5t~ Offshore South East Asia 21-24 Februory 1984 Singapore

SESSION 6: LOGGING

FULL WAVE ACOUSTIC LOGGING SOME EXAMPLES

John W Minear
WELEX, A Halliburton Company
Sami 0 Ajam
Halliburton Limited

ABSTRACT

More information about formation properties than is commonly utilized is

available in the acoustic signal. The objective of full-wave acoustic
logging is to use more of this information to determine formation
properties.

Full-wave acoustic tools generally have transmitter-to-receiver spacings

greater than about eight feet. This provides deeper penetration and
facilitates signal analysis. Full-wave acoustic signals are briefly
discussed.

Shear wave slowness, or ~t, is one of the most important new acoustic
logging measurements. Used ~ith ~t , ~ provides basic log quantities for
lithology identification, gas zone ~dent~fication, estimation of lithology
and porosity with acoustic logs only, ond improved formation elastic
property estimation.

INTRODUCTION
More informotion about formation properties than is commonly utilized is
available in the acoustic signal propagated down a borehole. In fact,
present ~t logs, the most common open hole acoustic logs, represent only a
small fra@tion of the potential information in the acoustic signal. The
objective of ful1-wave acoustic logging is to use more of the information to
determine formation properties. Such properties include ~t , tJ:. , ~t / t ,
lithology, rock elastic modulii, compressional and shear gtten~atio~ agd
reflection coefficients.

Shear wave slowness, * or ~t, is one of the most important of the new
logging measurements provided b~ the analysis of full-wave acoustic Signals.
The main objective of this paper is to present several examples of the use
of shear and compressional wave slowness logs. Characteristics of full-wave
acoustic signals are briefly discussed for background.

FUlL-WAVE ACOUSTIC SIGNALS

The full-wave acoustic signal is composed of four main types of waves:

compressional, shear, pseudo-Rayleigh and Stoneley. Compressional and shear
waves are often referred to as P and S waves respectively. Pseudo-Rayleigh
waves are also called reflected conical waves and normal modes; Stoneley

* ~t, the inverse of velocity, is the common unit in acoustic logging.

Inverse velOCity is generally referred to as slowness.

6-37
waves are called tube waves. Combinations of these four waves, each
influenced by a variTt~ ~f borehole and formation properties yield the full-
wove acoustic signal ' , An instructive approach is to consider the full-
wave signal as it is built up from these individual phases.

Figure 1 illustrates the development of the full wove acoustic signal. The
familiar compressional, or P, wove is the first energy arriving at the
receivers from the transmitter (Figure 1.0). The shear, or S, wove travels
slower through the formation (tJ:. > t:. ) than the P wove. Consequently it
arrives at the receivers later tfian th~ P wave. Shear wove amplitude is
much lower than P wave amplitude (Figure l.b). Because of this, the shear
wove arrival would be very difficult to detect in many cases. Fortunately,
the pseudo-Rayleigh wove arrives at the some time as the shear wove and has
much larger amplitude (Figure l.c). Consequently the beginning of the
pseudo-Rayleigh wove train may be used as the beginning of the shear
arrival. The pseudo-Rayleigh wove train continues for a long time after the
shear wove arrival and in many cases dominates the full-wove acoustic
signal. The Stone ley wove arrives in the midst of the pseudo-Rayleigh wove
train (Figure l.d). It travels at a speed less than the speed of sound in
the borehole fluid. Consequently it is often misidentified as the fluid
wove. Figure l.d shows a representative full-wove acoustic Signal composed
of P, 5, pseudo-Rayleigh and Stoneley waves from a hard formation.

The actual appearance of the full-wave acoustic signal depends strongly on

the tool frequency response and borehole and formation properties. Several
examples in Figure 2 illustrate the variation in the character of the full-
wove acoustic signal with tool and formation properties. The limestone
signal in Figure 2.0 is dominated by the pseudo-Rayleigh wove train. P and
pseudo-Rayleigh waves begin abruptly and then maintain approximately
constant amplitude. The P wove continues into the 5 wove arrival. The
signal in Figure 2.b was recorded by the some tool and in the some well as
was the limestone signal. However, it is from a sandstone section. Note
the difference in signal characteristics; sharp decrease in P wove signal
after its arrival; gradual increase and then decrease of the pseydo-Rayleigh
wove train. Stoneley waves are not distinct in either Figures 2.0 or 2.b
because of the lock of low frequency response in the logging tool.

