SEISMIC DESIGN OF

REINFORCED CONCRETE
AND MASONRY
BUILDINGS

T. Paulay
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Canterbury
Christchurch
New Zealand

M. J. N. Priestley
Department of Applied Mechanics
and Engineering Sciences
University of California
Sun Diego, USA

A WILEYINTERSCIENCE
PUBLICATION
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
New York Chichester Brisbanc Toronto Singapore
Portions of Chapters 4, 5, 6, 8, and 9 were originally
published in the German language in "Erdbebenbemessung von
Stahlbetonhochbauten," by Thomas Paulay, Hugo Bachmann, and
Konrad Maser. 0 1990 Birkhaeuser Verlag Basel."
In recognition of the importance of preserving what has been
written, it is a policy of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., to have books
of enduring value published in the United States printed on
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Copyright O 1992 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada.
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the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Libmty of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data:

Paulay, T., 1923-
Seismic design of reinforced concrete and masonry buildings/T,
Paulay, M. J. N. Priestley.
p. crn.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-471-54915-0
1. Earthquake resistant design. 2. Reinforced concrete
construction. 3. Buildings, Reiniorced concrete-Earthquake
emects. 4. Masonry 1. Priestley, M. J. N. 11. Title.

91-34862
CIP
Printed in the United States of America
1098765432
146 PRINCIPLES OF MEMBER DESIGN

ment ductility factor p, = A/A,, as seen in Fig. 3.28(c). In relation to a

more complex structure, this is referred to as the system ducfility. It origi-
nates from the ductility of all inelastic regions of components of thc systcm.
It was also seen that numerical values of various ductility ratios can be
very different. Whereas the choice of the lateral earthquake design forces
depends on the system ductility potential (i.e., ductility capacity p A ) , detailing
requirements of potential plastic regions must be based on the curvaturc
ductility demand, rclevant to thcsc rcgions.
Considerations of ductil~tywere so tar bascd on monotonic rcsponse of
components or sections, as seen in Figs. 1.8, 1.17, 2.22, 2.28, and 3.28. During
intense ground shaking, however, cyclic dibplacement of variable amplitudes,
often multidirectional, are imposed on the structures. Comparable response
of structures and their components to simulated seismic motions in experi-
mcnts arc gaugcd by familiar hysterctic rcsponse curvcs, such as shown in
Figs. 2.20, 5.26, and 7.35. A significant reduction of stiEness and some
rcduction in strength, as a result of such hysteretic response, is inevitable.
Usually, it is not possible to quantify in a conveniently simple way the
associated loss of ability to dissipate seismic energy. A shift in the fundamen-
tal per~odof vibration due to reduced stiffness and the likely duration of thc
earthquake are only two of the parameters that should be considered.
It is for such reasons that a simple criterion was introduced in New
Zealand [X8],to enable the ductility capacity of structures or their compo-
nents to be confirmed, either by testing or by interpretation of existing test
results. This rather severe test of the adequacy of detailing for ductility is
based largely on engineeiing judgment. The criterion is defined as follows:
The reduction of the strength of the structure with respect to horizontal
forccs, whcn subjected to four complcte cycles of displacements in the
required directions of the potential earthquake attack with an amplitude of
A, = p , A y , shall not exceed 20% of ~ t sideal strength [Section 1.3.3(a)],
where p A is the system ductility factor intended to be used in the derivation
of the design earthquake forces, and the yield displacement A, is as defined
in Fig. 1.8. The confirmation of the adequacy of components should be based
on thc samc principle cxcept that the four cycles of displacements (eight load
reversals) should be applied with an amplitude that corresponds wlth the
location of that component within the system.
The majority of recommendation with respcct to detailing for ductility,
given in subsequent chapters, is based on laboratory testing of components in
accordance with the foregoing performance criterion o r a very similar one.

3.6 ASPECXS OF DETAILING

It is reemphasised that judicious detailing of the reinforcement is of

paramount importance if rcliancc is to be placcd during a scvere earthquake
on the ductile response of reinforced concrete and masonry structures [P14].
 ASPECTS OF DETAILING 147

Onc of the aims of detailing is to ensure that the full strength of reinforcing
bars, serving either as principal flexural or as transverse reinforcemcnt, can
be developed under thc most adverse conditions that an earthquake may
impose. Well-known principles, most of which have been codified, are sum-
marized in this section, while other aspects of detailing rclevant to a particu-
lar structural action are systematically brought to the designcr's attcntion in
subsequent chapters.

