I Blomecchunirs. 1972. Vol. 5,pp. 541-551. PeqamonPress.

Printed inGreat Britain

A MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS FOR INDENTATION

TESTS OF ARTICULAR CARTILAGE*

W. C. HAYES, L. M. KEER, G. HERRMANN+ and L. F. MOCKROS

The Technological Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. 60201, U.S.A.

Abstract- A mathematical model is developed for indentation tests of articular cartilage. The
cartilage, normally bonded to the subchondral bone, is modeled as an infinite elastic layer
bonded to a rigid half space, and the indenter is assumed to be a rigid axisymmettic punch.
The problem is formulated as a mixed boundary value problem of the theory of elasticity and
solutions are obtained for the indentation of the layer by the plane end of a rigid circular
cylinder and by a rigid sphere. Subject to detailed verification with independent tests, the
present solutions are suggested as useful for the determination of the elastic shear modulus
of intact cartilage.

INTRODUCTION step loads noted in these investigations is

OSTEOARTHRITIS is a noninflammatory dis- an instantaneous indentation followed by a
order of synovial joints characterized by time-dependent creep to an asymptotic
deterioration of the articular cartilage and indentation. No significant differences were
by formation of new subchondml and marginal found as a function of age in either the
bone. Since the process is particularly severe deformability or recovery of adult articular
in joints exposed to high compressive forces, cartilage. Large differences were found,
mechanical factors are assumed to play some however, between the deformabilities of
role in the pathogenesis of the disease normal and osteo&hritic tissue.
(Sokoloff, 1969). Experimental studies of The derivation of meamngful material
the mechanical properties of articular cartil- properties from indentation tests of the
age, however, have not clearly elucidated the articular structures has been complicated by
early development of osteoarthritis nor have the lack of theoretical solutions for the com-
analytical studies fully considered the role plex stress distributions arising from the layer-
played by cartilage in load transmission in ed geometry. Several previous attempts to
normal and pathological synovial joints. obtain elastic constants from indention tests
Indentation tests have been used in assumed a uniaxial stress field beneath the
previous investigations of the mechanical indenter. This assumption ignores important
characteristics of articuiar cartilage. Such edge effects occurring with indenters that
tests have examined the influence of immer- have contact areas whose diameters are
sion (Elmore er al., 1963), the chemical comparable to the cartilage thickness. Other
characteristics of the immersion medium determinations were based on solutions for
(Sokoloff, 1963), age (Sokoloff, 1966; Krako- the puncture of an elastomer or on hardness
vits, 1969a), site of indentation (Kempson tests, both of which ignore the presence of
et al., 197 1; Krakovits, 1969b) and the a layered geometry.
degenerative state of the tissue (Hirsch, 1944; Several investigators have applied well
Sokoloff, 1966) on cartilage deformability. defined stress fields such as axial compression
The characteristic mechanical response to (McCutchen, 1962; Camosso and Marotti,

*Receitied 28 December 1970.

