What is inertia?

Newton's first law of motion states that "An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion
stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force."
Inertia: the resistance an object has to a change in its state of motion.

State coulombs law?

Coulombs law is based on the electrostatic interaction between electrically charged particles.
The law was first published by French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb and was essential
in the development of the theory of electromagnetism.

Coulomb's law states that: The magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction between two
point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. The force is along the straight line
joining them.

where Q1 represents the quantity of charge on object 1 (in Coulombs), Q2 represents the
quantity of charge on object 2 (in Coulombs), and r represents the distance of
separation between the two objects (in meters). The symbol k is a proportionality
constant known as the Coulomb's law constant. The value of this constant is dependent
upon the medium that the charged objects are immersed in. In the case of air, the value
is approximately 9.0 x 109 N m2 / C2. If the charged objects are present in water, the
value of k can be reduced by as much as a factor of 80. It is worthwhile to point out that
the units on k are such that when substituted into the equation the units on charge
(Coulombs) and the units on distance (meters) will be cancelled, leaving a Newton as
the unit of force.

Coulombs Law Formula is expressed as

Wherein,

q1 =magnitude of first charge

q2 = magnitude of the second charge

r = distance between the two charges

ke = Coulomb Constant ( 9 10-9 N m2/C)

k is just a constant which was set to be equal to[ 1/ 40 ] and was used to define the coulomb.
9
1 coulomb of charge is the charge that exerts a force equal to 910 newtons when placed at
a distance of 1 meter from a charge of equal magnitude.

[ Area of sphere = 1/4]

the speed of light in free space is related to the permittivity and permeability of a medium:

Coulombs law formula is applied to calculate the force exerted on the charge and
distance if these quantities are given.

The unit of Coulomb force is expressed in Newton (N).

Example1

If the force between the two charges 5 C and 9 C is .05 N, Calculate the distance by
which they are separated?

Solution:

Given: Charge q1 = 5 C,

Charge q2 = 9 C,

Force F = 0.05 N

Electric force constant k = 9 10-9 Nm2/C2

The force formula is given by F = q1q2 / r2

Distance between them is given by r = q1q2 / F

Distance r = 910-9 5 106 x 9106 / 0.05

= 8.1 m.
Example 2

If four protons surround an electron, and they are separated by 2 m, determine the
Electrostatic force acting between them.

Charge of proton = 1.6 10-19 C

Charge of electron = 1.6 10-19 C

Solution

Given:

Charge q1 = 4 protons

= 4 1.6 10-19 C = 6.4 10-19 C

Charge q2 = 1 electron

= 1.6 x 10-19 C

Electrostatic force formula is given by

F = k q1q2 / r2

= 910-9 6.410191.61019 / (2106)2

= 2.3 10-16 N
 TRANSFORMER
Definition of Transformer
A transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from one circuit to another without
changing frequency. This is a very basic definition of transformer. Since there is no rotating or
moving part so transformer is a static device. Transformer operates on ac supply. Transformer works
on the principle of mutual induction.

Types of Transformer
Transformers can be categorized in different ways, depending upon their purpose, use, construction
etc. The types of transformer are as follows,

1. Step Up Transformer and Step Down Transformer - Generally used for stepping up
and down the voltage level of power in transmission and distribution power system
network.
2. Three Phase Transformer and Single Phase Transformer - Former is generally used in
three phase power system as it is cost effective than later. But when size matters, it
is preferable to use a bank of three single phase transformer as it is easier to
transport than one single three phase transformer unit.
3. Electrical Power Transformer, Distribution Transformer and Instrument Transformer
- Power transformers are generally used in transmission network for stepping up or
down the voltage level. It operates mainly during high or peak loads and has
maximum efficiency at or near full load. Distribution transformer steps down the
voltage for distribution purpose to domestic or commercial users. It has good voltage
regulation and operates 24 hrs a day with maximum efficiency at 50% of full load.
Instrument transformers include C.T and P.T which are used to reduce high voltages
and current to lesser values which can be measured by conventional instruments.
4. Two Winding Transformer and Auto Transformer - Former is generally used where
ratio between high voltage and low voltage is greater than 2. It is cost effective to
use later where the ratio between high voltage and low voltage is less than 2.
5. Outdoor Transformer and Indoor Transformer - Transformers that are designed for
installing at outdoor are outdoor transformers and transformers designed for
installing at indoor are indoor transformers.
6. Oil Cooled and Dry Type Transformer - In oil cooled transformer the cooling medium
is transformer oil whereas the dry type transformer is air cooled.
7. Core type, Shell type and Berry type transformer - In core type transformer it has
two vertical legs or limbs with two horizontal sections named yoke. Core is
rectangular in shape with a common magnetic circuit. Cylindrical coils (HV and LV)
are placed on both the limbs.
Shell type transformer: It has a central limb and two outer limbs. Both HV, LV coils
are placed on the central limb. Double magnetic circuit is present.
Berry type transformer: The core looks like spokes of wheels. Tightly fitted metal
 sheet tanks are used for housing this type of transformer with transformer oil filled
inside.

Working Principle of a Transformer

The basic principle on which the transformer works is Faradays Law of Electromagnetic
Induction or mutual induction between the two coils. The working of the transformer is
explained below. The transformer consists of two separate windings placed over the
laminated silicon steel core.

The winding to which AC supply is connected is called primary winding and to which load is
connected is called secondary winding as shown in the figure below. It works on the
alternating current only because an alternating flux is required for mutual induction between
the two windings.

