CHEMICAL EARTH

1.1 Construct word and balanced equations of chemical reactions as they are encountered

Name (polyatomic ions need to know) Symbol Valency

Carbonate CO3 -2
Sulfate SO4 -2
Nitrate NO3 -1
Phosphate PO4 -3
Hydroxide OH -1
Ammonium NH4 +1
Acetate CH3COO -1

Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium Oxide The original word equation.

Mg + O2 > MgO There are not enough Oxygen atoms on the right.

Mg + O2 > 2MgO Double the whole molecule, not just magnesium.

There are not enough magnesium atoms now.

2Mg + O2 > 2MgO Add a 2 in front of magnesium on the left. Now, LHS = RHS

2Mg(s) + O2 (g) > 2MgO(s) Place the states of matter for each substance.

1.2 Identify the difference between elements compounds and mixtures in terms of particle theory.

Element: an indecomposable, pure substance

Compound: a decomposable, pure substance that is composed of two or more particles

Mixture: a mixture is composed of a mix of different elements and/or compounds (no chemical
reactions, physical mixing)

1.3 Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain examples of
mixture of elements and compounds.

Biosphere: region of earth containing living organisms, consists of lithosphere, biosphere and
atmosphere | (elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen / compound: CO 2, C6H12O6 / mixture: blood
carbon-containing compounds, carbohydrates, protein fats and vitamins)
Lithosphere: Crust and the top portion of the mantle (upper rigid part) | (elements: oxygen, silicon /
compound: aluminium (II) oxide AlO, Quartz SiO 2 / mixture: soil, sand, oil)

Hydrosphere: the water of the Earths crust including water vapour, underground water and the
ocean (elements: oxygen, hydrogen / compounds: H2O water, CaCO3 calcium carbonate / mixture:
Sea water (water and sodium chloride), water dissolved with oxygen)

Atmosphere: the gaseous layer covering the Earth about 250 km thick (elements: nitrogen, oxygen /
Compounds: CO2 carbon dioxide,

1.4 Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally occurring mixtures of:
1.5 Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of earth materials,
identifying the differences in properties which enable these separations.

1.6 Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for chemists and other
scientists

Gravimetric analysis measures the proportion of each component in a mixture and expresses it as a
weight percentage. A mining company may want to know the composition of a particular ore sample
to see if it is financially viable to mine the ore body. A health authority may want to know the
composition of the air to see if it pollutes a site. A food company want to know the amount of fibre
in a batch of fruit to provide information to customers.

1.7 Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are introduced in the laboratory

For metals and non-metals, name the metal first and the second non-metal with the name ending
with -ide. For two non-metals and then the second non-metal, with a prefix. If the first non-metal has
more than one atom add a prefix.

- First element named is the one that occurs further to the left of the periodic table. If both
are in the same group the one lower down is named first. (exception is oxygen with Cl, Br, I)

For two metals name the metal (with roman numerals) and then the complex compound. Complex
ions (polyatomic ions). If a transition metal does not have a roman numeral its valency is +2 (Except
gold and silver = +1)

1.8 Identify IUAPC names for carbon compounds as they are encountered
2
2.1 Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of its existing
as an uncombined element

The more reactive an element is, the less chance there is of finding it as an uncombined element on
Earth.

- Most unreactive elements (noble gases) exist as single atom molecules.

- Unreactive metals, such as Au, Ag and Pt (native metals) exist uncombined.

Most metals are too chemically reactive to exist free in nature and are found in combination with
other elements (to gain stability).

2.2 Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according to their physical properties

2.3
A

ccount for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties
3
3.1 Identify that matter is made of particles that are continuously moving and interacting

Matter is composed of atoms. Kinetic particle theory the particles of matter are continuously
moving and interacting.

- Energy of particles controls the movement and state of the substance. Heating increases energy.

- Subatomic particles of an atom are protons, neutrons and electrons.

3.2 describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms.

Electrons occupy energy levels (shells) around the nucleus. They are confined to these levels and can
move between them using energy. Each energy level has a maximum number of electrons.

3.3 Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number.

- Atoms have an equal number of positive particles and negative particles.
- The atomic number is the number of protons in the atoms.
- The mass number is the number of protons plus number of neutrons.
- The element E can be represented by the symbol (on the right), where:
Z = atomic number
A= mass number
A Z = number of neutrons

3.4 Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons.
- An ion is a charged particle formed when an atom gains or loses one or more electrons.
- Atoms can gain electrons by capturing an electron from another atom. Thus, atoms can be positive
or negative.
- Atoms can also lose electrons if they are supplied with sufficient energy, where the electron can
escape the attraction of the nucleus.
- Positively charged ions are called cations.
- Negatively charged ions are called anions.
3.5 Apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and non-metals.
- In Groups I, II and III (metals), cations are formed with charges equal to their group number.
- In Group IV, non-metals form complex ions and metals form cations with a charge of +2 or +1.
- In Groups V, VI and VII (non-metals), anions are formed with charges equal to their group number
minus 8.
Group V = -3, group VI =-2, group VII = -1.
- In Group VIII (noble gases), they are too stable to form ions.
- Hydrogen can be an anion or a cation (H+ and H-).
3.6 Apply Lewis electron dot structures to:
The formation of ions
- Only outer shell electrons are shown in Lewis electron dot structures.
- Elements lose/gain electrons and are shown in diagrams like:

