Institute Of Science
Std-XI Biology paper I - Botany
Chapter no - 5. MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS
Morphology - The branch of botany which deals with the
study of external appearance of plant body is called plant
morphology
The plants producing flower, seed and fruit are called
Angiosperms. The angiospermic plant body consists of
vegetative and reproductive parts. Root, stem and leaves
are the vegetative parts of the plant body and flower,
seed and fruits are the reproductive parts of the plant
body.
Parts of an Angiospermic plant
1] An Angiospermic plant consist of a long cylindrical
central axis called plant axis
2] It may be branched or unbranched
3] Plant axis has two parts, underground and above the
ground aerial
4] Underground parts form root system and aerial parts form
the shoot system
5] The root system is homogenous and consists of main root
and its lateral branches
6] Shoot system is heterogenous and consists of stem and its
branches, leaves, flowers and fruits
7] Vegetative parts The parts of plant body mainly
concerned with vital functions like nutrition and growth
are called vegetative parts. Thus root, stem, leaves are the
vegetative parts of a plant
8] Floral or reproductive parts The parts of plant body
concerned with sexual reproduction are called the floral or
reproductive parts. Thus flowers, fruits and seeds are the
reproductive parts of the plants
Root Root is the underground, descending part of a
plant body which develops from the radicle of embryo
1] It is the descending, underground, non-green part of a
plant body
2] It is positively geotropic and hydrotropic and negatively
phototropic
3] It does not consist of nodes and internodes
4] It does not bear leaves and fruits
Types of root system The root system found in plants
are of two different types.
Tap root system Adventitious root system
1] Tap root system The root system which develops from
the radicle of embryo and forms primary, secondary and
tertiary branches is called tap root system.
1] The radicle of embryo grows continuously deep in the soil
and forms the main root called primary root
2] The primary root produces lateral branches in acropetal
succession
3] The lateral branches produced from primary root are
called as secondary roots
4] This type of root system is found in dicots and
gymnosperms
2] Adventitious root system The roots which develop
from any other part of a plant other than radicle is
known as adventitious root system.
Regions of root - In both types of root system i.e. tap root
system and adventitious root system the following regions
are observed.
Regions of root
a] Growing region
1] This is situated at the tip of the root
2] It is made up of meristematic tissue which constantly
divide to produce new cells
3] This part is very delicate and requires to be protected
from mechanical injury during penetration of the root into
the rough soil
4] Hence the growing tip is covered by a cap like structure
called root cap
5] In hydrophytes there is presence of root pocket
b] Region of elongation
1] It is present just above the growing region
2] In this region the newly formed cells do not divide
3] The cells of this region are elongated
4] This region is responsible to increase the length of root
c] Region of absorption
1] It lies above the elongation region
2] It consist of hair like outgrowth arising from the surface
of the root
3] These hair like delicate outgrowth are known as root hairs
4] The root hairs absorbs water and minerals from the soil
d] Region of maturation
1] It is the last region of root
2] Internally this region shows mature cells which have got
permanent shape, size, structure and function
3] The main function of this region is conduction of
absorbed water and minerals
Modifications of root In many plants roots perform a
specialized function other than the normal function, root
change their shape, size, structure to perform specific
functions such a changes are called modifications of root.
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A] Modifications of tap root -
1] Modification for food storage
All such roots are tap root and are fleshy in
nature.
Conical root Napiform root Fusiform root
a] Conical root It is modified tap root for storage of food,
perennation and vegetative propagation. The upper part is
a broad and lower part is tapering. E.g. Carrot (Daucus
carota)
b] Napiform root It is modified for the storage of food
perennation and vegetative propagation. The upper part
becomes more spherical with thin thread like lower part.
E.g. Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris)
c] Fusiform root It is modified for storage of food
perennation and vegetative propagation. It is swollen in
the middle and tapering towards both the ends which
resembles just like a spindle E.g. Radish
2] Pneumatophores (For respiration)
Respiratory roots (Pneumatophores)
1] It is the modification of root for respiration
2] These roots are called respiratory roots
3] Pneumatophores are modified tap roots for breathing or
respiration
4] These roots develop in marshy place, salty water lodged
soils
5] The underground root of mangroves gives out special type
of root which comes above water lodged soil and is cone
like in structure is called as Pneumatophores
6] All along the surface of Pneumatophores many pores are
present called as lenticels
7] The lenticels help in absorption of oxygen for the process
of respiration
B] Modifications of adventitious roots
1] For food storage
a] Simple tuberous root These roots arise from the nodes
of stem and enter in the soil. They are always borne singly
become swollen and do not assume a definite shape. Eg.
Sweet potato (Ipomea batatas)
b] Fasciculated tuberous root It is a cluster of
adventitious root which becomes thick and fleshy due to
storage of food present at the base of stem. Eg. Dahlia
and Asparagus
2] For mechanical support
a] Prop roots
1] It arises from the horizontal branches of trees
2] They grow vertically downwards till they penetrate the
soil
3] They show secondary growth so they become thick and
act like pillars to provide mechanical support
4] They give extra support to the heavy branches
Eg. Banyan tree
b] Stilt roots
Stilt roots (Jowar)
1] It is modification for additional support
2] These roots grow obliquely down towards the soil
3] Mostly they remain unbranched above the soil surface,
but branches are produced on reaching the soil
4] In jowar, maize these stilt roots are produced from the
basal nodal region of the stem and penetrate the soil
5] They give the additional support to the jowar and maize
plant
6] They prevent the plant from falling down on the ground
surface
E.g. Maize, Jowar
c] Climbing roots
Climbing roots
They are produced from the nodes of stem by means
of which the plants attach themselves to some support and
climb. Eg. Money plant, kali mirch, Pan, etc
3] For special functions -
a] Epiphytic roots
Epiphytic root (Orchid Vanda)
1] It is modification for aerial absorption
2] Vanda is an epiphytic plant, this plant grows on the other
green host plant only to take support not to absorb the
food material from them
3] The epiphytic plant has two types of modified roots i.e.
clinging root and aerial root
4] The clinging root is present in the crevices of the bark of
stem or branch of the host which fixes the epiphytic plant
5] Aerial root is elongated, white silvery in colour which is
covered with a special spongy tissue called velamen
cells
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6] These velamen cells absorbs moisture, rain water directly
from the atmosphere and supply to the epiphytic plant
7] Epiphytic plants are green photosynthetic plants so they
can prepare their own food material
b] Haustoria
Parasitic root (Cuscuta)
1] It is a modification for nutrition
2] Haustoria are modified adventitious roots for the
absorption of food form the host
3] For e.g. Cascuta is a total stem parasite, it is golden
yellow in colour and leafless
4] It produces special button shaped parasitic roots or