Contents:

Transformer on DC supply
Turn Ratio
Transformation Ratio

When the AC supply is given to the primary winding with a voltage of V1, an alternating flux
sets up in the core of the transformer, which links with the secondary winding and as a
result of it, an emf is induced in it called Mutually Induced emf. The direction of this induced
emf is opposite to the applied voltage V1, this is because of the Lenzs law shown in the
figure below
Physically, there is no electrical connection between the two windings, but they are
magnetically connected. Therefore, the electrical power is transferred from the primary
circuit to the secondary circuit through mutual inductance. The induced emf in the primary
and secondary windings depends upon the rate of change of flux linkage that is (N d/dt).

d/dt is the change of flux and is same for both the primary and secondary windings. The
induced emf E1 in the primary winding is proportional to the number of turns N1 of the
primary windings (E1 N1). Similarly induced emf in the secondary winding is proportional
to the number of turns on the secondary side. (E2 N2).

Transformer on DC supply

As discussed above, the transformer works on AC supply, and it cannot work not DC supply.
If the rated DC voltage is applied across the primary winding, a constant magnitude flux will
set up in the core of the transformer and hence there will not be any self-induced emf
generation, as for the linkage of flux with the secondary winding there must be an alternating
flux required and not a constant flux.

According to Ohms Law

The resistance of the primary winding is very low, and the primary current is high. So this current is
much higher than the rated full load primary winding current. Hence, as a result, the amount of heat
produced will be greater and therefore, eddy current loss (I2R) loss will be more. Because of this, the
insulations of the primary windings will get burnt, and the transformer will be damaged.
Types of transformers

Transformers can be classified on different basis, like types of construction, types of cooling etc.

(A) On the basis of construction, transformers can be classified into two types as;
(i) Core type transformer and (ii) Shell type transformer, which are described below.

(i) Core type transformer

In core type transformer, windings are cylindrical former wound, mounted on the core limbs as
shown in the figure above. The cylindrical coils have different layers and each layer is insulated from
each other. Materials like paper, cloth or mica can be used for insulation. Low voltage windings are
placed nearer to the core, as they are easier to insulate.

(ii) Shell type transformer

The coils are former wound and mounted in layers stacked with insulation between them. A shell
type transformer may have simple rectangular form (as shown in above fig), or it may have a
distributed form.

(B) On the basis of their purpose

1. Step up transformer: Voltage increases (with subsequent decrease in current) at secondary.

2. Step down transformer: Voltage decreases (with subsequent increase in current) at
secondary.

(C) On the basis of type of supply

1. Single phase transformer

2. Three phase transformer
(D) On the basis of their use

1. Power transformer: Used in transmission network, high rating

2. Distribution transformer: Used in distribution network, comparatively lower rating than that
of power transformers.
3. Instrument transformer: Used in relay and protection purpose in different instruments in
industries
o Current transformer (CT)
o Potential transformer (PT)

(E) On the basis of cooling employed

1. Oil-filled self cooled type

2. Oil-filled water cooled type
3. Air blast type (air cooled)

Step-Down Transformer

There are two types of transformers, namely: Step down and Step up transformers. Generally,
the difference between them is the amount of voltage produced, depending on the number of
secondary coils.

In a step-down transformer is one who secondary windings are fewer than the primary
windings. In other words, the transformers secondary voltage is less than the primary
voltage. So, the transformer is designed to convert high-voltage, low-current power into a
low-voltage, high current power and it is mainly used in domestic consumption.

A common case of step-down application is in the case of door bells. Normally, door bells
use 16 volts, but most household power circuits carry 110-120 volts. Therefore, the doorbells
step-down transformer receives the 110 volts and reduces it to lower voltage before supplying
it to the doorbell.

Step-down transformers are mostly used to convert the 220 volts electricity to the 110 volts
required in most domestic equipment.

Step-Up Transformers
A step-up transformer is the direct opposite of a step-down transformer. There are many turns
on the secondary winding than in the primary winding in the step-up transformers. Thus, the
voltage supplied in the secondary transformer is greater than the one supplied across the
primary winding. Because of the principle of conservation of energy, the transformer
converts low voltage, high-current to high voltage-low current. In other words, the voltage
has been stepped up.

You can find step-up transformers located near power plants that are designed to operate
megawatts of power. Apart from the power plants, step-up transformers can also be used for
local and smaller applications such as x-ray machine which requires about 50,000 volts to
work. Even a micro-wave oven requires a small step-up transformer to operate.

Tip: The type of metal winding used is one of the considerations used in determining the
efficiency of transformers. Copper coils are more efficient than many other coil metal choices
such as aluminum. However, copper windings tend to cost more, but you can expect to save
the initial cost over time as the efficiency of the material will save on electrical cost.

Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR STEP-UP STEP-DOWN

COMPARISON TRANSFORMER TRANSFORMER
Definition Step-up transformer increase the Step-down transformer reduces the
output voltage. output voltage.
Voltage Input voltage is low while the output Input voltage is high while the output
voltage is high. voltage is low.
Winding High voltage winding is the High voltage winding is the primary
secondary winding. winding.
Current Current is low on the secondary Current is high on the secondary
winding. winding.
Rating of output 11000 volts or above 110v ,24v, 20v, 10v, etc.
voltage
Size of the Primary winding is made up of thick Secondary winding is made up of thick
conductor insulated copper wire. insulated copper wire
Application Power plant, X-rays machine, Doorbell, voltage converter, etc.
microwaves, etc.