The electron sharing in some simple molecules

- Elements share electrons and are shown in diagrams like:

- Alternatively, a circle can be drawn around the sharing electrons to represent a bond, and crosses
can help differentiate from electrons from another atom.
3.7 Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction of ions of opposite charge
- Ionic compounds are formed when metallic elements react with non-metallic elements.
- Ionic bonds form when two oppositely charged ions (anion and cation) react.
- For example, Sodium and Chlorine react to make an ionic compound, Sodium Chloride.

- The sum of valencies should equal to zero (through balancing the equation).
3.8 Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other
- A molecule is the smallest unit of a substance that can move independently.
- It includes atoms that are held together by a covalent bond, as well as monoatomic molecules
(noble gases).
3.9 Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules with
more than one atom
- The inert/noble gases in Group VIII are referred to monoatomic (one atom) molecules.
- Elements that occur as gases cannot exist as single atoms, so join covalently
For example, elements such as Oxygen (O2) and Hydrogen (H2) are diatomic molecules.
- Some compounds occur as molecules, such as H2O (water, triatomic) and NH3 (ammonia, tetra-
atomic).
3.10 Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of electrons
- Covalent bonds are formed between two or more non-metallic elements.
- Covalent molecules bond by sharing electrons, rather than forming ions, to stabilise their outer
shell.
- For example, Hydrogen and Oxygen share their electrons to form a water molecule.

3.11 Construct formulae for compounds formed from:

IONS
- When ionic compounds are formed, the positive charges must equal to the negative charges.
- For example, magnesium combines with chlorine:
- The chlorine atom must be doubled to make the positive and negative charges equal.

ATOMS SHARING ELECTRONS

- In molecular compounds, the valency of an element is equal to the number of electrons that need
to be shared to complete its valence shell.
- For example, oxygens valency is 2, and thus, it requires two electrons to share with (such as
another oxygen or two hydrogen atoms).
- Thus, in a simple molecular compound composed of two elements, the sum of the valencies of one
element must match that of another.
- The first element written should be the one that is further to the left in the periodic table or lower
in a vertical group.
4.1 Identify the differences between physical and chemical change in terms of rearrangement of
particles
- Physical changes do not involve the production of new substances, and are reversible.
- Changes of state
- Changes in physical appearance
- Dissolving a solvent in a solute
- Separation techniques
- Chemical changes form one or more new chemical substances (reactants products) and are
difficult to reverse.
- Evolution of a gas
- Formation of a precipitate on mixing solutions
- Significant temperature change (energy lost or gained)
- Changes in colour or odour produced
- In both reactions, mass is conserved, and particles are only rearranged.
- In chemical reactions, particles are broken up and rearranged into new substances.
- In physical reactions, particles are rearranged without changing their nature
4.2 Summarise the differences between the boiling and electrolysis of water as an example of the
difference between physical and chemical change

4.3 Identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy that may be released or
absorbed during the decomposition or synthesis of substances and identify examples of these
changes occurring in everyday life
- Light, heat and electricity can be released and absorbed during decomposition and synthesis.
- Photolysis is the decomposition of a compound using light energy.
- Electrolysis is the decomposition of a compound using electrical energy.
LIGHT
- Release of light e.g. in the combustion of magnesium.
- Absorption of light e.g. in photolysis of silver chloride.
HEAT
- Release of heat (exothermic) heat is evolved synthesis of water
- Absorption of heat (endothermic) decomposition of mercury oxide
ELECTRICAL
- Electrical energy is used to decompose chemical compounds/mixtures in various industries, e.g.
decomposition of salt water to form chloride, hydrogen and sodium hydroxide.
EVERYDAY APPLICATIONS
- Decomposition reactions:
- Limestone (CaCO3) is decomposed by heating to make lime, cement and glass.
- Aluminium is extracted by electrolysing molten aluminium oxide.
- Synthesis/Direct combination reactions:
- Rusting of iron and steel to form iron (III) oxide.
- Burning of carbon releases heat energy which we use in many ways.
- Lighting creates a high temperature so that nitrogen and oxygen gases combine to form
nitric oxide.
4.4 Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an indication of
the strength of the attraction, or bond, between them
- The stronger the chemical bonding in a compound, the more energy that is required to break the
compound into elements.
- The stronger the chemical bonding in a compound, the more energy that is released when the
compound is formed into its elements.
- This is because a large input of energy is necessary to break the strong bonds holding the atoms
together.
5.1 Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of elements, compounds and
mixture.
- Physical properties include odour, colour, taste, lustre, hardness, malleability, ductility, melting and
boiling points, and solubility.
- Chemical properties include reactions with oxygen, water, acids and bases, and specific reactions
with other substances.
- Compounds have different properties from those of the elements that combine to form them.
- It also has quite distinct properties from a simple mixture of the component elements.
5.2 Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or covalent molecular or
covalent network.