haustoria which penetrate in the stem of green host
5] They absorb the water, minerals and organic food from
the host plant
E.g. Cascuta
Stem Stem is the ascending axis of the plant body that
develops from the plumule of the embryo
Parts of stem
1] It is positively phototropic and negatively hydrotropic and
geotropic
2] It produces leaves and flowers
3] Young and herbaceous stem is green in colour and
becomes woody due to increase in thickness
4] It consist of nodes and internodes
5] Node is a point from where leaf arises and internode is a
distance between two successive nodes
6] The leaf makes an angle with the stem, called as axil
7] Stem is cylindrical but it may be triangular, flat, and
squarish in outline
8] The surface of stem is smooth, glabrous or hairy
9] Stem may be branched or unbranched
Functions of stem
1] It produces and supports its own branches and leaves
2] It exposes leaves in proper way to receive maximum
sunlight for photosynthesis
3] Stem and its branches conduct water and minerals from
root to leaves
4] It conducts organic food from leaves to other parts of the
plant body
5] When young and green it carries out photosynthesis
Modification of stem
Depending upon the position of stem the
modifications are classified as underground, sub-aerial or
aerial modifications of stem
A] Underground modifications of stem
1] Rhizome
1] Rhizome is an underground modification of the stem for
storage
2] The rhizome is horizontal, thick, fleshy and non-green
3] It consist of nodes and internodes
4] It bears terminal and axillary buds
5] It bears scale leaves and adventitious roots at the nodes
6] It produces aerial shoots in growing season every year
7] It stores food material. E.g. Ginger
2] Tuber
Stem tuber (Potato)
1] Tuber is an underground modification of stem for storage
2] Potato tuber represents the swollen end of an underground
branch which develops in the axile of a scale leaf
3] Tuber consist of nodes and internodes
4] The eyes are present at the nodes
5] Each eye represents a scale leaf with an axillary bud
6] Eyes germinate to produce aerial shoots in growing
season
7] Potato tubers stores abundant food in the form of starch
E.g. Potato
3] Bulb
Bulb of onion
1] It is condensed, disc like underground stem
2] The upper surface of disc like stem is slightly conical and
bears centrally placed apical buds
3] It also consist of concentrically arranged, overlapping
scale leaves
4] The inner scale leaves or leaf bases store food and are
thick and fleshy while outer few scaly leaves remain thin
and dry and are protective in functions
5] The lower surface produces adventitious roots
6] Such stem with compactly arranged fleshy leaver above
and fibrous roots below is called bulb
7] The bulb in which the scale leaves surround apical bud in
the form of concentric rings is called tunicated bulb. Eg.
Onion
8] The bulb in which the scale leaves partially overlap each
other by their margins only, such bulbs are called as scaly
bulbs. Eg. Garlic
4] Corm
Corm of Colocasia
1] It is short, stout, fleshy, upright and thickened vertically
growing underground stem
2] It bears many buds in the axils of scale leaves which
develop into daughter corms
3] It produces adventitious roots from base and even from
sides
Eg. Colocasia, Amorphophallus, etc
B] Sub-aerial modifications of stem -
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1] Runner
Runner of Cyanodon
1] It is a sub-aerial modification of stem for vegetative
propagation
2] It runs along the ground and spreads in different
directions
3] Runner has a long slender internodes and distinct nodes
4] It produces adventitious roots and aerial buds at each
node
5] As the slender internodes break off plants at the nodes
become independent
6] Thus the runners help to increase the no. of plants by
vegetative propagation
E.g. Oxalis
2] Stolon
Stolon
It is a lateral branch which arises from the base of
main axis. Initially it grows in upward direction like an
ordinary branch and then bends down and touches the soil
where its terminal bud gives rise to a new shoot and
adventitious roots. Eg. Jasmine, Mentha, Strawberry
and Colocasia
3] Offset
Offset of Eichhornia (Water Hyacinth)
It is commonly called as runner of aquatic plants. It is
shorter and thicker than runner which helps in vegetative
propagation. Eg. Eichhornia and Pistia
4] Sucker
Sucker of Chrysanthemum
1] It is a sub-aerial modification of stem
2] It is prostate weak stem or creeper
3] It is a runner like non-green branch
4] It develops from axile of scale leaf i.e. from the axillary
bud of underground part of stem
5] It is thus a lateral branch arising from nodes of
underground part of stem
6] It grows horizontally below the soil for some distance and
comes above the soil obliquely and produces green leaves
to form shoot
7] The sucker therefore called underground runner
8] Sucker is more short and stouter than runner and stolon
9] The sucker develops roots at the base from its nodes
C] Aerial modifications of stem -
1] Stem tendril
Stem tendril
1] It is an aerial modification of stem for climbing
2] In passion flower axillary bud is modified into tendril
3] The tendril is a leafless, wiry, long and highly sensitive
organ
4] The tendril is the modification of axillary or apical bud
5] The tendril coils around the support and help the plant in
climbing
E.g.- Passion flower
2] Thorn
Stem thorn
1] It is an aerial modification of the stem for protection and
climbing
2] In Bougainvillea axillary bud is modified into a hard, stiff
and pointed structure called as thorn
3] The thorn gives protection to the plant body
4] Thorn in Bougainvillea is curved like a hook
5] It also helps in climbing
E.g. Bougainvillea
3] Phylloclade
Phylloclade (Opuntia)
1] It is an aerial modification of the stem for photosynthesis
2] Opuntia is a xerophyte in which leaves are reduced into
spines to check the rate of transpiration
3] The stem is modified into green, flat, leaf like structure
called phylloclade
4] It helps in photosynthesis
5] It consist of nodes and internodes and bears spiny leaves
at the nodes
E.g. - Opuntia
4] Cladode
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 These are the branches of limited growth which
perform photosynthesis. The true leaves are reduced to
scales or spines. Eg. Asparagus
5] Bulbils
Bulbils
When the axillary bud becomes fleshy and rounded
due to storage of food is called bulbil. It detaches from the
plant, falls on ground and develops into a new plant. Eg.
Dioscorea
Leaf The leaf is the lateral, flat, expanded organ, green
in colour borne at the node of stem
Typical structure of leaf
1] It is flat, expanded and green structure
2] It arises from the nodes of the stem
3] It makes an angle with the stem called axile
4] It may or may not consist of stalk
A typical leaf shows following parts
Structure of a typical leaf
A] Leaf base (Hypopodium)
1] It is a part by which leaf remains attached to the stem
2] In grasses the leaf base forms a sheath around the stem
called sheathing leaf base
3] In mango the leaf base is swollen called pulvinous
B] Stipules
1] It is an outgrowth which arises from the base of the leaf
2] The leaf with stipule is called stipulate leaf e.g. Hibiscus
(China rose)
3] The leaf without stipule is called as ex-stipulate leaf e.g.
Sunflower
4] The stipules protect the axillary bud
C] Petiole (Mesopodium)
1] It is the stalk of the leaf
2] It holds leaf in proper position
3] It transfers water and minerals from stem to leaf lamina
4] It transfers food from leaf lamina to the stem
5] The leaf with petiole is called petiolate leaf e.g. Hibiscus
6] The leaf without petiole is called sessile leaf
D] Lamina (Epipodium)
1] It is flat, expanded portion of leaf which is green in colour
2] It is chordate, lanceolate or ovate in shape
3] The boundary of leaf lamina is called margin
4] The margin may be smooth or serrate
5] The surface of the lamina may be smooth or hairy
6] The point where the two margins meet is called as leaf
apex
7] The leaf apex may be acute or obtuse
Functions of leaf