Turn Ratio

It is defined as the ratio of primary to secondary turns.

If N2 > N1 the transformer is called Step up transformer

If N2 < N1 the transformer is called Step down transformer

Transformation Ratio

The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of the secondary voltage to the primary
voltage. It is denoted by K.

As (E2 N2 and E1 N1)

EMF Equation of a Transformer

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, alternating flux
m sets up in the iron core of the transformer. This sinusoidal flux links with both primary
and secondary winding. The function of flux is a sine function. The rate of change of flux
with respect to time is derived mathematically

The derivation of EMF Equation of the transformer is shown below. Let

m be the maximum value of flux in Weber

f be the supply frequency in Hz
N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding
N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding

is the flux per turn in Weber

As shown in the above figure that the flux changes from + m to m in half a cycle of 1/2f
seconds.
By Faradays Law

Let E1 is the emf induced in the primary winding

Where = N1

Since is due to AC supply = m Sinwt

So the induced emf lags flux by 90 degrees.

Maximum valve of emf

But w = 2f

Root mean square RMS value is

Putting the value of E1max in equation (6) we get

Putting the value of = 3.14 in the equation (7) we will get the value of E1 as

Similarly

Now, equating the equation (8) and (9) we get

The above equation is called the turn ratio where K is known as transformation ratio.

The equation (8) and (9) can also be written as shown below using the relation

(m = Bm x Ai) where Ai is the iron area and Bm is the maximum value of flux density.

For a sinusoidal wave

Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is one which has no ohmic resistance and no magnetic leakage flux that
means 100% flux passes through the core and links with the primary as well as with the
secondary winding. It has no iron and copper losses. There are two purely inductive coils in
the Ideal Transformer, which are wound on a core. As in Ideal transformer, there is no losses.
Hence, the core of the transformer is free from the losses.

The resistance of the winding is zero, and there is no leakage reactance. The core of the
transformer is infinitely permeable. It is an imaginary transformer and practically it is not
possible for a transformer to behave as an ideal transformer. In an ideal transformer, there is
no power loss. Therefore, the output power is equal to the input power.

Since E2 N2 and E1 N1, also E1 is similar to V1 and E2 is similar to V2

Therefore, transformation ratio will be given by the equation shown below

The primary and the secondary currents are inversely proportional to their respective turns.

Behavior and Phasor Diagram of Ideal Transformer

Consider an ideal transformer whose secondary side is open circuited that means the load is
not connected in the secondary side of the transformer as shown in the figure below.
When the primary side is connected to the sinusoidal alternating voltage V1, a current Im
known as magnetizing current flows through it. This current sets up the alternating flux or
mutual flux m in the core and magnetizes it. Hence, it is called Magnetizing current. The
flux m is proportional to the current Im and is in phase with it. As the primary coil is purely
inductive the magnetizing current (Im) lags behind the applied voltage V1 by 90.

The above all discussion done is represented by the phasor diagram shown below.

Phasor Diagram of an Ideal Transformer

The alternating flux links with both the primary and the secondary winding. When it links
with the primary winding, it produces self-induced emf E1 which is in the opposite direction
to the applied voltage V1. Similarly, when this alternating flux links with the secondary
winding it produces induced emf E2 known as mutually induced emf in the opposite direction
to the applied voltage. Both E1 and E2 lags behind the flux by 90.

TRANSFORMER INRUSH CURRENT

Definition: The transformer inrush current is the maximum instantaneous current drawn by
the primary of the transformer when their secondary is open circuit. The inrush current does
not create any permanent fault, but it causes an unwanted switching in the circuit breaker of
the transformer. During the inrush current, the maximum value attained by the flux is over
twice the normal flux.
Let a sinusoidal voltage

V1 be applied to a transformer, the secondary of which is an open circuit. Here the angle of
the voltage sinusoid at t = 0. Suppose the core loss and primary resistance be neglected, then

Where T1 is the number of turns and is the flux in the core. In the steady state

From equation (1) and equation (2), we get,

From equation (3) and (4)

Integration of the equation (5) gives

Where c is the constant or integration to be found from an initial condition at t = 0.

Considered that when the transformer is last disconnected from the supply line, a small
residual flux r remained in the core. Thus, at t = 0, = r.

Substituting this value in equation (6) we get

Equation (6) then becomes

The equation (8) shows that the flux consists of two components, the steady state component
ss and the transient component c. The magnitude of the transient component
c is a function of , where is the instant at which the transformer is switched on to the
supply.If the transformer is switched on at = 0, then cos = 1.

Under this condition

At t = ,

Thus the core flux attains the maximum value of flux equal to (2m+r) which is over twice
the normal flux. This is known as double effecting. Due to this double effect, the core goes
into deep saturation. The magnetising current required for producing such a large flux in the
core may be as large as ten times the normal magnetising current.

Sometimes the RMS value of magnetising current is larger than the primary rated current of
the transformer. This current may produce an electromagnetic force which is about twenty-
five times the normal value. Therefore the winding of the transformer is strongly braced. The
improper operation of protective devices like unwarranted tripping of relays, momentary
large voltage drops and large humming due to magnetostriction of the core.

To obtain no transient inrush current, c should be zero.