tPresent address: Department of Applied Mechanics. Stanford University, Stanford. California 94305, U.S.A.
541
542 W. C. HAYES
1962), uniaxial strain (Edwards, 1967) and
uniaxial tension (Kempson et al., 1968) in
studies of the mechanical behavior of speci-
mens of articular car&ge. A recent investiga-
tion, based on two independent creep tests
of cylindrical cartilage samples, presented
cartilage constitutive relations suitable for
the viscoelastic stress analysis of synovial
joints (Hayes and MO&OS, 1971). All
experimental methods based on the use of
standardized cartilage samples are not,
however, suitable for use on intact cartilage.
Interest in the development of suitable in uivo
tests for cartilage properties and in the
mechanisms of load transmission in normal
and pathological synovial joints prompted
this analytical investigation of cartilage
indentation.
Previous theoretical analyses of the load
response of the a3ticuIar structures have been
hampered by the lack of appropriate con-
stitutive relations for cartilage and complicated
by the presence of the layered geometry.
Zarek and Edwards (1963) used the Hertz
solution for the contact of elastic spheres in
an attempt to correlate the observed fibrilIar
ultrastructure with the predicted distribution
of tensile stresses. Burstein (1968) calculated
stress distributions and displacements in
three-layered spherical and cylindrical
geometries under the action of axially
symmetric surface tractions but did not
consider the case of two contacting surfaces.
The present investigation considers the
indentation mechanics of an infinite elastic
layer bonded to a rigid half-space as a model
for the layered geometry of cartilage and
subchondral bone. The analysis is formulated
as a mixed boundary value problem of the
theory of elasticity. It is based on the tech-
nique of Lebedev and Ufliand (1958) for
the indentation by an axially symmetric
indenter of an unbonded layer resting on a
rigid half-space. The present investigation
exploits the Lebedev and Ufliand solution for
the case of a bonded layer indented by the
plane end of a rigid circular cylinder or by
a rigid sphere.
et al.
ANALYTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
The elastic contact problem is formulated
by considering he equilibrium of an infinite
elastic layer resting on an immovable rigid
half-space. The layer deforms under the action
of a rigid axisymmetric punch pressed normal
to the surface by an axial force P (Figs. 1 and
2). Shear tractions between punch and layer
are assumed negligible and the layer is
assumed to adhere to the half-space at the
sulfacez=h.
Under these assumptions the problem is
represented mathematically by a mixed
boundary value problem satisfying the field
equations of the linear theory of elasticity
for homogeneous, isotropic materials. The
displacement equations are written as
(1-2V)v%l+v(vu) =o (1)
in which body forces and inertial effects are
neglected, u is the displacement vector,
v is Poissons ratio, and V is the gradient
operator.
The boundary conditions at the surface
I= 0 are mixed with respect to normal
traction and displacement, the shear stress
being zero over the entire surface. At z = h,
the adhesion condition requires the displace-
ments to be prescribed as zero. In cylindrical
coordinates, (r, 8, z), the boundary conditions
are
u, = 00 -q(r) O=SrGa,z=O
a <r<=,z=O (2)
urz = 0 OCr<m,z=O
and
u, = l4, =O Ocr<m,z=h, (3)
in which (u?, 0, u,) are the components of the
displacement vector, and uzrrand errs are the
normal and tangential stress components,
respectively. The prescribed elastic displace-
ment of the center of the punch (r = 0) in
the z direction is given by wo, and Wr)
 A MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS 543

I p a+= I oa
[C(A)shA(h-zz)

+D(h)chA(h-z)]JoW dx, (6)

e5
20

iwo in which A, B, C, and D are functions of A

h

- -- -___
to be determined from the boundary con-
! ditions (2) and (3) and Jo(x) is the Bessel
function of order zero.
By using boundary conditions (3) with
equations (4) and (6), A and B may be deter-
Fig. 1. Geometry for the plane-ended cylindrical indenter. mined in terms of C and D as

expresses the axisymmetric shape of the

indenter (Timoshenko and Goodier, 1970)*,
A(h) =-hC(A)- (3A4V)
D(h)

and the radius of the contact region is a.

and
The solution of the axisymmetric contact
problem is conveniently achieved in terms of B(A) = -hD(A). (7)
the Boussinesq-Papkovitch potential func-
tions for the representation of the components The third condition of (2) with equations (5)
of the displacement vector, i.e. and (6) leads to

D(A) =
( 1 - 2~) shAh - Ahchhh
2(1 -v)chhh+hhshhh (). 1 ()

The remaining conditions are the first two of

equations (2) which lead to the following dual
integral equations
in which @, and a, are harmonic functions in
the layer, 0 s z s h, and G is the elastic
shear modulus. I 0a C(A)J,(Ar) dA = 0
Normal and tangential stress components (r > a) (9)
are given in terms of the displacement
potentials as a C(A)M(A)J,,(Ar) dA-- &""--"WI
I0
(r< a), (10)
! P
and

R +

20
The harmonic functions in equations (4) and h
___-_
__Y
__
(5) are written in the form f--

a+,= _fa
[A(h)shh(h-z) 8

+B(X)chh(h-z)]Jo(Ar) dh Fig. 2. Geometry for the spherical indenter.

