2:02 PM Pon -? ‘~_ 380 nm .27”_ Visible spectrum’ *~ 769 rm Electromagnetic spectrum is a wide range of electromagnetic radiation which carries radiation of different wavelength.Electromagnetic waves have an enormous range, and as a result it is very convenient to see where each of the different forms of radiations fits within the spectrum as a whole. 15 DEFINITION Atomic spectra ‘Hydrogen When atoms are excited they emit light of certain wavelengths which correspond to different colors. ‘The emitted light can be observed as a series of colored lines with dark spaces in between; this series of colored lines is called a line or atomic spectra. Each element produces a unique set of spectral lines. 16 DEFINITION Emission spectra or line spectra —_—/\ Bhekbody Prism noe > > Prism Emission Spectrum ? ah Biackbody Coolgas Prism ‘The spectrum of bright lines, bands, or continuous radiq determined by a specific emitting substance subjected to a specific kind of excitation is called as spectra. When radiation is emitted, lines are obtained, it is called as emission spectra. 17. DEFINITION Continuous spectra ‘The spectrum formed from white light contains all colors, or frequencies, and is known as a continuous spectrum.Continuous spectra are produced by all incandescent solids and liquids and by gases under high pressure. 18 DEFINITION Absorption spectra An absorption spectrum occurs when light passes through a cold, dilute gas and atoms in the gas absorbed at characteristic frequencies; since the re- emitted light is unlikely to be emitted in the same direction as the absorbed photon, this gives rise to dark lines (absence of light) in the spectrum. 19 DEFINITION Difference between emission and absoroption spectrum When an atom or molecule excites, it absorbs a certain energy in the electromagnetic radiation; therefore, that wavelength will be absent in the recorded absorption spectrum. When the species come back to the ground state from the excited state, the absorbed radiation is emitted, and it is recorded. This type of spectrum is called an emission spectrum. In simple terms, absorption spectra records the wavelengths absorbed by the material, whereas emission spectra records wavelengths emitted by materials, which have been stimulated by energy before. Compared to the continuous visible spectrum, both emission and absorption spectra are line spectra because they only contain certain wavelengths. In an emission spectrum there will be only few colored bands in a dark back ground. But2:03 PM Pon (eG _ES 1 € Concepts 19 DEFINITION Difference between emission and absoroption spectrum When an atom or molecule excites, it absorbs a certain energy in the electromagnetic radiation; therefore, that wavelength will be absent in the recorded absorption spectrum. When the species come back to the ground state from the excited state, the absorbed radiation is emitted, and it is recorded. This type of spectrum is called an emission spectrum. In simple terms, absorption spectra records the wavelengths absorbed by the material, whereas emission spectra records wavelengths emitted by materials, which have been stimulated by energy before. Compared to the continuous visible spectrum, both emission and absorption spectra are line spectra because they only contain certain wavelengths. In an emission spectrum there will be only few colored bands in a dark back ground. But in an absorption spectrum there will be few dark bands within the continuous spectrum. The dark bands in the absorption spectrum and the colored bands in the emitted spectrum of the same element are similar. 20 = DEFINITION Emission spectrum of hydrogen Blue-violet Blue green | Violet Gas discharge tube containing hydrogen 410.0 nem 434.0 orm 486.1 orm 658.2 nm, When hydrogen gas at low pressure is taken in discharged tube and the light emitted on passing electric charge is examined with spectroscope, the spectrum obtained is called emission spectrum of hydrogen. 21. DEFINITION Rydberg Formula ‘The Rydberg formula is a mathematical formula used to predict the wavelength of light resulting from an electron moving between energy levels of an atom. 1 1 1 = = RZ2(—— — Xr Ca mm? 22 DEFINITION Limiting line The Balmer series is the light emitted when the electron moves from shell n to shell 2. So the lowest energy line is emitted in the transition from n=3 to n=2, the next line is from n=4 to n =2 and so on. But the energy does not keep going up as you increase the value of n, because the energies of the orbitals tend to zero for large n. So as n the energy released in moving from n to 2 will tend to a finite limit. This is the limiting line. 23 DEFINITION Postulates of Bohr's atomic model Electrons revolve in discrete orbits called shells Electrons revolve in their orbits without radiating energy. Within a particular orbit, the energy ofan electron is constant. This is why orbits are called stationary orbits or stationary shells. Orbits or shells are also known as energy levels. ‘These orbits or shells are represented by the letters K, L, M, N, or the numbers n=1, 2, 3, 4 and so on. 24 RESULT Electronic energy 2 z E=-13.6— n2 ‘The negative sign of energy means that the energy of the electron in the atom is lower than the energy of a free electron at rest. A free electron at rest is an electron that is at sufficiently far away from the nucleus and its energy is assumed to be zero. The negative sign also indicates that the electron is bound to the nucleus. 