5.3 Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds

- Metallic bonding occurs between metals and involves the electrostatic attraction between
delocalised electrons and the metal cations, which hold the 3D lattice together.
- Ionic bonding involves the transfer of electrons from one atom to another. The bonding consists of
electrostatic attraction between the positive and negative ions formed by this transfer of electrons,
which hold the 3D lattice together.
- Examples: CuCl2, MgO, NaCl

- Covalent bonds occur between non-metals and involve intermolecular forces holding the particles
together. These forces can be hydrogen bonding (between H and N, O or F), dipole to dipole and
dispersion forces.

5.4 Describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of electrons

- Metals lose their outer electron shell to become cations surrounded by a sea of delocalised
electrons.
- The electrons do not remain with an individual atom.

5.5 Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions

- Cations and anions form an array of ions in a fixed lattice.
5.6 Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula
- An empirical formula is the simplest form of a compound and represents the simplest whole
number ratio of atoms/ions in the crystal.
- There are no discrete molecules in ionic compounds but an infinite array of ions, thus the formulae
must give the ratio by atoms of elements rather than the actual numbers of atoms in a molecule.
- The law of constant composition states that all pure samples of the same compound contain the
same elements combined together in the same proportions by mass.
5.7 Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices
- Elements that exist as covalent molecules include:
- H2, F2, Cl2, O2, N2 diatomic gases
- Br2, I2 (diatomic liquid and solid)
- Phosphorus P4, Sulphur S8
- Elements that exist as covalent lattices include:
- Non-metal elements such as carbon and silicon, and some compounds such as silicon
dioxide.
Carbon (diamond) is a 3D lattice, Carbon (graphite) is a 2D lattice
- Covalent lattices in the earth include sand, quartz, gemstones, and clays.
5.8 Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and the structure
of ionic, covalent molecular and covalent network structures
Ionic:

Covalent molecular:

Covalent network:

Metallic:
Metals
1.1 Outline and examine some uses of different metals through history, including contemporary
uses, as uncombined metals or as alloys.

Iron (Fe, used first around 1000 BC): used as weapons in the past (swords) and
armor due to its high strength. Used nowadays (contemporary) as building
material due to its high strength. Steel is an alloy of iron, used in the past in
weaponry (cannons, cannonballs) and used in construction nowadays for its
strength.

Copper (Cu, first used 6000 BC): used to make decorative items, tools and alloyed
with (usually) tin to form bronze. The alloy lead to the bronze age where many
usages for bronze were found: decorative items (statues, amulets), weapons
(swords), armor and other utensils (forks, dining equipment). Copper can now be
used for water pipes (does not react with water) and wires (good electrical
conductor). Bronze typically has similar features and uses due to around 90% of
bronze being copper (mainly used in outdoor sculptures, no reactions with water,
strong and lustrous).

Mercury (Hg, discovered around 2000 BC, used in Egypt): mercury was used to
mine gold due to its ability to easily separate gold from other materials. The
mercury dissolves gold forming an amalgam, leaving excess rock untouched. After
mercury is burnt, the gold can be retrieved in its pure form. Mercury can also be
used in thermometers. Mercury condensate sat the top of the thermometer,
making the reading of temperature more accurate. Mercury relies on thermal
expansion meaning the molecular bonds will expand with heat and contract with
cold.

1.2 Describe the use of common alloys including steel, brass and solder and explain how these
relate to their properties.

Steel (Iron and carbon, Fe + C): commonly used in construction due to its high
strength. The carbon in steel provides a doping agent which increases strength in
the crystal structure of the iron. This allows steel to become stronger and lighter

Brass (Copper and zinc, Cu + Zn): commonly used in plumbing due to its high
durability, corrosive resistance, malleability and ductility in high temperatures.

Solder (Tin and lead, Sn + Pb): commonly used to join (fasten) metals together.
Solder has a low melting point and is soft when melted, it can also conduct
electricity. This allows solder to be used as a sealant or to connect wires in
electronics like computers.

1.3 Explain why energy input is necessary to extract a metal from its ore

Most ores contain a metal oxide which the metal must be extracted from. To turn
metal oxide into pure metal, involves the removal of oxygen from the metal oxide, which is a
process known as reduction. This process includes breaking the ionic bond between the metal and
oxygen which requires big amounts of energy.

1.4 Identify why there are more metals available for people to use now than there were 200 years
ago
Due to the advancement and increased accuracy in technology nowadays,
compared to 200 years ago, humans are able to extract metals from their ores
much more efficiently, especially with electrolysis. For example, aluminium was
considered to be rarer than gold in the early 19th century, nowadays it is much
cheaper and used commonly for various purposes due to the method of
electrolysis. It is also possible to obtain ores much faster with the advancement
in vehicles and mines.