3.6.1 Detailing of Columns for Ductility

Recommended dctails of enforcement lor potential plastic hinge regions are
covered in the relevant chapters of this book. These details will normally be
adequate to ensure that typical curvaturc ductility demand associated with
expected inelastic response can bc safcly met, particularly for bcam and wdl
scction. For such cases, calculation of ductility capacity will not bc ncccssary.

(a) Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement Columns subjcctcd to high

axial compression need special consideration, as noted above. Most c o d a
[All, include provisions specifying the amount of confinement needed for
columns. Gcnerally, this has been made independent of the axial force level.
Recent theoretical and experimental research has shown that the amount of
confining steel required for a given curvature ductility factor is in fact
strongly dependent on the axial force level [Pll, S1, Zl]. A simplified
conservative representation of the recommendations of this research for
required confining reinforcement area is given for rectangular sections by the
following relationship:

where k = 0.35 for a required curvature ductility of p,,, = 20, and k = 0.25
when p9 = 10. Other values may be found by interpolation or exlrapolation.
In Eq. (3.62) A,, is the total area of confining transvcrsc reinforcement in
the direction perpendicular to the concrete core width h" and at vertical
spacing s , ; f Y , is thc yield strength of the hoop reinforcement, A, the gross
concrete section area, and A, the core concrete area measured to the center
of the hoops.
For an example column section, Eq. (3.62) is compared with various code
requirements for transverse reinforcement in Fig. 3.29. It will bc seen that
existing code equations [Al, XI01 tend to be very conservative for low axial
compression force levcls but may be considerably nonconservative at high
axial force levels. Equation (3.62) will be up to 40% consewalive when the
section contains high longitudinal rcinforccrnent ratios [S3].
148 PRINCIPLES OF MEMBER DESIGN

0.10
Fig. 3.29 Confinement reinforcement for TT'-'-rl
columns from Eo. 0.62). and comaarkon 0*15 k

The amount of reinforcement indicatcd by Eq. (3.62) should be providcd

in each of the two orthogonal principal section directions. Equation (3.62)
may also be used to estimate the required volumetric ratio of confinement for
circular columns, p, = 4ASp/s,,dC,taking k , = 0.50 and 0.35 for p4 = 20
and 10, respectively, where A,, is the cross-sectional area of the sp~ralor
circular hoop reinforcement, and d , is the diameter of the confined core. A
more refined Cstirnate may bc obtained from the design charts of reference
[P38], o r from first principles, estimating ultimate curvature from the ultimate
compression strain given by Eq. (3.12). Applications of this approach to
rectangular columns are given in Section 4.11.8.
For tow axial compression loads requirements other than that of confining
the concrete will dictate the necessary amount of transverse reinforcement in
the plastic hinge region. Typical values of relative transverse reinforcement
to stabilize compression bars in accordance with Eq. (4.19) are shown for
common values of p,, = p,(f,,,/f:) in Fig. 3.29. It is also seen that where
axial compression is low, shear strength requirements (Section 3.3.2) are most
likely to represent critical design criteria for transverse reinforcement.

(6) Spacing of Column Vertical Reinjorcement The important role of column

vertical reinforcement in confining the concrete core was emphasized in
Section 3.2.2(a). To ensure adequate integrity of the confined core, it is
recommended that when possible, at least four bars be placed in each side of
the column. Because of bar size limitations, this will pose no problems for
larger columns, but for small columns, or compression boundary elements in
walls, it may be impractical to meet thls recommendation. In such cases three
bars per side is acceptable. There does not seem to be any logical justification
for an arbitrary upper limit on bar spacing [say, 200 mm (8 in.)], as is
commonly specified in many codes.
 ASPECTS OF DETAILING 149

