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1. The cotyledons of the maternal surface of the placenta extend into the decidua basalis, which
forms a natural cleavage plane between the placenta and the uterine wall.
2. There are interlacing uterine muscle bundles, consisting of tiny myofibrils, around the branches
of the uterine arteries that run through the wall of the uterus to the placental area.
3. The placental site is usually located on either the anterior or the posterior uterine wall.
4. The amniotic membranes are adhered to the inner wall of the uterus except where the placenta
is located.
It should be considered a medical emergency (regardless of whether there is pain) and medical
attention should be sought immediately, as if it is left untreated it can lead to death of the mother
and/or fetus.
Bleeding without pain is most frequently bloody show, which is benign; however, it may also be
placenta previa (in which both the mother and fetus are in danger). Painful APH is most
frequently placental abruption (which may also lead to adverse fetal and/or maternal outcomes)
Definition:
It is defined as bleeding form or into the genital tract after the 28 th week of
pregnancy but before the birth of the baby (the first and second stage of labour are thus
included). The 28th week is taken arbitrarily as the lower limit of fetal viability. The
incidence is about 3% amongst hospital deliveries.
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Causes:
The causes of antepartum hemorrhage fall into the following categories. The
hospital figures do not give a true picture of the incidence of the different varieties.
However, on an average, the incidence of placenta praevia, abruption placenta and the
indeterminate group is almost the same.
A.P.H.
↓ ↓ ↓
(35%) (35%)
PLACENTA PRAEVIA
Definition:
When the placenta is implanted partially or completely over the lower uterine
segment it is called placenta praevia. The term praevia (L, in front of) denotes the
position of the placenta in relation to the presenting part.
Incidence:
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ETIOLOGY
The exact cause of implantation of the placenta in the lower segment is not
known. The following theories are postulated.
Dropping down theory: The fertilized ovum drops down and is implanted in the
lower segment. Poor decidual reaction in the upper uterine segment may be the
cause. Failure of zona pellucid to disappear in time can be a hypothetical
possibility. This explains the formation of central placenta praevia.
Defective decidua, results in spreading of the chorionic villi over a wide area in
the uterine wall to get nourishment. During this process, not only the placenta
becomes membranous but encroaches onto the lower segment. Such a placenta
praevia may invade the underlying decidua or myometrum to causes placenta
accrete, increta or percreta.
Big surface area of the placenta as in twins may encroach onto the lower
segment.
The predisposing factors of placenta praevia are – (a) Multiparity, (b) Increased
maternal age (> 35 years), (c) History of previous caesarean section any other scar in
the uterus (myomectomy or hysterotomy), (d) Placental size (mentioned before) and
abnormality (succenturiate lobes), (e) Smoking – causes placental hypertrophpy to
compensate carbonmonoxide induced hypoxaema.
PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY:
Placenta – The placenta may be large and thin. There is often a tongue shaped
extension from the main placental mass. Extensive areas of degeneration with infarction
and calcification may be evident. The placenta may be morbidly adherent due to poor
decidua formation in the lower segment.
Umbilical cord – The cord may be attached to the margin (battledore) or into the
membranes (velamentous). The insertion of the cord may be close to the internal or the
fetal vessels may run across the internal or in velamentous insertion giving rise to vasa
praevia which may rupture along with rupture of the membranes.
Lower uterine segment – Due to increased vascularity, the lower uterine segment and
the cervix becomes soft and more friable.
TYPES OR DEGREES:
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There are four types of placenta praevia depending upon the degree of extension
of placenta to the lower segment.
Type – I (Low-lying): The major part of the placenta is attached to the upper segment
and onlyo the lower margin encroaches onto the lower segment but not upto the os.
Type – II (Marginal): The placenta reaches the margin of the internal os but does not
cover it.
Type – III (Incomplete or partial central): The placenta covers the internal os partially
(covers the internal os when closed but does not entirely do so when fully dilated).
Type – IV (Central or total): The placenta completely covers the internal os even after it
is fully dilated.
In the majority, the placenta lies either in the anterior or posterior wall, the latter
is more common. Type – III and IV constitute about one-third of the cases. For clinical
purpose, the types are graded into mild degree (Type-I and II anterior) and major
degree (Type-II posterior, III and IV).
Dangerous placenta praevia is the name given to the type – II posterior placenta
praevia. (1) Because of the curved birth canal major thickness of the placenta (about
2.5 cm) overlies the sacral promontory, thereby diminishing the antero-posterior
diameter of the inlet and prevents engagement of the presenting to stop bleeding. (2)
Placenta is more likely oto compressed, if vaginal delivery is allowed. (3) More chance
of cord compression or cord prolapse. The last two may produce fetal anoxia or even
death.
CAUSES OF BLEEDING:
As the placental growth slows down in later months and the lower segment
progressively dilates, the inelastic placenta is sheard off the wall of the lower segment.