1] They carry out the process of photosynthesis in presence
of light
2] They carry out the process of transpiration in which the
water is lost in the form of vapours
3] They carry out the process of respiration through stomata
Types of leaves
Depending upon the nature of leaf lamina,
the leaves are classified into two types
1] Simple leaves When the leaf lamina is entire the leaf is
called as simple leaf E.g. Mango
2] Compound leaves If the leaf lamina is dissected into
pieces, the leaf is called as compound leaf. The dissected
pieces are called as leaflets or pinnae E.g. Rose,
Mimosa pudica
Phyllotaxy of leaves
The manner of arrangement of leaves on the
stem is called as phyllotaxy of leaves.
The phyllotaxy is of three different types
1] Alternate / spiral phyllotaxy
2] Opposite phyllotaxy
a] Opposite superposed phyllotaxy
b] Opposite decussate phyllotaxy
3] Whorled phyllotaxy
1] Alternate phyllotaxy Each node produces single leaf
and the leaves of successive nodes alternate with each
other such type of phyllotaxy is called alternate
phyllotaxy or spiral phyllotaxy.
Eg. China rose (Hibiscus rosasinensis)
2] Opposite phyllotaxy Each node produces two leaves
and the leaves are opposite to each other is called opposite
phyllotaxy.
The opposite phyllotaxy is of two different
types
a] Opposite superposed phyllotaxy - Each node produces
two leaves which are opposite to each other and the leaves
of successive nodes are in same vertical line is called
opposite superposed phyllotaxy
Eg. Guava or Rangoon creepers
b] Opposite decussate phyllotaxy - Each node produces
two leaves, the leaves of successive nodes are right angle
to each other is called opposite decussate phyllotaxy.
Eg. Euphorbia
3] Whorled phyllotaxy Each node consists of more than
two leaves which forms a cluster at the node is called
whorled phyllotaxy.
Eg. Nerium
Venation of leaf
The mode of arrangement of veins and
veinlets on the lamina of the leaf is called as venation
The leaf lamina consist of prominent midrib
which produces lateral veins, the lateral veins give rise to
minor veinlets
Types of venation On the basis of arrangement of
veins and veinlets on the leaf lamina the venation is
of two different types
1] Reticulate venation
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 It is a type of venation in which veins and
veinlets form a network or reticulum on the leaf lamina.
This type of venation is characteristic of dicot leaf.
The reticulate venation is of two different
types
A] Reticulate unicostate venation When there is only one
vein or costa running from base to apex of leaf lamina
then it is called as reticulate unicostate venation.
B] Reticualte multicostate venation When many veins or
costa run from base to apex of leaf lamina then it is called
as reticulate multicostate venation.
These veins may converge or diverge at the
apex of leaf lamina
2] Parallel venation
It is a type of venation in which the veins
and veinlets run parallel to each other all along the leaf
lamina. This type of venation is characteristic of monocot
leaf.
e.g. Grasses
The parallel venation is of two
different types
A] Parallel unicostate venation When there is only one
vein or costa running from base to apex of leaf lamina
then it is called as reticulate unicostate venation.
B] Parallel multicostate venation When many veins or
costa run from base to apex of leaf lamina then it is called
as reticulate multicostate venation.
These veins may converge or diverge at the
apex of leaf lamina
Modifications of leaf
The change in the structure of leaf to
perform some additional functions is called as
modification of leaf
1] Leaf tendril It is the modification of leaf for support.
The various parts of leaf form tendril for the purpose of
climbing
a] Stipule tendril Stipules get modified into tendril, e.g. 2]
Smilax
b] Petiole tendril Petiole gets modified into tendril, e.g. 2]
Clematis
c] Leaf apex tendril The leaf apex gets modified into
tendril, e.g. Gloriosa
d] Leaflet tendril Terminal leaflets get modified into
tendril, e.g. Pea
2] Spiny stipules
Spiny stipule
1] It is the modification of leaf for protection
2] The stipules of leaf are modified into spines
3] These spines are hard, woody, pointed and curved
4] These spines can be seen on lateral side near the base of
the leaf. E.g. Zizyphus
3] Hooks
Leaf hooks
1] It is the modification of leaf for climbing
2] Hook is a stiff clawed structure
3] In Bignonia the third leaflet gets modified into hook
4] The hook is used for the purpose of climbing
4] Leaf spines
Leaf spines
1] The modification of leaves into spines is the characteristic
feature of xerophytic plant
2] It is the modification to reduce the rate of transpiration
3] These spines also protects the plants against grazing of
animals
4] As the leaves are reduced into spines the stem is modified
to carry out photosynthesis. E.g. Opuntia
Inflorescence The mode of arrangement of flowers on a
specialized axis is called inflorescence OR The axis
bearing a natural cluster of flowers is called inflorescence
Parts of a typical inflorescence
A typical inflorescence consist of following
parts
1] Peduncle
1] It is the axis of inflorescence
2] It may be elongated, shortened or disc shaped (flattened)
3] It bears flowers in specific manner
4] It may be branched or unbranched
Flowers
1] One to many flowers are present on peduncle
The flowers may be pediciallte or sessile
3] The flowers may be bractiate or ebractiate
Types of inflorescence - There are two main types of
inflorescence i.e. Racemose and Cymose inflorescence
Racemose inflorescence Cymose inflorescence
1] Racemose inflorescence
1] The growth of peduncle is continous or indefinite or
unlimited
2] The tip of peduncle does not bears flower
3] The flowers are laterally produced on the peduncle
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4] The flowers are produced in acropetal sucession i.e. from
base to apex
5] When the peduncle is disc shaped or flattened the flowers
are produced in centripetal manner i.e. older flowers
towards periphery and younger flowers in the centre
E.g. Mustard, Goldmohar, etc
2] Cymose inflorescence
1] The growth of peduncle is limited or definite
2] The tip of peduncle is utilized in formation of flower
3] The flowers are produced in basipetal sucession i.e. older
flower at the tip and younger flowers towards the base
4] The opening of flower is in centrifugal manner i.e. centre
to periphery
E.g. Jasmine
Importance of inflorescence
1] Inflorescence is more conspicuous and attractive than
single flower
2] It attracts insects for pollination
3] The insect can pollinate many flowers in a single visit
4] There is a continous chance of pollination
Flower Flower is a highly modified and condensed
shoot specially developed for the purpose of sexual
reproduction.
Structure of a typical flower
On the basis of their function in sexual
reproduction they are classified into two different types
a] Accessory whorls The floral whorls which are not
directly involved in sexual reproduction are called
accessory whorls. E.g. Calyx and Corolla
b] Essential whorls The floral whorls which are directly
involved in sexual reproduction are called essential
whorls. E.g. Androecium and Gynoecium
1] Calyx
1] It is the first whorl of the flower
2] It is an accessory whorl
3] The unit of calyx is called sepal
4] The sepals may be free or fused
5] If the sepals are free the calyx is called as polysepalous
6] If the sepals are fused the calyx is called as
gamosepalous
7] It is green in colour
Function
1] It gives protection to inner floral whorls
2] It carries out photosynthesis
2] Corolla
1] It is the second floral whorl of the flower
2] It is accessory whorl
3] The unit of corolla is called petal
4] They are large, bright coloured and fragrant
5] The petals may be free or fused
6] If the petals are free the corolla is called as polypetalous
7] If the petals are fused the corolla is called as
gamopetalous
Function
1] It protects the inner essential whorls
2] It attracts insects for cross pollination