*The assumptions of the theory used are given in detail in Timoshenko, S. P. and Goodier, J. N. Theory ofElm-
ricir~. 3rd ed.. McGraw Hill Book Company. 1970, pp. 409-413.
544 W. C. HAYES et al.

in which in which

1
1 (3 - 4v) shhhchhh - Ah
M(A) =5; (Ah)*+4(1-v)*+(3-4v)sh*Ah
and
and the function, C, is related to C by
F(x) =$(O)+x~f(XsinB) dB]
1
1 AhshAh + 2 ( 1 - v) chAh
=() =x E (Ah)2+4(1-v)2+(3-4v)sh2Ah

The objective of the analysis is to reduce
the dual integral equations (9) and (10) to
a form more amenable to numerical analysis.
First, the function C is written in the form
C(A) = AfO=v(t) cos Ardt,
which, when put into (9), automatically
satisfies that equation. Equation (10) is
treated by Grst isolating the half-space solution
in it as
The determination of cp(t) from (16) results
in a complete solution to the problem since
all coefficients A, B, C, and D are given in
terms of this auxiliary function by means of
(13).
(13) The distribution of normal stress beneath
the indenter may be given directly in terms
ofv(t) as

Integrating this expression over the area of

the contact region gives a relation for the
total applied force P,

P = 27r _/; p(t) dr. (20)

in which Equation (20) allows the determination of

By putting (13) into (14) and following the
standard reduction procedures given ~ by
Lebedev and Ufliand and later workers the
equations may be written as a Fredholm
integral equation of the second kind with
symmetric kernel:
the magnitude of the displacement of the
center of the indenter, oo, under the action of
a given load P. In the case of an indenter with
a non-plane base, the continuity condition on
normal stress in the plane z = 0 provides the
additional relation

Iom
q(a) = 0. (21)
cp(t)[H(t+x)+H(t-x)] dt
In this case, equations (20 and 21) are used
= F(x) (0 s x s a) (16) for the determination of the displacement w.
 A MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS 545

of the indenter and of the radius a of the Table 1. Values of K for the plane-ended cylindrical
contact region. indenter

