Lithos 76 (2004) 565 590

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Neoproterozoic anomalous kimberlites of Guaniamo, Venezuela:

mica kimberlites of isotopic transitional type
Felix V. Kaminsky a,*, Sergei M. Sablukov a,
Ludmila I. Sablukova a, Dominic M.DeR. Channer b
a
KM Diamond Exploration Ltd., 2446 Shadbolt Lane, West Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V7S 3J1
b
Guaniamo Mining Company, Centro Gerencial Mohedano, Office 9D, La Castellana, Caracas, Venezuela
Received 27 June 2003; accepted 17 February 2004
Available online 17 July 2004

Abstract

In Venezuela, kimberlites have so far only been found in the Guaniamo region, where they occur as high diamond grade
sheets in massive to steeply foliated Paleoproterozoic granitoid rocks. The emplacement age of the Guaniamo kimberlites is
712 F 6 Ma, i.e., Neoproterozoic. The Guaniamo kimberlites contain a high abundance of mantle minerals, with greater than
30% olivine macrocrysts. The principal kimberlite indicator minerals found are pyrope garnet and chromian spinel, with the
overwhelming majority of the garnets being of the peridotite association. Chrome-diopside is rare, and picroilmenite is
uncommon. Chemically, the Guaniamo kimberlites are characterized by high MgO contents, with low Al2O3 and TiO2 contents
and higher than average FeO and K2O contents. These rocks have above average Ni, Cr, Co, Th, Nb, Ta, Sr and LREE
concentrations and very low P, Y and, particularly, Zr and Hf contents. The Nb/Zr ratio is very distinctive and is similar to that
of the Aries, Australia kimberlite. The Guaniamo kimberlites are similar in petrography, mineralogy and mantle mineral content
to ilmenite-free Group 2 mica kimberlites of South Africa. The Nd-Sr isotopic characteristics of Guaniamo kimberlites are
distinct from both kimberlite Group 1 and Group 2, being more similar to transitional type kimberlites, and in particular to
diamondiferous kimberlites of the Arkhangelsk Diamond Province, Russia. The Guaniamo kimberlites form part of a
compositional spectrum between other standard kimberlite reference groups. They formed from metasomatised subcontinental
lithospheric mantle and it is likely that subduction of oceanic crust was the source of this metasomatised material, and also of
the eclogitic component, which is dominant in Guaniamo diamonds.
D 2004 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Keywords: Venezuela; Kimberlite; Neoproterozoic; Mineralogy; Pyrope; Geochemistry; Isotopes

1. Introduction kimberlite groups, namely, basaltoid Group 1 kim-

An increasing number of kimberlites have been
described which cannot unambiguously be placed into
any one of the two distinct reference South African
* Corresponding author. Fax: +1-604-925-8754.
E-mail address: felixvkaminsky@cs.com (F.V. Kaminsky).
berlites and mica Group 2 kimberlites (Smith et al.,
1985) (essentially kimberlites and orangeites, re-
spectively, after Mitchell, 1995a). Examples of these
include kimberlites of the Arkhangelsk Province, Rus-
sia (Sablukov, 1990; Mahotkin et al., 1997; Beard et al.,
2000), the Koidu kimberlites, West Africa, and the
Aries kimberlite, Australia (Taylor et al., 1994). In this

0024-4937/$ - see front matter D 2004 Published by Elsevier B.V.

doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2004.03.035
566 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590
contribution we describe the mineralogy, petrography,
major and trace element geochemistry, and isotope
characteristics of the Guaniamo kimberlites. These
kimberlites were discovered in Guaniamo, South-West
Venezuela, by J. Drew, R. Cooper and R. Baxter-Brown
in 1982 (Fig. 1) and, like the previous examples, are not
easily classified among the standard kimberlite types.
Initially the Guaniamo kimberlites were considered
as a group of small dykes, pipes and plugs (Nixon,
1988), but as a result of more detailed exploration,
these kimberlites are now known to form an extensive
series of sheets (Channer et al., 1998, 2001), which
represent the beginning of a new diamondiferous
Fig. 1. Location of the Guaniamo study area, south-west Venezuela.
kimberlite province. The Guaniamo kimberlites have
proven to possess distinctive characteristics that have
widened our appreciation of the structural and com-
positional diversity of kimberlite rocks, their mantle
sources and the ages of kimberlite formation.
2. Area description, methods and materials studied
The materials examined in this study include fresh
and altered kimberlite drill core samples and highly
weathered kimberlite samples collected from shallow
pits. Kimberlite samples from the La Ceniza and Los
Indios sheets were studied in greatest detail, whereas
weathered kimberlite specimens from the Desayuno,
Desengano, La Peinilla, Candado-Julio and Bulla de
las Mujeres sheets were sampled only for mineral
chemistry (Table 1).
The study included a detailed, layer-by-layer pet-
rographic examination of thin and polished sections of
selected kimberlite samples. Kimberlite major element
chemistry was studied by wet chemical analysis, and
trace element concentrations were determined by
instrumental neutron-activation and X-ray fluores-
cence analysis. The samples were studied and ana-
lyzed in Moscow, Russia. Some kimberlite samples
were also analyzed by inductively coupled plasma
spectrometry for major and trace elements by Triad
Laboratories in Venezuela and Vancouver, Canada.
X-ray spectral microanalysis of minerals was per-
formed using a Camebax Microbeam microanalyzer at
U = 20 kVand I = 15 20 nA, with a beam size 3 4 Am.
Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotope analyses were carried out
by D.Z. Zhuravlev at the Institute of Geology and
Mineralogy, Moscow with a Finningank MAT-262
multicollector mass-spectrometer in a static measure-
ment mode (Zhuravlev et al., 1983). Blank levels for
Nd, Sm, Sr and Rb were less than 0.3, 0.1, 2.0 and 0.5
ng, respectively. The concentrations were measured in
micrograms per gram of sample weight. Analytical
accuracies were F 1% for concentrations and F 0.2%
for Sm/Nd ratios. Reference standards throughout the
course of analysis gave averaged values of: 87Sr/86Sr =
0.708041 F 18 (2r, n = 15) for the Eimer and Amend
standard, and 143Nd/144Nd = 0.511840 F 15 (2r, n =
25) for the La Jolla Nd standard. 87Sr/86Sr was nor-
malized for mass fractionation during run time to
87
Sr/86Sr = 0.1194; 143Nd/144Nd was normalized to a
 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590 567

Table 1
General characteristics of specimens and samples
Sheet Specimen # Log interval, m Sample # Rock
La Ceniza DDH97-64 22.1 22.25 DDH97-64/1 fresh micaceous coarse-porphyritic kimberlite
(upper sheet)
DDH97-64/2 fresh micaceous medium fine-porphyritic kimberlite
DDH97-65 36.3 36.45 DDH97-65/1 fresh coarse-porphyritic kimberlite
(lower sheet)
DDH97-65/2 fresh fine-porphyritic kimberlite
DDH97-65/3 fresh coarse-porphyritic kimberlite
Los Indios DDH-4 44.6 45.7 G-DD-7068 massive, fresh kimberlite
DDH-4 45.7 46.7 G-DD-7069 silicified kimberlite
DDH-5 55.47 56.69 G-DD-7072 massive, fresh kimberlite
DDH-5 56.69 58.22 G-DD-7073 massive, fresh kimberlite
DDH-6 36.7 38.0 G-DD-7075 silicified kimberlite
DDH-8 63 63.6 G-DD-7097 brecciated, carbonate-rich kimberlite
DDH-8 63.6 63.9 G-DD-7098 brecciated, carbonate-rich kimberlite
DDH-9 46.4 46.9 G-DD-7101 fresh kimberlite with some granite xenoliths
DDH-9 46.9 47.5 G-DD-7102 fresh kimberlite with some granite xenoliths
DDH-44 34.4 35.3 DDH-44/1 silicified micaceous coarse-porphyritic kimberlite
DDH-45 46.8 47.2 DDH-45/1 silicified micaceous fine-porphyritic kimberlite
DDH-49 48.6 56.2 DDH-49/1 silicified micaceous coarse-porphyritic kimberlite
DDH96-41 34.1 34.2 G-R-7283 massive, fresh kimberlite
DDH96-43 46.43 46.53 G-R-7284 massive fresh kimberlite, calcite veins
DDH96-43 46.53 46.63 G-R-7285 massive kimberlite with calcite veins
G-SL-7306 surface G-SL-7306 highly weathered kimberlite
LI34 surface LI34-2 to-6 highly weathered kimberlite
Bulla de las Mujeres LS-SL-7303 surface LS-SL-7303 highly weathered kimberlite
Candado-Julio KPS-130 surface KPS-130 highly weathered kimberlite
Desengano KPS-129 surface KPS-129 highly weathered kimberlite
Desayuno DDH-39 32.6 33.5 DDH-39/2 micaceous fine-porphyritic kimberlite
La Peinilla LP-18 surface LP-18 highly weathered kimberlite

