opaque, but it may be interpreted in a way
that is more illuminating. Since any vector x E V is of the form x = alXl +
aJX2 + ... + a"x", it is clear that
. .
hex) = L a;!;(x;) = ;-1
;-1
L a;6i; = ai
From this, we see that the functional h has the effect of assigning to each
vector x the coefficient of Xi in the representation of x as a linear combination
of the basis vectors. A suggestive name for the mappings f, might be to call
them coordinat.e functional8 (with resPect to a fixed basis, of course).
An interesting observation which we shall use almost immec!jately is the
following.
Lemma. If V(F) is a finite-dimensional vector space and x is any nonzero
vector of V, then there is some linear functional f e V* for which f(x) po!! O.
Proof. Since x P&!! 0, there exists a basis {Xl, X2, , x..} of V(F) with Xl = X
(Theorem 4-24). tf {fir f2, .. ,f.. } is the corresponding dual basis for V*(F),
we then have
Since the dual space V*(F) is a vector space, V*(F) has a dual of its own;
we shall denote this latter space by V**(F) and refer to it as the second dual
of V(F). If V(F) is of finite dimension n, we know that V*(F) has the same
dimension, hence in tum dim V** = n. By the corollary to Theorem 4-30,
this equality of dimensions implies that V(F) and V**(F) are isomorphic.
There is one perfectly natural and useful isomorphism between these spaces,
the so-called canonical imbedding j the full story is told below.
Given a vector x e V and functional f e V*, f(x) is a scalar. Although we
have grown accustomed to thinking of this as a function of x for fixed f, let us
now invert this usual practice and allow f to range over V*, while holding x
fixed [many authors would emphasize this by writing x(f) in place of f(x)].
Specifically, define the function T",: V* --+ F by
T",(f) = f(x), fe V*.
LINEAR MAPPINGS 293
It is easy to see that T., is actually a linear functional on V, for
T.,(af + bg) = (af + bg)(x)

= af(x) + bg(x) = aT.,(f) + bT.,(g).
T '" defined in this way, is called the evaluation functional induced by the vector x.
The choice of imbedding should now be clear, for what is more natural than to
&88OCiate x with F ". Precisely:
Theorem 4-37. If V(F) is a finite-dimensional vector space, then V(F) ~
V(F) via the mapping 4J(x) = T.,.
ProoJ. At the outset, note that for any J E V, we have
T",,+bll(f) = J(ax + by)
= aJ(x) + bf(y)
= aT,,(J) + bTII(J) = (aT" + bTII)(f),
whence the relation T ""+"11 = aT., + bTII' This leads directly to the conclusion
that the function 4J is linear: .
4J(ax +by) = Tu+" = aT., + bTII = a4J(z) + b4J(y).

The one-to-one nature of 4J is established by showing ker (f) = {O} or, in the
present context, if J(z) = 0 for every f in V, then z = OJ but this is precisely
the content of the previous lemma. Finally, the equality of the dimensions of
V(F) and V**(F), together with the fact that 4J is a one-to-one function, neces-
sitates that 4J map onto V* (see the corollary to Theorem 4-29). The theorem
is now fully proved.
The import of Theorem 4-37 lies in the following rather remarkable corollary
which asserts that all functionals on V can be obtained by evaluation at
elements of V.
Corollary. If V(F) is finite-dimensional, then each linear functional in V
is of the form T., for some unique vector x E V.
In practice, one usually identifies the vector z with the fun~tional T., defined
by it. When dim V is fillite, we thereby abolish V*(F) and regard V(F) as
the space of linear functions on V. From this point of view, V(F) and V*(F)
have a natural symmetry and we may justifiably speak of them as being dual
spaces (to each other). In the infinite-dimensional case, however, it is not
true that the set V" is exhausted by the functionals T.,j our mapping 4J is into,
not onto, so that V(F) can only be regarded as a vector subspace of V**(F).
As a parting shot, we give further evidence of the symmetric relationship
between V(F) and V*(F) by showing that every basis for V*(F) is the dual of
a basis for V(F).
294 VECTOR SPACES
Theorem 4-38. If V(F) is a finite-dimensional vector space, then any basis