This leads to opening up of utero-placental vessels and leads to an episode of bleeding.
As it is a physiological phenomenon which leads to the separation of the placenta, the
bleeding is said to b e inevitable. However, the separation of the placenta may be
provoked by trauma including vaginal examination, coital act, external version or during
high rupture of the membranes. The blood is al most always maternal, although fetal
blood may escape from the torn villi specially when the placenta is separated durin g
trauma.
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third trimester there is potential growth of lower uttering segment compared to the
placenta. Due to this disproportionate growth there is apparent migration of placenta
towards the fundus.
Pathophysiology:
Ultrasound
Risk Factors
Bleeding Stops
Fetus Stable
Bed Rest
Observe
↓ Urine Output Pale, cool skin
Complications:
Congenital Anomalies
Maternal Mortality (rare)
Intrauterine Growth Retardation (IGR)
SYMPTOMS: The only symptom of placenta praevia is vaginal bleeding. The classical
features of bleeding in placenta praevia are sudden onset, painless, apparently
causeless and recurrent. In about 5 % cases, it occurs for the first time during labour,
specially in primigravidae. In about one-third of cases, there is a history of “warning
haemorrhage” which is usually slight.
The bleeding is unrelated to activity and often occurs during sleep and the patient
becomes frightened. Trauma or hypertension are usually absent. However,
preeclampsia may complicate a case of placenta praeva. The first bout of bleeding is
usually not alarming but subsequent bouts may be heavier than the previous one due to
separation of fresh areas of placenta.
SIGNS: General condition and anaemia are proportionate to the visible blood loss. But
in the tropics, the picture is often confusing due to pre-existing anaemia.
Abdominal examination:
The uterus feels relaxed, soft and elastic without any localized area of
tenderness.
Fetal heart sound is usually present, unless there is major separation of the
placenta with the patient in exsanguinated condition. Slowing of the fetal heart
rate on pressing the head down into the peivis which soon recovers promptly as
the pressure is released is suggestive of the presence of low lying placenta
specially of posterior type (Stallworthy’s sign). But this sign is not always
significant because it may be due to fetal head compression even in an otherwise
normal case.
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Vulval inspection: Only inspection is to be done to note whether the bleeding is still
occurring or has ceased, character of the blood – bright red or dark coloured and the
amount of blood loss- to be assessed from the blood stained clothing. In placenta
praevia, the blood is bright red as the bleeding occurs from the separated utero-
placental sinuses close to the cervical opening and escapes out immediately.
Vaginal examination must not be done outside operation theatre in the hospital, as it
can provoke further separation of placenta with torrential hemorrhage and may be fetal.
It should only be done prior to termination of pregnancy in the operation theatre under
anaesthesia, keeping everything ready for caesarean section.
CONFIRMATION OF DIAGNOSIS
Diagnosis: Painless and recurrent vaginal bleeding in the second half of pregnancy
should be taken as placenta praevia unless proved otherwise. Ultrasonography is the
initial procedure either to confirm of to rule out the diagnosis.
- Transperineal ultrasound
PLACENTOGRAPHY
Transabdominal (TAS): The accuracy after 30th week of gestation is about 98 percent.
Cases of placenta praevia detected in earlier weeks should be subjected to repeat scan
at 34 weeks or earlier for detection of placental migration.
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Transvaginal (TVS): Transducer is inserted within the vagina without touching the
cervix. The probe is very close to the target area and higher frequencies could be used
to get a superior resolution. It is safe, obviates the discomfort of full bladder and is more
accurate than TAS.
Colour Doppler flow study: Prominent venous flow in the hypoechoic areas near the
cervix is consistent with the diagnosis of placenta praevia.
Advantages: (1) Diagnostic vaginal examination with the risk of causing hemorrhage
can be avoided. (2). Minimize prolonged and unnecessary hospital stay, (3) To
diagnose placenta praevia .
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Abdominal
examination
- Height of uterus.
Proportionate height May be
disproportionately
enlarged in concealed
- Feel of uterus type.
Soft and relaxed
May be tense, tender
and rigid
- Malpresentation
Malpresentation is Unrelated, the head
common. The head is high may be engaged.
floating.
- F.H.S. Usually absent
Usually present specially in concealed
type.
COMPLICATIONS
Maternal
Fetal
Maternal:
During pregnancy:
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- Premature labour either spontaneous or induced is common.
- Slow dilatation of the cervix is due to the attachment of placenta on the lower
segment.
Large surface area of placenta with atonic uterus due to pre-existing anaemia.
Trauma to the cervix and lower segment because of extreme softness and
vascularity.
It should be remembered that because of antepartum anaemic state, the patient may
become shocked with relatively small amount of blood loss.