Since r is usually very small cos 0 and n/2

In other words, if the transformer is connected to the supply line near a positive or negative
maximum voltage, the inrush current will be minimised. But usually, it is impractical to
connect a transformer at a predetermined time in the voltage cycle

Transformer on No Load Condition

When the transformer is operating at no load, the secondary winding is open circuited, which
means there is no load on the secondary side of the transformer and, therefore, current in the
secondary will be zero, while primary winding carries a small current I0 called no load
current which is 2 to 10% of the rated current. This current is responsible for supplying the
iron losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) in the core and a very small amount of copper
losses in the primary winding. The angle of lag depends upon the losses in the transformer.
The power factor is very low and varies from 0.1 to 0.15.

The no load current consists of two components

Reactive or magnetizing component Im (It is in quadrature with the applied voltage V1. It
produces flux in the core and does not consume any power)

Active or power component Iw, also know as working component

(It is in phase with the applied voltage V1. It supplies the iron losses and a small amount of
primary copper loss)

The following steps are given below to draw the phasor diagram
 1. The function of the magnetizing component is to produce the magnetizing flux, and thus, it
will be in phase with the flux.
2. Induced emf in the primary and the secondary winding lags the flux by 90 degrees.
3. The primary copper loss is neglected, and secondary current losses are zero as I2 = 0.
Therefore, the current I0 lags behind the voltage vector V1 by an angle 0 called no-load
power factor angle shown in the phasor diagram above.
4. The applied voltage V1 is drawn equal and opposite to the induced emf E1 because the
difference between the two, at no load, is negligible.
5. Active component Iw is drawn in phase with the applied voltage V1.
6. The phasor sum of magnetizing current Im and the working current Iw gives the no load
current I0.
7. From the phasor diagram drawn above, the following conclusions are made

Transformer ON Load Condition

When the transformer is on the loaded condition, that means the secondary of the transformer
is attached to some load, either it can be resistive, inductive or capacitive. Current I2 flows
through the secondary winding of the transformer. The magnitude of the current I2 depends
upon the terminal voltage V2 and impedance of the load. The phase angle depends upon the
nature of the load.

Contents:

Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition

Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Inductive Load
Steps to draw the phasor diagram
Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Capacitive Load
Steps to draw the phasor diagram at capacitive load
Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition

The Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition is explained below

When the transformer is under NO load, it draws no load current I0. This no load current
produces an MMF N1I0 which sets up the flux in the core as shown in the figure below

When the transformer is loaded, current I2 flows in the secondary winding as shown in the
figure below. This secondary current I2 produces an MMF N2I2, which sets up the flux 2 in the
core. This flux 2 opposes the flux which is set up by the current I0. (According to Lenzs law)

Since the flux 2 opposes the flux , the resultant flux tends to decrease and causes the
reduction of self-induced emf E1. Thus, V1 predominates over E1 causing additional primary
current know as I1drawn from the supply.The amount of the additional current is such that the
flux in the core must be restored to its original value so that V1 = E1. The current I1 is in phase
opposition with I2 and is called Primary Counter Balancing Current.

This additional current I1produces an MMF, NI I1 which sets up flux 1. The direction of the
flux 1 is same as the flux and it cancels the flux 2 sets up by the MMF N2I2.
 Now, N1I1 = N2I2

Therefore,

The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle 1 of the primary side
of the transformer.
The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the
transformer.
If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram, the power factor will be
lagging, and if the load is capacitive, the power factor will be leading. The total primary
current I1 is the vector sum of the current I0 and I1. i.e

Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Inductive Load

The phasor diagram of the actual transformer when it is loaded inductively is shown below

Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Inductive Load

Steps to draw the phasor diagram

Take flux a reference

Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal and opposite to induced emf in
the primary winding. E1 is represented by V1.
Current I0 lags the voltage V1 by 90 degrees.
The power factor of the load be lagging. Therefore current I2 is drawn lagging E2 by an angle
2.
The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a voltage drop, and hence
secondary terminal voltage V2 is the phasor difference of E2 and voltage drop.
V2 = E2 voltage drops
I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2.

The total current flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I1 and I0.
Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1 and the voltage drop in the primary
winding.
Current I1 is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2

V1 = V1 + voltage drop
I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.

The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle 1 of the primary side
of the transformer.
The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the
transformer.
If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram, the power factor will be
lagging, and if the load is capacitive, the power factor will be leading. Where I1R1 is the
resistive drop in the primary windings I2X2 is the reactive drop in the secondary winding

Similarly
Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Capacitive Load

The Transformer on Capacitive load (leading power factor load) is shown below in the phasor
diagram.

Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Capacitive Load

Steps to draw the phasor diagram at capacitive load

Take flux a reference

Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal and opposite to induced emf in
the primary winding. E1 is represented by V1.
Current I0 lags the voltage V1 by 90 degrees.
The power factor of the load be leading. Therefore current I2 is drawn leading E2
The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a voltage drop, and hence
secondary terminal voltage V2 is the phasor difference of E2 and voltage drop.

V2 = E2 voltage drops
I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2.

Current I1 is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2

The total current I1 flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I1 and I0.
Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1 and the voltage drop in the primary
winding.

V1 = V1 + voltage drop
I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.
 The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle 1 of the primary side
of the transformer.
The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the
transformer.

Resistance and Reactance of the Transformer

The Resistance of the transformer is defined as the internal resistance of both primary and
secondary windings. In an actual transformer, the primary and the secondary windings have
some resistance represented by R1 and R2 and the reactances by X1 and X2. Let K be the
transformation ratio. To make the calculations easy the resistances and reactances can be
transferred to either side, that means either all the primary terms are referred to the secondary
side, or all the secondary terms are referred to the primary side.