25 DEFINITION Quantization of electronic energy Energy of each orbit is fixed. The electron can jump from one orbit to another by absorbing or emitting the same or more amount of energy than the energy of the orbit in which it is moving. One of the implications of these quantized energy states is that only certain photon energies are allowed when electrons jump down from higher levels to lower levels, producing the hydrogen spectrum. 26 = DEFINITION Usefulness of Bohr's Model The Bohr model of the atom is important because it better described the structure of these tiny particles we cal] atoms. Of particular importance is the idea that electrons, those tiny negative charges, move around the nucleus in orbitals or energy levels. This opened the door (busted it down, actually) to a much clearer understanding of chemistry and a host of electromagnetic phenomenon. 27 ~=LAW Hydrogen spectrum Brackett series Balmer series Lyman series 28 DEFINITION Limitations of Bohr's model11:34 AM Pon > Prism Emission Spectrum t > > ins Blackbody coolgas ii Absorption Spectrum ‘The spectrum of bright lines, bands, or continuous radiq determined by a specific emitting substance subjected to a specific kind of excitation is called as spectra. When radiation is emitted, lines are obtained, it is called as emission spectra. 17. DEFINITION Continuous spectra ‘The spectrum formed from white light contains all colors, or frequencies, and is known as a continuous spectrum.Continuous spectra are produced by all incandescent solids and liquids and by gases under high pressure. 18 DEFINITION Absorption spectra An absorption spectrum occurs when light passes through a cold, dilute gas and atoms in the gas absorbed at characteristic frequencies; since the re- emitted light is unlikely to be emitted in the same direction as the absorbed photon, this gives rise to dark lines (absence of light) in the spectrum. 19 DEFINITION Difference between emission and absoroption spectrum When an atom or molecule excites, it absorbs a certain energy in the electromagnetic radiation; therefore, that wavelength will be absent in the recorded absorption spectrum. When the species come back to the ground state from the excited state, the absorbed radiation is emitted, and it is recorded. This type of spectrum is called an emission spectrum. In simple terms, absorption spectra records the wavelengths absorbed by the material, whereas emission spectra records wavelengths emitted by materials, which have been stimulated by energy before. Compared to the continuous visible spectrum, both emission and absorption spectra are line spectra because they only contain certain wavelengths. Inan emission spectrum there will be only few colored bands in a dark back ground, But in an absorption spectrum there will be few dark bands within the continuous spectrum. The dark bands in the absorption spectrum and the colored bands in the emitted spectrum of the same element are similar. 20 DEFINITION Emission spectrum of hydrogen ‘Blue-violet Blue green | Violet Gas discharge tube containing hydrogen 658.2 nem 410.0 nrm; 434.0 nem! 486.1 nem) When hydrogen gas at low pressure is taken in discharged tube and the light emitted on passing electric charge is examined with spectroscope, the spectrum obtained is called emission spectrum of hydrogen. 21 DEFINITION Rydberg Formula The Rydberg formula is a mathematical formula used to predict the wavelength of light resulting from an electron moving between energy levels of an atom. 1 1 1 = RZ? (— —~ —_ a ("3 mm? 22 DEFINITION Limiting line The Balmer series is the light emitted when the electron moves from shell n to shell 2. So the lowest energy line is emitted in the transition from n=3 to n=2, the next line is from n=4 to n =2 and so on. But the energy does not keep going up as you increase the value of n, because the energies of the orbitals tend to zero for large n. So as n the energy released in moving from n to 2 will tend to a finite limit. This is the limiting line. 23 DEFINITION Postulates of Bohr's atomic model Electrons revolve in discrete orbits called shells Electrons revolve in their orbits without radiating energy. Within a particular orbit, the energy of an electron is constant. This is why orbits are called stationary orbits or stationary shells. Orbits or shells are also known as energy levels. These orbits or shells are represented by the letters K, L, M, N, or the numbers n=1, 2, 3, 4 and so on. 24 RESULT Electronic energy 2 E=-13.6—— n2 ‘The negative sign of energy means that the energy of the electron in the atom is lower than the energy of a free electron at rest. A free electron at rest is an electron that is at sufficiently far away from the nucleus and its energy is assumed to be zero. The negative sign also indicates that the electron is bound to the nucleus. 