Puerperium:
1. Sepsis is increased due to: (a) increased operative interference, (b) placental site
near to the vagina and (c) anaemia and devitalized state of the patient.
2. Subinvolution.
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3. Embolism.
Fetal:
- Low birth weight babies are quite common which may be the effect of preterm
labour either spontaneous or induced. Repeated small bouts of haemorrhage
while carrying on the expepctant treatment can cause chronic placental
insufficiency and fetal growth retardation.
PROGNOSIS
Maternal:
(f) Skill and judgement with which the cases are managed.
All these factors have led to reduction of maternal deaths from placenta praevia to
less than 1% or even to zero in some centres.
Fetal:
Caesarean section which greatly lessens the loss from anoxia and improvement
in the neonatal care unit. But still the perinatal mortality ranges from 10-25%. The
causes of death are – (a) prematurity, (b) asphyxia and (c) congenital malformation.
MANAGEMENT
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1. may be given drugs that can prevent premature labor or birth example is
progesterone.
2. Ultrasound exams to determine migration of an early diagnosed previa or
classification of the previa as total, partial, marginal, or low-lying.
3. With a small first bleed, client may sent home on bed rest if she can return to
hospital quickly.
4. If bleeding is more profuse client is hospitalized on bed rest with BRP, IV access;
labs: Hgb and Hct, urinalysis, blood group and type and cross match for 2 units
of blood hold, possible transfusions; goal is to maintain the pregnancy fetal
maturity.
5. No vaginal exams are performed except under special conditions requiring a
double set-up for immediate cesarean birth should hemorrhage result.
6. Low lying or marginal previas may allowed to deliver vaginally if the fetal head
acts as tamponade to prevent hemorrhage.
7. Cesarean birth, often with vertical uterine incision, is used for total placenta
previa.
8. Steroid shots may be given to help mature the baby's lungs.
Placental Abruption
Definition
Placental abruption occurs when the placenta separates from the wall of the uterus prior to the
birth of the baby. This can result in severe, uncontrollable bleeding (hemorrhage).
Definition:
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- Usually occurs after 20 to 24 weeks of pregnancy but may occur as late as during first or
second stage of labor.
Cause: Unknown
Theories proposed relating it’s occurrence to dec. blood flow to the placenta through the
sinuses during the last trimester; Excessive intrauterine pressure caused by hydramnios or
multiple pregnancy may also be contributing factors.
Risk factors:
- multiple gestations
- hydramnios
- cocaine use
- dec. blood flow to the placenta
- trauma to the abdomen
- dec. serum folic acid levels
- PIH
Description
The uterus is the muscular organ that contains the developing baby during pregnancy. The
lowest segment of the uterus is a narrowed portion called the cervix. This cervix has an opening
(the os) that leads into the vagina, or birth canal. The placenta is the organ that attaches to the
wall of the uterus during pregnancy. The placenta allows nutrients and oxygen from the
mother's blood circulation to pass into the developing baby (the fetus) via the umbilical cord.
During labor, the muscles of the uterus contract repeatedly. This allows the cervix to begin to
grow thinner (called effacement) and more open (dilatation). Eventually, the cervix will become
completely effaced and dilated, and the baby can leave the uterus and enter the birth canal.
Under normal circumstances, the baby will go through the mother's vagina during birth.
During a normal labor and delivery, the baby is born first. Several minutes to 30 minutes later,
the placenta separates from the wall of the uterus and is delivered. This sequence is necessary
because the baby relies on the placenta to provide oxygen until he or she begins to breathe
independently.
Placental abruption occurs when the placenta separates from the uterus before the birth of the
baby. Placental abruption occurs in about one out of every 200 deliveries. African-American and
Latin-American women have a greater risk of this complication than do Caucasian women. It
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was once believed that the risk of placental abruption increased in women who gave birth to
many children, but this association is still being researched.
The cause of placental abruption is unknown. However, a number of risk factors have been
identified. These factors include:
Symptoms of placental abruption include bleeding from the vagina, severe pain in the abdomen
or back, and tenderness of the uterus. Depending on the severity of the bleeding, the mother
may experience a drop in blood pressure, followed by symptoms of organ failure as her organs
are deprived of oxygen. Sometimes, there is no visible vaginal bleeding. Instead, the bleeding is
said to be "concealed." In this case, the bleeding is trapped behind the placenta, or there may
be bleeding into the muscle of the uterus. Many patients will have abnormal contractions of the
uterus, particularly extremely hard, prolonged contractions. Placental abruption can be total (in
which case the fetus will almost always die in the uterus), or partial.
Placental abruption can also cause a very serious complication called consumptive
coagulopathy. A series of reactions begin that involve the elements of the blood responsible for
clotting. These clotting elements are bound together and used up by these reactions. This
increases the risk of uncontrollable bleeding and may contribute to severe bleeding from the
uterus, as well as causing bleeding from other locations (nose, urinary tract, etc.).
