The Scientific Method

Performing experiments
Making observations
Qualitative
Observation does not use numbers
Quantitative
Observation is a measurement. It has two components: A measured
quantity and an appropriate unit
Proposing a hypothesis
A tentative explanation
Confirming the hypothesis
Confirm by repeated and controlled experiments
Proposing a scientific law

Numerical Values
Scientific notation
10
589.46 = 5.8946102
Significant figures
135.62 has 5
0.000356 has 3
300.5 has 4
2.3700 has 5
Rules:
Addition/Subtraction: keep the smallest number of significant
figures
Multiplication/Division: keep the smallest number of significant
figures
Exact numbers, unit conversion and constants have no effect on
significant figures
Rounding:
<5: Round down
>5: Round up
5: If odd round up, if even round down.
System of units
Length: meter (m)
Volume: cubic meter (3 ) or milliliter (mL)
Mass: kilogram (kg)
Density: mass/volume
 Giga = 109 , Mega = 106 , Kilo = 103 , Centi = 102, Milli = 103, Micro
= 106, Nano = 103
Matter

Elements: one atom

Compound: combination of elements
Mixture: combination of compounds
Atom
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Atomic and Mass Number

A is the mass number (protons + neutrons)
Z is the atomic number (protons)
Molecules and Ions
Molecules
Combinations of Atoms (2 )
Ions
Charged species formed by a loss or a gain of electrons
Cation
Loss of electron
Anion
Gain of electron
Periodic Table

Groups (Columns)
Elements in the same group or family have similar chemical propreties.
Period (Rows)
Groups
A are the main group elements
B are the transition elements
Families
IA are the Alkali Metals
IIA are the Alkaline Earth Metals
VIIA are the Halogens
VIIIA are the Noble Gases
Physical States
Gases (Hydrogen and right side)
Liquids (Only Hg (Mercury) and Br)
Solids (Most of the table + Metals (25 C) except for Mercury)
Metals lose an electron to become cations and nonmetals gain electrons to form anions
Metals vs Non-Metals vs Metalloids
Metals (Most of the periodic table)
Non-Metals (H + right side)
Metalloids (Diagonal)
Most abundant elements
H, Na, Mg, K, Ca, C, N, O, P, S, Cl
Found in living systems
Li, V, Cr, Mo, Fe, Co, Mn, In, Cu, Zn, Cd, B, Is, Sn, Pb, As, Se, F, I
Compounds

Classifying
Organic: contains at least one element of carbon
Inorganic: contains no element of carbon
Ionic: metal + nonmetal
Covalent: nonmetal x2
Naming for Ionic Compounds
For groups IA, IIA, IIIA (Metals, cations) (Group number)
The cation has the same name as the metal and is named first
For groups VA, VIA, VIIA (Nonmetals, anions) (Group number - 8)
The anion has the root of the nonmetal with -ide
You can form more than one cation with some metals
i.e.: FeCl3, FeCl2.
Some ions contain more than two of the same atom so we use brackets
(3 )2
Common Polyatomic Ions
Ammonium (4+ ), Bicarbonate (3 ), Carbonate (32 ), Hydroxide
( ), Nitrate (N3 ), Phosphate (43 ), Bisulfate (4 ) and Sulfate
(S4 )
Naming for Covalent Compounds
Name the first element
Name the second element as an anion (ide)
Use prefixes for each element (mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa)
No mono prefix for the first element
Some compounds are known with different names
Water (2 ), Ammonia (3 ), Hydrogen Sulfide (2 ), Hydrogen Peroxide (2 2 ),
Methane (4) and Ozone (3 )
1 mole = 6.0221023 atoms
Occupational Hazards