for V*(F) is the dual of some basis for V(F).
Prool. Let {!J,/2,"" In} be a basis for V*(F). We can then find a basis
{T., T 2 , , Tn} in V**(F) which is dual to this givcn basis; in other words,
T i (!;) = 6ij. But, according to the preceding corollary, there exist vectors
x., X2, , Xn in V with Ti(f) = T.if) = I(Xi) for all I E V*; in particular,
taking I = Ii. we obtain
(i, j = 1, 2, ... , n),
whencc {XII X2, , xn} is a basis for V(F) having {fl, 12, , In} as its dual.
PROBLEMS
Unless indicatl'd otherwise, VW) and Jl"W) denote vector spaees over an arbitrary
field P.
1. Using nothing other than Definition 4-18 and Theorem 4-7, show that if the
mapping/E ,,(V, l\"), then/CO) .. 0 andf(-x) .. -/(x) for each x E V.
2. Determine whieh of the following functions are linear mappings of V s(R') into
itself:
a) I(al, a2, a3) = (a2, -aI, a3),
b) I(al, a2, a3) = (ai, 0, as),
+ +
c) I(al, 42, as) = (ai, al + a2, al a2 as),
d) I{al, a2, as) = (al +
2a2 - a3, -al+ a2, 2al a2). +
3. Assume that IE l.. (lr, Jr) and U(F) is a vector subspace of lr(F). Prove that
1-1(U)(F) ill a subspace of V(I"), where, as usual,
l-l(U) = {xEVl/tX)E U}.
4. Let I be a linear transformation from V(P) into JrW). If (j(Xl),!(X2), . .f(x,,)}

is a linearly independf'nt loubset of W(Jl), prove that the set {Xl, X2, ,x.) is
also independl'nt. From this, cl(',hwe that dim/(li) ~ dim V.
5. Let p(x) .., ao -I- alx + a2x 2+ ... +
a"x" E R'[x), the vector space of polynomials
in x over R'. Determine which of the funetions below are linear mappings of
R'[x) into itself:
a) I(p) = aoz + +
alx 2 a2xs + ... +
a"x"+! I
b) I{p) = ao + 41X2 + a2x + ... +
a"x2 .. I
c) 1(P) '" aoz+ al x 2 + a2 x s
2 3
+ ... + n
~ xn+!
+l'
6. Let the mapping I E 1.. ( V, V) and S denote the set of vectors of V which are left
fixed by I:
S = {x E V I/{x) "" x}.
Verify that S(F) forms a subspace of the vector space V(F).

4-4 1,IIIIEAIt MAPPINGS 295
7. Prove that if f E L( V. Jr). then I is a one-to-one function if and only if the vectors
l(xl). I(X2) .. !(x ure linearly independent whenever XI. X2 x.. are
A )
linearly indl'pendent.
R. Show hy exn.mple that the concluHion of the corollary to Theorem 4-29 is false
if V (P) iH infinite-dimensional.
9. Suppose the mapping f E /,( V.1\"). with dim V > dim It". Show that there exists
a nonzero vector Xo E V for which I(xo) = o.
10. Obtain the Fundaml"ntal Homomorphism Theorem for Vector Spacl's: If I is a
linear mapping from the vector space V(F) onto the vector space W(F). then
(V /ker (f(F) ~ W(F).
) 1. Let V(F) be finite-dimensional with basis {XI. X2 . x ..}. and let VI. Y2 . y ..
be any n pll'IIl1'nt,H of V. If thtl function!: V -+ V i~ defined by taking
!(nIXI 1 ... -I a.x ..) - alYI + ... I a.y ...
prove that f is ~ linear mapping; determine when f will be an isomorphism.
12. Prove that if the mapping f E 1.( V. V) is such that ker (j) = ker (p). then
V = ker (j) E9 f(V).
13. For a fixed element a E F. define the scalar tran8formation f.: V --+ V by
f ..(x) = ax, xE V.
Given that R = {fa I a E F} and R' = R - {O}. show that

+,
a) the tripl!! (R, 0) form~ a !!ubring of (J,(V, V), +, .)
illomorphic to W. +.. );
b) the pair (R', .) is a normal subgroup of the linear group (GL(V), .); in fact,
R' = cent GL(V).
14. A linear mapJlingfE !.(V, V) is said to be nilpotent if f" = 0 for some nEZ+.
If fill nilputent anti if r-J(Xn) ;&! 0, prove that
{xu, f(xo), P(xo), . , r-l(xo)}
is a linearly independent set of vectors.

15. Prove that t.he reRIlIt. of Theorem 4-31 holdH in gent'ral; in other word!!, if
V = 11 E9 1\', I'Kt,ILhliKh t.hat, (V /1\') (f') ~ U W) regardll'K!I of the dinlllDsion
(finite or infinitl') of V(P). [/lint: Consider the restriction nat", I V.l
16. Con Rider the trace functional tr as defined in Example 4-20 of the text. In the
vect.or space Mn(R'), prove that '
a) tr a;j) . (b;j = tr b;j) . (a;;,
b) tr a;j) . (b;j) . (a;j) -I) = tr (b;;), whenever (a;j) is nonsingular,
c) tr a;j) . (ai;)I) = 0 if and only if (aij) = O.
17. SUPpoRe {Xl, X2, , x.l iM a basig of the finite-dimensional space V(F) and
{fl, /2, . , . , I,,} is the corresponding dual basis oC V*(F). Show that for each
vector x E V,
x =
.
~ 1.(X)Xi,
k_l
296 VECTOR SPACES
while for each functional I E V*,