2.1 Describe observable changes when metals react with dilute acid, water and oxygen.

Metals and Air:

All metals except silver, platinum and gold react with oxygen in the air to form oxides.
Li, Na, K, Ca, Ba react rapidly at room temperature
Mg, Al, Fe, Zn react slowly at room temperature but react vigorously when heated.
Sn, Pb, Cu react slowly only when heated
Metals which burn in oxygen for a crystalline salt e.g. (magnesium oxide) have none of the original
properties of the metal. When metals slowly react on room temperature they lose their shine as they
gain an oxide layer. Some metals such as Al become coated with a dull layer of tightly adhering oxide
which prevents further reaction.
2Mg = O2 2MgO

Metals and Water:

Li, Na, K, Ca, Ba react with water at room temperature
Mg, Al, Zn, Fe react with steam at elevated temperatures
Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Au, Pt do not react at all\
Metals that react with water produce a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2 (s) +H2(g)
Metals that react with steam produce a metal oxide and hydrogen gas
Mg(s) + H2O(l) MgO (s) +H2(g)

Metals with Acid:

Most Metals (except Cu, Au, Ag, Pt) react with dilute acid to form hydrogen gas and a salt. The
reaction with some metals e.g. Sn and P are very slow at room temperature.

Neutrals Species:
Mg + 2HNO3 Mg(NO3)2 + H2

Full Ionic:
Mg + 2H (+) + 2NO3 (-) Mg (2+) + 2NO3(-) + H2
Note: that as acid is in a solution it is merely ions of H+ and NO3-. It is actually the hydrogen ion from
the acid which reacts with the metal
Net Equation: (eliminating spectators i.e. ones with no change)
Mg + 2H(+) Mg (2+) + H2

2.2 Describe and justify the criteria used to place metals into an order of activity
based on their ease of ease reaction with oxygen, water and dilute acids.

Metals vary in their reactivity. Reactive metals will react with oxygen, whereas those
that are inactive will not, placing them lower on the activity series. A highly reactive
metal may react with cold water, whereas metals that dont react with cold water may
react with hot water and are lower on the activity series. Metals that dont react with
water, need to be tested in dilute acid to test their reactivity. Thus metals that react
vigorously are deemed to be more reactive than those that react less vigorously or only
with concentrated acids.

The reason for this procedure is that metals that react with oxygen will react more
vigorously with water and then acids. Thus by determining where each metal will react,
we can make up an activity series which is a list of metals based on their order of
reactivity.

The activity series of the common metals goes as follows:

K, Na, Li, Ba, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Pt, Au

2.3 Identify the reaction of metals with acids as requiring the transfer of
electrons

The reaction of metals with acids requires the transfer of electrons. The transfer of reactions is
brought upon by half equations:
Oxidation: loss of electrons to become a positive ion. Easier for more reactive metals
Reduction: ion gains electrons to become stable. Easier for less reactive metals as they are
unreactive and wish to stay stable

For example: Iron is more reactive than Copper

(Half equations)
CuSO4 + Fe = FeSO4 + Cu

Cu(2+) + SO4 (2-) + Fe = Fe (2+) + SO4 (2-) + Cu

Cu(2+) + Fe = Fe(2+) + Cu

2.4 Outline examples of the selection of metals for different purposes based on their reactivity
with a particular emphasis

Some situations where the choice of metal is based heavily upon the chemical reactivity:

Roof Guttering for Houses: Non-reactive aluminium is one option but it is

extremely expensive. On the other hand galvanized iron is available which is
significantly cheaper but eventually corrodes.

Water pipes: Non-reactive, expensive copper or cheaper, corrodible iron.

Electrical contacts for replaceable circuit boards in computers / other

electronic equipment: Cheaper copper (which slowly forms a non-conducting
oxide layer) or expensive gold which will not react to oxygen.
Body Implants: Extremely expensive and inert titanium alloys of less expensive,
but over the long term corrosion susceptible stainless steel.

Metals currently used for different purposes include:

Lithium: used in pace-makers, cameras and button cells due to the energy of
electrons transferred from lithium anode and the high reactivity of lithium
Magnesium: used as a component in fireworks, military and emergency
purposes and inside boilers. This is due to its relatively high reactivity and the
fact it burns bright when heated with air
 Aluminium: lack of reactivity means it can be used as drink cans, food wraps,
aircraft bodies, in automobiles and in window frames
Titanium: used as artificial joints, aircraft and ship bodies, pipes. Its relevant
properties are a low reactivity, stable, resistance to corrosion and chemically inert
nature in the human body
2.5 Outline the relationship between the relative activities of metals and their
positions on the Periodic Table.