3] Androecium
1] It is the third floral whorl
2] It is essential whorl
3] It is the male reproductive whorl
4] The unit of androecium is called as stamen
5] The stamens may be free or fused
6] If the stamens are free the condition is called as
polyandrous
7] If the stamens are fused the condition is called as
cohesion of stamens
8] Each stamen has two parts
a] The basal sterile stalk is called filament
b] The upper fertile sac like structure is called as anther
Function It produces pollen grains which later produce
male gametes

4] Gynoecium
1] It is the fourth floral whorl
A typical Angiospermic flower 2] It is essential whorl
3] It is the female reproductive organ
It is the most attractive and brightly 4] The unit of gynoecium is called as carpel
coloured part of the plant body which is produced singly 5] The carpels may be free or fused
or in inflorescence. It consist of three main parts 6] If the carpels are free the condition is called as
Pedicel, Thalamus and Floral whorls apocarpous
A] Pedicle 7] If the carpels are fused the condition is called as
1] It is the stalk of the flower syncarpous
2] It is cylindrical and variable in length 8] When carpel is single the flower is called as
3] The flower with pedicel is called pedicillate flower e.g. monocarpellary and when carpels are many the flower is
China-rose called as polycarpellary
4] The flower without pedicel is called sessile flower e.g. 9] A typical carpel consist of three parts
Sunflower a] The basal swollen ovary
FUNCTION b] The middle elongated, cylindrical style
1] It raises the floral whorls in air for pollination c] The upper expanded stigma
2] It conducts water and food material Function
1] It produces ovules which contain female gametes
B] Thalamus 2] After fertilization ovule forms seed and ovary forms fruit
1] It is the enlarged and condensed tip of pedicel
2] It consist of nodes and internodes Perianth When the calyx and corolla are not
FUNCTION It produces floral whorls from nodes differentiated from each other but together form one set of
whorl than it is called as perianth
C] Floral whorls 1] The unit of perianth is called as tepal
1] They are produced from the nodes of the thalamus 2] The tepals may be free or united
2] A typical flower consist of four floral whorls 3] If the tepals are free the perianth is called as polyphyllous
3] Their arrangement is specific calyx, corolla, androecium 4] If the tepals are fused the perianth is called as
and gynoecium gamophyllous
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5] If the perianth is green like calyx, it is called as sepaloid
perianth
6] If the perianth is brightly coloured, it is called as petaloid
perianth
7] It is a sterile accessory whorl found usually in monocot
flowers
Functions
1] It gives protection to inner essential whorls
2] The petaloid perianth attracts insects for pollination
Functions of flower
1] It carries out sexual reproduction
2] It bears stamens and carpels
3] Stamens produce pollen grain or microspore which form
male gametes
4] The carpels produce megaspores which forms female
gamete
5] After fertilization ovary forms fruit and ovule forms seed
6] They help in multiplication of plants by formation of
seeds
2] Axile When ovules are produced on the central axis of a
multilocular ovary it is known as axile placentation.
Eg. China rose
3] Parietal When ovules are borne on the inner wall of
unilocular ovary of multicarpellary syncarpous
gynoecium it is called as parietal placentation. Eg.
Papaya, Cucumber
4] Basal When a single ovule is borne at the base of an
unilocular ovary it is called as basal placentation
Eg. - Sunflower
Types of flower on the basis of arrangement of floral
whorls