.
. I = :E l(x.)/.
-1
18. Let V(F) be a finite-dimensional vector space over F. Prove that

a) if Xl, X2 E V with Xl '" X2, then there exists a linear funotional IE V* for
which l(xI) '" l(x2);
b) if W(F) is a proper nonzero subspace of V(F) and the vector Xo e: w, then
there is 80me/E V* such that/(xo) - 1,/(x) - 0 for all x E W. (Hi"': Given
any baais {XI, . ,x..} of W(F), the set xo, Xl, ,x.. ia linearly independent,
hence contained in a baais for V(P); now, utilize the corresponding dual baais
for V*(F).)
19. If W(F) is a subspace of the vector space V(F), the annihilator of lV is the set
W.1 defined by
lV.1 z: {f E V* I/(x) = 0 for all X E lV}.
Assuming V(F) is finite-<iimensional, prove that .

a) IV .l(F) is a subspace of the dual space V*(F);
+
b) dim W dim W.l = dim V; [Hint: First, extend any basis {Xl, .. , XIII} of
W(F) to a basis {Xl, ... , X ..} for V(F). If {ft, ... ,I.. } is the oorresponding
dual basis for V*(F), then {f.H, ... ,I..} serves as a basis of W.1(F).)
0) (V /W)*(F) ~ W.l(F), (V /lr.l) (F) ~ W*(F);
d) WH ... W. (Hint: Use part (b).)
20. Let U(F) and W(F) be two subspaces of the finite-dimensional space V(F).
Establish the following facts concerning the annihilators of U and W:
a) U.1 - W.l if and only if U - W.
b) (U + W).l ... U.l n W.l; (U n W).l '" U.1 + Jr.l.
c) If V - U e lV, then V* .. UJ. e
lVJ..
21. For each linear mapping IE L(V, lh, the tranaposll (adjoint, dual) . of I is the
function F: W* -+ V* defined by
gE W*.
Given that V(F) and 11'(F} are finite-dimensional, show that
a) r is a linear mapping from 11'*lF) into V*(F),
b) ker (fT) - 1(v)J.; ker (f)J. - IT(W*),
c) L(V, lV) ~ L(W*, V*) under the mapping that sends each functional
IE L(V, 11') to its transpose IT.
22. Let {Xl, X2, , X ..} be a basis for the finite-dimensional vector space V(F), and
let {fl; 12, ... ,I..} be the corresponding dual basis for V*(F). Suppose that
(ail) is the representing matrix, relative to {Xl, X2, , x ..}. of the linear mapping
IE L(V. V). Prove that the transpose IT of f is represented by the matrix (ail)'
relative to {fl, h ... , I,,}.
23. If the functionals f,g E V* are such that ker U) !;; ker (g). prove that there exists
a scalar a for which f = ago
Selected R.ferenc
Our purpose here is to present a list of suggestioDil for collateral reading and further
study. Those works classified under General References roughly parallel the content
of this book; the specialized sources more fully develop topics mentioned in the text
and will carry the reader considerably beyond his present knowledge.
Gen_IR......nc .
1. A. A. ALBERT, Fundamental Concepti of Higher Algebra. Chicago: The University
of Chicago Preas, 1956.
2. W. BARNES, Introduction to Abstract Algebra. Boston: Heath, 1963.
3. R. BEAUMONT and R. BALL, Introduction to Modern Algebra and Matrix ThMry.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and WiDilton, 1961.
4. G. BIRltH()FF and S. MACLANE, A Survey of Modern Algebra, 3rd ed. New York:
Macmillan, 1965.
5. R. DEAN, Elements of Abstract Algebra. New York: Wiley, 1965.
6. R. DUBlscH, Introduction. to AbBtract Algebra. New York: Wiley, 1965.
7. I. N. HERSTEIN, Topic' in Algebra. New York: Blaisdell, 1964.
8. N. JACOBSON, Lectu.ret in Abstract Algebra, Vol. I, Basic Concepts. Princeton:
Van Nostrand, 1951.
9. S. LANG, Algebra. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1965.
10. D. J. LEWIS, Introduction to Abstract Algebra. New York: Harper and Row,
1965.
11. N. McCoy, Introduction to lIlodern Algebra. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1962.
12. G. MosTOw, J. SAMPSON, and J. P. MEYER, Fundamental StrUcturet of AlgebrlJ.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963.
13. H. PALEY and P. WEICHSEL, A First Cou.ru in Abstract Algebra. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1966.
14. R. E. JOHNSON, University Algebra. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966.
15. S. WARNER, Modern .llgebra, 2 vols. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965.
16. J. E. WHITESITT, Principles of Modern AlgebrlJ. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley,
1964.