By inspecting our activity series it is possible to determine certain trends between them
and the periodic table:

The activity series shows that Group 1 metals are the most reactive, followed by Group 2
metals. Group 3 (Al) comes next in reactivity followed by some transition metals (Zn,
Fe) and then the metals of group 4. At the end of the series are more transition metals
(Cu, Ag, Pt, Au).

Furthermore, the activity series also shows that in groups 1 and 2 reactivity increases
from top to bottom.

2.6 Identify the importance of first ionisation energy in determining the relative
reactivity of metals

The relative reactivity of metals correlates with a physical property known as first
ionisation energy.

First Ionisation energy of an element is the energy required to remove an electron from
a gaseous atom of the element.

Ionisation energy is commonly measured in kJ / mol. Where a mole is a particular

number of atoms (6.023 x 10^23).

The first ionisation energy measures the ease of removing an electron from a metal
atom: the lower the ionisation energy, the easier it is to remove an electron.

3.1 Identify an appropriate model that has been developed to describe atomic
structure

The most widely accepted atom model is that of Niels Bohr. Bohrs model was first
introduced in 1913. This model of the atom depicts a small, positively charged nucleus
surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits around the nucleus much like the
planets travel around the Sun, but the electrostatic forces product attraction instead of
gravity. The models key success was in explaining the Rydberg formula for the spectral
emission lines of atomic hydrogen. It is, basically, a modification of the Rutherford model
used for quantum physics purposes.

3.2 Outline the history of the development of the Periodic Table including its
origins, the original data used to construct it and the predictions made after its
construction.

- Antoine Lavoisier: in 1789 published table of 33 elements splitting them into

metal and non-metals

- Johann Dobereiner: in 1829 could see similar resemblance in physical and

chemical properties of some elements. His main contribution was to group these
elements according to their similarities.
 - Alexandre-Emile Beguyer De Chancoutois: in 1862 constructed a table of
elements in the form of a helix constructed on a vertical cylinder. Atomic mass was
plotted vertically and elements with similar properties were arranged directly above
one another

- John Newland: in 1864 using 62 elements with known atomic mass observed
that the properties of the elements varied periodically with their atomic masses.

- Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer: in 1869 arranged elements in horizontal

rows in order of increasing atomic mass. Elements with similar properties were
arranged in vertical columns in the table. From his table he predicted that the
properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic masses. Mendeleev left
gaps in his table for elements that had not been discovered. He suggested that
elements would be discovered within his lifetime and their properties would coincide
very closely with his predictions. In 1886 the elements germanium was discovered
and found to have properties very similar to his predictions.

- Henry Moseley: in 1912 discovered that the fundamental factor which

determines chemical properties is atomic number rather than atomic mass. when the
elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number, similar chemical properties
recur periodically.

3.3 Explain the relationship between the position of elements in the periodic
table and:

Electrical Conductivity:

Decreases from left to right

Increases down a group

Ionisation Energy:

Increases from left to right as more electronegative

Decreases down a group as less electronegative (electrons further away from nucleus

Atomic Radius:

Increase down a group as each successive element has one more electron shell

Decrease left to right as more electronegative, the charge in the nucleus increase so the
electrostatic force between the nucleus and the outer electrons is stronger holding it
closer to the nucleus

Melting and boiling points:

Metals generally possess a high melting point.

Most non-metals possess low melting points.

The non-metal carbon possesses the highest boiling point of all the elements. The semi-
metal boron also possesses a high melting point.

Combining power (valency):

Same down a group

Left to right, increase to group 4 then decreases. 1+ 2+ 3+ 4+- 3- 2- 1-

Electronegativity:

Increases across a period as atomic radius decreases

Decreases down a group as atomic radius increases

Reactivity:

Metals: reactivity decreases from left to right, increase down a group

Non-metals: when forming ions, reactivity increases from left to right and decreases
down a group. When forming covalent compounds the trend is similar but there are
some exceptions

5.1 Define the terms mineral and ore with reference to economic and non-
economic deposits of natural resources.

A mineral is a pure crystalline compound that occurs in the earths crust.

An ore is a compound or mixture of compounds from which it is economic (or

commercially profitable) to extract a desired substance as a metal

5.2 Describe the relationship between the commercial prices of common

metals, their actual abundances and relative costs of production.

Economic principals and chemical properties directly influence the commercial

price of a metal. It seems quite clear the less abundant a metal is, the higher the
cost of extraction and the more expensive its commercial price is.

From a chemical perspective when using a metal for a particular purpose, the
metal used had the most suitable properties. This is not the case within the world
due to economic factors. For example gold wire is a better conductor of electricity
than copper wire, but copper is used as it is cheaper.

5.3 Explain why ores are non-renewable resources.

They were formed when the earth was formed and there is no way of forming any
more of them in short periods of time. They were formed millions of years ago.
5.4 Describe the separation processes, chemical reactions and energy
considerations of copper from one of its ores.

Mine: there are several different minerals of copper. Australian mines mainly
consist of copper ores and sulfides.