Types of Hazards
Safety Hazards
Material handling hazards: muscle strains, accidental contact with
forklifts/cranes
Machine hazards: rotating shaft, moving belts, presses
Energy hazards: electric, steam, hydraulic pressure
Work practice hazards: unsafe operating procedures
Confined space hazards: silos/storage tanks/pipelines create difficulty of
entry and exit which builds up hazardous materials and oxygen deficiency
Health Hazards
Physical hazards: pressure, temperature, noise, vibration, radiation
Chemical hazards: dust, fume, gas, mist, smoke, vapor
Biological hazards: bacteria, molds, viruses
Ergonomic hazards: stress, fatigue
Physical and Chemical
Physical agents: radiation, vibration, heat, noise
Chemical agents: vapor, gas, fume, dust
Hazard assessment
Processes, operations and related activities
General various emissions are evaluated because any physical, chemical or
biological agents can be health hazards
Equipment
Mechanical and electrical safety as well as potential to create excessive
noise and vibration
Properties of substance used and produced
Evaluation of raw materials and finished products in terms of physical,
chemical and toxic properties and effects.
Control measures
All engineering controls in place for proper materials handling, storage,
etc. are evaluated. Also, ventilation and protective equipment
Physical agents
We are often exposed to these agents but are not affected by them
The adverse health effects occur when prolonged exposure occurs.
Pressure & Temperature
Pressure extremes
Hyperbaric
Higher than normal atmospheric pressure (mining, underwater)
Hypobaric
Lower than normal atmospheric pressure (high elevation: pilot)
Temperature extremes
 Factors: Air movement, hot or cold objects, humidity
Heat effects: exhaustion, fainting, heart stroke (construction/industrial workers)
Cold effects: frostbite, hypothermia (Outdoor works, meat packers and handlers)
Noise & Vibration
Excessive Noise
Reduces communication between workers, increasing annoyance and may
lead to poor job performance causing accidents
High levels can also cause loss of hearing
Excessive Vibration
May cause discomfort
Known cause to back pain, carpal tunnel and damage to bone/joints
Whole-body: is transmitted to surface (mining equipment)
Hand-arm: is transmitted to hands/arms (hand-held power tools)
Radiation
Energy and ability to penetrate body tissue
Even brief exposure can cause severe damage to tissue
Infrared, ultraviolet and microwaves do not penetrate below the skin
Damage is reduced to skin/eyes
Types
Ionizing: x-rays, alpha/beta/gamma rays, ultraviolet
Non-ionizing: visible light, microwaves, infrared, radio waves, low-energy
ultraviolet
Applications
Industrial: quality control, radiography
Household: television, smoke detectors
Medical: imaging, treatment
Science: material analysis, sterilization
Chemical agents
Origin
Compressed gases. Ex: Chlorine gas
Flammable materials. Ex: gasoline
Oxidizing materials. Ex: potassium, permanganate, hydrogen peroxide
Poisonous materials. Ex: potassium cyanide, mercury salts
Corrosive materials. Ex: sulfuric acid, potassium hydroxide
Dangerously reactive materials. Ex: alkali produces hydrogen with water
Form
Fine Particles: spray painting, welding, incomplete combustion of oil and
grease, ore grinding
Gases and vapors: solvent degreasing, spray painting, welding
Biological Agents
Bacteria, fungi, viruses and other micro-organisms
 They reproduce rapidly and survive with a minimum of resources.
Ergonomic stresses
Properly applied: reduces work injuries, improve productivity and quality, increase
job satisfaction, satisfy government regulations.
Toxicology - American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)

