Research 3

Compiled by:
Sabino R. Belnas Jr., MT-II
LNNCHS, Science Dept Head-Designate

Galileo is considered as having largely contributed to the rapid advance of

science, especially mechanics, in the sixteenth century. The year he died,
another great scientist, Sir Isaac Newton (1642 1727) was born and was
destined to continue Galileos great work. Newton wanted to know why an
apple fell to the earth. He wanted to explain why the planets were held in their
orbits? Newton not only described the laws which explained gravity, but he also
invented the calculus to explain the laws of gravity.
Newton went far beyond Galileo by taking observations of the heavens and Sir Isaac Newton
turning them into measured and irrefutable fact. It was Newton had an
amazing impact, since he had offered an irrefutable proof. A mathematical proof that Nature had order
and meaning, an order and meaning that was not based on faith but on human reason.

A Science Investigatory Project

Doing an investigatory project considers as a major achievement of any students in Science. Through
scientific investigation, they learn how to apply the acquired knowledge, scientific concepts, theories,
principles and laws of nature. They can use their higher-order process or thinking skills in conducting a
research.
As we already know, science is a well-organized body of knowledge while technology is product of
science. An investigatory project is a project that tries to find the answer to a question by using
the scientific method. The scientific method merely refers to a broad framework for studying and learning
more about the world around us in a scientific manner.

It is not so much a series of absolute, unchangeable steps as a guideline to the method that must be used
when trying to reach a scientifically acceptable theory about a subject matter. Therefore, it is not possible
to provide a finite number of steps or an exact procedure for following the scientific method.

However, the scientific method steps detailed below describe the main steps that scientists commonly
take when conducting a scientific inquiry. Steps of the Scientific Method

Make an Observation
Scientists are naturally curious about the world.

While many people may pass by a curious phenomenon without sparing much thought for it, a scientific
mind will take note of it as something worth further thought and investigation.

Form a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an informed guess as to the possible answer of the question.

The hypothesis may be formed as soon as the question is posed, or it may require a great deal of
background research and inquiry.

The purpose of the hypothesis is not to arrive at the perfect answer to the question but to provide a
direction to further scientific investigation.
Conduct an Experiment

Once a hypothesis has been formed, it must be tested.

This is done by conducting a carefully designed and controlled experiment.

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The experiment is one of the most important steps in the scientific method, as it is used to prove a
hypothesis right or wrong, and to formulate scientific theories. In order to be accepted as scientific proof
for a theory, an experiment must meet certain conditions it must be controlled, i.e. it must test a single
variable by keeping all other variables under control.

The experiment must also be reproducible so that it can be tested for errors.
Analyze the Data and Draw a Conclusion

As the experiment is conducted, it is important to note down the results.

In any experiment, it is necessary to conduct several trials to ensure that the results are constant.
The experimenter then analyses all the data and uses it to draw a conclusion regarding the strength of the
hypothesis. If the data proves the hypothesis correct, the original question is answered.

On the other hand, if the data disproves the hypothesis, the scientific inquiry continues by doing research
to form a new hypothesis and then conducting an experiment to test it.

This process goes on until a hypothesis can be proven correct by a scientific experiment. The whole
process is collaborative and is conducted in a clearly documented manner to help other scientists who are
doing research in the same field.

Throughout history, there are instances where scientists have stopped their research before completing
all the steps of the scientific method, only to have the inquiry taken up and solved by another scientist
interested in answering the same question.

Flow Chart of the Steps in Scientific Method

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HOW TO DO AN INVESTIGATORY PROJECT?

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 Select a Field of Study

Mathematics Science

Life Science Physical Science

Botany Zoology Geology Astronomy Chemistry Physics

To help you plan your investigatory project, answer the following guide questions based on the scientific
method.

A. GUIDE QUESTIONS:

1. What topic/project do you want to work on?

Is it meant to solve an existing problem, produce a new gadget, design a new product, or modify
an already existing one? Specifically, what questions would your study answer?

2. What is your main purpose for conducting the study?

What benefits can you or your community get from your study? Can you save on costs and energy,
preserve the environment, prolong life, or promote healthy living with your study?