value of 143Nd/144Nd = 0.7219. Depleted mantle Sm-
Nd model ages were calculated relative to 147Sm/
144
Nd = 0.2137 and 143Nd/144Nd = 0.513151. Primary
ratios and values of eSr and eNd were calculated using
modern parameters of model reservoirs: UR (87Rb/
86
Sr = 0.0825 and 87Sr/86Sr = 0.7045) and chondrite
undepleted reservoir (CHUR) ( 1 4 3 Nd/ 1 4 4 Nd =
0.512638 and 147Sm/144Nd = 0.1967).
ISOPLOT v. 3.00 was used in the construction of
isochrons and to determine the ages of the kimberlites.
3. Geology
Kimberlites in the Guaniamo area occur as a series
of gently dipping (5 25j ENE) sheets extending over
at least 10 km, with a NNW strike along the Quebrada
Grande river valley (Channer et al., 2001). The sheets
are accompanied by steeply dipping dykes and recently
discovered intrusive alkaline breccia pipes. These fea-
tures suggest that explosive processes, similar to those
that accompany the formation of kimberlite pipes, have
occurred in Guaniamo. Hence, the potential for kim-
berlite pipe discovery is high. The kimberlites show a
coarsely banded structure with alternating zones of
cumulus-type coarse-porphyritic kimberlites and fine-
porphyritic, nearly aphyric, rocks oriented subparallel
to contact interfaces. This zoning is related not only to
hydrodynamic and gravitational differentiation of the
kimberlite melt in situ, but also to repeated injection of
magmatic melt, already deprived of olivine macro-
crysts through their settling, into still liquid cumulus
zones enriched with olivine macrocrysts. The hetero-
geneous, taxitic rock structure that occurs in the sheets
might be due to rapid intrusion (turbulent flow) and
solidification of the kimberlite melt. Locally, there is
evidence of magmatic liquation that has resulted in the
formation of thin (up to 1 cm) zones and lenses of cross-
568 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590
lamellar and lamellar-diverse aggregates of carbonate
crystals in a silicate matrix.
4. Petrography
4.1. La Ceniza sheet
La Ceniza kimberlite specimens from drill core
were taken from two distinct levels of the La Ceniza
sheet, referred to herein as the lower sheet and
upper sheet (Table 1). The specimens are dark grey,
with different structures and a very fresh appearance.
Most of the upper La Ceniza sheet specimen
(DDH97-64/1) comprises coarse-porphyritic, massive,
mica kimberlite with rare country rock xenoliths
(diorite), and rare zones (spots) of medium- to fine-
porphyritic mica kimberlite (DDH97-64/2) (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Kimberlite from the La Ceniza sheet. Topweakly altered,
coarse-porphyritic micaceous kimberlite from the upper sheet
(DDH97-64/1). Bottomweakly altered, fine-porphyritic kimber-
lite from the upper sheet (DDH97-64/2). Scale bar is 1 mm. Plane-
polarized light.
Macrocrysts are mostly olivine grains representing
two generations (olivine-1 xenocrysts and olivine-2
phenocrysts) and phlogopite laths. Olivine-1 (55%)
occurs as oval or irregular, subangular grains (1
8 mm, rarely up to 15 mm). This olivine is fresh,
generally with less than 5% serpentinization. Olivine-
1 grains show well-defined fracture bands, implying
deformation prior to its incorporation into the magma.
Olivine-2 (15%) is idiomorphic or subidiomorphic,
some grains with partially fused outlines (0.1 1.0
mm, rarely up to 2 mm). Serpentinization of olivine-2
is similar to or greater than that of olivine-1.
Phlogopite macrocrysts (0.5%) form irregular, sub-
angular, light brown laths (0.3 1.5 mm) with weak
pleochroism, commonly having thin red-orange tetra-
ferriphlogopite rims with inverse absorption. Some of
the laths are deformed (are slightly bent) and either
show a wavy extinction or exhibit pronounced cleav-
age. Pyrope occurs as oval or irregularly subangular
(3 9 mm), violet and purplish-red grains. The margins
of all pyrope grains are replaced by thick kelyphitic
rims, which have a radiate or cryptocrystalline struc-
ture. Some of the pyrope grains are completely replaced
by kelyphitic rims. Rock matrix (30%) consists of a
fine-crystalline aggregate of light brown, partially
chloritized phlogopite laths (0.02 0.1 mm) with red
orange tetraferriphlogopite rims (20%). The space
between phlogopite laths is filled with fine-grained
scaly serpentine (3%), dolomite (3%) and opaque
minerals (3%). Xenomorphic and, more rarely, idio-
morphic opaque mineral grains (0.02 0.06 mm) are
Mg-rich Cr-titanomagnetite and chromian spinel grains
with titanomagnetite rims. Zones and spots of medium-
to fine-porphyritic micaceous kimberlite (DH97-64/2)
have the same types and compositions of minerals, both
as xenocrysts and phenocrysts, and in the rock matrix,
differing from Sample DDH97-64/1 only in a fine-
porphyritic texture and a higher proportion of phlogo-
pite in the rock matrix.
The lower La Ceniza sheet exhibits a subparallel,
layered structure, where thick (3 9 cm) bands of