The science that involves the study of the properties and interactions of physical, chemical
or biological agents.
Toxicity: the degree of danger of a material to injure a living organism by other than
mechanical means.
Toxic hazards (toxicity) posed by a chemical are influenced by a number of factors such as:
Physical, chemical, intensity of exposure, mode of handling, routes of entry,
susceptibility of the worker.
Routes of entry of chemical agents: respiratory tract, digestive tract, cutaneous
(skin eyes)
Dose & Exposure
Dose: amount of toxicant(s) actually delivered to the target organ. (mg/kg)
Exposure: total amount of toxicant(s) in the workplace, (mg/m^3 or ppm)
Threshold Limit Values
Maximum value workers can be exposed to consistently without adverse side
effects. The lower, the more dangerous.
Effects of Toxicants
Duration of the effect
Acute: soon after exposure
Chronic: observed much later after exposure
Physiological effects
Asphyxiants: lack of oxygen leading to suffocation (Carbon
monoxide/cyanide)
Irritants: eye, skin, mucous irritation (ozone, hydrogen sulfide)
Anesthetics: depressants (chloroform, alcohols)
Narcotics: bad habit forming depressants (morphine, Demerol)
Systemics: organ or system damage (benzene, phenol)
Lung scarring agents: lung damage leading to lung cancer (mineral dust,
asbestos)
Other effects
Carcinogens: cause cancer (ethylene dibromide, vinyl chloride)
Mutagens: cause changes in DNA (benzene, ethylene oxide)
Teratogens: malformations in newborns (organic mercury compounds,
anesthetic gases such as nitrous oxide)
Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS)

Key elements: cautionary labeling, provision of MSDS, material safety data sheets and
provision of worker education programs.
Class Categories (MISSING SYMBOLS)
A: Compressed gas: high pressure cylinders. May explode when heated, dropped
or damaged.
B: Flammable and Combustible Material: may catch fire when exposed to
heat/spark/flame. May burst into flames.
C: Oxidizing Material: may cause fire or explosion when in contact with wood, fuel
or other combustible material.
D(1):Poisonous and Infectious Material: poisonous substance. A single exposure
may be fatal or cause serious/permanent damage.
D(2): Poisonous and Infectious Material: poisonous substance. May cause
irritation. Repeated exposure may cause cancer, birth defects, permanent damage
D(3): Poisonous and Infectious Material: may cause disease or serious illness.
Drastic exposure may result in death
E: Corrosive Material: can cause burns to eyes, skin or respiratory system
F: Dangerously Reactive Material: may react causing explosion, fire or release of
toxic gases when exposed to light, heat, vibration or extreme temperatures.
Label
Product, Risk Phrases, Precautionary Measures, First Aid Measures, Hazard
Symbols, Reference to MSDS for further information, Supplier identifier
Safety Data Sheet
Properties
Potential hazards
Safe use
Emergency procedures
Implementation
Worker education
information on labels/msds
safe use, handling, storage and disposal of hazardous materials
emergency procedures in case of spill or overexposure
Successful implementation requirements
Suppliers: provide necessary information through labels, msds
Employers: ensure labels, identifiers and msds and worker training
Employees: stay safe and inform supervisors of missing labels, msds
Regulators: develop and administer WHMIS legislation
Globally Harmonized System (GHS) anticipated changes
Inclusion of consumer, transport and workplace sectors
Inclusion of all chemicals
Hazard classification (MSDS) and hazard communication format (labels)
Air