The resistive and the reactive drops in the primary and secondary side are represented as
follows

Resistive drop in the secondary side = I2R2

Reactive drop in the secondary side = I2X2
Resistive drop in the primary side = I1R1
Reactive drop in the primary side = I1X1

Primary Side Referred to Secondary Side

Since the transformation ratio is K, primary resistive and reactive drop as referred to
secondary side will be K times, i.e., K I1R1 and K I1X1 respectively. If I1 is substituted equal
to KI2 then we have primary resistive, and reactive drop referred to secondary side equal to
K2I2R1 and K2I2X1 respectively.

The Total resistive drop in a transformer

Total reactive drop in a transformer

The term

represent the equivalent resistance and reactance of the transformer referred to the secondary
side.

Where

From the phasor diagram shown above the equation can be formed as

Where V2 is the secondary terminal voltage and I2 is secondary current lagging behind the
terminal voltage V2 by an angle .

Since the term

is very small and is neglected as compared to the term

Now the equation becomes

Where V1 is the applied voltage to the primary winding

If the load on the secondary side of the transformer is purely resistive then = 0 and the
equation (1) becomes

If the load on the secondary side of the transformer is capacitive then should be taken as
negative, and the equation (1) becomes

Two Wattmeter Method Balanced Load Condition

The Two Wattmeter Method is explained, taking an example of a balanced load. In this, we
have to prove that the power measured by the Two Wattmeter i.e. the sum of the two
wattmeter readings is equal to root 3 times of the phase voltage and line voltage (3V LIL
Cos) which is the actual power consumed in a 3 phase balanced load.

The connection diagram of a 3 phase balanced load connected as Star Connection is shown
below.
Contents:

Determination of Power Factor from Wattmeter Readings

Determination of Reactive Power by Two Wattmeter Method

The load is considered as an inductive load, and thus, the phasor diagram of the inductive
load is drawn below.

The three voltages VRN, VYN and VBN, are displaced by an angle of 120 degrees electrical as
shown in the phasor diagram. The phase current lag behind their respective phase voltages by
an angle .

Now, the current flowing through the current coil of the Wattmeter, W1 will be given as

Potential difference across the pressure or potential coil of the Wattmeter, W1 will be

To obtain the value of VYB, reverse the phasor VBN and add it to the phasor VYN as shown in
the phasor diagram above. The phase difference between VRB and IR is (30 )
Therefore, the power measured by the Wattmeter, W1 is

Current through the current coil of the Wattmeter, W2 is given as

Potential difference across the Wattmeter, W2 is

The phase difference VYB and IY is (30 + ).

Therefore, the power measured by the Wattmeter, W2 is given by the equation shown below.

Since, the load is in balanced condition, hence,

Therefore, the wattmeter readings will be

Now, the sum of two Wattmeter readings will be given as

The above equation (1) gives the total power absorbed by a 3 phase balanced load.

Thus, the sum of the readings of the two Wattmeters is equal to the power absorbed in a 3
phase balanced load.

Determination of Power Factor from Wattmeter Readings

As we know that,

Now,

Dividing equation (3) by equation (2) we get,

Power factor of the load is given as

Determination of Reactive Power by Two Wattmeter Method

To get the reactive power, multiply equation (3) by 3.

Therefore, the Reactive Power is given by the equation shown below.

For the Measurement of the Three Phase Power, you can also refer the two topics given
below.

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER

The equivalent circuit diagram of any device can be quite helpful in predetermination of the
behavior of the device under the various condition of operation. It is simply the circuit
representation of the equation describing the performance of the device.
The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is drawn by representing all the parameters of the
transformer either on the secondary side or on the primary side. The equivalent circuit diagram of
the transformer is shown below
Contents:

Equivalent Circuit When all the Quantities are Referred to Primary side
Equivalent Circuit When all the Quantities are Referred to Secondary side

Let the equivalent circuit of a transformer having the transformation ratio K = E2/E1

The induced emf E1 is equal to the primary applied voltage V1 less primary voltage drop.This
voltage causes current I0 no load current in the primary winding of the transformer. The value
of no-load current is very small, and thus, it is neglected. Hence, I1 = I1. The no load current
is further divided into two components called magnetizing current (Im) and working current
(Iw).

These two components of no-load current are due to the current drawn by a noninductive
resistance R0 and pure reactance X0 having voltage E1 or (V1 primary voltage drop).

The secondary current I2 is

The terminal voltage V2 across the load is equal to the induced emf E2 in the secondary
winding less voltage drop in the secondary winding.

Equivalent Circuit When all the Quantities are Referred to Primary side

In this case to draw the equivalent circuit of the transformer all the quantities are to be
referred to the primary as shown in the figure below
Circuit Diagram of Transformer when all the Secondary Quantities are Referred to Primary
Side

The following are the values of resistance and reactance given below

Secondary resistance referred to primary side is given as

The equivalent resistance referred to primary side is given as

Secondary reactance referred to primary side is given as

The equivalent reactance referred to primary side is given as

Equivalent Circuit When all the Quantities are Referred to Secondary side

The equivalent circuit diagram of the transformer is shown below when all the quantities are
referred to the secondary side.
Circuit Diagram of Transformer When All the Primary Quantities are Referred to Secondary
Side

The following are the values of resistance and reactance given below

Primary resistance referred to secondary side is given as

The equivalent resistance referred to secondary side is given as

Primary reactance referred to secondary side is given as

The equivalent reactance referred to secondary side is given as

No load current I0 is hardly 3 to 5% of full load rated current, the parallel branch consisting
of resistance R0 and reactance X0 can be omitted without introducing any appreciable error in
the behavior of the transformer under the loaded condition.