3.63 Bond and Anchorage

Efficient interaction of the two constituent components of reinforced con-
crete and masonry structures requires reliable bond between reinforcement
and concrete to exist. In certain regions, particularly where inelastic and
reversible strains occur, heavy demand may be imposed on strcss transfcr by
bond. The most severe locations are beam-column joints, to be cxamined in
Section 4.8.
Established recommendations, embodied in various codes, aim to ensure
that reinforcement bars are adequately embedded in well-compacted con-
crete so that their yield strength can be developed reliably without associated
deformations, such as slip or pullout, becoming cxccssive. Important code
recommendations, relevant only to the design and detailing of structures
covered in the following chapters, are reviewed briefly here. A detailed
examination of the mechanisms of bond transfer [PI] is beyond the scope of
this book. It should bc noted, however, that the conditions of the concrete
surrounding embedded bars, particularly in plastic regions and where exten-
sive multidirectional cracking may occur (Fig. 3.24) as a result of inelastic
seismic response, are often inferior to those which prevailed in test spcci-
mens from which empirical code-specified rules for bar anchorages have been
derived.
Only bars with appropriately deformed surfaces are considered here. Plain
round bars are not suitable when seismic actions would require bar develop-
ment by means of a bond to the plain surface (i.e., in beams and columns).
Plain bars can be and are used efficiently, however, as transverse reinforce-
ment where anchorage relies on bends and suitable hooks engaging longitudi-
nal bars which distribute by means of bearing stresses concentrated forces
from bent plain bars to the concrete.

fa) Development of Bar Strength The length of a deformed bar required to

develop its strength, whether it is straight (1,) or hookcd (I,,,), is affected by a
number of principal parameters, such as concrete tensile strength, yield
strenglh of steel, thickness of cover concrete, and the degree of confinement
afforded by transverse reinforcement or transverse compression stresses.
Code provisions are generally such that an adequately anchored bar, when
overloaded in tension, will fracture rather than pull out from its anchorage.
Development lengths used in the design examples, which are givcn in
subsequent chapters, are based on the following semiempirical rules [X3].

(i) Development of Straight Deformed Bars in Tension: A bar should extend

beyond the section at which it may be required to develop its strength f, by
at least a distance
150 PRINCIPLES OF MEMBER DESIGN

Fig. 3.30 Bar force transmission by shear friction at a lapped splice.

where thc basic development length is

where A , = cross-sectional area of bar, mm2 (in.')

c = lesser of the following distances [Fig. 3.30(a)]
= three times Lhe bar diameter d ,
= center of the bar from the adjacent concrete surface
one-half of the distance between centers of adjacent bars in a
=
layer
m,, = modification factor with values of 1.3 for horizontal top rein-
forcement where more than 300 mm (12 in.) fresh concrete is
cast in the member below the bar
+
= C/(C k,,) I1.0 (3.65)
when reinforcement, transverse to the bar being developed and
outsidc it [Fig. 3.30(a)], consisting of at least three tie legs,
each with area A,, and yield strength f,, and distance s
between transverse ties, are prwided along I,, and where

k,, =-
A"f-
yt i db (MPa); k,, -
= A"fyt s d,, (psi) (3.6;)
10s 1450s
When applying Eqs. (3.63), (3.651, and (3.661, the following limitations apply:
k,, 5 db, c < c + k t , I 3db.
Transverse reinforcement crossing a potential splitting crack [Fig. 3.30(a)]
and prwided because of other requirement (shear, temperature, mnfine-
ment, etc.) may be included in A,,. To simplitl calculations it may always be
assumed that k , , in Eq. (3.65) is zero.
 ASPECTS O F DETAILING 151

The interpretation of the distance c is also shown in Fig. 3.30(a). The area
A,, refers to that of one tie adjacent to the bar to be developed. It is similar
to the area A,,, as shown in Fig. 4.20.

(id Development of Deformed Bars in Tension Using Standard Hooks: The

following limitations apply to the development I , of tension bars with hooks:
150 rnm ( 6 in.) < I,, = ml,,l,,, > 8,, (3.67)
where the basic development length is
I,,, = 0.24d, f,/C (MPa); I,,, = 0.02dbfy/ ifL(psi) (3.68)
and where mhb is a modification factor with valucs oE

0.7 when side covcr for 32-mrn (1.26411.) bars or srnallcr, normal to thc
planc of the hooked bar, is not less than 60 mni (2.4 in.) and covcr to
the tail extension of 90" hooks is not less than 40 mm (1.58 in.)
0.8 when confinement by closed stirrups or hoops with area A,, and
spacing s not less than 6,, is providcd so that

- Ab f,
A,, 2 --- A,, A, f y
(nim2/rnrn); - 2-- (im2/in.) (3.69)
s 1000 f,, s 40 fy,

The specific geometry of a hook with bcnds equal or larger than 90", such as
tail end and bend radii and other restrictions, should be obtained from
relevant code specifications. The development length I,,, is measured from
the outer edge of the bent-up part of the hook.

fb) Lapped Splices By necessity, reinforcing bars placed in structural mem-

ber need often to be spliced. This is commonly achieved by overlapping
parallel bars, as shown in Figs. 3.30 and 3.31. Force transmission relies on
bond between bars and the surrounding concrete and the response of the

Fig. 331 Splice dciails at the cnd rcgion of a column.