a/h v=O.30 Y =0*35 Y = 040 v-O-45 Y = 0.50

Plane-ended cylindrical indenter
For the geometry shown in Fig. 1, q(r) = 0. 0.2 1.207 1,218 1.232 I.252 1.281
o-4 1.472 I.502 l-542 1.599 1,683
Introducing the dimensionless variables, O-6 l-784 l-839 1.917 2.031 2-211
0.8 2.124 2.211 2.337 2.532 2.855
1.0 2.480 2603 2.789 3.085 3609
1.5 3-m 3.629 3-996 4-638 5.970
2.0 4-335 4.685 5.271 6.380 9.069
2.5 5.276 5.754 6.586 8.265 13.00
and CY
= Ah, equation ( 16) becomes 3-o 6-218 6.829 7-923 IO-26 17.86
3.5 7.160 7906 9.274 12.32 23.74
4-O 8.100 8.983 10.63 14.45 30.75
W(5) = 5-O 9.976 11.13 13.35 18.80 48.47
6-O 11&I 13-27 16.07 23.23 71.75
1 -- l w~T)[K(T+ 0 + K(7- 01 dr, (23) 7.0
8-O
13.70
15.55
15.41
17.53
18.79
21.49
27.69
32.15
101.27
137.7
lr I 0
in which, from ( 15) and ( 17), used to calculate relationships between
the load P and the indenter displacement W,
K(u) = for an indenter of radius a on a layer of
(3-4u)shatP-[a(l+a)+$-l--v)21 thickness h, shear modulus G and Poissons
[(a)* +4(1 -v)] +(3 -4v)Stia ratio v.
X cos [a(a/h)ul da. (24) Spherical indent&
For the spherical indenter geometry of
Numerical methods are used for the solution Fig. 2, the function %(T) = 1212R, in which
of the integral equation (23) with the sym- R is the radius of the indenter. Introducing
metric kernel given by (24). At a given value the dimensionless variables of (22), the
of the parameters a/h and u, the function integral equation ( 16) becomes
K(U) is calculated in the interval 0 c u =S2.
The integral in (23) is then replaced by its
approximation obtained from the trapezoidal
integration formula. The determination of the
function w (7) is thus reduced to the solution +K(r--_5)] d+& (26)
of a system of linear algebraic equations
(Kopal, 1955). The relation between the
applied force, P, and the displacement, oo, in which K(u) is defined as in (24). The
is found from (20) and assumes the dimension- unknown function w (5) may be written
less form
o(S) = 0, (5) +&w?(I). (27)
(25)
*
in which ~~(5) is the solution to (23) and
Numerical values for o,(7) thus allow com- w2(5) satisfies
pUmiOn Of K at gk%I VdUeS Ofthe parameters
a/h and v. Values of K for a range of a/h are W?(5) =
given in Table 1 for 1= 0.30, 0.35, 0.40.
-ri+; i w~(~)[K(~+[)+ZC(T--~)] d7. (28)
O-45 and 0.50. These K values may be I,
546 W. C. HAYES et al.
Using (27) the integral equation (26) is satis- S
tied identically. The solution for the spherical
indenter geometry thus reduces to the deter-
mination of the function or(e) satisfying (28)
with symmetric kernel as given by equation
(24). Numerical techniques outlined for the
case of the cylindrical indenter are used to
solve equation (28). The continuity condition,
o(l)=O,onnormalstressattheboundaryof
the contact region allows solution for the
dimensionless parameter
= bJ _-w(l)
x 06R wz(l) (3)
which relates the displacement % to the radius
of the contact region. With x determined,
the relation between the displacement, 00,
and the load, P, is given from (20)
K = w 0
f0 O(T) dT. (30)
Values of x and K for a range of a/h are given
in Table 2 for Y= 0.30, 0.35, 0.40, 0.45,
and O-50. These values of x and K may be
used to calculate relationships between the
load P and the indenter displacement o. and
contact region radius Q for an indenter of rad-
ius R on a layer of thickness h, shear modulus
G, and Poissons ratio Y.
RICSULTS
The present theory is a linear theory. As a
result, the predicted indentation by a plane-
ended indenter, with its fixed contact area,
is directly proportional to the load. Because
of the iinite extent of the load applicator,
however, the indentation for a given applied
normal traction depends on the area aspect
ratio, u/h. The ratio (wo/h)/(P/GuZ) is plotted
against a/h for five values of Poissons ratio
in Figs. 3 and 4. The amount of indentation
for any given applied normal stress depends,
quite markedly, on a/h for u/h values less than
unity. Fig. 3 shows the indentation depend-
ence on u/h and shows the approach to
O.Io
Area Aspect Ratio, u/h
Fig. 3. Nondimensional indentation of the plane-ended
cylindrical indenter for a large mnge of area-aspect ratio.
limiting values as u/h becomes large. For
indenters large compared to the layer thick-
ness, the edge effects are negligible and the
problem is merely the compression of a thin
layer by a wide plate. Fig. 4 shows details of
the behavior for 0 < u/h < 1, the useful
practical range for indentation tests.
Unlike the flat indenter, the contact area
for the spherical indenter depends on the
load. Thus, the indentation of a spherical
indenter is not linearly proportional to load.
Figure 5 shows the relative approach, oo/h,
of spherical indenters as a function of a load
factor PIGRP. The effect of Poissons ratio is
shown for an indenter with R/h = 10. The
effect of relative indenter curvature, R/h,
is shown for v = 0.45. The results indicate,
among other things, that the indentation for
any particular load is less when applied with
a large radius indenter than when applied
with a small radius indenter.
For the spherical indenter, calculations
were made of stresses at the interface between
the elastic layer and the rigid half space,
z = h, and radial displacements at the surface,
z = 0. The nondimensional normal stress,
a,,/G, at the interface, z = h, is plotted as a
function of the nondimensional radial co-
ordinate, r/u, in Fig. 6 for v = O-45. As
expected, the normal stress reaches a maxi-
mum at the axis of symmetry and diminishes
asymptotically to zero outside the contact
 A MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS 547