Crush: the copper ore is crushed into smaller particles in preparation for froth
flotation

Concentrate (separating the mineral from the ore): The method used for
concentrating the copper ore is froth flotation. A specific type of oil is added to
the ore which causes the sulfide particles to be not wetted. The ore is then
immersed in a solution where tiny jets blow air through creating bubbles. The air
bubbles then collect the non-wetted particles (sulfides) and pull them to the
surface. The layer of froth containing the copper and sulfide is now skimmed from
the surface.

Extraction (separating of the mineral to produce copper): The copper

concentrates are heated with sand (SiO2) which produces two immiscible liquids,
one containing copper sulfide and the other iron silicate (FeSiO3).

The copper sulfide is then heated at a higher temperature while air is bubbled
through it which reduces the compound to copper as sulfur dioxide is produced.
Not all of the gas escapes until it is solid.

5.5 Recount the steps taken to recycle aluminium.

The steps in recycling aluminium:

- Collect the used products from home, shopping centres etc

- Transport to processing plant

- Separate the required substance from impurities e.g. food remnants

- Re-smelt the metal into ingots and transport to product manufactures

WATER
1.1. Define the terms solute, solvent and solution
Solute: Substances dissolved by the solvent (or the component present in a lower amount)
Solvent: Substances in which solutes are dissolved (or the component present in a larger amount)
Solution: A homogenous mixture of 2 or more substances

1.2. Identify the importance of water as a solvent.

Water is distributed in the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere

 On earth, it is distributed as a solid, liquid and gas. Approximately 97% of water is in the oceans and
2% is locked up as ice in glaciers and polar icecaps.
Water is essential as a reactant and a solvent in the recycling of C, O, N, P and S in nature.
The importance of water as a solvent is it serves as a transport system for nutrients and waste
products in living things
It also allows biological processes to occur in aqueous solutions

1.3. Compare the state, percentage and distribution of water in the biosphere, lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere.

Location State Percentage (%) Distribution

Hydrosphere Liquid 97.2 Ocean
Solid/liquid 2.2 Polar ice and glaciers
Liquid 0.009 Lakes (freshwater)
Liquid 0.0001 Rivers and streams
Liquid 0.008 Salt water lakes
Atmosphere Gas/Liquid/Solid 0.001
Biosphere Gas 0-5
Lithosphere Liquid Variable Underground aquifers
Liquid Variable Groundwater

1.4. Outline the significance of the different states of water on Earth in terms of water as:

- A constituent of cells and its role as both a solvent and a raw material in metabolism.
- A habitat in which temperature extremes are less than nearby terrestrial habitats.
- An agent of weathering of rocks both as liquid and solid.
- A natural resource for humans and other organisms.

Living cells
Water is the predominant constituent of cells functioning as:
- A solvent for biochemical reactions that sustain life.
- A raw material for metabolism (e.g. in plants).
- A transport medium for nutrients and wastes.
- A thermal buffer that resists large temperature fluctuations.

Habitat
Water serves as a natural habitat for many organisms. A major disadvantage is that temperatures vary
much less in water than on land. Marine organisms are therefore largely protected from experiencing
temperature extremes.

Rock weathering and erosion

Ice wedging:
- This is when water in rock crevices freezes and thaws repeatedly. The stress due to the expansion and
contraction can cause rocks to fragment creating sediments over geological time.
Rain, rivers and glaciers erode loose material, carving through mountains and shaping the landscape
into its present form.
Water can also chemically weather minerals present in rocks.
Natural resource
Water is an essential component of everyday life. Humans use water for drinking, bathing, washing
clothes, cleaning for industry and agriculture. 75% of water use in Australia is for irrigation of crops.

2.2. Compare the molecular structure of water, ammonia and hydrogen sulphide, the differences in their
molecular shapes and in their melting and boiling points.

Molecular shape Melting & boiling point

Water Bent Low
Ammonia Pyramidal High
Hydrogen sulfide Bent Low

Water Ammonia Hydrogen sulphide

2.3 Describe the hydrogen bonding between molecules.

Hydrogen bonds are a stronger form of the dipole-dipole force and only occur between partially
positive hydrogen in one molecule and the lone pair of electrons of a
fluorine, nitrogen or oxygen bonded to the hydrogen atoms in a
neighbouring molecule.
Hydrogen bonds are the strongest type of intermolecular forces.

2.4 Identify the water molecule as a polar molecule.

In water, there are 2 bonded electron pairs and 2 lone electron pairs
There are dipole bonds between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms
The oxygen atom is slightly negative and the hydrogen is slightly positive. These different charges are
attracted; hence, they are pulled together.
Therefore, the water molecule is a polar
molecule with a net dipole

2.5. Describe the attractive forces between polar

molecules as dipole-dipole forces.
 The dipole-dipole bond is an electrostatic force of attraction between permanently polar molecules.
The negative end of one dipole attracts the positive end of another.