 I
152 PRINCIPLES OF MEMBER DESIGN

concrete in between adjacent bars. Therefore, the length of the splice l,, as
shown in Fig. 3.30(c), is usually the same as the development length l,,
described in Section 3.6.2(a). However, when large steel forces are to be
transmitted by bond, cracks due to splitting of the concrete can develop.
Typical cracks at single or lap-spliced bars are shown in Fig. 3.30(a) and (6).
To enable bar forces to be transmitted across continuous splitting cracks
between lapped bars, as seen in Fig. 3.30, a shear friction mechanism needs
to be mobilized [Ply]. To control splitting forces, particularly at the end of
splices [Fig. 3.30(c)], clamping forces developed in transverse ties are re-
quired. In regions where high-intensity reverse cyclic steel stresses need to be
transferred, an increase of splice length beyond ld, without adequate trans-
verse clamping reinforcement, is not likely to assure satisfactory performance
[Ply]. Under such force demands, lapped splices tend to progressively unzip.
Conservatively, it may be assumed that the clamping force along the distance
1, 2 1, should be equal to the tension force to be transmitted from one
spliced bar to the other. Thereby a diagonal compression field at approxi-
mately 45" can develop.
The application of these concepts is particularly relevant to columns,
where it is desirable to splice all longitudinal bars at the same level. Despite
the high intensity of reversed stresses in bars, such splices are possible at the
end regions (i.e., at the bottom end, of columns), provided that yielding of
spliced bars, even under severe seismic attack, is not expectcd. Such condi-
tions can be achieved with the application of capacity design principles,
details of which ior columns are examined in some detail in Section 4.6. By
considering that the maximum force to be transmitted across the splice by a
column bar is that which occurs at thc cnd of thc splice at distance I, away
from the critical (bottom) end of the column (Fig. 3.31), it is found [P19, X3]
that the area of transverse clamping reinforcement relevant to each spliced
bar with diameter d, per unit length is

where the symbols are as defined previously. Typical splices in columns are
shown in Figs. 3.31 and 4.28(6) and ( c ) .
When a tie leg is required to provide clamping force for more than one
bar, the area A,, from Eq. (3.70) should be increased by an amount
proportional to the tributary area of the unclamped bar. Lapped splices
without a tie should not be farther than 100 mm (4 in.) from either of the two
adjacent ties on which the splice relies for clamping.
It is emphasized that the splices should not be placed in potential plastic
hinge regions. Whilc the transverse reinforcement in accordance with Eq.
(3.70) will ensure strength development of a splice after the application of
many cycles of stress reversals close to but below yield level (f,,),
it will not
 1

ASPECTS OF DETAILING 153

ensure satisfactory performancc with ductility dcmands. Typical splices that

failed in this way are shown in Fig. 4.29. Additional detailing requirements of
column splices are discussed in Section 4.6.10.
In circular columns the necessary clamping force across potential splitting
cracks, which may develop between lapped bars, is usually provided by spiral
reinforcement or by circular hoops. As shown in Fig. 3.30(d), two possibilities
for contact laps may arise. When lapped bars arc arrangcd around the
periphery, as seen in the top of Rg. 3.30(d) and in Figs. 4.28(c) and 4.29(b),
radial cracks can develop. Therefore, the circumferential (spiral) reinforce-
ment must satisfy the requirement of Eq. (3.70). In its role to provide a
clamping force for each pair of lappcd ba~s,circular transverse reinf'orcement
is very efficient, as it can secure an unlimited number of spliccs.
When lapped bars are arranged as shown in the lower part of Fig. 3.30(d),
circumferential splitting cracks may develop. Thus a clamping force N =
aA,,fy, is necessary, where a is thc angle of the segment relevant to one
pair of lappcd bars. A comparison of the two arrangenlents in Fig. 3.30(d)
shows that to develop a clamping forcc N = A,, f,,, only n = 6 spliccs
(a = 60") could be placed around the circumference. When the number of
uniformly spaced splices around the circumference with bars aligned radially
is larger than 6, the required area of spiral on circular hoop A,,, given by Eq.
(3.70), needs to be increased by a factor of n/6, where n is the number of
splices.
Splices such as shown in Figs 4.28(b) and 4.29(a) and in the lower part of
Fig. 3.30(d), where longitudinal bars are offset by cranking, as seen in Fig.
3.31, require special attentioil. To minimize radial forces at the bends, the
inclination of the crack shoul-1 not be more than 1 : 10. To ensure that the
resulting radial steel force can be resisted by transverse reinforcement,
stirrup ties or circular hoops should be capable of resisting without yielding
radial forces on the order of 0.15Abf,. This may require the use 01 double
ties at these critical localities, as suggested in Figs. 3.30(c) and 3.31.