0.06

Area Aspect Ratio,o/h

Fig. 4. Nondimensional indentation of a plane-ended
cylindrical indenter for area-aspect ratios between zero
and unity.

I The nondimensional shear stress, a,/G,

at the interface, I = h, is plotted as a function
of r/a in Fig. 7. As required by symmetry.
the shear stress vanishes at r/a = 0. The shear
stress reaches a maximum near the radius of
the contact region and then diminishes to zero
outside the region. Shear stress at this inter-
face is a feature of the present solution that
is different than the Lebedev and Ufliand
(1958) solution. They assumed no shearing
stresses at the interface. As with normal
stress, shear stress increases with decreasing
Rlh and with increasing alh.
Load Factor, F/GR The nondimensional radial displacement,
Fig. 5. Relative approach as a function of load factor for u,lh, at the surface, z = 0, is plotted as a
the spherical indenter. function of r/a in Fig. 8. For given values of
Poissons ratio and area-aspect ratio, the
region. For given values of Poissons ratio solution predicts negative displacements
and area aspect ratio, the normal stress at the within most of the contact region and positive
interface increases with decreasing R/h ratio. displacements outside the contact region.
Increasing a/h, while maintaining R/h fixed, At large radial distances the displacements
markedly increases the maximum normal diminish asymptotically to zero. These
stress at the interface. displacements increase with decreasing R/h
548 W. C. HAYES et al.

Table 2. Values of K and x for the spherical indenter

Y = o-30 Y = o-35 v=o*40 Y= 0.45 v=o*SO

a/h K X K X K X K X K X

O-04. 04809 1.024 O-6816 1.025 O-6826 1.026 0.6838 1.028 o-6855 l-031
O-06 06891 1.036 O-6902 1.038 0.6917 l-040 0.6936 l-043 O-6963 1.047
048 0-6975 l-049 04990 1.051 0.7010 1*OS4 0.7037 1.058 o-7073 1.063
0.1 o-7061 1.061 o-7080 l-064 0*7106 l-068 0.7140 1.073 0.7187 1*080
o-2 O-7520 l-126 o-7564 1.133 O-7622 1,141 o-770 1 1.152 0.7810 1.167
0.3 0*8031 1.192 O-8105 l-202 O-8204 1.215 0.8339 1.233 0.8530 1.258
o-4 O-8594 1.256 O-8705 1.270 o-8854 1.288 0+060 1.312 o-9355 l-348
O-5 0.9209 1.317 o-9363 1.333 0.9572 1.356 o-9866 1.388 1.ow 1.435
O-6 O-9872 l-372 l-008 l-392 1a036 1.419 I.076 l-458 1.135 1.516
0.7 l-058 1.422 1.084 I.445 l-121 l-477 l-173 1.522 1.252 1.592
0.8 1.133 1467 l-165 1.492 1.211 1.528 1.278 1.580 1.381 1.662
0.9 l-210 l-507 1.250 l-534 1.307 1a573 1.390 1.632 I.522 1.725
1-O l-291 1.542 l-339 l-571 1407 1.614 1.509 1a678 1a674 I.784
1.25 l-503 l-613 l-571 1.646 l-673 1.696 l-831 1.775 2*102 I.911
1.50 l-723 1667 1.816 i-702 l-957 l-757 2.184 1.849 2.597 2.017
1.75 1.949 l-708 2-069 I.745 2.254 1*&x05 2.564 l-907 3.161 2.109
2.00 2.179 l-740 2.327 1,778 2.561 1.841 2.967 l-954 3.797 2.189
2.25 2,412 1.766 2.589 l-805 2.877 l-871 3.391 1.992 4.507 2.260
2.50 2647 1.788 2.855 1.826 3.199 l-894 3.834 2.023 5.2% 2.325
2.75 2.883 1.805 3.124 1.844 3.527 l-913 4.294 2.047 6.169 2.384
3GO 3.121 1.820 3.394 l-858 3.860 l-928 4.770 2.068 7.130 2.438