3. What materials are you going to use for your study?

Are they readily available in your backyard/ community? Can you readily obtain the accompanying
ingredients from a local store or supermarket? Did you consider the costs? Would any living
organism plant or animal be harmed in your experiment? Is it ethical and moral?

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4. Were there studies done before that are related to the main topic you are researching?
Were there foreign authors who did studies similar to yours? How about Filipino authors or
scientists? What did they find out? How different would your topic be from theirs?

5. If your study aims to solve a problem, what is a possible solution to it based on your readings? If your
study aims to explain a certain phenomenon, what is a possible explanation? This possible
solution will be your hypothesis. In order to test if your hypothesis is correct, you need to design
an experiment. What factors will you test? How will you test them? What standard tests are
available to prove that your experimental design is correct? What factors should stay the same in
all your setups? What standard of comparison are you going to use to prove that your hypothesis
is correct?

6. How are you going to collect and present data?

How are you going to analyze and interpret the results? Do you need graphs to show trends? Do
you need tables to show the values obtained are significant? Do you need pictures to make it
more understandable? What statistical procedure will you use?

7. What generalization can be drawn from your data?

Does it support your hypothesis? Is your study relevant to society in general? If so, how will you
apply your findings? Was there anything that needs to be modified? What do you recommend?

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B. PARTS OF AN INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

I. Title/Abstract:

The title of the investigatory project should be short but catchy enough to sustain the interest of readers.
Avoid unnecessary words. It may or may not include the scientific name of the main ingredient of your
project, and its property being investigated.

The Abstract (or summary) of around 100 to 150 words should include:

A. What did you study? (The Problem)

B. How did you design the study? (The Methodology)
C. What did you find out? (Results and Findings)
D. What does it mean? (Conclusions)

II. Chapter I Introduction

A. Background of the Study

1. Why did you conduct the study?

B. Statement of the Problem

1. What topic/ problem did you study?

2. What specific questions did your study answer?
3. What hypothesis are you testing in this study?

C. Significance of the Study

1. Who will benefit from your study?

2. How will they benefit?

D. Scope and Limitations of the Study

1. What aspects of the topic were covered by the study?

2. How long did you conduct the study?
3. What limitations of your study should other researchers know?

III. Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Foreign Literature
B. Local Literature

1. What information about your topic /problem is available in reference materials?

2. What findings from earlier researches are relevant to your topic/ problem?

C. Definition of Terms
1. How should technical terms in your study be interpreted?

IV. Chapter III METHODOLOGY

A. Materials / Equipment

Indicate all major and minor ingredients used in the study as well as the quantity used.

B. Methods / Procedures

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Can you describe the plan or design of the experiment? What is the experimental variable? the control?
Can you describe the sample or the organisms that you worked with? How did you gather them? How did
you collect, organize and record the data.

V. Chapter IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

How did you present the data? What graphical organizers (i.e. tables, graphs, diagrams, photos) did you
use to facilitate understanding of the data? What do the data imply? How did you analyze and interpret
the data?

VI. Chapter V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

How will you describe the whole study using a few words? Were you able to prove your hypothesis true
or false? Which setup yielded a positive result? How do you account for any unexpected event that
happened while you were doing the research? What part of the procedure was wrong, if any? What
recommendations can you give to further improve the study? How can the results that you obtained be
useful to the scientific community? On what specific findings are your recommendations based?

VII. REFERENCES

What are your sources? (i.e. journals, textbooks, encyclopedia, online sites, etc.)
NOTE: The Abstract is done after completing the main body of the research report

Reference: http://www.scienceproject.com/projects/index/elementary.asp

Research Methodology

There are several important aspects to research methodology. This is a summary of the key concepts in
scientific research and an attempt to erase some common misconceptions in science.

Hypothesis

In research, a hypothesis is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon. A null hypothesis is a hypothesis

which a researcher tries to disprove. Normally, the null hypothesis represents the current
view/explanation of an aspect of the world that the researcher wants to challenge. Research methodology
involves the researcher providing an alternative hypothesis, a research hypothesis, as an alternate way
to explain the phenomenon. The researcher tests the hypothesis to disprove the null hypothesis, not
because he/she loves the research hypothesis, but because it would mean coming closer to finding an
answer to a specific problem. The null hypothesis, Ho is an essential part of any research design, and is
always tested, even indirectly. The simplistic definition of the null is as the opposite of the alternative
hypothesis, Hi, although the principle is a little more complex than that. The research hypothesis is often
based on observations that evoke suspicion that the null hypothesis is not always correct.