Figures 2.c and 2.d show signals from low velOCity formations;
unconsolidated, high porosity sands and shale. Note that only Pond
Stoneley waves are present. This is because neither shear now pseudo-
Rayleigh waves are produced in the borehole if the formation shear slowness
is greater than bore-fluid slowness (At> a t f ) Also note that the
Stoneley wove contains much low-frequency energy that can be recorded if the
tool has good low frequency response.

ADVANTAGES OF LONG-SPACED TOOLS

Full-wove acoustic tools are generally long-spaced, ie. transmitter to

receiver spacings are greater than about eight feet. Long spacing is
advantageous for two basic reasons: it provides the potential for deeper
penetration of acoustic waves into the formation and it provides greater
separation between Pond 5 wove arrivals. The latter advantage is important
in full-wove acoustic logging because it facilitates signal processing
techniques for determining at
s
Greater transmitter to receiver spacing results in deeper penetration only
if the slowness in on altered or damaged zone around the bore has been
increased over that in the undisturbed formation. Mechanical damage (eg.
fracturing, compaction, stress relief) due to drilling, and the displacement

6-38
SPE123 99
 '~39~
of formation fluids by more dense drilling fluids (eg. filtrate replacing
oil and gas) will increase damaged zone ~ over undamaged formation 6. t.
Using ray theory, the mechanism of penetration through a low-velocity,
damaged zone is illustrated in Figure 3.

The bottom part of Figure 3 shows three different ray paths from a
transmitter to two receivers. The top part of Figure 3 is a plot of transit
time versus transmitter-to-receiver distance for the waves travelling along
the three paths shown in the bottom figure. Long-dashed curves represent
the direct mud or fluid slowness, 6.t~. The short-dashed curves represent
the wave refracted at the borehole wall. Signals due to this wave arriving
at the two receivers- are represented by the dashed portions of the waveforms
in the top figure. The slope of the line drawn through these arrivals is
just 6.t ' the slowness of the damaged zone. If the slowness of the damaged
o
zone is the same or less than the undamaged formation slowness (litO ~ lItU)'
this will be the only refracted arrival. However, if the damaged zone
slowness is greater than that in the undamaged formations (At > At), then a
O
second refracted wave indicated by the solid lines may exist. As can be
seen from the figure, the ray path for this wave is longer than the ray path
for the wave refracted at the bore-formation interface (shore-dashed curve).
However, the wave travelling the solid ray path travels part of its path at
a higher velocity (indicated by V ) than the wave travelling along the
u
dashed curve. Consequently it will gain on the slower-travelling dashed ray
and overtake it at some critical distance, L. At distances less than L ,
the bore-damaged formation refracted wave wril be the first arrival; at
distances greater than L, the damaged-undamaged refracted wave will arrive
first. This is illust~ated by the solid portions of the wavetrains in the
figure. The slope of the line drawn through the solid arrivals is At u' the
slowness of the undamaged formation. In order for the solid waveforms to be
detected they must be the first arrivals at all the receivers. Therefore,
the mlnlmum transmitter-to-receiver spacing must be greater than the
critical distance L .
c
Distance L at which the wave refracted along the undamaged formation
becomes th~ first arrival at all the receivers depends on thickness of the
damaged zone and ~ values in the damaged and undamaged zones. Reasonable
values of damaged zone thickness (about one foot) and 6t (10% greater than
undamaged formation~) indicate that L should be greater than about eight
feet if undamaged formation At is to be measured.