ratio.Radial strainsat the. cartilage surface asymptotic deformation. Both applications

may be predicted from the results shown in
Fig. 8 by differentiation. The solution shows
compressive strains within the center portion
of the contact region, tensile strains in the
remaining part of the contact region and the
near part of the outside region, and com-
pressive strains at further radial distances.
This result is qualitatively similar to the
predictions of the Hertz theory for indentation
of an elastic half-space by a rigid spherical
indenter.
DISCUSSION
Articular cartilage is a viscoelastic material
and any dynamic analysis must treat it as-such.
Nevertheless, the present theory, which
assumes the material is elastic, is useful in
two limiting cases. Creep tests of cartilage
indicate an instantaneous elastic response
followed by creep over several minutes to
an asymptotic deformation. The present
elastic theory for indenter-loaded layers may
be useful in predicting the instantaneous
response to a step load and in predicting the
should be, of course, conflned to small loads
to stay within the limits of the small-strain
assumption.
The present theory may be qualitatively
compared with some of the previously re-
ported results of indentation tests of cartilage.
For example, Elmore ,ef al. ( 1963) applied
constant unit loads of I.37 X lo6 dynes/cm2
to bovine patellar cartilage using circular-
plane indenters of various diameters. Inden-
tations were measured 18 minutes after
application of the load, i.e. after most of the
creep should have occurred. They observed
larger indentations with the larger diameter
indenters. Unfortunately, they did not report
the cartilage layer thickness and the values
of a/h cannot be computed. Their indenters
had radii ranging from 0.565-1.382 mm. In all
probability the cartilage would have been
2 mm or more thick and their a/h values would
all have been less than unity. As shown in
Figs. 3 and 4, the larger indenters should have
produced the larger indentations. This effect
is relevant to the interpretation of previous
 A MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS 549

0.00

:: -a05
b Q

Fig. 7. Nondimensional shear stress at the interface,

z = h, for the spherical indenter.
.,

0.003
-0.10

J
Fig. 6 Nondimensional normal stress at the interface,
- = h, for the spherical indenter.
. o.cQ2