coarse-porphyritic kimberlite (DDH97-65/1) alternate
with relatively thin (1 cm) layers of well-sorted fine-
porphyritic kimberlite (DDH97-65/2), lacking olivine-
1 xenocrysts and phlogopite macrocrysts. The thin
layers are inclined at an angle of 10 12j to the
horizontal, with well-defined, sharp, but not cross-
cutting, layer boundaries. Lower sheet rocks are gen-
 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590
erally similar to upper sheet kimberlite, however, there
is one main difference; they have an almost mica-free
rock matrix composed of a microcrystalline aggregate
of carbonate (dolomite and magnesite) (20%), serpen-
tine (chrysolite and serpophyte) and acicular millerite.
Opaque mineral segregations (3%) are 0.02 0.1 mm in
size, idiomorphic and, more rarely, xenomorphic, Mg-
rich Cr-titanomagnetite and chromian spinel grains,
with titanomagnetite rims. Wall rock xenoliths in these
samples comprise diorite, with a minor proportion of
plagioclase-biotite xenoliths. Gangue minerals occur as
very rare, thin carbonate veinlets.
4.2. Los Indios sheet
The Los Indios samples are generally similar to
upper La Ceniza sheet kimberlites, but with a higher
degree of secondary alteration. The Los Indios rocks
consist of 1 3-cm-thick zones of coarse-porphyritic
mica kimberlite alternating with 5 15-cm-thick fine-
porphyritic mica kimberlite.
Olivine-1 xenocrysts and olivine-2 phenocrysts are
almost completely silicified (quartz and tridymite),
with minor serpentinization in marginal zones and
loop-like veinlets (DDH-45). Tridymite is a rare sec-
ondary mineral in kimberlite, but in the Los Indios
kimberlite it comprises up to 20 vol.% of pseudo-
morphs after olivine. Its presence has been confirmed
by X-ray analysis. Locally, tridymite occurs in associ-
ation with quartz; however, it can be a sole replacement
product after olivine. More rarely, olivine is replaced by
a fine-grained scaly and lamellar serpentine aggregate
with some admixture of carbonate (DDH97-44).
Relicts of fresh olivine are very rare. Phlogopite macro-
crysts (0.5 vol.%) occur as oval or irregular 0.3 1.0-
mm grains, and are commonly replaced by tetraferri-
phlogopite, in their marginal zones. The rock matrix
consists of a finely crystalline aggregate of light brown,
idiomorphic phlogopite grains with red-orange tetra-
ferriphlogopite rims (60%). The space between phlog-
opite laths is filled with a fine-grained aggregate of
carbonate (dolomite, siderite and magnesite; 20%) and
opaque minerals (6%). Opaque minerals occur as
xenomorphic or, more rarely, idiomorphic grains of
magnetite, Mg-titanomagnetite and chromian spinel
with titanomagnetite rims. The rock contains numerous
kelyphitic rim fragments of 1 10-mm size (not less
than 1% of the rock volume). Some pyrope grains
569
contain oval inclusions of Ni-chalcopyrite, magnesite
and dolomite. In addition, the rock contains strongly
altered wall rock xenoliths (approximately 5% of the
rock volume). Sample DH97-49 shows the highest
intensity of kimberlite alteration, with olivine com-
pletely replaced by quartz and tridymite, and the rock
matrix replaced by chlorite and iron hydroxides.
4.3. Desayuno sheet
The Desayuno sheet rock (DDH-39/2) is an intense-
ly altered mica kimberlite. Olivine grains (10% of the
rock volume) are 0.5 3 mm in size; large grains have a
subangular shape, while small ones (0.5 1 mm) are
mostly subidiomorphic. The cores of the olivine grains
are completely replaced by a fine-grained aggregate of
scaly serpentine. An aggregate of finely crystalline
phlogopite is developed in the marginal zones of large
grains and almost completely replaces small olivine
grains. Phlogopite macrocrysts (1 2%) are subangular,
0.5 1.5 mm, and have a light brown color with a faint
greenish shade and weak pleochroism, many of them
have rims of thin red-orange tetraferriphlogopite. The
rock matrix consists predominantly of an aggregate of
finely crystalline pale brown, idiomorphic phlogopite
grains with red-orange tetraferriphlogopite rims (55%
of the rock volume), and a minor proportion of finely
crystalline carbonate (15%), serpentine (10%), and
chlorite (2%) with dust-like disseminated opaque min-
erals (less than 1%). In addition, the rock contains some
fragments of kelyphitic rims and altered xenoliths of
granite (5%, distributed predominantly along the host
rock border).
4.4. Other sheets
The examined rock samples from the Desengano,
La Peinilla, Candado-Julio and Bulla de las Mujeres
sheets indicate very strong tropical weathering of
kimberlite. Their indicative minerals (pyrope and chro-
mian spinel) have peculiar morphological and surface
microrelief features that reflect weathering (see below).
5. Mineralogy and mineral chemistry
All the examined kimberlites are similar in miner-
alogy and mineral chemistry, particularly with regard
570 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590