(c) Additional Considerations for Anchorages The preceding sections sum-

marized some established and common procedures to ensure that the strength
of an individual reinforcing bar, even at the stage of strain hardening, can be
developed by means of bond forces. When detailing the reinforcement,
attention should also be paid to the bond paths or stress field ncccssary to
enable bond forces to be equilibrated. This is particularly important when a
number of closely spaced or bundled bars are required to transfer a signifi-
cant force to the surrounding concrete.
Figure 3.32 shows the anchorage wilhin a structural wall of a group of
diagonal bars from a coupling beam, such as seen in Fig. 5.56. The compo-
nents of the tcnsion force T, developed in this group of bars, may exceed the
tensile strength of the concrete, so that diagonal cracks may form, Clearly,
the free body, shown shaded in Fig, 3.32, needs to be tied with a suitable
mesh of reinforcement to the remainder of the wall. To increase the bound-
154 PRINCIPLES OF MEMBER DESIGN

Fig. 3.32 Anchorage of a group of tcnsion bars.

aries of thc free body, formed by diagonal cracks, the anchorage of the group
of bars 1; should be larger than the development length I,, spccificd for
individual bars. Corresponding recommendations arc made in Scction
5.4.5tb).
Anothcr cxample (Fig. 3.33) shows two columns, one transmitting predom-
inantly tension and the other a compression force to a foundation wall. It is
evident that concurrent vertical and diagonal concrete compression forces
can readily equilibrate each'other at the node point at B. Hence a develop-
ment length I,, required for individual bars, should also bc sufficient for the
entire group of bars in that column. However, the internal forces at the
exterior column A necessitate a node point near the bottom of the founda-
tion wall. The horizontal force shown there results from the anchorage of the
flexural reinforccment at the bottom of the wall. Thus the vertical column
bars must be effectively anchored at the bottom of the foundation wall at a
distance from the top edge significantly larger than I:, required for a group
of bars. Alternatively, extra web reinforcement in the wall, close to wlumn
A, must be designed, using the concept implied by Fig. 3.32, to cnable the
tension force P, to be transferred from wlumn A to the bottom of the wall.
No detailed rulcs need be formulated for cases such as those illustrated in
these two examples, as only first principles are involved. Once a feasible load
path is chosen for the transmission of anchorage forces to the remainder of
the structural members, elementaw calculations will indicate the approxi-
mate quantity of additional reinforcement, often only nominal, that may bc
 ' ASPECLS OF DETAILING 155

required and the increased anchorage length of groups of bars necessary to

intmduce tensile forces at appropriatc node points.

3.6.3 Curtailment of Flexural Reinforcement

To economize, to reducc possible congestion of bars, and to accommodate
splices, the flexural reinforcement along a rncmber may be curtailed when-
ever reduced moment demands allow this to be done and when it is
practicable. Beams and structural walls are examples. It is seldom practicable
to curtail column bars.
Clearly, a bar must extend by a distance not less than the development
length I , beyond a section at which it is required at full strength (jv).Such
sections may be determined from bending moment cnvclopcs with duc
allowance for tension shift due to shear [Pl]. This phenomcnon is rcvicwed
briefly with the aid of Fig. 3.34.
Thc internal forces, such as flexural concrete compression C,, flcxural
tension T2, vertical tension generatcd in stirrups V,, shear transmitted across
the flexural compression zone I/,, and by aggregate interlock V,, transmitting
a total momcnt and shear of M and V,, respectively, at an approximately 45'
diagonal section across a beam, are shown in Fig. 3.34. It is seen that at
section 1,

where z , is the internal lever a m .