Figure 4 shows a comparison of 10ng-(10' and 12" receivers) and short-spaced

(4' and 6' receivers) At logs in unconsolidated, high porOSity (28%) sands.
In the high porosi ty zo~es, long-spaced t:t. values are as much as 20,.u.s/ft
less than short-spaced 6t values. p
p

SHEAR WAVE INFORMATION

One of the most important measurements besides ~ obtainable from full-wave

acoustic signals i~ ~t . At has been measured ~hrough rock samples in the
laboratory for ~e?rs' and i~s importance in formation evaluation has also
been recognized' for some time. However, only within the last few years
has the capability been developed to produce 6.t logs. Some of the uses of
At in combination with At will be illustrated ~i th log examples.
5 p

Shear and compressional wave slowness logs are shown in Figure 5 for a
series of Cambrian formations. t:t. 3and 6.t curves are plotted in track 3.
Also plotted is a ~ quality facto~. Thg quality factor ranges from 2
(excellent At quali~y) to 0 (very poor ~ quality). Note that 6t is of
excellent qua~ity throughout most of theSlogged intervals shown In the

6-39 SPE123 99
figure. ~ ts and ~t logs track eac" other rather closely. ~t of course is
always greater thag ~t. However, there are important diff~rences in the
spacing between the curees. For example, the curves are closer together in
zone D than in other zones. One way of emphasizing the different trends in
dt and dt is to plot their ratio dt Itt as is done in track 2. Two
impgrtant Gses of the velocity ratio ~re ~n lithology and gas zone identi-
fication.

LITHOLOGY IDENTIFICATION
The basis of velocity ratio lithology identification is experimental data
such as shown in Figure 6. Major sedimentary rock types fall into rather
distinct groups on a ~t Idt versus ~t plot.- For instance, limestones
have velocity ratios gf bout 1.8 -Pl.9 and ~t values from 50 - 100
~ec/ft. Velocity ratios for a given lithology a~e fairly insensitive to
porosity for carbonates and show a rather well-defined trend for sandstone.
Low porosity rocks lie at the right hand ends of the lithology domains with
porosity increasing to the left.

Returning to Figure 5.0, zones A and C have velocity ratios of about 1.9
indicating limestone. dt values for these zones are about 49 - 51 r's/ft
which by Figure 6 indicatePvery low porosity. This is confirmed by full-
bore COre analysis shown in the depth track. Core porosity in zone C is
less than 1%. Zone G in Figure 5.b has a velocity ratio averaging about 1.6
- t.7 indicating a sandstone. Using 6t as well as velocity ratio, zone G
can be plotted in Figure 6 as point G 2hich indicates a medium porosity
sandstone. Core analysis shows a sandstone with 8 - 12% porosity through
zone G.

Velocity ratio can be of value in delineating siltstones from clay rich

zones. Zones S, 0, and F all have high natural gamma count rates. However,
the velocity ratio shows significant differences between zones F and S, O.
Decrease of the velOCity ratio from its t.9 value through zones Sand 0
suggests that the zones are silty (higher quartz content) which is confirmed
by the COre analysis. The high velOCity ratio in zone F suggests the
presence of clay minerals. Mineralogical analysis of zone F confirms that
about 10 - 20% kalonite and illite are present.

Natural gamma activity reflects the chemistry and to some extent the
mineralogy of the formation. Velocity ratio depends on the elastic or
mechanical properties of the formation. Clay minerals tend to be
mechanically weaker than quartz or calcite. Texture (massive Siltstones or
fissile shales) and position of clay minerals in the structural framework of
the formation also influence their effect on mechanical properties.
Consequently clay minerals may affect velocity ratio differently than they
affect natural gamma activity.

GAS ZONE IDENTIFICATION

Another use of the velocity ratio is as a qualitative gas indicator. Gas
causes an increase in at and has negligible effect on ~t. Consequently
the ~t I~t ratio is dec~eased by gas. Seca~se only a f~ percent gas in
the fo~mat~on has a tremendous effect on dt v, the decrease in velOCity
ratio can only be used as a qualitative indicgtor. Clay minerals will tend
to decrease the gas effect on velOCity ratio because they increase At as
well as dt. However, in a clean formation or one with constant amma
activity, degrease in the velocity ratio can be a useful gas indicator.