17. O. ZARISKI and P. SAMUEL, Commutative Algebra, Vol. I. Princeton: Van Nostrand,
1958.
297
298 SELEcrED REFERENCES
Group Th.ory
18. C. CURTIS and I. REINJo:R, Repre8entation Theory oJ Finite GrOUp8 and Associative
Algebras. New York: Interscience, 1962.
19. M. HALL, The Theory 0/ Groups. New York: Macmillan, 1959.
20. A. KUROSH, The Theory oj Groups, 2nd ed. New York: Chelsea, 1960.
21. W. LED.:RMANN, Introduction to the Theory 0/ Finite Groups, 5th ed. New York:
lnterscience, 1964.
22. J. ROTMAN, The Theory o/Groups: An Introduction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1965.
23. K SCHENKMAN, Group Theory. Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1966.
24. W. !;COTT, Group Theory. l<:nglewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964.
25. H. ZAS8ENHAUfI, The Theory oJ Groups, 2nd ed. New York: Chelsea, 1958.
Ring. ond FI.ld.
26. I. ADAMSON, Introduction to Field Theory. New York: Interscience, 1964.
27. E. ARTIN, Galois Theory, 2nd ed. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame
Press, 1955.
28. N. McCoy, Rings and Ideals. Buffalo: Mathematical Association of America, 1948.
29. N. McCoy, The Theory 0/ Ring. New York: Macmillan, 1964.
30. D. NORTHCOTT, Ideal Theory. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press,
1953.
31. A. ROBINSON, Numbers and Ideal. San Francisco: Holden-Day, 19.5.
UnoarAlg.bra
32. C. CURTlli, Linear Algebra: An Introductory Approach. Boston: Allyn and Bacon,
1963.
33. P. HALMOS, Finite Dimensional Vector Spaces, 2nd ed. Princeton: Van Nostrand,
lUSH.
34. K. HOFFMAN and R. KUNZE, Linear Algebra. Englewood Clifftl, N. J.: Prentice-
Hall, 1961.
35. S. LANG, Linear .-1lgebra. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1966.
36. D. RAIKOV, Vector Spaces. Groningen: P. Noordhoff, Ltd., 1965.
37. F. STF.WART, Introduction to Unear Algebra. Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1963.
s.. Th.ory and Function.
38. P. HALMOS, Naive S/'t Theory. Prim'cton: Van Nostrand, 1960.
39. N. HAMILTON and J. LANDIN, Set Theory: The Structure oJ Arithmetic. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon, 196!.
40. R. STOLL, Set Theory and Logic. San Francisco: Freeman, 1963.
41. P. SUPPES, ,txiomatic Set Theory. Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1960.
Index of Special Symbol. and Notation.
In the list below, numbers refer to the page on which the symbol is first defined or used.
A ~ B, :t C B Sl't ..t is im'luoeo (properly ineluoerl) in 8t't R, 2
.1 U /I IInilln .. f 111'1>1 .1 RIIII n, :J
..t () B intersection of sets A and B, 3
A - B relative complement of set B in set A, 3
.-1 + B sum of !lets .1 and B, 161
.-1 A B symmetric difference of sets 1t and B, 36
A X B Cartesian product of sets A and B, 8
-A complement of the set A, 3
{a} singleton a (set consisting of the element a), 2
(a] equivalence class determined by the element a, 9
a E A, a ~ .1 element a belongs (does not belong) to the set A, 1
a- b element a is equivalent to element b, 9
alb, atb a divides (does not divide) b, where a, b are integers, 20
a == b (moo n) integer a ill congruent to integer b modulo n, 52
gcd (a, b) greateKt common divisor of the inttlgers a and b, 21
lcm (a, b) least common multiple of the integers a and b, 26
(a, b) ordered pair of a and b, 6
[)" n, domain ami range of the fun(ltioll I, 13
I( A) direct image of the set A under the function I, 17
I-I (A) invf'rl!f1 image of the set A under the function I, 17
r l inverse of the function I, 16
II A restriction of the function I to the set A, 17
/. g composition of the functions I and g, 15
iA ident,ity funetion on the ACt .-\, 17
"
P( A) power set of the fI(.t .-1, 5
I'mpty Ill.t, 2
..
Q set of rational number:!, 1
n', R'-+ set of real (positive real) numbers, 1
U universal set, 2
Z ACt of in teg('rs, 1
Z., Z., Z+ sets of even, odd, and positive integers, 10
Z.. . set of integers modulo n, 55
+., ',. addition (multiplication) modulo n, 56, 146
Notation. from Group Theory
[a, bJ a. b a-I. b- I , 85
a.1/ I'IISI'\. flf til(' >III hp;roll II (/[, .), 7Ii
2tJ9
300 INDEX OF SPECIAL SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS
a), .) cyclic subgroup generated by the element a, 69