Atmosphere
Troposphere (8 to 15 km)
Stratosphere (50 km)
Mesosphere (80 km)
Thermosphere/Ionosphere (500 to 600 km)
Major air components
Nitrogen (2 )
Oxygen (2 )
Water (2 )
Carbon Dioxide (2 )
Minor air components
Carbon Monoxide ()
If there is insufficient for 2 or during waste incineration, forest fires,
volcanoes.
Causes problems since it binds to oxygen carrying hemoglobin which
forces smaller intake of oxygen.
Ozone (3 )
Stratosphere present. Protective layer from UV radiation. Ground-level is
produced during photochemical reactions between volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) and in automobile exhaust or arc welding.
Damages biological tissues and cells (reduced lung function, breathing
difficulties, itchy, burning and watery eyes.)
Oxide of Sulfur ( )
Smelting of mineral ores and combustion of fossil fuels. Also, pulp and
paper production as well as petroleum refining (2 3 )
Reactions may lead to sulfuric acid (2 4) or sulfate salts (42 )
(volcanoes)
May cause problems breathing and respiratory illness
Oxide of Nitrogen ( )
Fuel combustion, manufacture of nitric acid (welding) also lightning and
microbial activity of soil bacteria
Serious lung damage, shortness of breath, chest pains.
Air Pollutants
Burning of fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas, coal)
Generate energy
Combustion engines (transportation)
Industrial processes
Risk Assessment
Exposure assessment: estimate concentrations using chemical measurements
 Effects assessment: toxicity testing and computer models from studies. Data
estimates toxicity and risk
Exposure Measurement
Air sampling and laboratory analysis of the pollutants
Real time monitoring using direct monitors
Units:
For gases and vapors: ppm, ppb, % (1% = 104 , 1 ppm = 103 )
For particles: mg/3 and g/3
Threshold Limit Values
: 25
2 : 3
3 : 0.1
2 : 2
Air Quality
Asbestos fibers
Used in building construction materials and insulation/fire proofing.
Biological contaminants
Bacteria, dust mites, insects, mold, pet dander, rodents, viruses.
Combustion by-products
Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, unburned
hydrocarbons and small particles. Created by incomplete burning of fuels
(wood, gas, coal from stoves, fireplaces)
Formaldehyde
Pressed wood products such as hardwood plywood wall paneling,
particleboard, fiberboard. Pressed wood, tobacco smoke, textiles and
glues.
Pesticides
Products used to kill household pests (insecticides/disinfectants)
Radon gas
Released from ground, water and building materials that contain small
amounts of uranium such as concrete, bricks and tiles.
Respirable particles
Fireplace, wood stoves, oil heaters, tobacco smoke.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Air fresheners, aerosol sprays, disinfectants, dry-cleaned clothing, hobby
supplies, paints, solvents etc.
Control Strategies
NAFTA stricter environmental emission control regulations.
Water

Polarity of water
Polar covalent bonds: electron pair forming covalent bond is more strongly
attracted by the oxygen due to its higher electronegativity
The two hydrogen are partially positive and the oxygen is partially negative (x2)
working as a dipole.
Molecular shape: V-Shape, H-O-H bond angle of 104.5 degrees.
Hydrogen bonding
The partial charges lead to intermolecular attraction (the O attracts two molecules
with H and the two Hs attract two other molecules with Os)
Solvent properties
Water is a strong solvent because of its strong polarity. It is an excellent solvent
for ionic (salt), polar covalent (sugar) and non-polar (oxygen) compounds.
In the case of ionic compounds, the ions are separated from the solid and
caged by polar water molecules.
In the case of polar covalent compounds, they dissolve in water by the
formation of hydrogen bonds.
Aquatic plants and life survive due to dissolved oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
Thermal properties
Hydrogen is the cause for waters high boiling point.
Specific heat is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 g of
a substance by 1 degree Celsius.
Heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat required for 1 g of a liquid to enter its
vapor state entirely.
Water density
Ice has a hexagonal open structure
If liquid water flows through the structure breaks down
Once it melts, its mass increases -> higher density
Higher density of liquid than solid accounts for
Ice floats on water
Survival of aquatic life in winter
Nutrient turnover in bodies of water
Formation of pebbles, soil, sand
Bursting of frozen water pipes
Surface properties
Its high surface tension and capillarity are caused by the hydrogen bonds. Water is
the liquid with the highest surface tension. Plant debris rest on the surface of
water bodies because of its high surface tension which shelters aquatic life.
Capillary action makes water in soil available to plants.
Soaps and Detergents