6-40
SPE12399
Figure 7 shows ~t ,~t and ~ I~t curves with density and neutron porosity
curves from a weIl inPCotten Voll~y sandstones. Crossover of neutron and
density porosity curves (not shale correctedl indicate gas zones at several
intervals. Depth zones in which the velocity ratio is less than 1.5 show
excellent correlation with the neutron-density indicated gas zones.

Acoustic ~t measurements will be affected less by poor hole conditions than

will neutron and density measurements which depend on good pad contact.
Consequently the velocity ratio as a gas indicator should be advantageous
with poor hole conditions.

POROSITY-LITHOLOGY DETERMINATION
Velocity ratio and ~t may be used to estimate both lithology and porosity
from acoustic informat~on only. Thus, full-wave acoustic logs can provide
completely independent estimates of these important formation properties.

Figure 8 is a plot of velOCity ratio versus V (1/6t l. Points from two

different formation zones are shown on the plgt alon~ with the experimen-
tally determined fields for limestones, dolomites and sandstones shown in
Figure 6. The velOCity ratio indicates that zone B is a dolimitic lime-
stone. ~t values for zone B are at the extreme right of the limestone
field indi@ating very low porosity. Zone A points lie in a region of the
plot that indicates medium porOSity sandstones. Neutron-density crossplots
yield porosities averaging about 12 - 15% through zone A.

Without velOCity ratio values the lithology of points in zones A and B would
be ambiguous. Zone A could be identified as a high porosity limestone
rather than a medium porosity sandstone. Based on ~ only, zone B could be
either a low porosity limestone or dolomite. p

ELASTIC CONSTANT CALOJLATION

Formation mechanical strength is important in predicting fracture pressure
gradients and in determining whether formations are strong enough to produce
at specified rates without breaking down or sanding. M~chanical strength
depends in part on the elastic parameters af the formation. Common elastic
parameters used in formation strength evaluation are bulk modulus, shear
modulus, Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio.

Poisson's ratio enters into the formula for fracture pressure gradient. In
the absence of ~ log measurements, Poisson's ratio is estimated from the
lithology (bulk d;nsity) or from~t. However, this derived Poisson's ratio
often does not reflect the mechan~cal properties of a formation. Conse.
quently fracture pressure gradient logs based on such a derived Poisson's
ratio may be in error.

If both ~t and ~t are measured with an acoustic tool, then Poisson's ratio
may be c&mputed sdirectly from the velOCity ratio. Fracture pressure

>IIThe dynamic Poisson's ratio, ~, is defined to be (2_R2 )/2( l_R2 ) where R =

~t I~. This formula can be written in terms of bulk (K) and shear (~)
modGliiPto give <1"= (3K - 2),l/2{3K +).1-). An important feature of this last
equation is that it shows to be independent of density. Consequently, the
use of bulk density to estimate Poisson's ratio may introduce variations due
to density itself which are rigorously excluded by the definition of
Poisson's ratio.

6-41
SPE12399
gradients computed from such measured values of Poisson's ratio will reflect
true formation mechanical strength. Figure 9 shows an elastic properties
log 9computed from ~t and a Poisson's ratio based on formation bulk den-
sity. Note that Poi~son's ratio and fracture pressure gradient curves are
quite smooth in spite of the fact that there are major changes in lithology.

Figure 10 shows elastic properties computed using ~ t and ~t over the same
depth interval as in Figure 9. Note that there arg signifIcant variations
in Poisson's ratio and fracture pressure gradient curves. For example, the
limestone has several streaks with relatively large Poisson's ratio and
increases in fracture pressure gradient (6058', 6120', 6224', 6254' - 6226')
rather than being very uniform in strength as indicated in Figure 9. Also
note that the shaley zones show considerable variation in Poisson's ratio
and fracture pressure gradient when measured ~t is used (Figure 10).
However, when a derived~t is used the shale zo~e show almost constant
values of these quantities (Figure 9).

REFERENCES

1. Cheng, CHand Toksoz, M N (1981). "Elastic Wave Propagation in a Fluid-

Filled Borehole and SynthetiC Acoustic Logs", Geophysics, 46, 1042
1053.