Placental abruption is risky for both the mother and the fetus. It is dangerous for the mother
because of blood loss, loss of clotting ability, and oxygen deprivation to her organs (especially
the kidneys and heart). This condition is dangerous for the fetus because of oxygen deprivation,
too, since the mother's blood is the fetus' only source of oxygen. Because the abrupting
placenta is attached to the umbilical cord, and the umbilical cord is an extension of the fetus'
circulatory system, the fetus is also at risk of hemorrhaging. The fetus may die from these
stresses, or may be born with damage due to oxygen deprivation. If the abruption occurs well
before the baby was due to be delivered, early delivery may cause the baby to suffer
complications of premature birth.
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Pathophysiology of Abruptio Placentae
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Clinical manifestations:
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Covert (severe)/ Mild separation/ Mild Abruptio Placenta
The placenta separates centrally and the blood is trapped between the placenta
and the uterine wall.
The blood passes between the fetal membranes and the uterine wall and
escapes vaginally. May develop abruptly or progress from mild to extensive separation
with external hemorrhage.
1. vaginal bleeding
2. rigid abdomen
3. acute abdominal pain
4. dec. BP
5. inc. pulse
6. uteroplacental insufficiency
Massive vaginal bleeding is seen in the presence of almost total separation with
possible fetal cardiac distress.
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Diagnosis
Diagnosis of placental abruption relies heavily on the patient's report of her symptoms
and a physical examination performed by a health care provider. Ultrasound can
sometimes be used to diagnose an abruption, but there is a high rate of missed or
incorrect diagnoses associated with this tool when used for this purpose. Blood will be
taken from the mother and tested to evaluate the possibility of life-threatening problems
with the mother's clotting system.
Treatment
The first line of treatment for placental abruption involves replacing the mother's lost
blood with blood transfusions and fluids given through a needle in a vein. Oxygen will be
administered, usually by a mask or through tubes leading to the nose. When the
placental separation is severe, treatment may require prompt delivery of the baby.
However, delivery may be delayed when the placental separation is not as severe, and
when the fetus is too immature to insure a healthy baby if delivered. The baby is
delivered vaginally when possible. However, a cesarean section may be performed to
deliver the baby more quickly if the abruption is quite severe or if the baby is in distress.
Prognosis
The prognosis for cases of placental abruption varies, depending on the severity of the
abruption. The risk of death for the mother ranges up to 5%, usually due to severe blood
loss, heart failure, and kidney failure. In cases of severe abruption, 50-80% of all
fetuses die. Among those who survive, nearly half will have lifelong problems due to
oxygen deprivation in the uterus and premature birth.
Management:
- monitoring of maternal vital signs, fetal heart rate (FHR), uterine contractions and
vaginal bleeding
- likelihood of vaginal delivery depends on the degree and timing of separation in
labor
- cesarean delivery indicated for moderate to severe placental separation
- evaluation of maternal laboratory values
- F & E replacement therapy; blood transfusion
- Emotional support
Nursing Interventions:
- Assess the patient’s extent of bleeding and monitor fundal height q 30 mins.
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- Draw line at the level of the fundus and check it every 30 mins (if the level of the
fundus increases, suspect abruptio placentae)
- Count the number of pads that the patient uses, weighing them as necessary to
determine the amount of blood loss
- Monitor maternal blood pressure, pulse rate, respirations, central venous
pressure, intake and output and amount of vaginal bleeding q 10 – 15 mins
- Begin electronic fetal monitoring to continuously assess FHR
- Have equipment for emergency cesarean delivery readily available:
-prepare the patient and family members for the possibility of an
emergency CS delivery, the delivery of a premature neonate and the
changes to expect in the postpartum period
-reassure the patient of her progress through labor and keep her informed
of the fetus’ condition
Goals of Care:
1. blood loss is minimized, and lost blood is replaced to prevent ischemic necrosis
of distal organs, including kidneys
2. DIC is prevented or successfully treated.
3. normal reproductive functioning is retained
4. the fetus is safely delivered
5. the woman retains a positive sense of self-esteem and self-worth.
Hgb-
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Platelet -
Fibrinogen -
Pain related to bleeding between the uterine wall and the placenta secondary to
premature separation of the placenta.
Prevention
Some of the causes of placental abruption are preventable. These include cigarette
smoking, alcohol abuse, and cocaine use. Other causes of abruption may not be
avoidable, like diabetes or high blood pressure. These diseases should be carefully
treated. Patients with conditions known to increase the risk of placental abruption
should be carefully monitored for signs and symptoms of this complication.
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Class presentation on
Antepartum
hemorrhage
Submitted to Submitted by
Mrs. Krupa santhosham madam, Mrs. N. Jyothi
Asst. professor M. Sc(N) Iyear
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