Surfactants
Soaps and detergents are composed of them
They are hydrophilic (water-soluble) and surface-active agents
They are composed of water-soluble head and a hydrophobic (fat-soluble, water-
hating) tail.
Classes
Anionic have a negative charge
Cationic have a positive charge
Non-ionic have no charge
Amphoteric have both charge types
Soap
Long hydrocarbon tails of fatty acids and polar heads of sodium or potassium slats
of fatty acids (from fats and oils in animals and plants) (animal fat and wood ash)
Advantages
Manufactured from natural and renewable resources
Biodegradable
Disadvantages
Soap film (scum) in water forms salts and can be hard to clean. (from Ca2+
and Mg2+)
Poor adaptability to fibers, temperatures and water conditions.
Clogs sewage system due to gelling properties
Detergent
From petrochemicals and contain engineered anionic or non-ionic surfactants.
Advantages
Act better and eliminate film formation from soap
Adaptable to fibers, temperatures and water conditions
Disadvantages
Non-renewable petroleum-based oils
Not biodegradable
Cleaning process
Step 1: chemical interactions trap oily and greasy soil molecules.
Step 2: the tails are attracted to grease, the head heads to the water forcing the
grease away from the surface
Step 3: the grease is surrounded by the individual surfactant molecules and
removed from the surface.
Finally
Thermal interaction (hot water) helps dissolve oil and grease
Mechanical interaction (hand rubbing) release oily and greasy soil from
fabric
Classification
 Personal hygiene/Laundry/Dishwashing/Household cleaning
Laundry detergent components
Surfactants to remove grease and dirt
Builders to remove Ca2+ and Mg2+ from hard water
Bleaching agents to remove stains and kill bacteria
Enzymes to catalyze the degradation and elimination of some stains
Miscellaneous chemicals (foam stabilizers/fabric brighteners/fragrances)
Environmental Impact
Safer Detergent Stewardship Initiative (SDSI) program in the US EPA recognizes
companies that use safe surfactants
Recent trends
Contain surface protectors or modifiers that repel soil and stains more effectively
Deliver active ingredients in a controlled way
Contain natural or naturally derived ingredient(s)
Do not contain chemicals of concern with respect to toxicity
Generate less carbon dioxide during production
Personal Care Products

Influencing factors
Aging population
More women in the workplace
Changing attitudes of men
Concerns about exposure to ultraviolet radiation
Hair Care Products
Shampoos
Anionic surfactants to remove oil and dirt from hair and scalp
Produce foam, lifting oil and dirt from hair
Contain fragrances, thickeners and foam boosters
Conditioners
Cationic surfactants
Rinse out residual shampoo and provide softer and easy-to-manage hair
Styling Agents (Curling hair)
Step 1: treatment with a reducing agent (electron donor) that breaks
covalent bonds
Step 2: setting hair in the desired shape
Step 3: treating hair with an oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) to reform
covalent bonds in new shape
Colourants
Step 1: oxidation of natural hair pigments to colourless products with a
bleaching agent.
Step 2: application of synthetic dye to obtain desired colour. May also
contain ammonia (or ammonium carbonate), hydrogen peroxide and a
surfactant.
Major developments: variety of colours, improved delivery system to
improve adhesion of colours and more effective conditioners to neutralize
dye chemicals
Skin Care Products
Mosturizers: increase water content of the skin
Prevent and treat dry skin
Protect the skin and make it appear smooth
Improve skin tone and texture
Protect sensitive skin and mask imperfections
Active Ingredients
Humectants (Absorb moisture eg: Glycerin, urea)
Emollients (Lubricate and smoothe the skin eg: Lanolin, mineral
oil)
Miscellaneous (Antioxidants, fragrances, minerals, plant extracts,
vitamins.
 Sunscreens (used to protect against UV)
Inorganic: titanium dioxide and zinc oxide (reflect and scatter UV)
Organic: variety (absorbing and dissipating UV)
Sunburn Protection Factor (SPF) higher = better for UV-B
Factors affecting duration
Activities, Amount applied, Solar intensity, Type of skin, Amount
of sunscreen absorbed by the skin.
Safety in the sun
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have a four system rating to display UV-A
protection. The higher the better.
Cosmeceuticals
Cosmetics that may affect the structure or function of the body like
pharmaceuticals (Botox, Vaniqa, Propecia)
Alpha Hydroxy Acids (AHAs)
Perfumes
Alcoholic solutions of organic compounds with pleasant odours
Natural and synthetic compounds are available
Miscellaneous products
Deodorants
Conversion of certain compounds to unpleasant odors by bacteria
Cosmetics
Lipstick and mascara contain oils, waxes, pigments and perfumes
Concerns about presence of lead in certain cosmetics. Level does not pose safety
concerns according to FDA
Drugs and Medications