Aestivation The mode of arrangement of sepals and

petals in a floral bud with respect to the
members of same whorl is called aestivation

The aestivation is of four main types 1] Hypogynous flower

1] Valvate When the margins of sepals or petals remain 1] Thalamus is prominent
either in contact or lie close to each other but do not 2] At the top of the thalamus ovary (Gynoecium) is present
overlap, the aestivation is called as valvate 3] The other floral whorls i.e. calyx, corolla and androecium
2] Twisted or Contorted In this type of aestivation one arises from the base of ovary
margin of each sepal or petal is directed inwards and is 4] Such a type of flower is called as hypogynous flower
overlapped while the other margin is directed outwards 5] The ovary is superior
and overlaps the margin of adjacent one E.g. China-rose
3] Imbricate It is the type of aestivation in which one of 2] Epigynous flower -
the sepal or petal is internal and is overlapped at both the 1] Thalamus is cup shaped
margins and one is external i.e. both of its margins 2] The thalamus is adanate to the ovary
overlap, rest of the sepals or petals have one inner or 3] Ovary is completely enclosed in the thalamus
overlapped margin and the other outer or overlapping 4] All other floral whorls i.e. calyx, corolla and androecium
margin arises from the top of the ovary
4] Vexillary In this type of aestivation corolla is butterfly 5] Such a type of flower is called as epigynous flower
shaped and consists of five petals. Among these the 6] The ovary is inferior
outermost is largest and known as standard or vexillum, E.g. Guava, Pome-granate
two lateral petals are known as wings and two smaller 3] Perigynous flower
nearly fused boat shaped petals are known as keel or 1] The thalamus is cup shaped
carina. The vexillum overlaps wings and the wings 2] Gynoecium arises from the thalamus cup
overlap the keel 3] Ovary is free from thalamus cup
4] All other floral whorls i.e. calyx, corolla and androecium
Placentation The mode of arrangement of ovules on the arises from half portion of the ovary
placenta within the ovary is known as placentation 5] Such a type of flower is called as perigynous flower
The placentation is of four different types 6] Ovary is half inferior and half superior

Terminology of flower

1] Complete flower The flower with all four floral whorls

1] Marginal When the ovules are borne at the fused
margins of unilocular ovary it is known as marginal
placentation. Eg. Pea, Bean, etc
is called complete flower E.g. China-rose, Datura
2] Incomplete flower The flower in which one or more
floral whorls are absent then it is called incomplete flower
E.g. Papaya
3] Bisexual flower The flower with both the essential
whorls (androecium and gynoecium) is called bisexual
flower E.g. China-rose
4] Unisexual flower The flower with only one essential
whorl is called unisexual flower. It may be male flower
(with androecium) or female flower (with gynoecium)
E.g. Maize, Papaya
5] Actinomorphic flower A flower which can be divided
in two equal halves in any median plane is called
actinomorphic flower E.g. China-rose
6] Zygomorphic flower A flower which cannot be divided
vertically into two equal halves in one median plane only
is called zygomorphic flower E.g. Datura

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Fruit The matured and ripened ovary is called as fruit.
Parts of a typical fruit A typical fruit has two parts
Pericarp and one or more seed
Parts of a typical fruit
A] Pericarp
1] The wall of the fruit is called pericarp
2] After fertilization the wall of the ovary undergoes
morphological and chemical changes and forms wall of
the fruit
3] At maturity it may be dry or fleshy
4] The dry pericarp may be papery, leathery or hard and
woody
5] The fleshy pericarp may be thin or thick. In some cases it
is differentiated into outer epicarp, middle mesocarp and
inner endocarp
B] Seed Pericarp encloses one to many seed which are
developed from ovule after fertilization. Seed consist of
seed coat, embryo (future plant) and stored food material.
The seed germinates to produce new plant.
Types of fruits
The fruits are classified into three main
types on the basis of nature of gynoecium from which
they grow i.e. Simple fruit, Aggregate fruit and
Composite fruit
1] Simple fruit It develops from a single ovary of a single
flower. This ovary is either monocarpellary or
polycarpellary syncarpous
Simple fruits are further classified as dry
fruits and fleshy fruits
a] Dry fruit The fruit in which the pericarp is dry is called
dry fruit. Dry fruits are further classified into two groups
1] Dehiscent fruits The fruits which break open naturally
to expose their seeds are called as dehiscent fruits
E.g. Mustard, Cotton, Ladys finger, etc
2] Indehiscent fruit The fruits which do not break open to
expose their seeds are called as indehiscent fruits
E.g. Sunflower, Maize, etc
b] Fleshy fruit The pericarp and other parts of the fruit
become fleshy
E.g. Mango, Tomato, etc
2] Aggregate fruit
Etaerio of berries
1] It develops from apocarpous gynoecium of a single flower
2] Each carpel is separate
3] Each ovary is developed into a separate fruitlet
4] All such fruitlet developed from a single flower remain
together forming a cluster
5] Such cluster of fruitlet is called Etaerio of berries or
aggregate fruit
E.g. Custard apple, Strawberry, etc
3] Composite fruit The fruit which develops from the
entire inflorescence is called as composite fruit
Composite or Multiple fruit
In this type of fruit the inflorescence axis,
bracts, ovaries all contribute in development of fruit
E.g. Pineapple, Jack fruit, etc
.
Seed The matured and fertilized ovule which consist of
embryo, stored food material and protective covering is
called seed
Types of seeds -
On the basis of presence or absence of
endosperm, the seeds are classified into two types
1] Non-endospermic or exalbuminous seed
2] Endospermic or albuminous seed
1] Non-endospermic OR Ex-albuminous seed The seed
in which endosperm is absent at maturity is called non-
endospermic seed. In this type of seed the endosperm is
completely utilized as food by the developing embryo
The endospermic seed consist of two parts
a] Seed coat
1] It is the outermost covering of seed
2] It is bilayered i.e. outer testa and inner tegmen
3] It protects the embryo from adverse climatic condition
and pathogens
b] Embryo The seed coat encloses embryo, which consist
of cotyledon and embryo axis
1] Cotyledon They are two (dicot embryo) which are
laterally attached to the embryo axis. They are large, thick
fleshy and store food material
2] Embryo axis It is an elongated axis which consist of
plumule and radicle. The plumule develops into shoot and
radicle develops into root
E.g. Pea, Bean, Gram, etc
2] Endospermic or albuminous seed The seed in which
endosperm is present at maturity is called as endospermic
seed. In this type of seed the endosperm is not completely
utilized as food by developing embryo, hence it remains
in the seed
E.g. Maize, Jowar, etc. (The maize grain is small one
seeded fruit called caryopsis)
Structure of maize grain
The maize grain consist of following parts
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a] Hull B] Family Solanaceae
1] It is the outermost covering of the grain
2] It is formed by the fusion of pericarp (fruit wall) and seed
coat
3] It enclosed embryo and endosperm which lie side by side