Further simplification of the equivalent circuit of the transformer can be done by neglecting
the parallel branch consisting R0 and X0. The simplified circuit diagram of the transformer is
shown below
 Simplified Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Transformer

Open Circuit and Short Circuit Test on Transformer

In order to determine the parameters of a transformer such as voltage regulation and

efficiency, the following open circuit and short tests are carried out. These tests are very
convient , as they furnish the required information without actualy loading the transformer.
Also the power required to carry out these test is very small as compared to full load output
of the transformer

Contents:

Open Circuit Test

Calculation of Open Circuit Test
Short Circuit Test
Calculation of Short Circuit Test

Open Circuit Test

The Open circuit test is carried out to determine the no-load loss or core loss or iron loss. No
load current I0, which is helpful in finding the no load parameters R0 and X0 of the
transformer. This test is usually carried out on the low voltage (LV) side of the transformer
that is a watt meter (W), a voltmeter (V) and an ammeter (A) are connected to the primary
side of the transformer as shown in the figure below. The primary winding is connected to the
normal rated voltage V1 and frequency as given of the nameplate rating of the transformer.
The secondary side of the transformer is kept open circuited.
 Circuit Diagram of Open Circuit Test on Transformer

As the high voltage side (HV) of the transformer is open circuited, the current drawn by the
primary is no load current I0 which is measured by an ammeter connected. The value of no-
load current is very small usually 2 to 10% of the rated full load current. Thus, there is no
copper loss on the secondary side as it is open circuited and in the primary winding, the
copper loss occurring are very small. Therefore, the wattmeter reading W0 only represents the
core or iron losses. The voltmeter V connected to the secondary side measures the secondary
induced voltage V2.

Calculation of open circuit test

Let,

W0 wattmeter reading
V1 voltmeter reading
I0 ammeter reading

Then the iron loss of the transformer Pi = W0 and

The no-load power factor is

Working component Iw is

Putting the value of W0 from the equation (1) in equation (2) you will get the value of
working component as

Magnetizing component is

No load parameters are given below

Equivalent exciting resistance is

Equivalent exciting reactance is

The phasor diagram of transformer at no load or when an open circuit test is performed is
shown below
Phasor Diagram of Open Circuit Test

The iron losses measured by the open circuit test is used for calculating the efficiency of the
transformer.

Short Circuit Test

The short circuit test is performed to determine the copper losses at full load, which is further
required for the calculation of the efficiency of the transformer. This test also helps in
determining the equivalent impedance (Zes or Zep), resistance (Res or Rep) and the leakage
reactance (Xes or Xep) of the transformer referred to the winding in which the measuring
instruments are connected. By knowing these parameters the voltage drop can be calculated
and thus voltage regulation can be determined.
The circuit diagram of the short circuit test is shown below

Circuit Diagram of Short Circuit Test on Transformer

The short circuit test is usually carried out on the high voltage (HV) side of the transformer.
The watt meter (W), a voltmeter (V) and an ammeter (A) are connected to the secondary side
of the transformer as shown in the above figure.the primary side is short circuited. With the
help of an autotransformer, a low voltage at the normal frequency is applied to the secondary
side of the transformer so that full load current flows in both the windings of the transformer.
The full load current is measured by ammeters connected.

As a low voltage is applied on the HV side, which is 5 to 10% of the normal rated voltage.
Therefore, the value of the flux which is set up in the core is also small, about 1/30th to 1/8th
of the normal flux. Hence, the iron losses are negligibly small due to the low value of flux
and thus the wattmeter Wc only measures the copper loss in the transformer windings.

Calculation of Short Circuit Test

Let,

Wc Wattmeter reading
V2sc voltmeter reading
I2sc ammeter reading

Then the full load copper loss of the transformer is given by

Equivalent resistance referred to secondary side is

The phasor diagram of the short circuit test of the transformer is shown below

Phasor Diagram of Short Circuit Test

From the phasor diagram

Equivalent impedance referred to the secondary side is given by

The Equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side is given by

The voltage regulation of the transformer can be determined at any load and power factor
after knowing the values of Zes and Res.

In the short circuit test the wattmeter record, the total losses including core loss but the value
of core loss is very small as compared to copper loss so, the core loss can be neglected.
Back-to-Back Test (Sumpners Test) on Transformer
Definition: The full load test on a small transformer is very convenient, but on large transformer, it is
very difficult.The maximum temperature rise in a large transformer is determined by the full load
test.This test is called, back-to-back test, regenerative test or sumpners test.

The suitable load which absorbs the full load power of a large transformer will not easily be
available. Hence the large amount of energy will be wasted.The back-to-back test determine the
maximum temperature rise in a transformer and hence the load is chosen according to the capability
of the transformer.

Back to Back Test Circuit

The back to back transformer requires two identical transformers. The figure shown below, the
circuit diagram of the back to back test on two identical single phase transformer Tr1 and Tr2.The
primary winding of the two transformers are connected in parallel and supplied at rated voltage and
rated frequency. A voltmeter, an ammeter and a wattmeter are connected to the side as shown in
the figure below.
back-to-back-testThe secondaries of conductor are connected in series with their polarities in phase
opposition, which can be checked by the voltmeter V2.The range of this voltmeter should be double
the rated voltage of either transformer secondary. The secondary of the transformer is connected in
series opposition between any two terminals and the voltage is measured between the remaining
terminals A and D.