2. Paillet, F L and White, J E (1982). "Acoustic Modes of Propagation in

the Borehole and Their Relationship to Rock Properties", Geophysics, 8,
1215 - 1228.

3. Minear, J Wand Fletcher, C R (1983). "Full-wave Acoustic Logging", CWS-

SPWLA Symposium 24th, Paper EE.

4. Pickett, G R (1963). "Acoustic Character Logs and Their Applications in

Formation Evaluation", J Petroleum Technology, June, 659 - 667.

5. Toksoz, M N; Cheng, CHand Timur, A (1976). "Velocities of Seismic

Waves in Porous Rocks", GeophYSiCS, 41, 621 - 645.

6. Helbig, K and Mesdag, C S (1982). "The Potential of Shear-wave

Observations", Geophysical Prospecting, 30, 413 - 431.

7. Tatham, R H (1982). "Vp/Vs and Li thology", Geophysics, 47, 336 - 344.

8. Coyner, K (1982). Department of Earth and Planetary Physics, MIT.

Personal Communication.

9. Coates, GRand Denoo, S A (1980). "Log Derived Mechanical Properties

and Rock Stress", SPWLA 21st Annual Logging Symposium, Paper U.

6-42 SPE123 99
 ~TRANSMITTER PULSE

R'~
P (A) (8)

pseudo-Rayleigh
pseudo-Rayleigh

stoneley
II

(C) (O)

Figure 1. Development of the fullwave acoustic signal from its composite

waves.

6-43
~PF1?~qq
 LIMESTONE pseudo-Rayleigh

(A)

t
p t
S

SANDSTONE pseudo-Rayleigh

(8)

t
p t
S

UNCONSOLIDATED SAND
narrow band

(C)
1~ V, tv'"
p
"''YqVV'
stone ley

LAMINATED SHALE
broad band

(D)
t
p
L-..J
stoneley

Figure 2. Examples of fullwave acoustic signals from different lithologies.

6-44 SPE12399
 -..' I
"]'1
9.-' /
o /
q-/
/ :~~ I first arrival from
/I - "\.0:'
~> ::> 'first arrival from
undamaged formation

-;/~<$ 'r~
1/ Lc-J 1

TRANSMITTER - RECEIVER SPACING (L)

l::. Vo
Vu
V D~VO
V"
3 UNDAMAGED FORMATION
n' DAMAGED ZONE

--coo(l-l---l.!oIL-:_::_::_::_::
__ ~_=__i.c'!f_=_:_=_-";::L..I_ - J
Figure 3. Depth of penetration of acoustic rays around a damaged borehole.
16'" ''l:lIL1l>tff "'16'-' .00 IIAIO 6. i 17li OfK! 16 I
id 156 I I.U ----.orol!oi - 6:.rl7t,- -- ~--'Yci",

.
/~, "
.'
: ....
CALIPER,'!
,-
", "
~ ~----~+_--~--4-----~~====~~
,.
,
.
,
q,N~~
'-,

Ia t:AiN ISO r
16' 'l:lIL1l'l:It'"16' i&6 pAlO 6. i lid bffie! fbi

Figure 4. Comparison of long- and short-spaced Atp in unconsolidated.

high-porosity sands.

f' :.,
;
"
,- 0' J '.
6-45
SPE12399
 r-20- - - - - - - -- - - -Q1fA1.1lrr - - - - - -0- --,
r"6- - - - - - - - - - - -1:lIl!l>!!( - - - - - -1"6--' r-f10- - - - - - - - - -W:!" - - - - - - -- - "'10--'
I0

e.~ '--
J__
GAIfIA

:
I

i
~-
Zoo I

: 1
' :F'
I 1. 4

~$
',
OrSlDYp 2.4 1146

i~!~'
!
'mJ!~
' 'i=g
.J.~ i
Ofp

I '~'-
-;-
!~'
__
40

" CALlPER=:E:
r--;;- w
z
. GAMMA
=
0
I-
CIl
W
. --.
~
" ...I

_.
,
.-
,

500
, ,
" .-

. ." '.:
,
" S
W
, ~
I-
,, ~
~
(/)

, 1

"
,I
, ,
1-
~1
;

" "I

,
. 600

~;
,
~ ., ,;:]
c
W
, ~
::::i ~, .1

~ts ~,,:1
: ,
QUAL.
,::.