b] Endosperm
1] It is the bulk of tissue which encloses larger part of grain
2] It consist of outermost layer of protein called aleurone
layer
3] It stores food material in the form of starch

c] Embryo
It consist of single cotyledon called
scutellum and embryo axis
Scutellum Solanaceae is a large family commonly
1] It is large, thin membranous shield shaped called as potato family. Solanaceae is widely distributed
2] It lies between endosperm and embryo axis in tropics, subtropics and even temperate zones
3] Its outermost layer is in contact with endosperm called 1] Vegetative characters
epithelial layer Plants mostly herbs, shrubs and rarely small trees
4] It helps in absorption of food material from endosperm Stem stem of Solanaceae family is herbaceous, rarely
Embryo axis woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid or
1] It is embedded in the scutellum hollow, hairy or glabrous, underground stem in potato
2] It consist of radicle and plumule Leaves it has alternate, simple, rarely pinnately
3] The plumule is covered by a protective covering called compound, exstipulate, venation reticulate
coleoptile 2] Floral characters
4] The radicle is covered by a protective covering called Inflorescence solitary, axillary cymose as in Solanum
coleorrhiza Flower bisexual, actinomorphic
Calyx sepals five, united, persistent valvate aestivation
Plant families Corolla petals five, united, valvate aestivation
There are vast varieties of plant families, Androecium it has five stamens which are epipetalous
some important and common families are described Gynoecium bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior,
below bilocular, placenta swollen with many ovules, axile
placentation
A] Family Fabaceae Fruits berry or capsule
Seeds many, endospermic
3] Floral formula
4] Economic importance It is observed that many plants
belonging to this family are source of food (tomato,
brinjal, potato), spice (chilli), medicine (belladonna,
ashwagandha), ornamentals (Petunia)