If the voltmeter V2 reads zero, the secondaries are in series opposition and terminals A and D are
used for the test. If the voltmeter reads a value approximately equal to twice the rated secondary
voltage of either transformer, then the secondaries are acting in the same direction. Then the
terminal A and C are joined and terminal B and D used for the test.

If the primary circuit is closed, then the total voltage of the secondaries which is connected in series
will be zero.There will be no current in the secondaries winding and it behaves as an open
circuited.The reading of wattmeter W1 gives the iron losses of both the transformer.

A small voltage is injected into the secondary circuit by a regulating transformer TR excited by the
main supply.The magnitude of the injected adjusted till the ammeter A2 reads full secondary
current.The secondary produces the full load current to flow through the primary windings.

The current will follow a circulatory path through the main bus bar shown in the dotted lines.The
reading of wattmeter W2 will not be affected by this current.Thus, wattmeter W2 gives the full load
copper loss of the two transformers.The ammeter A1 gives total no load current of the two
transformers.

The temperature rise of the transformer can be determined by operating these transformer back-to-
back for a long time, say 48 hours, and measuring the temperature of the oil at periodic interval say
one hour.

Circuit Analysis of 3 Phase System Balanced Condition

The electrical system is of two types i.e., the single phase system and the three phase system.
The single phase system has only one phase wire and one return wire thus it is used for low
power transmission. The three-phase system has three live wire and one returns path. The
three phase system is used for transmitting a large amount of power. The 3 Phase system is
divided mainly into two types. One is Balanced three phase system and another one is
unbalanced three phase system.
Contents:

Analysis of Balanced 3 Phase Circuit

Analysis of Unbalanced 3 Phase Circuit
Interconnection of 3 Phase System
Connection of 3 Phase Loads in 3 Phase System

The balance system in one in which the load are equally distributed in all the three phases of
the system. The magnitude of voltage remains same in all the three phases and it is separated
by an angle of 120. In unbalance system the magnitude of voltage in all the three phases
becomes different.

Analysis of Balanced 3 Phase Circuit

It is always better to solve the balanced three phase circuits on per phase basis. When the
three phase supply voltage is given without reference to the line or phase value, then it is the
line voltage which is taken into consideration.

The following steps are given below to solve the balanced three phase circuits.

Step 1 First of all draw the circuit diagram.

Step 2 Determine XLP = XL/phase = 2fL.

Step 3 Determine XCP = XC/phase = 1/2fC.

Step 4 Determine XP = X/ phase = XL XC

Step 5 Determine ZP = Z/phase = R2P + X2P

Step 6 Determine cos = RP/ZP; the power factor is lagging when XLP > XCP and it is
leading when XCP > XLP.

Step 7 Determine V phase.

For star connection VP = VL/3 and for delta connection VP = VL

Step 8 Determine IP = VP/ZP.

Step 9 Now, determine the line current IL.

For star connection IL = IP and for delta connection IL = 3 IP

Step 10 Determine the Active, Reactive and Apparent power.

Analysis of Unbalanced 3 Phase Circuit

The analysis of the 3 Phase unbalanced system is slightly difficult, and the load is connected
either as Star or Delta. The topic is discussed in detail in the article named as Star to Delta
and Delta to Star Conversion.

Interconnection of 3 Phase System

In a three-phase AC generator, there are three windings. Each winding has two terminals
(start and finish). If a separate load is connected across each phase winding as shown in the
figure below, then each phase supplies as independent load through a pair of wires. Thus, six
wires will be required to connect the load to a generator. This will make the whole system
complicated and costly.

Therefore, in order to reduce the number of line conductors, the three phase windings of an
AC generator are interconnected.The interconnection of the windings of a three phase system
can be done in following two ways

Star or Wye (Y) connection

Mesh or Delta () connection.

Connection of 3 Phase Loads in 3 Phase System

As the three phase supply is connected in star and delta connections. Similarly, the three-
phase loads are also connected either as Star connection or as Delta Connection. The three
phase load connected in the star is shown in the figure below.

The delta connection of three phase loads is shown in the figure below.

The three phase loads may be balanced or unbalanced as discussed above. If the three loads
Z1, Z2 and Z3 have the same magnitude and phase angle, then the 3 phase load is said to be a
balanced load. Under such connections, all the phase or line currents and all the phase or line
voltages are equal in magnitude.
Polarity Test of Transformer

Polarity means the direction of the induced voltages in the primary and the secondary
winding of the transformer. If the two transformers are connected in parallel, then the polarity
should be known for the proper connection of the transformer. There are two types of polarity
one is Additive, and another is Subtractive.

Contents:

Additive Polarity
Subtractive Polarity
Explanation With Connection Diagram
Steps to Perform Polarity Test

Additive Polarity: In additive polarity the same terminals of the primary and the secondary
windings of the transformer are connected

Subtractive Polarity: In subtractive polarity different terminals of the primary and

secondary side of the transformer is connected.

Explanation With Connection Diagram

Each of the terminals of the primary as well as the secondary winding of a transformer is
alternatively positive and negative with respect to each other as shown in the figure below.
Let A1 and A2 be the positive and negative terminal respectively of the transformer primary
and a1, a2 are the positive and negative terminal of the secondary side of the transformer.

If A1 is connected to a1 and A2 is connected to a2 that means similar terminals of the

transformer are connected, then the polarity is said to be additive. If A1 is connected to a2
and A2 to a1, that means the opposite terminals are connected to each other, and thus the
voltmeter will read the subtractive polarity.
 Circuit Diagram of Polarity Test of Transformer

It is essential to know the relative polarities at any instant of the primary and the secondary
terminals for making the correct connections if the transformers are to be connected in
parallel or they are used in a three phase circuit.