25 DEFINITION Quantization of electronic energy Energy of each orbit is fixed. The electron can jump from one orbit to another by absorbing or emitting the same or more amount of energy than the energy of the orbit in which it is moving. One of the implications of these quantized energy states is that only certain photon energies are allowed when electrons jump down from higher levels to lower levels, producing the hydrogen spectrum. 26 = DEFINITION Usefulness of Bohr's Model The Bohr model of the atom is important because it better described the structure of these tiny particles we call atoms. Of particular importance is the ideaPLN Pe ee) € Concepts of an atom’s ability to generate a magnetic field or not. 57 DEFINITION Subshell One or more orbitals in the electron shell of an atom with the same energy level. Subshells have different shapes and are distinguished by their magnetic quantum number. e.g 1s, 2s, 2p, 3d. 58 DEFINITION Orbitals An atomic orbital is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of either one electron or a pair of electrons in an atom. This function can be used to calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in any specific region around the atom’s nucleus. For example: 1s represent $ orbit with s orbital. 59 DEFINITION Solve problems on quantum numbers What designations are given to the following orbitals having. A.n=2)=1 Solution : when n=2 and I= | the orbital is 2p. B.n=1 and|=0. solution : when n=1 and 1=0 the orbital is 1s. 60 DEFINITION Pauli exclusion principle ‘The Pauli exclusion principle is the quantum mechanical principle that states that two identical fermions (particles with half-integer spin) cannot occupy the same quantum state simultaneously. It means that orbitals are filled by singly first then they are paired. 61 DEFINITION Shape of atomic orbitals + s orbital-sphere p orbital-dumbell d orbital- double dumble f orbital-complex 62 DEFINITION Shape of s orbital + s orbitals have a spherical shell shape and the faint dark blue circle represents in cross- section, the region of maximum electron density. ¢ Only one s orbital exists for each principal quantum number denoted by 1s, 2s, 3s etc. 63 DEFINITION Shape of p-orbital e p orbitals are pairs of dumbbells’ aligned along the x, y and z axis at 90° to each other. ¢ There are three p orbitals for each principal quantum number from 2 onwards denoted by 2p, 3p and 4p ete. o eg. 2p can be composed of 2px, 2py and 2pz ifall three orbitals fora particular principal quantum number are occupied. o Ifap subshell is full it holds a maximum of 3 x 2 = 6 electrons. o There is no 1p because quantum rules do not allow this 64 DEFINITION Nodal surface A nodal surface is a region of space in which the probability of finding an electron is zero. Nodal spheres are found within 2s, 3s, 3p, 4p 4d, 5d orbitals. Nodal planes are found within any p,d_f orbital. 65 DEFINITION Boundary surface diagrams Boundary surface diagram is a good diagrammatical representation of shapes of atomic orbitals. It is resultant of the solution of Schrodinger wave equation. As we know that the exact position and momentum of an electron cannot be determined (according to Heisenberg uncertainty principle), so we calculate probability density of finding an electron ina particular region. Boundary surface diagram is a boundary surface or a contour surface drawn ina space for an orbital on which the value of probability density |2p| is constant. The boundary surface diagram of constant probability density is considered as a good and acceptable approximation of shape of orbital if the boundary surface encloses the region or volume with probability density of more than 90%. This means that the boundary surface enclosing a constant probability density of lets say 50% wont be considered good. 66 DEFINITION Plots of radial probability Radial probability 4nr2R2, 67 DEFINITION Energy level diagrams of hydrogen atom Ultraviolet | Visible ' Infrared 12.8 eV 12.1eV 10.2 eV Emission Ionization Ground state OeV 68 DEFINITION Difference of energy in the subshell of multi- electron atoms For an atom that contains only one electron, there is no difference between the energies of the different sub shells within a shell. The 3s, 3p, and 3d orbitals, for example, have the same energy in a hydrogen atom. The Bohr model, which specified the energies of orbits in terms of nothing more than the distance between the electron and the nucleus, therefore works for this atom. The hydrogen atom is unusual, however. As soon as an atom contains more than one electron, the different sub shells no longer have the same energy. Within a given shell,the s orbitals always have the lowest energy. The energy of the sub shells gradually becomes larger as the value of the angular quantum number becomes larger. Relative energies:s Watch Lecture