C] Family Liliaceae

The family Fabaceae was earlier called

Papilionoideae, which is a subfamily of family
Leguminosae. It is distributed all over the world
1] Vegetative characters
Trees, shrubs, herbs, root with root nodules
Stem erect or climber
Leaves alternate, pinnately compound or simple, leaf
base, pulvinate, stipulate, venation reticulate Liliaceae is commonly called the lily
2] Floral characters family is a characteristic representative of
Inflorescence Racemose monocotyledonous plants. It is distributed world wide
Flower bisexual, Zygomorphic 1] Vegetative characters
Calyx sepals five, gamosepalous, aestivation imbricate It is perennial herbs with underground bulbs,
Corolla petals five, polypetalous, papilionaceous, corms and rhizomes
consisting of a posterior standard, two lateral wings, two Leaves alternate, mostly basal, linear, exstipulate with
anterior ones forming keel (enclosing stamens and pistil), parallel venation
aestivation Vexillary 2] Floral characters
Androecium stamens ten, diadelphous anther, dithecous Inflorescence solitary or cymose
Gynoecium ovary superior, monocarpellary, unilocular Flower bisexual, actinomorphic
with many ovules, placentation marginal, style single Perianth tepals six (3 + 3), often united into tube,
Fruit legume aestivation valvate
Seed one to many, non-endospermic Androecium stamens six (3 + 3)
3] Floral formula - % K(5) C 1+2+(2) A(9)+1 G1 Gynoecium tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior,
4] Economic importance trilocular with many ovules, axile placentation
1] It is observed that many plants belonging to the family Fruit capsule, rarely berry
Fabaceae are sources of pulses (gram, arhar, sem, moong, Seeds endospermic
soyabean) 3] Floral formula
2] Edible oil soyabean, groundnut 4] Economic importance It is observed that many plants
3] Dye (Indigofera) and fibres (sunhemp), fodder (Sesbania belonging to this family are good ornamentals (Tulip,
trifolium), ornamentals (lupin, sweet pea), medicine Gloriosa), source of medicine (Aloe), vegetables
(muliathi) (Asparagus) and colchicine (Colchicum autumnale)
Plant tissues -
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Tissue - A group of cells having a common origin and
performing a similar function or a set of similar functions
is defined as tissue
The plant body is composed of different
organs like root, stem, leaf and flower. Each organ is
made up of various types of plant tissues
Types of tissues The plant tissues are classified into two
different types i.e. Meristematic tissue and Permanent
tissue
1] Meristematic tissue A tissue which consist of dividing
cells or the cells having power of cell division is called
meristematic tissue
Characteristics of meristematic tissue
Meristematic tissue
1] The cells of meristematic tissue have ability to divide
2] The cells are small in size, isodiametric, oval or polygonal
in shape
3] The cells are compactly arranged without intercellular
spaces
4] The cells have thin and elastic cell walls made up of
cellulose
5] Each cell has prominent nucleus with dense cytoplasm
6] Vacuoles are either absent or are very small in size
7] The number of mitochondria is more so the rate of
respiration is very high
8] There is very little reserve food in the cells
Classification of meristems The meristematic tissues
are confined to some parts of the plant body, these regions
are called as growing regions or meristems
The meristems are classified on the basis of
following characters -
a] Meristems based on origin and development On the
basis of origin and development meristematic tissues are
classified into three groups
1] Promeristem or primordial meristems
1] It occurs in embryonic stage
2] It gives rise to primary meristems
3] It is located at the top of stem and root
2] Primary meristems
1] It is present from the beginning
2] It gives rise to primary permanent tissue forms basic
structure
3] It is present at the apices of root and stem
3] Secondary meristems
1] It develops during later stages of growth
2] They arise from parenchyma
3] It forms cambium, interfascicular cambium, cork
cambium, etc
b] Meristems based on position in plant body
1] Apical meristems It is found at the apex of shoot and
root which causes the growth of root and shoot apex
2] Intercalary meristems It is the left out part of apical
meristem found near the nodes which later on becomes
permanent tissue
3] Lateral meristems It is present on lateral side of the
stem which increases the thickness or girth of the stem
c] Meristems based on functions -
1] Protoderm It is the outermost layer of young growing
region which gives rise to epidermis in developing organs
2] Procambium The cells of young growing region which
gives rise to primary vascular tissues by their elongation
and differentiation are called procambium
3] Ground meristems The portion of young growing
region which gives rise to hypodermis, cortex,
endodermis, Pericycle, medullary rays and pith is called
ground meristems
Functions of meristems
The meristematic tissue performs following
functions -
1] Meristems are responsible for growth by addition of new
cells in various regions of the plant body
2] Meristems give rise to new leaves, branches and flowers
3] Intercalary meristems help in elongation of internodes and
petiole
4] The vascular cambium adds new vascular tissues i.e.
xylem and phloem
5] It helps in secondary growth i.e. increase in thickness
6] The cork cambium forms protective covering around
stems and roots
2] Permanent tissue A group of cells which have acquired
permanent shape, size and functions and have lost the
power of division is called a permanent tissue
Permanent tissues are formed as a result
of division and differentiation in meristematic tissues. The
cells of permanent tissues are either living or dead and
thin or thick walled
The permanent tissues are further classified
into two different types i.e. simple permanent tissue and
complex permanent tissue
A] Simple permanent tissues The simple permanent
tissues are composed of similar cells resembling in shape,
size, function and form
The simple permanent tissues are of three
different types
1] Parenchyma -
1] It is a simple, permanent, living tissue
2] It is most abundant tissue found in the plant body
3] The cells are spherical, oval or polyhedral in shape
4] The cells are loosely arranged with large air spaces
5] The cell cytoplasm consist of large vacuoles
6] It is found in cortex, endosperm, mesophyll tissue of leaf
and pith
Function It stores reserved food material
The parenchyma tissues are of two different
types
a] Chlorenchyma It is a type of parenchyma in which the
cells consist of chloroplast and perform the process of
photosynthesis
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b] Arenchyma The parenchymatic cells with large air
spaces is called arenchyma. They are found in
hydrophytes
2] Collenchyma
Collenchyma
1] It is a simple, permanent, living tissue
2] The cells are spherical, oval or polyhedral in shape
3] The cells are compactly arranged without any air spaces
4] At certain region the cell wall becomes thick due to extra
deposition of cellulose and pectin
5] This tissue is mainly found in dicot plant
6] They form 3-4 layers below epidermis called hypodermis
Function They provide mechanical support to the plant
and also store food material
3] Sclerenchyma
1] It is a simple, permanent, dead tissue
2] The cells are hexagonal in shape
3] The cells are compactly arranged without any air spaces
4] The cell wall is thick due to extra deposition of lignin
5] They may be fibers or sclerids
Function It provides mechanical support
B] Complex tissue The group of dissimilar cells
performing a common function is called complex tissue
As they are conducting tissue, they are also
called as vascular tissue
The complex tissues are of two different
types i.e. Xylem and Phloem
A] Xylem
1] It is a dead complex tissue
2] It is found in all parts of vascular plants
3] It is composed of four different elements i.e. trachieds,
vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem sclerenchyma
a] Trachieds
1] It is long, elongated, tubular with tapering or blunt ends.
The cell wall is lignified
2] They are commonly found in pteridophytes,
gymnosperms and xylem of dicotyledons
3] They have thickening on their walls which may be
annular, spiral, scalariform, reticulate and pitted
Function It conducts water and minerals and also
provides mechanical support
b] Vessels
1] They are highly modified conducting tissue which are
found only in Angiosperms
2] They are linearly arranged one above the other forming a
pipeline
3] They have thickening on their walls which may be
annular, spiral, scalariform, reticulate and pitted
4] They are absent in pteridophytes and gymnosperms
Function They conduct water and minerals
c] Xylem parenchyma They are small, spherical cells
found in association with trachieds and vessels
Function They store food material
d] Xylem sclerenchyma They are also called as fibers.
They are long, elongated, tapering at both the ends, the
cell wall is lignified
