Chapter I

Introduction

HISTORY

The history of compressors is as varied as are the different types

of compressors. Therefore it is fitting that we first identify the different
types of compressors. As shown in Chart 1-1, compressors fall into two
separate and distinct categories: dynamic and positive displacement.

Chart 1-1

Somewhere in antiquity the bellows was developed to increase

flow into a furnace in order to stoke or increase furnace heat. This was
necessary to smelt ores of copper, tin, lead and iron. This led the way
to numerous other inventions of tools and weapons.
One of the earliest recorded uses of compressed gas (air) dates
back to 31d century B.C. This early use of compressed air was the water
organ. The invention of the water organ is commonly credited to
Ctesibius of Alexandria1. The concept was further improved by Hero of
Alexandria (also noted for describing the principles of expanding steam
to convert steam power to shaft power).
1
2 Compressor Handbook Principles and Practice

The water organ consisted of a water pump, a chamber partly

filled with air and water, a row of pipes on top (organ pipes) of various
diameters and lengths plus connecting tubing and valves. By pumping
water into the water/ air chamber the air becomes compressed. Than
by opening valves to specific organ pipes the desired musical sound is
created.
Ctesibius also developed the positive displacement cylinder and
piston to move water.
It was not until the late 19* century
that many of these ideas were turned
into working hardware.
In the 1850s, while trying to find
a replacement for the water wheel at
their familys woolen mill, Philander and
Francis Roots devised what has come to
be known as the Roots blower3. Their
design consisted of a pair of figure-eight
impellers rotating in opposite directions.
While some Europeans were simultane-
ously experimenting with this design,
the Roots brothers perfected the design
and put it into large-scale production. Figure 1-1- Water Organ De-
It is not surprising that other veloped BY Ctesibius.2
compressor designs followed power-

Figure 1-2. Photo Courtesy of Frick by Johnson Controls.

Introduction 3

Figure 1-3. Cooper-Bessemer 2-330 Integral Engine Compressors in Krun-

mhorn, Germany. Courtesy of Ben Suurenbroek (Retired Cooper Energy
Services)

producing designs. For example, the reciprocating engine concept easily

transfers to the reciprocating compressor.
The integral-engine-compressor is a good example as its design
utilizes one main shaft connected to both the power cylinders and
the compression cylinders. The form and function of the compressor
cylinders are the same whether it is configured as an integral engine-
compressor or a separable-compressor driven by an electric motor, gas
engine or turbine.
Other examples are the centrifugal compressor, (Figure 1-4) the
turbo-expander, the axial compressor, and the axial turbine (Figure 1-5
and 1-6).
In 1808 John Dumball envisioned a multi-stage axial compressor.
Unfortunately his idea consisted only of moving blades without station-
ary airfoils to turn the flow into each succeeding stage.4~~~~
Not until 1872 did Dr. Franz Stolze combine the ideas of John Bar-
4 Compressor Handbook Principles and Practice

Figure 1-4. Barrel

Compressor Cour-
tesy of Rolls-Royce
USA (formerly Coo-
per Industries En-
ergy Services).

Figure 1-5. Five

Stage Power Tur-
bine Rotor From
RT15 Turbine De-
signed For 12,000
RPM Courtesy of
Rolls-Royce USA
(formerly Cooper
Industries Ener-
gy Services).

ber and John Dumball to develop the first axial compressor driven by
an axial turbine. Due to a lack of funds, he did not build his machine
until 1900. Dr. Stolzes design consisted of a multi-stage axial flow com-
pressor, a single combustion chamber, a multi-stage axial turbine, and a
regenerator utilizing exhaust gases to heat the compressor discharge gas.
This unit was tested between 1900 and 1904, but never ran successfully.
Operating conditions have a significant impact on compressor
Introduction 5

Figure 1-6. Courtesy of

Unite d Technologies
Corporation, Pratt &
Whitney, Canada. The
ST-18 i s a 2 Megawatt
Aeroderivative Combin-
ing Centrifugal Com-
pressor & Axial Expan-
sion Turbine.

selection and compressor performance. The influences of pressure, tem-

perature, molecular weight, specific heat ratio, compression ratio, speed,
vane position, volume bottles, loaders and unloaders, etc. are addressed
in this book. These conditions impact compressor capacity and therefore
the compressor selection. They also impact the compressor efficiency.
Flexibility in selection is still possible to some extent as compressors can
be operated in parallel and series modes. For example, to achieve higher
pressures multiple compressors can be configured in series whereby the
discharge of one compressor feeds directly into the suction of a second
compressor, etc. Likewise, to achieve higher flows multiple compressors
can be configured in parallel whereby the suction of each compressor
is manifolded together and the discharge of each compressor is also
manifolded together.
Different methods of throughput control are addressed in Chapter
5, such as, discharge throttling, suction throttling, guide vane position-
ing, volume bottles, suction valve unloaders and speed control; and how
each of these control methods effects compressor life.
This book discusses different compressors; how they operate and
how they are controlled. Since the cost of process downtime and dam-
age to a compressor can range from thousands to millions of dollars;
the types of failures that can occur and how to avoid these failures is
also addressed in this book.
In view of the fact that the most destructive event in a dynamic
compressor is surge, compressor surge will be defined and discussed in
detail. Also discussed are the various types of instrumentation (control-
lers, valves, pressure and temperature transmitters, etc..) available and
6 Compressor Handbook Principles and Practice

which are most suitable in controlling surge. Destructive modes of other

compressors are also addressed.
A few algorithms are presented, primarily in Chapters 4 and 7,
to help demonstrate interactions of pressure, temperature and quantify
results, but their understanding is not essential to the selection of the
proper control scheme and instrumentation. The reader should not be
intimidated by these algorithms as their understanding will open up a
broader appreciation of how the compressor works.

Footnotes
1 A History of Mechanical Inventions, Abbott Payton Usher. This Dover
edition, first published in 1988, is an unabridged and unaltered re-
publication of the revised edition (1954) of the work first published
by Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, in 1929.
2 Multiple sources were found for this sketch, none of which refer-
enced a source.
3 Initiative In Energy, The Story of Dresser Industries, Darwin Payne,
1979
4 Engines-The Search for Power, John Day, 1980
5 The Gas Turbine, Norman Davy, 1914
6 Modern Gas Turbines, Arthur W. Judge 1950