Table 2
Representative compositions of olivine from the La Ceniza kimberlite (wt.%)
Sample # Grain color SiO2 Cr2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO NiO Total Mg#
DDH97-64 colorless 41.09 0.05 8.16 0.20 49.63 0.01 0.42 99.14 91.6
colorless 41.13 0.04 8.24 0.09 49.60 0.02 0.32 99.12 91.5
colorless 41.66 0.04 8.43 0.08 48.93 0.01 0.41 99.15 91.2
colorless 40.94 0.00 8.62 0.12 49.45 0.03 0.37 99.16 91.1
yellow 41.29 0.02 11.15 0.15 46.75 0.08 0.20 99.44 88.2
yellow 41.19 0.00 9.43 0.11 48.82 0.03 0.46 99.58 90.2
DDH97-65 colorless 41.15 0.05 8.36 0.09 49.76 0.03 0.31 99.44 91.4
colorless 41.10 0.00 8.27 0.11 49.68 0.02 0.33 99.18 91.5
colorless 41.64 0.08 6.99 0.09 50.20 0.01 0.28 99.01 92.8
yellow 41.32 0.00 10.15 0.22 47.29 0.03 0.32 99.01 89.3
yellow 40.01 0.02 13.61 0.13 45.52 0.03 0.31 99.32 85.6