2.6. Explain the following properties of water in terms of its intermolecular forces:

- Surface tension
- Viscosity
- Boiling and melting points

Surface tension
In a liquid, intermolecular forces exert different effects on a molecule at the surface compared to
one in the interior.
Surface molecules are only attracted to others below and to the sides (ANISTROPIC).
Interior molecules are attracted equally by other molecules on all sides (ISOTROPIC).
As a result, molecules at the surface experience a net attraction downward.
This adhesive force (attraction between unlike molecules) pulls the molecules inward and closer
together, making the liquid surface behave like an elastic skin under tension.
These cohesive forces (attractive forces between like molecules) cause the droplet to assume a
spherical like shape to minimise the surface area.
The surface tension is a measure of the energy needed to increase the surface area of a liquid by
a unit amount.
To increase surface area, molecules must move to the surface by breaking some interior
attraction. This requires energy.
Water has a high surface tension due to strong intermolecular forces (i.e. hydrogen bonds)
In general, the stronger the intermolecular forces, the greater the liquids surface tension.

Viscosity
The viscosity of a liquid is its resistance to flow
the viscosity of a liquid depends on two main factors:
Size/shape
Liquids that are highly viscous often have large, floppy, extended molecules that can be
easily tangled, thus restricting their flow
However, some liquids have small, compact molecules (e.g. water) that flow readily over
each other, giving low viscosity.

Intermolecular forces
Honey and glycerol consist of carbohydrates with numerous hydroxyl (-OH) groups
capable of hydrogen bonding. This adds to their viscosity
Although the cohesive forces in water are also strong (H-bonding), waters small size
largely accounts for its viscosity.

Expansion on Freezing

Usually solids are denser than liquids; however, water is one of the few substances that expands
when frozen. Hence, ice is less dense than water.
In ice, each water molecule is H-bonded to four other water molecules arranged tetrahedrally.
This forms a lattice of hexagonal rings which build up into an open-cage-like structure.
 As the ice melts, the water molecule moves more vigorously. Some hydrogen bonds are broken
and the open, rigid, network partially collapses.
As a result, water molecules in the liquid can pack closer together i.e. high density.
Frozen ice provides an insulating layer on the waters surface, allowing the survival of fish and
other aquatic organisms.

Boiling and melting points

The strong hydrogen bonds between water molecules require greater energy input to break the
bonds.

3.1. Explain changes, if any, to particles and account for those changes when the following types of
chemicals interact with water:

- A soluble ionic compound such as sodium chloride.

- A soluble molecular compound such as sucrose.
- A soluble or partially soluble molecular element or compound such as iodine, oxygen or hydrogen
chloride.
- A covalent network structure substance such as silicon dioxide.
- A substance with large molecules, such as cellulose or polyethylene.

Ionic Compound

Most ionic compounds are soluble in water. This is due to the formation of a strong ion-dipole
attraction where the dipoles of the water molecules attract the ions in the solution and surround
them.

Molecular Compound

Small polar molecules such as ammonia, ethanol and methanol are readily soluble in water due to
the strong hydrogen bonding between the soluble and solvent.
Hydrogen halides such as HCl, HF and HBr are all highly soluble in water.
Simple sugars such as glucose and fructose are also soluble in water due to their strong hydrogen
bonding between the sugar molecules and water.

Molecular element/compound

Non-polar molecules such as Iodine(I2) or oxygen (O2) are slightly soluble. This is due to the
dispersion forces that stabilise their interactions.
Hydrocarbons such as hexane and octane are also insoluble and immiscible in water.

Covalent Network Structure

Covalent network lattices such as diamond and silicon dioxide are insoluble in all solvents as the
chemical bonds holding the atoms in placer are too strong to be broken

3.2. Analyse the relationship between the solubility of substances in water and the polar nature of the
water molecule.
 The high polar nature of the water molecule and the ability to form hydrogen bonds with other
molecules causes the solubility in water.
Polar substances dissolve in polar solvents and not in non-polar solvents while non-polar substances
dissolve in non-polar solvents and not polar solvents.
Due to water being a polar solvent, it will dissolve substances which have polar molecules

4.1. Identify some combinations of solutions which will produce precipitates, using solubility data.

Solubility table

Ion Solubility Exceptions

NO3- Soluble None
Cl- Soluble Except Ag+, Hg2+, Pb2+
CO32- Insoluble Except Group 1A and NH4+
NH4+ Soluble None

4.2. Describe a model that traces the movement of ions when solution and precipitation occur.

When two solutions have not been mixed, they exist as free moving ions.
The electrostatic attraction between the water molecules and the ions is greater than the
electrostatic attraction between the ions itself.
When the two solutions have been mixed, a precipitate may form.
A precipitation reaction only occurs when the force of attraction between the two ions is stronger
than the electrostatic attraction between the water molecules and the ions.