Organic Chemistry

The element Carbon

Covalent single, double and triple bonds with some other elements, including
carbon
Covalent bonds with other carbon atoms to build chains and cyclic structures
Covalent bonds with elements such as hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and halogens.
Arrangement of Atoms
Benzene ring (hexagonal ring with 3 single and 3 double bonds)
Cyclohexane: 6 sides with single bonds and two H atoms each.
Cyclopentane: same as above with 5 sides
Functional Groups: arrangement of atoms in a molecule
Alcohol

Aldehyde

Amine

 Carboxylic Acid

Ester

Ether

Ketone

Other

Infections and Diseases

Antibiotics (Penicillins, Cephalosporins, Tetracycline)

Mechanism: alter or inhibit:
Cell wall synthesis:
prevents new bacterial cells by preventing formation of cell wall
Cell membrane permeability:
kills bacteria cells by causing breakdown of cell membrane
Protein synthesis:
prevents bacteria from converting proteins to energy, causing
starvation > death
Nucleic acid synthesis:
prevent bacteria from growing by interrupting DNA synthesis
Competitive inhibitor:
mimics bacteria growth factors to prevent spreading
Penicillin
Treat infections caused by bacteria
Do not fight infections caused by viruses
Affect cell walls
Cephalosporin
Similar structure to penicillin
Broader range of infections treated
Affect cell walls
Tetracycline
Chemical structure consisting of four rings
Used for penicillin-resistant infections
Inhibit synthesis of bacterial proteins
Antibiotics vs Superbugs
More cautious use of antibiotics
Monitoring outbreaks of antibiotic resistances
Developing new antibiotics
Antiviral drugs
For flu, polio, herpes, AIDS
Prevention through vaccination
Antiviral drugs
Nucleoside derivatives (synthesis of DNA)
Protease inhibitors (protein formation)
A three-drug cocktail (mix of both)
Anticancer drugs (Cisplatin)
Alkylating agents
High reactivity causes defects in DNA. Affects growth of normal cells.
Antimetabolites
 Synthesized organic compounds. Inhibit DNA synthesis. Compete on sites.
Topoisomerase inhibitors
Damage DNA. Act against enzymes to prevent growth
Hormones
Stop production of certain hormones to stop hormone driven cancers
Antidepressants
SSRI (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors) (Prozac, Paxil, Zoloft)
MAOI (Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (Nardif, Marplan, Parnate)
Serotonin and Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (Effexor)
Norepinephrine and Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitors (Welbutrin)
Tricyclics (Norpramine, Pamelor, Tofranil)
Anti-Inflammatory Drugs
First reaction to infection or irritation (pain, swelling, redness and heat)
Steroids
Cortisone
Over the Counter Drugs
Criteria: benefit-risk comparison
Aspirin
Analgesic (relieve minor pain)
Antipyretic (lowering fever)
Anti-inflammatory (reduce swelling)
~Heart attack and stroke
Side effects: stomach irritation, ringing in ears, allergy, reye syndrome in
children
Drug delivery systems
Tablets, gelcaps, liquids.
User convenience, improved drug performance, better patient compliance
Pulmonary delivery, skin absorption, nanocrystals
Effects and Trends (Old and Expired medication
E: Feminization of male fish due to estrogenic compounds
E: Slow development of fish and frogs due to antidepressants
T: Personalized medicine > Blockbuster drugs
T: Exploring marine organisms for new therapeutic compounds
Medication and Health
Read drug labels
Learn about warnings
Inform health care providers of drugs
Keep a record of all medication
Acid Rain