A(G) set of automorphill.lD8 of the group (G, .), 91
(A", .) alternating group on "symbols, 126
C(a) centralizer of the element 4 in 0,74
cent. 0 center of the group (0, .), 66
8 identity element of the group, 32
f. multiplication or translation function induced by 4, 50
FQ set of multiplication functions on 0, 50
(O/H, 0) quotient group of (0, .) by the subgroup (H, .), 84
(0 X 0 ' ,') direct. product group, 52
([0,0], .) commutator subgroup of the group (0 ), 86
[G:H) index of a subgroup {H, .} in (G, .), 129
H.K product of scull and K, 71
homG set of homomorphislD8 of (G, .) into itself, 90
1(0) set of inner automorphislD8 of the group (G, .), 108
ker (f) kernel of a homomorphism f, 94
nat.H natural mapping of 0 onto G/ H. 96
N,,(H) normalizer of H in K, 129
N(H) normalizer of H in the group (G, .), 88
0(0) order of t.he group (0, .), 129
(f. inner automorphism induced by a, 108
(sym 0, .) symmetric group of the set 0, 62
(S", .) 8ymmctric group on " Iymbols, 69
(Z".+,,) group of integers modulo '" 56
~ is isomorphic to, 97
N...... on. '!om II... Theory

a),+,') principal ideal generated by thc element a, 158
ann I annibilator of the set I, 169
(C.+, .) complex number field, 173
degf(z) degree of the polynomialf(z), 199
a derivative function, 218
liEf) 12 direct sum of ideals, 171
1112 product of ideals, 171
B[z) set of polynomials over B in the indeterminant. z, 198
(B, .) group of invertible elements of the ring (B,+, .), 143
(B/I.+ .) quotient ring of B by the ideal I, 160
radB radical of the ring (B. +..), 191
ZI set of integral multiples of the identity element, 153
(Z".+ ..,,,) ring of integers modulo n. 146
Notation. from Vector Spaco Th. .ry

(a.) n-dimensional vector, 235
(/Iii) m X n matrix. 238
(aij) , transpose of the matrix (aij), 248
diag M"W) set of diagonal matrices of order n over F, 248
dim V dimension of the vector III)8Ce VW), 271
8il the Kronecker delta, 241
INDJilX OF SPECIAL SYKBOLS AND NOTATIONS 301
IT transpose (adjoint) of the linear mapping I, 296 .
I" projection onto the subspace W(F), 289
(GL(V),o) general linear group, 286
I" identity matrix of order ", 241
L(V, W) set of linear mappings from V(F) into W(F), '1:17
M",,,(F) set of (or vector space of) m X,. matrices over F, 239
ltl,,(F) set of (or vector space of) square matrices of order,. over F, 241
M:(F) set of nonsingular matrices of order,. over F, 244-
o lero vector or matrix, 236
tr (au) trace of the matrix (0.'/),291
T.(F) set of upper triangular matrices of order,. over F, 248
T. evaluation functional induced by the element %, 292
UEa W direct sum of the subspaces U(F) and W(F), 259
V*(F) dual space of the vector space V(F), 291
(V/W)(F) quotient (vector) space of V by W, 261
V..(F) set of (or vector space of) rHlimensional vectors over F, 236
V.(F) vec\Or space of infinite sequences over F, 251
Wl. annihilator of the subspace W(F), 296
[%1, , %,,1 linear span of the vectors %1, %2, , %",256
302 INDEX OF SPECIAL SYMBOLS AND NOTATIONS
The following chart should help the reader to visualize the interrelations among the
various algebraic IlYfltcmll considered in the text.
Commutative _i
groups
Vector spaces
Division rings
Algebras
INDEX
INDEX
abelian (commutative) group, 35 chain, for a group, 117

