U is defined as the total energy of a bodys component.

But we cannot tell how much energy is locked away to we only look at changes in U.
The energy is locked up within a body or species in 3 principal ways
1. E is locked within the atomic nuclei. Nuclear energy
2. E locked away is within chemical bonds. Chemical energy
3. Energy is possessed by virtue of the potential energy and the translational, vibrational,
rotational energy states of the atoms and bonds within the susbstance.
Calorimetry: study of energy changes occurring during bond changes
U does not just mean change in but passing from an initial to a final state

When energy passes from one body to another, we say the process is thermodynamic
(energy+movement)
U during steam condensation is negative. U is exothermic (steam had more energy than the
liquid water)
U during water evaporation is positive. U is endothermic

At constant temperature, the heat absorbed during evaporation is often called the
latent heat of evaporation. This choice of words arises from the way evaporation occurs
without heating of the liquid; latent is Latin for hidden, since the energy added to is
not seen as a temperature rise.

While the chemical substance involved dictates the magnitude of U (i.e. the
amount of it), its sign derives from the direction of the thermodynamic process
The change in internal energy when converting a material from state A to state B is
equal and opposite to the change in U obtained when performing the same process in reverse

The value of _U when condensing exactly 1 mol of water is termed the molar
change in internal energy. We will call it _Um (condensation), where the small m
indicates that a mole is involved in the thermodynamic process. Similarly, the molar change in
energy during vaporization can be symbolized as
_Um (vaporization). If we compare the molar energies for these two
similar processes, we see the following relation:
_Um (condensation) = _Um (vaporization).

Internal energy U is
a state function because:
(1) it is a thermodynamic
property;
and (2) its value
depends only on the
present state of the
system

State function A thermodynamic

property (such as internal energy) that depends only on
the present state of the system, and is independent of its previous
history. In other words, a state function depends only on those
variables that define the current state of the system, such as how
much material is present, whether it is a solid, liquid or gas, etc

The only reason

why the net value of _U for this cycle is zero is because we
have neither lost nor picked up any energy over the cycle.
energy cannot
be created or destroyed, only converted a vital truth called
the first law of thermodynamics.

a car tyre cannot expand

greatly during pumping, so increasing the amount of gas it contains
will increase its internal pressure

Work is a form of energy.

In one set of joules experiments,
for example, he rotated small paddles immersed in a water
trough and noted the rise in temperature (inc in energy)

we perform work whenever energy powers a physical process, e.g. to

propel a car or raise a spoon to the mouth. The work done on
a system increases its energy, so the value of U increases, itself
causing _U to be positive). Work done by a system corresponds
to a negative value of _U

Work done on a system

increases its energy,
so _U is positive. Work
done by a system corresponds
to a negative
value of _U.

Why does a sausage become warm when placed

in an oven?
isothermal changes in heat and work
from the minus-oneth law
of thermodynamics, heat travels from the hot oven to the cold(er) item of food we
place in it. Also, from the zeroth law, thermal equilibrium is attained only when the
sausage and the oven are at the same temperature.
So the simplest answer to why
a sausage gets hot is to say the energy content of the sausage (in the form of heat)
increases, causing its internal energy to rise. And, yet again, we see how the simplest
test of an increasing internal energy is an increased temperature

The internal energy U changes

in response to two variables, work w and heat energy q, as defined
by
_U = q +w
the magnitude of _U is the sum of
the changes in the heat q added (or extracted) from a system, and
the work w performed by (or done to) it.
Infinitesimal is the
reciprocal of infinite,
i.e. incredibly small.

a process is said to be reversible if the change occurs

at an infinitesimal rate, and if an infinitesimal change in an external
variable (such as pressure) could change the direction of the
thermodynamic process.

The amount of work that can be performed

during a thermodynamic
process is maximized
by performing it
reversibly

The amount of energy a material or body must absorb for its

temperature to increase is termed its heat capacity C
The heat capacity C
of a material or body
relates the amount of
energy absorbed when
raising its temperature.

value of CV changes slightly with temperature

CV the heat capacity at constant volume.
We also call CV the
isochoric heat capacity.
volume constant, we measure CV without performing any work
(so w = 0),

The heat capacity CV is an extensive quantity, so its value depends on how much
of a material we want to warm up. As chemists, we usually want a value of CV
expressed per mole of material. A molar heat capacity is an intensive quantity.

Another heat capacity is Cp, the heat capacity measured at constant pressure (which is
also called the isobaric heat capacity). The values of Cp and CV will differ, by perhaps
as much as 510 per cent