2 () + 2 () 2 3 () + () + 3 ()
Carbon dioxide and water create carbonic acid which creates hydrogen ions
(causing acidity of rain water).
pH scale
<7: acidic
>7: basic
=7: neutral
pH of rain is 5.3
Higher acidity is reached because of and
Reactions
2 2 () + 2 () + 2 2 () 2 2 4 ()
2 4 () + () + 4 ()
4 () + () + 4 2 ()
4 2 () + 2 () + 2 2 () 4 3 ()
3 () + () + 3 ()
Environmental Effects
Material Damage
3 (Marble and Limestone) used in historic and irreplaceable statues
and buildings react to acidic rain.
The reaction forms calcium salts
3 () + 2 + () 2+ () + 2 () + 2 ()
Corrosion of Metals
Corrosion is accelerated on iron, bridges, railroads.
4 () + 3 2 () 2 2 3 ()
Forest Damage
Attacking leaves and mobilizing metals in the soil to attack roots
Aquatic Life
Kills fish species, reduces pH to lower levels than healthy aq life (6.5) and
increases concentration of aq metals (Al, Pb, ) which are toxic to fish.
Control Strategies
Reduction of
Coal with low sulfur, removing sulfur from coal, neutralize with chemicals
Reduction of
Catalytic converters in automobiles
Using cleaner energy (alcohol and hydrogen)
Developing alternate energy (hydro, nuclear, wind)
Global Warming

Greenhouse gases that trap infrared light: 2 , (4 ), 2 , and fluorinated

gases
Effects
Climatic changes
Sea level changes due to melting of polar ice caps
Droughts and heat waves increasing
Changes in ecosystem: affects animals that live with specific conditions
Human Health: temperature-related illnesses, air pollution, infectious disease.
Control Strategies
Reduction of 2 : promoting non-fossil sources, capturing 2 , supporting new
technologies (electric cars), setting carbon budgets.
Encouraging energy conservation
Using carbon dioxide sinks: any resource that captures 2 like forests, oceans
and soil. Artificial: storing it in rocks, injecting deep into oceans and trapping with
chemicals.
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and World Meteorological Organization
established Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to
Assessment of scientific knowledge
Examination of the environmental, economic and social impacts
Formulation of response strategies
2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Increases in average air and ocean temperatures
Widespread melting of snow and ice
Rising global average sea level
1997 Kyoto protocol
Everyone ratified the treaty except US (No intention to ratify) and Canada
(Withdrawn from protocol)
Ozone Depletion

Two roles
Air pollutant contributing to photochemical smog
Filters solar ultraviolet radiation
Exposure to ozone may occur from
High-intensity UV light such as mercury vapor lamps, plasma torches, glass
blowing
High-voltage electrical equipment
Welding
Ozone formation
Ultraviolet light splits 2 into 2 .
2 + 3
Ozone and Ultraviolet light splits 3 2 +
3 + 2 2
Environmental Concern
Ozone depletion
Leads to less filtration of UV rays
Caused by ozone-depleting substances ODS
Natural (Water, nitric oxide)
Human-made (Chlorofluocarbons, halons)
o Foam-blowing agents
o Fire-extinguishing agents
o Solvents
o Refrigerants
Stability and low toxicity but longevity cause chlorine and bromine
Effects of Depletion
Humans
Sunburn, skin cancer, premature aging of skin
Cataracts, eye diseases, blindness
Immunosuppression
Agriculture and Forestry
Plant growth may be harmed (barley, rice and wheat)
Materials
Degradation of materials (fabrics, plastics, rubber, wood)
Marine ecosystems
Decreasing plankton, decreasing reproductive capacity
Control Strategies
Clorofluorocarbons banned in NA in 1978. Montreal protocol (1987) to reduce and
ban CFCs.