abelianization of a group, 87 of sets, 6
absorption law, 11 characteristic of a ring, 152
addition modulo n, 56 class,congruence,54
additive group of a ring, 142 conjugacy, 132
adjoint transformation, 296 equivalence, 9
algebra, associative, 287 class equation, 132
Boolean, 224 closure condition, 28 .
fundamental theorem of, 204 commutative group, 35
of linear mappings, 288 commutative law, 32
alternating group, 126 commutative ring, 143
annihilator ideal, 169 commutative semigroup, 32
annihilator of a subspace, 296 commutator, of two elements, 85
arithmetic, fundamental theorem of, 23 subgroup, 86
associative law, 30 commuting elements, 32
automorphism, 91 complement, of an element, 224
inner, lOS relative, 3
axioms, for a 800lean algebra, 224 of a set, 3
for a groUI), 35 complementary subspaces, 259
for a ring, 142 . complex numbers, 173, 211
for a vector space, 249 compoeite number, 21
composition chain, 118
basis,268 compoeition of functions, 15
theorem on existence, 270 congruence, modulo a subgroup, 73
binary operation, 27 modulo n, 52
Boolean alpbra, 224 conjugate elements, 115, 131
Boolean ideal, 234 conjugate subgroup, 129
Boolean homomorphism, 234 conjugacy class, 132
Boolean ring, 220 constant polynomial, 198
coordinate functionals, 292
coset, 75
cancellation law, 45
cycle, 60
Cartesian I)roduct, 6 cyclic group, 69
Cauchy's theorem, 133
Cayley's theorem, 101
center, of a group, 66 degree of a polynomial, 199
of a ring, 168 DeMorgan's rules, 5
centralizer, 74, 131 dependent set of vectors, 263
305
306 INDEX
derivative (differentiation) function, prime, 180

218,278 of quotients, 179
derived Kroll", lUI ""Jitting, 2] 2
dial(onal mal.rix, 241'1 linit.I,ly KI'III'ral.It\ vIm tor Hpal!ll, 25f\
difference, of ring clement!!, 14~ fixed points of a homomorphism, 102,
of sets, 3 170, 294
dimension of a vector space, 271 function, 13
direct product, 52, 155 domain, range, 13
direct sum, 171,259 equality of, 14
disjoint sets, 3 extension,restrietion, 17
di8joint sub8paces, 258 functional value (image), 13
distributive law, 141 identity, 17
division algorithm, for integers, 20 into, onto, 13, ]4
for polynomials, 200 one-to-one, 16
division ring, 182 operations for, 14, 15
divisor of zero, 148 functional, linear, 291
domain of a function, 13 fundamental homomorphism theorellUl,
dual basis, 292 106, 166, 295
dual space, 291 fundamental theorem of algebra, 204
duality, principle of, 225 fundamental theorem of arithmetic, 23
Eisenstein criterion, 219 general linear group, 286

element, conjugate, 131 generating set, 68, 158, 255
idempotent, 45 generator, of a eyclic group,-69
identity, 33 ol a principal ideal, 158
inverse, 34 greatest common divisor, 21, 217
nilpotent, 155 group, 35
order of, 70 alternating, 126
prime, 190 center of, 66
empty (null) set, 2 commutative, 35
endomorphism, 90 cyclic, 69
equality, of functions, 14 finite, 70
of sets, 2 general linear, 286
equivalence class, 9 of inner automorphisms, 108
equivalence relation, 9 of integers modulo n, 56
equivalent composition chains, 120 of invertible elements, 143
Euclid's lemma, 22 Klein four-, 98
evaluation functional, 293 order of, 70
even permutation, 126 'P-, 130
extension field, 207 quotient, 84
extension of a function, 17 simple, 81
solvable, 123
factor theorem, 104 symmetric, 59, 62
family of sets, 5 of symmetries of the square, 49
Fermat's little theorem, 219
field, 172 homomorphism, Boolean algebra, 234
extension, 207 group, 89
finite, 183 kernel of, 94, 163
INDEX 307
ring, 161 iaomorllhiRm, of groups, 97

trivial,90, 161 of rings, 164
Vl'ctor HI"~"'" 277 of veetor RPM-CK, 282
hUIIUIIUClrphiHIII l,hlllll'UIII, fllr groull", 1011
for ringR, 166 Jordan-Holder theorem, 121
for vector spaces, 295
kernel of a homomorphism, 94, 163
ideal,156 Klein four-group, 98
annihilator, 169 Kronecker delta, 241
generated by a set, 158 Kronecker's theorem, 208
imbedding in a maximal ideal, 185
maximal, 184 Lagrange's theor~m, 79
minimal, 194 leading coefficient, 199
nil, 195 least common multiple, 26, 159
primary, 195 left coset, 75
prime, 188 left distributive law, 141
principal, 158 left ideal, 157
proper, 155 left multiplication function, 50, 170
trivial, 155 length, of a chain, 117
idempotent element, 45 of a cycle, 60
identity, ring with, 143 linear combination, 255
semigroup with, 83 linear dependence (independence), 263
identity element, 33 linear functional, 291
identity function, 17 linear mapping, 277
identity matrix, 241 linear polynomial, 205
image, direct, 18 linear space, 249
inverse, 18 linear sum, 254
imbedding, 164 local ring, 196
inclusion (injection) map. 17
independence, linear, 263 mapping; Bee function
indeterminant, 198 mathematical system, 29
index set, 6 matrix,237
index of a subgroup, 79 diagonal,241
inner automorphism, 108 dimensions, 237
inner product, 236 entry (element) of, 237
integers, group of, 56 identity, 241
modulo n, 55 nonsingular, 243
modulo a prime, 174 operations for, 238, 239
ring of, 146 representation of a linear mapping, 280
integral domain, 149 scalar, 248
integral powers of an elemcnt, 48 skew-symmetric, 249
intersection, of ideals, 157 square (of order n), 238
of sets, 3 symmetric, 249
of subgroups, 66 trace of, 291
of subs paces, 255 transpose of, 248
inverse element, 34 triangular, 248, 277
inverse mallping, 16 zero, 238
irreducible polynomial, 205 maximal element principle, 185
308 INDEX
maximal ideal, 184 ring of, 197