In the Stanley Milgram Experiment, the null hypothesis was that the personality determined whether a
person would hurt another person, while the research hypothesis was that the role, instructions and
orders were much more important in determining whether people would hurt others. The null hypothesis
(Ho) is a hypothesis which the researcher tries to disprove, reject or nullify. The 'null' often refers to the
common view of something, while the alternative hypothesis (Hi) is what the researcher really thinks is
the cause of a phenomenon. An experiment conclusion always refers to the null, rejecting or accepting
Ho rather than Hi. Despite this, many researchers neglect the null hypothesis when testing hypothesis,
which is poor practice and can have adverse effects.

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Development of the Null

The Flat Earth model was common in ancient times, such as in the civilizations of the Bronze Age or Iron
Age. This may be thought of as the null hypothesis, Ho, at the time.

Ho: World is Flat

Many of the Ancient Greek philosophers assumed that the sun, moon and other objects in the universe
circled around the Earth. Hellenistic astronomy established the spherical shape of the earth around 300
BC.
Ho: The Geocentric Model: Earth is the centre of the Universe and it is Spherical.
Copernicus had an alternative hypothesis, Hi that the world actually circled around the sun, thus being the
center of the universe. Eventually, people got convinced and accepted it as the null, Ho.
Ho: The Heliocentric Model: Sun is the centre of the universe

Examples of the Null Hypothesis

A researcher may postulate a hypothesis:
Hi: Tomato plants exhibit a higher rate of growth when planted in compost rather than in soil.
And a null hypothesis:
Ho: Tomato plants do not exhibit a higher rate of growth when planted in compost rather than soil.
It is important to carefully select the wording of the null, and ensure that it is as specific as possible. For
example, the researcher might postulate a null hypothesis:
Ho: Tomato plants show no difference in growth rates when planted in compost rather than soil.
There is a major flaw with this Ho.
If the plants actually grow more slowly in compost than in soil, an impasse is reached.
H1 is not supported, but neither is Ho, because there is a difference in growth rates.
If the null is rejected, with no alternative, the experiment may be invalid. This is the reason why science
uses a battery deductive and inductive of processes to ensure that there are no flaws in the hypotheses.
Many scientists neglect the null, assuming that it is merely the opposite of the alternative, but it is good
practice to spend a little time creating a sound hypothesis. It is not possible to change any hypothesis
retrospectively, including Ho.

Perceived Problems with the Null

The major problem with the Ho is that many researchers, and reviewers, see accepting the null as a failure
of the experiment. This is very poor science, as accepting or rejecting any hypothesis is a positive result.

Variables
A variable is something that changes. It changes according to different factors. Some variables change
easily, like the stock-exchange value, while other variables are almost constant, like the name of someone.
Researchers are often seeking to measure variables. The variable can be a number, a name, or anything
where the value can change. An example of a variable is temperature. The temperature varies according
to other variable and factors. You can measure different temperature inside and outside.
If it is a sunny day, chances are that the temperature will be higher than if it's cloudy. Another thing that
can make the temperature change is whether something has been done to manipulate the temperature,
like lighting a fire in the chimney. In research, you typically define variables according to what you're
measuring.

The independent variable is the variable which the researcher would like to measure (the cause), while
the dependent variable is the effect (or assumed effect), dependent on the independent variable.
These variables are often stated in experimental research, in a hypothesis, e.g. "what is the effect of
personality on helping behavior?" Scientists use an experiment to search for cause and
effect relationships in nature. In other words, they design an experiment so that changes to one item
cause something else to vary in a predictable way. These changing quantities are called variables.
A variable is any factor, trait, or condition that can exist in differing amounts or types.

An experiment usually has three kinds of variables: independent, dependent, and controlled.