+
Because M,= M, zbV, we find that the flexural tcnsion force T, at
section 2 is not proportional to the moment at M, at this section bul is
larger, that is,
4

Fig. 334 Internal forces in a diagonally crackcd

rcinfarccd concrete rncrnbcr.
156 PRINCIPLES OF MEMBER DESlGN

whcre q is the ratio of the shear resisted by stirrups to the total applied
shear (i.e., V,/V). Thus the flexural tension force at section 2 is proportional
to a moment [M,+ (1 - 0.5q)Vzb] that would occur a distance

to the right of section 2. The distance e, is termed the tension shift. When
the entire shear Vb in Fig. 3.34 is rcsisted by web reinforcement, we find that
e, = 0 . 5 ~ ~ .
In routine design it is seldom justified to evaluate accurately the value of
the tension shift. Conservatively, it may therefore be assumed that 9 = 0 and
hence

In terms of bar curtailment this mcans that if the moment diagram indicates
that a bar is required to develop its full strength (f,), say, at section 1 in Fig.
3.34, it must extend to the left beyond this section by the development length
1, plus the tension shift e, = d. Because the location of the section is not
exactly known, bars which according to the bending moment diagram, includ-
ing tension shift, ate theoretically not required to make any contribution to
flexural strength should be extended by a small distance, say 0.3d, beyond
that section [X3]. Applications of these principles are presented in Section
4.5.2 and the design examples are given in Scction 4.11.7.
When the design of the web reinforcement is based on the use of a
diagonal compression field with an inclination to the axis of the member
considerably less than 4S0, the tension shift [Eq. (3.7311 will be larger, and this
may need to be taken into account when curtailing beam bars.

3.6.4 Transverse Reinforcement

The roles of and detailing requirements for transverse reinforcement in
regions of beams, columns and walls, which are expected to remain elastic,
are well established in various building codes. In structures affected by
earthquakes, however, special attention must be given to potential plastic
hinge regions. The role of transverse reinforcement in the development of
ductile structural responsc cannot be emphasized enough! Because of its
importance, the contributions of transverse reinforcement in resisting shear
(Fig. 3.25), preventing premature buckling of compression bars (Fig. 3.351,
confining compressed concrete cores (Fig. 3.4) and providing clamping of
lapped dices [Figs. 3.30(c) and 3.3111, are examined in considerable detail for
beams in Section 4.5.4, for columns in Section 4.6.11, for beam-column joints
in Section 4.8.9, and for walls in Section 5.4.3(e). Figure 3.35 points to the
need to stabilize each beam bar in the potential plastic hinge zone against
buckling. Such bars are subject to the Bauschinger effect and lateral pressure
 .ASPECTS OF DETAILING 157

bfy Fig. 3.35 Lateral rcstraint to prcvcnt prc-

*b
mature buckling of compression bars situated
'Spalied concrete cover' in plastic hingc rcgions.

from an expanding concrete core. Therefore, an estimate of the magnitude of

the restraining forces F to be provided at sufficiently close intervals s, as
shown in Section 4.5.4, need be made. These will be functions of the
expected curvature ductility demand.
The spacing of the transverse reinforcement is as important as the quan-
tity to be provided. For this reason, recommended maximum spacings of scts
of transverse ties along a member, required for four specific purposes, are
summarized here.

1. To Provide Shear Resistance: Except as set out in Section 3.3.2(a)(vii):

In beams: s s 0.5d or 600 mm ( - 24 in.)
In columns: s 5 0.75h or 600 mm ( - 24 in.)
In walls: s 5 2.56, or 450 mm (= 18 in.)
2. To Stabilize CompresFion Bars in Plaslic Regions: As described in Sec-
tion 4.5.4 for beams, but also applicable to bars with diameters d, in
columns and walls [Section 5.4.3(e)]:

3. To Provide Confinement of Compressed Concrete in Potential Plastic

Regions: As described in Sections 3.6.l(a), 4.6.11(e), and 5.4.3(e),

4. At Lapped Splices: As described in Sections 3.6.2(b), 4.6.10, and

4.6.ll( f for the end regions of columns where plastic hinges arc not
expected to occur:

s < 8db, s I 200 mm ( = 8 in.)

 DESIGN OF BEAMS 207

latcral-force-induced shear forces at flexural ovcrstrcngth VEo to bc readily

considered for both directions of scismic attack. In the example, shear
rcvcrsal in plastic hinges of the left-hand span will occur. Howcver, the
rclevant value of r , defined by Eq. (3.44), is not very largc. Shear reversal
does not occur in plastic hinges of the long-span bcam B-C of this example.