maximal normal subgroup, 119 root of, 202
member (element) of a set, 1 polynomial function, 218
minimal ideal, 194 power eet, 6
monic polynomial, 199 primary ideal, 196
multiple root, 218 prime element, 190
multiplication table, 28 prime ideal, 188
multiplicative semigroup of a ring, 142 prime factorisation, 23
prime field, 180
natural (canonical) mapping, 96, 165 prime number, 21
nil ideal, 195 principal ideal, 158
nilpotent element, 155 domain, 189
nilpotent mapping, 295 ring, 159
normal chain, 117 projection mapping, 291
normal subgroup, 80 proper subset, 2
normaliser, 88, 129
null set, 2 quadratic polynomial, 207
quotient, 202
one-to-one function, 16 quotient group, 84
onto function, 14 quotient ring, 160
operation, associative, 30 quotient space. 261
binary, 27 quotients. field of, 179
commutative, 32
distributive, 141 radical, 191
well-defined, 83 range of a function, 13
order, of a group, 7l> refinement of a chain, 117
of a IfOUP element, 70 relation, binary, 8
ordered n-tuple, 6 equivalence, 9
ordered pair, 6 reflexive, 9
ordered triple, 6 symmetric, 9
transitive, 9
partition, 10 relative complement, 3
permutation, 58, 62 relatively prime. 22
cycle, 60 remainder, 202
even, odd, 126 representative. of a congruence class, 54
group of, 62 of a coset. 75
transposition, 61 a
restriction of function, 17
two-line form, 58 ring, 142
p-group, 130 Boolean, 220
polynomial, 196 commutative. 143
constant, 198 diviHion, 182
degree of. 199 with identity, 143
division algorithm, 200 of integers modulo n, 146
irreducible, 205 of linear mal>llings, 286
leading coefficient. 199 10cal,l96
linear, 205 of n X n matrices, 242
monic, 199 of polynomialA, 197
quadratic, 207 principal ideal, 159
quotient, 160 Sylow, 134
semisimple, 191 torsion, 88
simple, 155 trivial, 64
root, 202 subring, 150
multiple, 218 Hubs pace, 253
annihilator of, 296
scalar, 249 Sylow p-subgroup, 134
scalar matrix, 248 Sylow theorems, 135, 137
scalar multiplication, 250 Sylvester's law, 281
scalar tranHformation, 295 symmetric difference, 35
second dual, 292 symmetric group, 59, 62
semigroup, 31 symmetric matrix, 249
commutative, 32 symmetries of the square, 49
with identity, 33
semisimple ring, 191 theorem; Bee also fundamental theorems,
set, Cartesian product, 6 basis, 270
complement, 3 Cauchy's, 133
difference of, 3 Cayley's, 101
disjoint, 3 correspondence, llO
empty, 2 Euclid's, 24
equality of, 2 factor, 104
intersection of, 3 Fermat's little, 219
member of, 1 Jordan-Holder, 121
power, 5 Kronecker's, 208
singleton, 2 Krull-Zorn, 185
symmetric difference, 36 Lagrange's, 79
union of, 3 remainder, 203
universal, 2 Steinitz replacement, 267
shift function, 278 Stone representation, 223
simple group, 81 Sylow's, 135, 137
!!imple ring, 155 torsion-free, 88
singleton, 2 torsion subgroup, 88
skew-symmetric matrix, 249 trace of a matrix, 291
solvable chain, 123 transformation, linear, 277
solvable group, 129 transpose, of a linear mapping, 296
span, linear, 255 of a matrix, 248
splitting field, 212 transposition, 61
exifltence of, 212 triangular matrix, 248, 277
uniqueness of, 216 trivial homomorphism, 90, 161
standard (natural) basis, 268 trivial subgroup, 64
Hteinit.z replacement theorem, 267 trivial subring, 150
Stone representation theorem, 223 trivial subspace, 259
tlubfield, 176
subgrollp, 64 union of sets, 3
commutator, 86 unique factorization, for integers, 23
conjugate, 129 for polynomials, 206
(~yclic, 69 uniqucncHH, of identity elements, 33
normal,80 of inverse elements, 41
310 INDEX
unit vcctorll, 264 linear span, 255