In the primary side, the terminals are marked as A1 and A2 and from the secondary side the
terminals are named as a1 and a2. The terminal A1 is connected to one end of the secondary
winding, and a voltmeter is connected between A2 and the other end of the secondary
winding.

When the voltmeter reads the difference that is (V1 V2), the transformer is said to be
connected with opposite polarity know as Subtractive polarity and when the voltmeter reads
(V1 + V2), the transformer is said to have additive polarity.

Steps to Perform Polarity Test

Connect the circuit as shown in the above circuit diagram figure and set the autotransformer
to zero position.
Switch on the single phase supply
Records the values of the voltages as shown by the voltmeter V1, V2 and V3.
If the reading of the V3 shows the addition of the value of V1 and V2 that is V2 = V1+V2 the
transformer is said to be connected in additive polarity.
If the reading of the V3 is the subtraction of the readings of V1 and V2, then the transformer
is said to be connected in subtractive or negative polarity.

Auto Transformer

An Auto Transformer is a transformer with only one winding wound on a laminated core.
An auto transformer is similar to a two winding transformer but differ in the way the primary
and secondary winding are interrelated. A part of the winding is common to both primary and
secondary sides. On load condition, a part of the load current is obtained directly from the
supply and the remaining part is obtained by transformer action. An Auto transformer works
as a voltage regulator.

Contents:

Explanation of Auto Transformer with Circuit Diagram

Saving of Copper in Auto Transformer as Compared to Ordinary Two Winding Transformer
Advantages of Auto transformer
Disadvantages of Auto transformer
Applications of Auto transformer

Explanation of Auto Transformer with Circuit Diagram

In an ordinary transformer, the primary and the secondary windings are electrically insulated
from each other but connected magnetically as shown in the figure below and in auto
transformer the primary and the secondary windings are connected magnetically as well as
electrically. In fact, a part of the single continuous winding is common to both primary and
secondary.

Figure A: Ordinary Two Winding Transformer

There are two types of auto transformer based on the construction. In one type of transformer,
there is continuous winding with the taps brought out at convenient points determined by
desired secondary voltage and in another type of auto transformer, there are two or more
distinct coils which are electrically connected to form a continuous winding. The construction
of Auto transformer is shown in the figure below.
 Figure B: Auto Transformer

The primary winding AB from which a tapping at C is taken, such that CB acts as a
secondary winding. The supply voltage is applied across AB, and the load is connected across
CB. The tapping may be fixed or variable.When an AC voltage V1 is applied across AB, an
alternating flux is set up in the core, as a result, an emf E1 is induced in the winding AB. A
part of this induced emf is taken in the secondary circuit.

Let,

V1 primary applied voltage

V2 secondary voltage across the load
I1 primary current
I2 load current
N1 number of turns between A and B
N2 number of turns between C and B

Neglecting no load current, leakage reactance and losses,

V1 = E1 and V2 = E2

Therefore the transformation ratio

As the secondary ampere-turns are opposite to primary ampere turns, so the current I2 is in
phase opposition to I1. The secondary voltage is less than the primary. Therefore current I2 is
more than the current I1. Therefore, the resulting current flowing through section BC is (I2
I1)

The ampere-turns due to section BC = current x turns

Equation (1) and (2) shows that the ampere turns due to section BC and AC balance each
other which is characteristic of the transformer action.

Saving of Copper in Auto Transformer as Compared to Ordinary Two

Winding Transformer

The weight of the copper is proportional to the length and area of a cross section of the
conductor.

The length of the conductor is proportional to the number of turns, and the cross section is
proportional to the product of current and number of turns.

Now, from the above figure (B) shown of the auto transformer, the weight of copper required
in an auto transformer is

Wa = weight of copper in section AC + weight of copper in section CB

Therefore

If the same duty is performed with an ordinary two winding transformer shown above in the
figure (A)

The total weight of the copper required in the ordinary transformer

W0 = weight of copper on its primary winding + weight of copper on its secondary winding

Therefore,
Now, the ratio of the weight of the copper in an auto transformer to the weight of copper in
an ordinary transformer is given as

Saving of copper affected by using an auto transformer = weight of copper required in an

ordinary transformer weight of copper required in an auto transformer

Therefore,

Saving of copper = K x weight of copper required for two windings of the transformer

Hence, saving in copper increases as the transformation ratio approaches to unity. Hence the
auto transformer is used when the value of K is nearly equal to unity.

Advantages of Auto transformer

Less costly
Better regulation
Low losses as compared to ordinary two winding transformer of the same rating.

Disadvantages of Auto transformer

There are various advantages of the auto transformer, but then also one major disadvantage,
why auto transformer is not widely used, is that
 The secondary winding is not insulated from the primary winding.
If an auto transformer is used to supply low voltage from a high voltage and there is a break
in the secondary winding, the full primary voltage comes across the secondary terminal
which is dangerous to the operator and the equipment. So the auto transformer should not
be used to for interconnecting high voltage and low voltage system.

Used only in the limited places where a slight variation of the output voltage from input
voltage is required.

Applications of Auto transformer

It is used as a starter to give upto 50 to 60% of full voltage to the stator of a squirrel cage
induction motor during starting.
It is used to give a small boost to a distribution cable, to correct the voltage drop.
It is also used as a voltage regulator
Used in power transmission and distribution system and also in the audio system and
railways.