(b) Provisions for Design Shear Strength Different trcat ments arc required
for plastic hinges and regions bctween hinges, as follows:

1. In potential plastic hinge zones, defined in Sect~on4.5.l(d), thc contri-

bution of the concrete to shear res~stancc is diswuntcd since aggregate
interlock across wide flexural cracks will bc ineffective and thus shcar
rcinforcement, as outlined in Section 3.3.2(a), nccds to be providcd. for the
cntirc design shear. If thc computed shear stress is in exccss of that given by
Eq. (3.43) and shear reversal can occur, thc use of diagonal shear rcinforcc-
mcnt, to resist a fraction of the design shear force, In accordancc with Eq.
(3.45), should also be considered. When providing stirrup reinforcement and
selecting suitable bar sizes and spacings, 0 t h detailing requirements, out-
lined in Section 4.5.4, must also be taken into account.
2. Over parts of the beam situated outside potcntial plastic hinge regions,
the flexural tension reinfolcernent is no1 expected to yield under any load
conditions. Hence web rcinforcernent, including minimum requirements, in
accordance with standard plocedures are used arid the contribulion of v,
[Eq. (3.33)] may be relied on. The design example of Section 4.11 illustrates
application of this approach.

4.5.4 Detailing Requirements

To enable the stable hysteretic response of potential plastic hinge regions to
be maintained, compression bars must be prevented from premature buck-
ling. T o this end it should bc assumed that when severe ductility demands are
imposed, the cover concrete in these regions will spa11 off. Consequenlly,
compression bars must rely on the lateral support provided by transverse
stirrup ties only. The following semi-empirical recommendation [X3]will
ensure satisfactory performance.

1. Stirrup ties should be arranged so that each longitudinal bar or bundle

of bars in the upper and lower faccs of thc bcam is restraincd against
buckling by a 90" bend of a stirrup tie, except that where two or more bars,
at not more than 200-rnm (8411.) centers apart, are so restrained, any bars
between them may b e exempted from this requircment. Figure 4.20 shows
examples of tie arrangements around longitudinal bars in the bottom of
beams. Additional notes and dimensions are also provided in this figure to
clarify thc intents of these rules. It is secn in Fig. 4.20(a) that bars 1 and 2
, \
208 REINFORCED CONCRETE DUCTILE FRAMES

Fig. 4.20 Arrangement and size of stirrup tics in potential plastic hinge zones of
beams.

are well restrained against lateral movements. Bar 3 need not be tied because
the distance between adjacent bars is less than 200 rnm (8 in.) and bar 3 is
assumed to rely on thc support provided by the short horizontal leg of the tie
extending (and bending) between bars 2. The two vertical legs of the tie
around bars 2 are thus expected to support three bars against buckling.
2. The diameter of stirrup ties should not be less than 6 mm (0.25 in.), and
the area of one leg of a stirrup tie in the direction of potential buckling of the
longitudinal bars should not be less than

where C A, is the sum of the areas of the longitudinal bars reliant on the tie,
including the tributary area of any bars exempted from being tied in accor-
dance with the preceding section. Longitudinal bars centered more than 75
mm (3 in.) from the inner face of stirrup tie. should not need to be
considered in determining the value of E.A,. In Eq. (4.19), f,, is the yield
strength of the tie leg with area A,, and horizontal spacings s.
Equation (4.19) is based on the consideration that thc capacity of a tie in
tcnsion should not be less than 1/16 of the force at yield in the bar (with
area A,) or group of bars (with area E.Ab) it is to restrain, when spaced on
100-mm (4411.) centers. For example, the area of the tie restraining the
corner bar 1 in Fig. 4.20(a) against vertical or horizontal movements, and
spaced on 100-mm (4411.1 centers, should be A,, = A,/16, assuming that the
yield strength of all bars i s the same. However, the area of the inner ties
around bar 2 must be A:, = ( A 2+ 0.5A3)/16 because they must also give
 1.

' ' DESIGN OFBEAMS Z'UY

support to the centrally positioned bar marked 3. In computing the value of
E A,, the tributary area of unrestrained bars should be based on their
position relative to the two adjacent tie legs.
Figure 4.20(b) shows a beam with eight bottom bars of the same size, A,,.
Again assuming that f y = f,,, the area of identical ties will be A,, = 2AJ16
because the second layer of bars is centered at less than 75 mm (3 in.) from
the inside of the horizontal legs of stirrup ties. The vertical legs of the ties in
Fig. 4.20(c) need only support thc bottom layer of beam bars. The second
layer, being at more than 75 mm (3 in.) from the horizontal tie legs, is
assumed sufficiently restrained by the surrounding concrete and hence is not
considered to require lateral support.
For design purposes it is convenient to rearrange Eq. (4.19a) in this form:

-A,,
Arc
S
= C A, f y / I600f,, (mm2/mm); -S
= Z A,,fy/64 f y r (ina2/in.)
(4.19b)

which gives thc arca of tic leg required per millimeter or inch length of beam
and enables ready comparison to be made with other rcquircmcnts for
transverse reinforcement. '
3. If a layer of longitudinal bars is centered farther than 100 mm (4 in.)
f ~ o mthe inner face of the horizontal leg of a stirrup, the outermost bars
should also be tied laterally as requircd by Eq. (4.19);unless this layer is
situated farther than h / 4 from the compression edge of the section.
The reason for this requirement is that the outer bars placed in second or
third layers in a beam may buckle horizontally outward if they are situated
too far from a horizontal transverse leg of a stirrup tie. This situation is
illustrated in Fig. 4.20(c), which shows a single horizontal tic in the third
layer, because those outer bars are farther than 100 mm (4 in.) from the
horizontal leg of the peripheral stirrup ties at the bottom of the beam
section. The inner four bars need not be considered for restraint, as they are
situated morc than 75 mm (3 in.) from any tie. Thc outer bars in the second
layers shown in Figs. 4.20(b) and (c) are considered satisfactorily restrained
against horizontal buckling as long as they are situated no farther than 100
mm (4 in.) from the horizontal bottom tie. However, the horizontal bottom
tie should b e capable of restraining two outer beam bars, one in each of the
two layers. Any layer of bars in a bcam situated farther than h/4 from the
compression edge of the section is not considered to be subjected to com-
pression strains large enough Lo warrant provisions for lateral restraints. This
waiver does not apply to columns.
4. I n potential plastic hinge regions, defined in Section 4.5.l(d), condi-
tions 1 and 2, the center-to-center spacing of stirrup ties should not exceed
the smaller of d/4, or six times the diameter of the longitudinal bar to be
rcstrained in the outer layers, whenever the bar to be restrained may be
\
210 REINFORCED CONCRETE DUCTILE FRAMES

subjected to compression stress in excess of 0.6f,,. T h e first stirrup tie in a

beam should b e as close as practicable to column bars and should not be
farther than 50 mm (2 in.) from the face of the column (Fig. 4.15).
5. In potentiat "positive" plastic hingc regions, defined in Section 4.5.l(d),
condition 3, and also in regions defined by Sectinn 4.5.l(d) conditions 1 and
2, provided that the bar to be restrained cannot be subjected to compression
stress exceeding 0.6fY, the center-to-center spacing of stirrup ties should not
cxcced thc smaller of d / 3 o r I2 times the diameter of the longitudinal
compression bar to b e restrained, nor 200 mm (8 in.) (Fig. 4.15).
The limitations on maximum tie spacing are to ensure that the cffcctive
buckling length of inelastic compression bars is not excessive and that the
concrete within the stirrup ties has reasonable confinement. The limitations
arc more severe when yielding of longitudinal bars can occur in both tension
and compression. Because of the Bauschinger effect and the reduced tangent
modulus of elasticity of the steel, a much smaller effcctivc length must be
considered for such flexural compression bars than for those subjected only
to compression. Equation (4.19) ensures that the tie area is increased when
the spacing s is in cxcess of 100 mm (4 in.), which is often the case when the
limit is set by s r 6d, and bars largcr than 16 mm (0.63 in.) are used.
Since tension in vertical stirrup legs will act simultaneously to restrict
longitudinal bar buckling and to transEer shear force across diagonal cracks,
the steel areas calculated to satisfy the requircment above and those for
shear resistance in accordance with Eq. (3.40) need not b e additive. Stirrup
size and spacing will be governed by the more stringent of the two require-
ments.
Regions other than those for potential plastic hinges are exempted from
these rules for detailing. In those regions the traditional recommendations of
building codes [All may be considered to be sufficient. Application of these
simple rulcs is shown in Section 4.11. It is emphasized that these recommen-
dations, which have been vcrified by results of numerous experimental
projects, are applicable to beams only. Similar rules, developed for columns,
are examined in Section 4.6.11.

4.6 DESIGN OF COLUMNS

4.6.1 Limitations of Existing Procedures

As outlined in Section 1.4, the concept of a desirable hicrarchy in the
cnergy-dissipating mechanisms, to be mobilized in ductile multistory frames
during very large earthquakes, requires that plastic hinges develop in beams
rather than in columns and that "soft-story" column failure mechanisms be
avoided. Evaluation of design actions and consideration of the concurrency
of such actions along the two principal directions of the building during the