univerllall!Ct, 2 subspace, 253
vectors, 235, 249 well-defined operation, 83

components of, 235 well-ordering principle, 19
rlimenMion of, 235
inner product, 236 zero divisor, 148
linearly independent, 263 zero element of a ring, 142
operations for, 235 zero matrix, 238
vector space, 249 zero polynomial, 197
basis for, 268 zero ring, 147
dimension of, 271 zero vector, 236
generators for, 256 Zorn's lemma, 185

David M. Burton Introduction To Modern Abstract Algebra PDF

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ADDISON-WESLEY SERIES IN MATHEMATICS

Ocnuultiftl/ Editor: LYNN H. LoOMI8

ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY

The text is not intended to be encyclopedic in nature; many importaut topics

Durham, New H amp8hirc ..D.M.B.

Chapter 1 Preliminary Notion.

Chapter 2 Group Theory

Chapter 3 RI. . Theory

Chapter 4 Vector Spec..

1-1 THE ALGEBRA OF SETS

The text is not intended to be encyclopedic in nature; many important topics

Durham, New Ifampshire ..n.M.B.

Chapter 1 Preliminary Notion.

Chapter 2 Group Thoory

Chapter 3 Rlnt Theory

Chapter 4 Vector Spac..

certain sets may be described both ways:

{O, I} = {x / x E Z and x 2 = x}.

It is customary, however, to depart slightly from this notation and write

o= {x E R' I x 2 < O} or 0= {X/XFX}.

In particular, {O} F 0 sincll 0 E {O}.

d) if A 5;; Band B 5;; C, then A 5;; C,

The intersection of A and B, denoted by A n B, is the subset of U defined by

Observe that A - B !lnd B - A are disjoint.

In the following theorem, some simple consequences of the definitions of

If A, B. and C are sets such that C ~ A and C ~ B, then it is clear that

Theorem 1-3. Let A amI B be subsets of the universe U. Then

To give the reader a little more familiarity with set-theoretic argument, we

x E (-A) n (-B). Thus -(A u B) ~ (-A) n (-B).

We consequently have the inclusion (-A) n (-B) ~ -(A u B) and the

A few remarks arc in order before considering a specific example. First,

ua = {x / x E A for some set A E a},

At times we will resort to an indexing set to define these notions. To be

and n{Ai / i E f}.

If the nature of the index set 1 is clearly understood or if the emphasizing of

u{A .. / n E Z+} = {x / x E A .. for some n E Z+} = At,

In passing, we should note that by a chain of sets is meant a nonempty

{a} = {e} and {a, b} = {e, d},

(a, b) = (a, a) = {{a,a}, {a}} = {{a}}.

According to our hypothesis, we then have

Having faced the problem of defining ordered pairs, it is natural to consider

(a, b, c) = (a, b), c).

(at. a2, .. , a,.) = (b" b2, .. , bn )

if and only if ak = bk for k = 1,2, ... ,n.

Definition 1-6. The Carte8ian product of two nonempty sets A and B,

A XB = {(a, b) I a E A and b E B}.

Whenever we employ the Cartesian product notation, it will be with the

Example 1-4. Let A = {-I,O, I} and B = {0,2}. Then,

A X B = {(-I, 0), (-1,2), (0,0), (0, 2), (1,0), (1, 2)},

Definition 1-7. A rl'lllt.ion Il in It liet, A iii 8nid to he 11I1 (!quivalence relation

actually an equivalence relation in A. Now suppose the clement a E Ai. Then

Example 1-9. Let A = R' X R' and define the relation"", by

(a, b) "'" (c, d) if and only if a - c = b - d.

TIII'II - is Ilil I'Iluivll1c-lIc'c- rc-laLion ill A. Thl! cquivlLlmwe dlLHH determined by

[(a, b)J = {(c, d) I a - c = b - d}.

In the following excrciscl! :I, B, and C are subset!! of some universe U.

10. ASRume that :1, H, and Carll Ret.s for which

Prove t.hat B = C. [Hin.t: H = B () (B U .\).1

Bl = "h; Bn = An - U{.h I k = 1,2, ... , n - I} for n > 1.

1-2 FUNCTIONS AND ELEMENTARY NUMBER THEORY

If J is a function and (x, y) E J, then y is said to be the functional value or

Example 1-10. If the function f is the finite set of ordered pairs,