4.3. Identify the dynamic nature of ion movement in a saturated dissolution.

A saturated solution is one in which no more of a particular solute can dissolve into a particular
solvent.
In a saturated solution, a dynamic equilibrium exists between the dissolution and the precipitation
i.e. these two processes are occurring at equal rates.
This means that as two ions break off from the ionic crystal and dissolve into the solution, another
two ions will precipitate out.
Overall, there is NO NET CHARGE IN CONCENTRATION of the solution nor mass of the excess solid.

4.4. Describe the molarity of a solution as the number of moles of solute per litre of solution using: c = n /
V

Molarity is a type of measurement that is used to measure concentration. It can be given by the
formula: c = n / V
Where E.g. Find the concentration given 1 mole of Ca(NO3)2 in a
c = molarity or concentration (M or mol/L) solution with 2L of water.
n = number of moles (mol.)
C= n / v
V = volume of solution (L) C=1/2
C = 0.5 mol/L
4.5. Explain why different measurements of concentration are important.

A variety of methods to measure the concentration is important because it allows the exact
concentrations of solutions made from several different chemical mixtures.
With different measurements, it can determine; how much solute is present or needs to be removed
and/or how much solvent must be added or removed.

4.9. Carry out simple calculations to describe the concentration of given solutions, given masses of solute
and volumes of solution.

1. A solution contains 58.5g of NaCl in 5L water. Assume the final volume of the solution is 5L and the
density of water is 1g/ml. Find the concentration in:
a) g/mL.
C = g / mL
C = 58.5 / 5000
C = 0.0117g/mL
b) w/v.
C = w/v = g/ml
C = 0.0117w/v
c) %w/v
C = 0.0117 x 100
C = 1.17%w/v

5.1. Explain what is meant by the specific heat capacity of a substance.

This is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1
degree (Celcius or Kelvin)

5.2. Compare the specific heat capacity of water with a range of other solvents.

Substance Specific heat capacity (J/K/g)

Mercury 0.14
Ethanol 2.44
Water 4.18

5.3. Explain and use the equation: H = -mCT

This equation is used to measure heat energy changes and is given by the formula H = -mCT
Where:
H = change in heat energy (J)
m = mass of substance (g)
C = specific heat capacity (J/K/g)
T = temperate change (C or K)

5.4. Explain how waters ability to absorb heat is used to measure energy changes in chemical reactions.
 Due to many chemical reactions occurring in water, calorimetric measurements can be used
to measure the heat changes.
However, there are limitation of calorimeter such as:
- The calorimeter itself doesnt absorb a significant amount of heat energy of the
reaction
- There is no heat lose or gained between the calorimeter
and its surroundings

5.5. Describe dissolutions which release heat as exothermic and give examples.

An exothermic reaction is one where heat is released

When the temperature rises, the energy is considered
negative. H<0
Examples of exothermic reactions are freezing water,
precipitation, neutralisation, combustion

5.6. Describe dissolutions which release heat as endothermic and give

examples.

An endothermic reaction is one where heat is absorbed

When the temperature drops, the energy quantity is
considered positive. H>0
Examples of endothermic reactions are melting ice,
evaporating liquid water

5.7. Explain why waters ability to absorb heat is important to aquatic organisms and to life on earth
generally.

Living Cells
A solvent for biochemical reactions that sustain life
A raw material for metabolism (e.g. in plants)
A transport medium for nutrients and wastes
A thermal buffer that resists large temperature fluctuations.

Habitat
Water serves as a natural for many organisms

Rock weathering and erosion

Ice wedging
 Rain, rivers and glaciers erode loose material, carving through mountains and shaping the landscape
into its present form
Water can also chemically weather minerals present in rocks

A natural resource
Water is an essential component of everyday life. Humans use water for drinking, batting, washing
clothes, cleaning, for industry and for agriculture. 75% of water used in Australia is for irrigation crops

5.8. Explain what is meant by thermal pollution and discuss the implications for life if a body of water is
affected by thermal pollution.

Many aquatic organisms rely on fairly constant water temperature aid proper metabolism, survival
and reproduction
Thermal pollution is the discharge of large quantities of hot water into a river or lake sufficient to
cause significant increase in water temperature (2-5C)
Lake water is often used for cooling in industrial factories and when generating electricity i.e. places
where an excess heat is produced
Cooling water is pumped from the water body through the factory or power plant, then discharged
back to the river or lake having absorbed substantial heat
Thermal pollution has many adverse consequences. In particular, the solubility of oxygen decreases as
water temperature increases. Less dissolved O2 causes stress to aquatic organisms. Other detrimental
effects of rising water temperature are:
Increases metabolic rates further demand for O2
Fish eggs do not develop properly or hatch with high temperatures or sudden changes in temperature
False temperature cues given to aquatic life

ENERGY
1.1 Outline the role of photosynthesis in transforming light energy to chemical energy and
recall the raw materials for this process
1.2 Outline the role of the production of high energy carbohydrates from carbon dioxide as the
important step in the stabilisation of the suns energy in a form that can be used by
animals as well as plants