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The independent variable is the one that is changed by the scientist. To ensure a fair test, a good
experiment has only one independent variable. As the scientist changes the independent variable, he or
she observes what happens. The scientist focuses his or her observations on the dependent variable to
see how it responds to the change made to the independent variable. The new value of the dependent
variable is caused by and depends on the value of the independent variable. For example, if you open a
faucet (the independent variable), the quantity of water flowing (dependent variable) changes in
response--you observe that the water flow increases.

The number of dependent variables in an experiment varies, but there is often more than one.
Experiments also have controlled variables.

Controlled variables are quantities that a scientist wants to remain constant, and he must observe them
as carefully as the dependent variables.

Answer the following questions:

1. Base on the table above, which is:

a. controlled variable?
b. independent variable?
c. dependent variable?
2. What is your general finding?
3. What is your conclusion?

Essential Questions:
1. What is APA?
2. What is in-text citation?
3. How to make a Reference List or Bibliography?

APA citation style refers to the rules and conventions established by the American Psychological
Association for documenting sources used in a research paper. APA style requires both in-text citations
and a reference list. For every in-text citation there should be a full citation in the reference list and vice
versa.

Using in-text citation with APA style

Authors name part of the narrative

Gass and Varonis (1984) found that the most element in comprehending non-native speech is familiarity
with the topic.

Authors name in parenthesis

One study found that the most important element in comprehending non-native speech is familiarity
with the topic (Gass & Varonis, 1984).

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Multiple works (separate each work with semi-colons)

Research shows that listening to a particular accent improves comprehension of accented speech in
general (Gass & Varonis, 1984; Krech Thomas, 2004).

Gass and Varonis (1984);Krech Tomas (2004) research shows that listening to a particular accent
improves comprehension of accented speech in general.

Direct quote, author's name part of narrative

Gass and Varonis (1984) found that the listeners familiarity with the topic of discourse greatly
facilitates the interpretation of the entire message (p. 85).

Direct quote, author's name in parentheses

One study found that the listener's familiarity with the topic of discourse greatly facilitates the
interpretation of the entire message (Gass & Varonis, 1984, p. 85).

Works by multiple authors

APA style has specific rules for citing works by multiple authors.
Use the following chart to determine how to correctly cite works by multiple authors in text.

Citing Works by Multiple Authors in Text.

Example paragraph with in-text citation

A few researchers in the linguistics field have developed training programs designed to improve native
speakers' ability to understand accented speech (Derwing, Rossiter, & Munro, 2002; Krech Thomas, 2004).
Their training techniques are based on the research described above indicating that comprehension
improves with exposure to non-native speech. Derwing et al. (2002) conducted their training with
students preparing to be social workers, but note that other professionals who work with non-native
speakers could benefit from a similar program.

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The Research Logbook

The logbook is a crucial part of any research project.

It is a detailed account of every phase of your project, from the initial brainstorming to the final research
report. The logbook is evidence that certain activities occurred at specific times.

Following the pointers below will help keep you organized. It's a great opportunity to show off all of
your hard work and impress the science fair judges!

The Log Book

The first page of the log book must be the Title Page. It should contain the title of the project, the
name of the student, the name of the teacher, and the name of the school.
The second page will become the Table of Contents. Once the log book is finished the table of
contents will list page numbers and what is found on each.
Make logbook entries in pen, not in pencil; this is a permanent record of all of your activities
associated with your project. When a mistake is made the error is marked out neatly (no white-
out).
Organize your logbook. Make a table of contents, an index, and create tabs for different sections
within your logbook. This helps keep you organized for different activities. For example, have a
data collection section, a section with contacts, sources, etc. and a section of schedule deadlines.
Always date every entry, just like a journal. Entries should be brief and concise. Full sentences are
not required.
Don't worry too much about neatness. Your logbook should be organized, but keep in mind that
this is a personal record of your work. Think of the logbook as your "Diary" for the science fair. It's
not just for recording data during the experimental phase of your project and it's not just for your
teacher.
The logbook should be used during all phases of your project for jotting down ideas or thoughts
for a project, phone numbers, contacts or sources and prices of supplies, book references,
diagrams, graphs, figures, charts, sketches, or calculations. Log entries should include your
brainstorming, calculations, library/internet searches, phone calls, interviews, meetings with
mentors or advisors, notes from tours of laboratories, research facilities and other related
activities. Remember that it's documentation of your work.
Use the logbook regularly and write down everything, even if it seems insignificant; it could later
be extremely useful. For example, you may find yourself frantically searching for the title of a
crucial reference the night before the fair. Make sure that you describe things completely, so that
when you read your notes weeks or months later you will be able to accurately reconstruct your
thoughts and your work.
Glue, staple or tape any loose papers into your logbook, such as photocopies of important items.
Loose papers look messy and tend to fall out and go missing. If you have several pages to include
you may want to download and print off your own version of the logbook and organize all of these
pages into a binder along with your own table of contents.
Include a reflections section in your logbook. For example, what, if anything would I do differently
next time? What part of the experiment could be changed to improve the experimental
procedure?
Always include any changes made to procedures, as well as mishaps, failures, or mistakes. As
human beings, all of us make mistakes! (i. e. 1/4/05 my cat, Sheba scratched the pots of soil, and
ate 4 of my 12 plants. I will have to replant everything! I need to protect my plants from the silly
cat. Maybe I should try putting a screen around the pots or keep the cat outside!)
Include any and all observations made during your experiment. In other words, record ALL data
directly in your logbook. If this is not possible, then staple photocopies of data in the logbook.