,
,

: 1--
,-\

", >e
W~
~
. I
\0
I ~...I
::::ic;; I
,I ,,... I I ; 700 I ,
." I " .... i
10 GAJ+fA :s60 i I 1.4 Of!lbfp %.4 1140 dTP 401
rto ---------- -1:Al!l>tlf - -- - - -j(, -, r Ttl!" ------ -- -1lrr -- -- -----"'1~-,
r~----------WA1.1lY1f-----o---,

Figure Sa. Fullwave acoustic log showing Alp, At. and At. quality curves.

6-46 SPE12399
 i 1.4 df3)biP 2.4 i'"2o-",_ u
"''''-''''--4lIA1..1tB''---_ u
cr--,
,. . -----------m.11tlf------,.--, ,-,ycr---------llrr---------"fIj'-,
io 336 i i 146 OtP

. 'l
~
.. F
J

I
I~I
.. !
I I
At - I Figure 5b. Fullwave acoustic log showing
~
I- A.tp At. and At. quality curves.
m At.1 Atp
! GO A\j~~ 'Atp~

!~ ~ ..,::
. -:::::.; :
ffi~ ~@

i- ;!B aUAL.At.
--

J
1--,....(0:
r==;i:;::
r=~'::

: I....~
in

-.
:.

10
.. I

,.----------m.1PllI'-----n--'
I

!06 I
- i 146 dtP
,-,"fIj'llrr"fIj',
461

I 1.4 bt5)bfP 2.4 i'W-......--.........~--- ..1S' ..... ,

2.8

2.6

2.4

~2.2 POROSITY INCREASES

-
<J
.::
<J 2.0

1.8 Figure 6. Velocity ratio vs. Alp from a

compilation of experimental data.
1.6

1.5 ~------.L- __--:'___ --J._ _ _...J

5 10 15 20 25
P VELOCITY (kilo ft./sec.)
I I I
200 100 67 50 40
Alp (J.'SI ft.)

6-47
SPEI?~QQ
 1.------------1:Al1l'tlC-----,.--,
150 i I .4

12100 I---~~+--_+----f__J~~-+-i

QUAL.dts

16 r:r-~ 1140
1.-----------1:At.1PlIf-----16--' r-.-'---1>HtIf--, I-I..,d"~..,d"-,

Figure 7. Comparison of neutron-density and velocity-ratio gas indicators.

2.4

INCREASING POROSITY
2.2
~
<I
;:; 2.0

1.8

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
V. (Kilo ft/sec.)

Figure 8. Velocity ratio vs. Vp crossplot for estimating lithology and porosity
from full wave acoustic data only.

6-48
SPE12399
 I:' M""." -- -- ~o r""~A(. ~ -.~" . M,
HI~~ -III1t: ~(-.-, r-t".. ---~H(,Ut---"--r'...
d ----1",-" rO------,sillc .. r-'
,,----,..---,--, rm---'atr--r I d SR/ki/. d i I "----OIC---'--,
.5 , Ie 90urtt5 d 1i.Yu-".c'I'lIifQN--"f""' "'Ia--"'k..--r-T''-'---,.,.,..,..-...,.....-""",nr'--"""bO",N'''''.......,,1 "1.'!'.u~.~.'"S'nl

10

a '.i.
'6
RI----~--'i-,
lit:

14... ,,
t i P.i_ .$ I J6
!R7MLPil i
r-l0.. -.. ---!I1C.II--"-T'....----",....."
11----..
ii 'PC
--,--, a
r....-r'
i .5 i Jd
WiWkJ t
r-l0......wo- ....o....,.,6..-----.-
..,.
,'..ttrev:.-, ,,.--wr~a'

Figure 9. Fracture pressure gradient log computed Figure 10. Fracture pressure gradient log computed
from Poisson's ratio derived from bulk density. from log measurements of Atp and Ats.

6-49 SPE12399