indentation tests that, by assuming a uniaxial

stress field beneath the indenter, neglected
this relationship between area aspect ratio and P
relative indentation. - 0.001
SC4
Hirsch (1944), in an early study, applied
step loads and measured the initial indentation
of cartilage of the tibia1 plateau. Using a
plane-ended indenter, he measured the
.ooo -1
initial deformation of a I.9 mm thick layer of
cartilage for three different step loads.
According to the present theory, the deforma-
tions with a plane-ended indenter should have
been linearly prooortional to the load. Hirsch - 0.w 1 1
did not observe deformations proportional Fig. 8. Nondimensional radial displacement at the
to load. His loads, however, caused indenter surface, ,- = 0, for the spherical indenter.
550 W. C. HAYES et al.
displacements that were 12, 16, and 2 1 per
cent of the cartilage thickness and theoretical-
experimental comparison is not justified.
These fmite displacements exceed the limits
of the theory and may exceed the linear range
for cartilage elasticity.
Using spherical indenters of 10 and 30 mm
radii, Hirsch measured the initial elastic
indentations at step loads of 490 X 10sdynes.
Larger indentations were noted with the
10 mm indenter. The curves of Fig 5 predict
that at a given value of the load, P, the
indentation will be larger for the indenter of
smaller radius. Also, using a 30 mm radius
spherical indenter Hirsch measured the
indentation for six levels of load.
Unfortunately, quantitative comparisons
between the present theory and the measure-
ments of Elmore et al. (1963) and of Hirsch
(1944) are not possible. The shear modulus,
Poissons ratio, and thickness of the cartilage
tested are required for a quantitative com-
parison. The material pmperties are not
known for either experimental study and
Elmore et al. did not report cartilage layer
thickness. All these quantities would have to
be measured independently if a definitive com-
parison is to be made. A previous study
(Hayes and Mockross 1971),however, showed
that for the initial elastic response in a creep
test the shear modulus and Poissons ratio
were 4.1 X 10 dynes/cm* and O-42,respective-
ly, for healthy cartilage and 5.8 x IO*dyn/
cm* and O-39, respectively, for somewhat
degenerated cartilage. Selecting values for
the material constants somewhere in this
range gives good quantitative agreement
between the present theory and the tests of
Hirsch. In as much as the material properties
in this comparison were simply chosen to
give a good fit (i.e. not independently deter-
mined), the agreement must be considered
subjective. Nevertheless, this preliminary
comparison is interesting.
If, indeed, the theory is verified with tests
that include an independent measure of the
cartilage material properties, the indenter
solution may provide a theoretical basis for
a quantitative determination of the elastic
shear modulus of cartilage in situ. The earlier
study (Hayes and Mockross 1971) indicates
a strong dependence of shear modulus,
measured at low loads, on the degree of
osteoarthritic degeneration. The measured
values of Poissons ratio, on the other hand,
indicate a fairly narrow range. Thus, the
results of an indenter test and an assumed
value for Poissons ratio could be used with
theory to estimate the elastic shear modulus
and, consequently, the degenerative condition
of the in situ cartihge.
The spherical indenter solution reported
here may also be examined as a preliminary
model for loading in normal and artificial
synovial joints. To do so, it is important to
compare the assumptions upon which the
analysis is based with the characteristics of
the biological tissues involved. The assump
tion of the rigidity of the supporting half-space
is. not overly restrictive considering experi-
mental data for the elastic modulii of cartilage
and of cortical and cancellous bone. Such
an assumption, however, precludes investi-
gating the stress field in the subchondral
region, an investigation of interest in a
theoretical analysis of the subchondral and
marginal changes occurring in osteoarthritis.
The assumption of the elasticity of the
cartilage also precludes investigation of its
viscoelastic response but again this is not
overly restrictive under short term loading
conditions as in normal gait. The assumption
of the rigidity of the indenter is a more serious
restriction, since, in such a case, all deforma-
tions are assumed to occur in the layer. In the
normal joint, both contacting condyles display
the layered geometry and deformations in
the contact region are shared. The rigid
indenter assumption results in sufficiently
large normalized indentations at low values
of joint normal force to violate the small
displacement requirements of a linear theory.
Results for the stress and displacement fields
are thus only valid for joint forces on the order
 A MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS 551

of 10 kponds. Therefore, although the articular cartilage from indentation tests on the human
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the viscoelastic characteristics of the articular animal joints. Weor 5, l-17.
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Acknowledgment-W. C. Hayes was supported during Proc. 25,1089-1095.
this investigation by Training Grant GM 00874 from the Sokoloff, L. (1969) The Biology of Degenerative Joint
National Institutes of Health. Disease, 162 pp., University of Chicago Press,
Chicago.
Timoshenko, S. P. and Goodier, J. N. (1970) Theory of
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