Function It provides mechanical support
B] Phloem
1] It is a living complex tissue
2] Ii is found in all parts of a vascular plants
3] It is composed of four different elements i.e. sieve tubes
companion cell, phloem parenchyma, and phloem
sclerenchyma
a] Sieve tubes - They are long, elongated, tubular placed
one above the other. They are without nucleus and less
cytoplasm. The ends consist of perforated sieve plates,
through perforation the cytoplasm are continous
Function They conduct food material from green to
non-green parts of the plant body
b] Companion cell They are also called as sister cells of
sieve tube. They consist of a distinct nucleus and dense
cytoplasm
Function It helps sieve tubes in conduction of organic
solvent
The sieve tubes and the companion cells are
found only in Angiospermic plants
c] Phloem parenchyma It stores food material
d] Phloem sclerenchyma It provides mechanical support
Types of vascular bundle
According to the arrangement of xylem and
phloem vascular bundles are classified into following
types
1] Radial vascular bundle The vascular bundles in which
the xylem and phloem are arranged radially in the form of
separate bundles on different radii are called radial
vascular bundles. The xylem and phloem are arranged
alternating with each other, such vascular bundles are
found in roots
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1] Radial vascular bundle The vascular bundles in which
the xylem and phloem are arranged radially in the form of
separate bundles on different radii are called radial
vascular bundles. The xylem and phloem are arranged
alternating with each other, such vascular bundles are
found in roots
2] Conjoint vascular bundle A vascular bundle in which
xylem and phloem are present on same radius is called a
conjoint vascular bundle, here xylem and phloem together
form a bundle
The conjoint vascular bundles are of
following types
a] Collateral vascular bundle In this type of vascular
bundle the xylem and phloem are present on the same
radius, the xylem is present towards inner side and the
phloem is present towards outerside. In dicot stem the
xylem and phloem are separated by cambium such
vascular bundles are called as open type (Show secondary
growth) and in monocot stems cambium is absent such
vascular bundles are called as closed type (secondary
growth is absent)
b] Bicollateral vascular bundles The vascular bundle in
which the phloem occurs in two groups inside and outside
the xylem is called bicollateral vascular bundle. In this
vascular bundle there are two strips of cambium one on
either sides of xylem. Such vascular bundles are found in
the members of family cucurbitaceae. These vascular
bundles are always open
3] Concentric vascular bundles The conjoint vascular
bundle in which one type of vascular tissue is surrounded
by the other is called concentric vascular bundle. When
xylem is surrounded by phloem it is called hadrocentric
and when phloem is surrounded by xylem it is called
leptocentric. These vascular bundles are always closed
Anatomy of root, stem and leaf
Anatomy of dicot root
The transverse section of a typical
dicotyledonous root shows following anatomical features
1] Epiblema It is the outermost single celled layer without
cuticle. Some of its cells are prolonged into unicellular
hair like structure called root hair
2] Cortex It is formed of many layers of parenchymatous
cells. As the epiblema dies off outer layer of cortex
become cutinized and is called exodermis. The cells of
cortex store food (starch) and water
3] Endodermis It is the limiting layer of cortex. The cells
are barrel shaped which bears casparian strips or
casparian bands composed of suberin. Near the
protoxylem there are unthickened passage cells
4] Pericycle It is a single cell layer of parenchymatous
cells present below the endodermis which bounds the
stele or vascular cylinder
5] Stele It consist of 2-6 radial vascular bundles. The
xylem is exarch and consist of trachieds, vessels,
parenchyma and sclerenchyma. The phloem consist of
sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem parenchyma.
Based on the number of groups of xylem and phloem, the
stele may be diarch to hexarch
6] Connective tissue It is a parenchymatous tissue present
between xylem and phloem
7] Pith It is the central part of stele or vascular cylinder
made up of parenchymatous cells with or without
intercellular spaces
At later stage, a cambium ring develops
between xylem and phloem which causes secondary
growth
Anatomy of monocot root
T. S. of Monocot root
It is same as that of dicot root. However, it
possesses more than six xylem bundles (polyarch
condition). Pith is large and well developed and secondary
growth is absent
13
 Anatomy of dicot stem (Sunflower)
T. S. of Dicot (Sunflower) stem
Outline diagram
The T. S. of sunflower stem shows following parts
1] Epidermis It is the single celled outermost layer with
multicellular outgrowths called trichomes. It is generally
surrounded by a layer of cutile from outerside
2] Cortex It is situated below the epidermis and is
differentiated into three regions, the hypodermis, general
cortex and endodermis
a] Hypodermis It is situated just below the epidermis
which is made up of 3-5 layers of collenchymatous cells
b] General cortex It is made up of many layers of large
parenchymatous cells with intercellular spaces
c] Endodermis It is the innermost layer of cortex which is
made up of barrel shape cells with casparian strips
3] Stele It is differentiated into Pericycle, vascular bundle
and pith
a] Pericycle It is present between endodermis and vascular
bundle. In sunflower it is multilayered and also called as
hard bast
b] Vascular bundles The vascular bundles are conjoint,
collateral and open type and are arranged in a ring. Each
vascular bundle is composed of xylem, phloem and
cambium. Xylem is endarch and is made up of vessels,
trachieds, xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma where as
phloem consist of sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem
fibres and phloem parenchyma
c] Pith It is situated in the centre of the young stem and is
made up of large sized loosely arranged parenchymatous
cells with intercellular spaces
Anatomy of monocot stem
The anatomy of monocot stem differs from
dicot stem in following manner
1] Epidermis is without trichomes
2] The hypodermis is sclerenchymatous
3] The vascular bundles are many and scattered in ground
tissue
4] Each vascular bundle is surrounded by sclerenchymatous
bundle sheath
5] The vascular bundles are of conjoint, collateral and closed
type
6] Pith is absent
7] Secondary growth is absent
Anatomy of leaf
Anatomically the leaf is of two different types
1] Dorsiventral leaf It is very common in dicotyledonous
plants. In this type of leaf the mesophyll tissue is
differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma. The
leaves are with distinct upper and lower surface, the upper
surface facing the sun is darker than the lower surface
T. S. of a typical dicot leaf
T. S. of Dicot leaf
The T. S. of dicot leaf shows following parts
1] Upper epidermis It is formed of single layer compactly
arranged rectangular, barrel shaped parenchymatous cell
which are devoid of chloroplast. It is covered by cuticle
from outerside and stomata are generally absent
2] Mesophyll It is present between upper and lower
epidermis with cells rich in chloroplast. It is differentiated
into palisade and spongy tissue
a] Palisade parenchyma It is present below upper
epidermis formed of compactly arranged, elongated cells.
The cells consists of abundant chloroplast and help in
photosynthesis
b] Spongy parenchyma It is present below palisade tissue
and above lower epidermis formed of loosely arranged
irregularly shaped cells they also consist of chloroplast
and are in contact with atmosphere through stomata
3] Vascular system It is made up of number of vascular
bundles varying in size depending upon venation. Each
vascular bundle is surrounded by a thin layer of
parenchymatous cells called bundle sheath. The vascular
bundles are of conjoint, collateral and closed type. Each
vascular bundle has xylem towards upper epidermis and
phloem towards lower epidermis
14
4] Lower epidermis - It is formed of single layer compactly
arranged rectangular, barrel shaped parenchymatous cells.
It is covered by cuticle from outerside and contains large
number of pores called stomata. There is an air space
called sub-stomatal chamber at each stoma

2] Isobilateral leaf They are common in monocot plants.

In this type of leaf both the surfaces are equally green as
they are equally illuminated to sun

Anatomy of monocot leaf

T. S. of Monocot leaf
A typical monocot leaf resembles a dicot
leaf in anatomical structure. However it shows some
differences they are as follows
1] Presence of stomata on both the surfaces
2] Mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade and spongy
tissue

By - Prof. Santosh M Pandey

M.Sc, B.Ed
Mobile no 9970706070 / 9967717896

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