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In-Text Citations: The Basics

Summary:

APA (American Psychological Association) style is most commonly used to cite sources within the social
sciences. This resource, revised according to the 6th edition, second printing of the APA manual, offers
examples for the general format of APA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the
reference page. For more information, please consult the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association, (6th ed., 2nd printing).

Contributors:Joshua M. Paiz, Elizabeth Angeli, Jodi Wagner, Elena Lawrick, Kristen Moore, Michael
Anderson, Lars Soderlund, Allen Brizee, Russell Keck
Last Edited: 2014-11-11 10:20:40

Reference citations in text are covered on pages 169-179 of the Publication Manual. What follows are
some general guidelines for referring to the works of others in your essay.

Note: APA style requires authors to use the past tense or present perfect tense when using signal
phrases to describe earlier research, for example, Jones (1998) found or Jones (1998)has found...

APA citation basics

When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the author's
last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, for example, (Jones,
1998), and a complete reference should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.

If you are referring to an idea from another work but NOT directly quoting the material, or making
reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make reference to the author and
year of publication and not the page number in your in-text reference. All sources that are cited in the
text must appear in the reference list at the end of the paper.

In-text citation capitalization, quotes, and italics/underlining

Always capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials: D. Jones.

If you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are four letters long or
greater within the title of a source: Permanence and Change. Exceptions apply to short words that are
verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs: Writing New Media, There Is Nothing Left to Lose.

(Note: in your References list, only the first word of a title will be capitalized: Writing new media.)

When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound word: Natural-Born Cyborgs.

Capitalize the first word after a dash or colon: "Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of Hitchcock's Vertigo."

Italicize or underline the titles of longer works such as books, edited collections, movies, television
series, documentaries, or albums: The Closing of the American Mind; The Wizard of Oz; Friends.

Put quotation marks around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles, articles from edited
collections, television series episodes, and song titles: "Multimedia Narration: Constructing Possible
Worlds"; "The One Where Chandler Can't Cry."

Short quotations

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If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication, and the
page number for the reference (preceded by "p."). Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that
includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses.

According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their
first time" (p. 199).

Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what implications does this
have for teachers?

If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last name, the year of publication, and
the page number in parentheses after the quotation.

She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style" (Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she did not offer an
explanation as to why.

Long quotations

Place direct quotations that are 40 words, or longer, in a free-standing block of typewritten lines, and
omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented 1/2 inch from the left margin, i.e., in
the same place you would begin a new paragraph. Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and
indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation 1/2 inch from the new margin.
Maintain double-spacing throughout. The parenthetical citation should come after the closing
punctuation mark.

Jones's (1998) study found the following:

Students often had difficulty using APA style,
especially when it was their first time citing sources. This difficulty could be attributed to the fact that
many students failed to purchase a style manual or to ask their teacher for help. (p. 199)

Summary or paraphrase

If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the author and
year of publication in your in-text reference, but APA guidelines encourage you to also provide the page
number (although it is not required.)

According to Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners.
APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners (Jones, 1998, p. 199).

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