to mantle minerals. Fresh kimberlites from La Ceniza
and Los Indios are characterized by very high pro-
portions of mantle minerals, primarily due to the
abundance of olivine macrocrysts. Other kimberlite
indicator minerals (KIM), namely, garnet (pyrope and
pyrope-almandine), chromian spinel and clinopyrox-
ene, occur in the rocks in very minor amounts (single
grains or several tens of grains per kilogram of rock),
and there is scarcity of picroilmenite.
Representative probe data for major mineral phases
are given in Tables 2 7 and include other kimberlite
localities, in addition to Los Indios and La Ceniza. The

Table 3
Representative compositions of phlogopite (wt.%)
Sample # Grain # SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Cr2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2 O Total Mg# Note
Los Indios sheet
DDH-45/1 1core 43.32 0.69 11.22 0.68 4.10 0.08 25.24 0.04 0.15 10.40 95.92 91.7 matrix
1rima 42.99 0.23 0.11 0.01 14.81 0.12 23.39 0.12 0.23 9.75 91.76 73.8 matrix
2core 40.70 1.55 13.17 0.39 5.15 0.07 24.78 0.02 0.30 10.46 96.59 89.6 matrix
2rima 46.76 0.34 1.13 0.01 10.24 0.09 23.67 0.13 0.53 10.42 93.32 80.5 matrix
3core 40.16 1.12 14.43 0.01 4.41 0.02 23.74 0.02 0.00 9.70 93.61 90.6 matrix
3rima 44.32 0.22 0.08 0.00 13.54 0.08 24.88 0.08 0.40 9.87 93.47 76.6 matrix
DDH-45/3 1 42.33 0.89 11.67 1.19 3.98 0.03 24.29 0.00 0.15 10.17 94.70 91.6 macrocryst
2 42.51 3.19 12.28 0.11 3.39 0.02 24.81 0.00 0.00 10.91 97.22 92.9 macrocryst
3 41.92 3.45 12.42 0.19 2.97 0.06 24.52 0.06 0.04 10.66 96.29 93.6 macrocryst
4 41.28 4.08 12.01 0.09 4.35 0.08 23.06 0.00 0.04 10.58 95.57 90.4 macrocryst
5 39.79 8.12 13.08 0.48 4.21 0.06 19.55 0.00 0.07 10.28 95.64 89.2 macrocryst

La Ceniza sheet
DDH97-64/1 1core 42.31 0.74 10.48 0.67 3.84 0.00 24.94 0.00 0.19 9.97 93.14 92.1 matrix
1rim 40.75 1.20 11.95 0.06 5.25 0.04 24.96 0.00 0.19 9.79 94.19 89.5 matrix
2 40.91 2.15 11.41 0.95 3.13 0.05 23.46 0.00 0.09 10.01 92.16 93.0 macrocryst
3 41.76 0.78 10.59 1.07 4.14 0.01 24.21 0.01 0.12 9.94 92.63 91.3 macrocryst
4 42.19 0.54 11.00 0.97 3.32 0.08 24.81 0.00 0.21 9.71 92.83 93.0 macrocryst
5 41.75 3.06 11.02 0.54 3.11 0.05 22.81 0.03 0.13 9.98 92.48 92.9 macrocryst
DDH97-65/1 1core 42.32 0.27 9.27 0.04 4.83 0.08 25.66 0.02 0.08 10.11 92.68 90.5 matrix
1rima 44.54 0.22 0.24 0.04 12.11 0.14 25.88 0.01 0.18 10.04 93.40 79.2 matrix
2core 43.25 0.95 11.06 0.65 4.47 0.08 25.26 0.01 0.20 9.92 95.85 91.0 matrix
2rim 42.70 0.61 9.73 0.05 6.06 0.07 25.75 0.02 0.07 10.08 95.14 88.3 matrix
3 41.88 0.63 10.55 0.73 3.87 0.06 24.58 0.21 0.13 9.76 92.40 91.9 macrocryst
4 41.85 1.78 10.40 0.42 3.69 0.05 24.14 0.02 0.12 9.61 92.08 92.1 macrocryst
5 41.77 3.90 10.96 0.28 3.46 0.05 22.17 0.00 0.13 9.85 92.57 92.0 macrocryst
a
Tetraferriphlogopite rims in matrix laths.
 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590 571

full data set, covering all data points in the accompa-
nying figures, is available from the principal author.
5.1. Olivine
Olivine macrocrysts in the La Ceniza kimberlites
form two distinct color varieties with different mineral
chemistries (Table 2): (1) colorless olivine (99.9% of
olivine grains) with FeO contents from 6.99 to 9.62
wt.% and Cr2O3 contents up to 0.08 wt.%, and (2)
greenish-yellow olivine with higher FeO contents of
9.43 to 13.61 wt.%. The proportion of the forsterite
molecule varies from 91% to 93% in colorless olivine
and from 85% to 90% in greenish-yellow olivine, with
corresponding Mg numbers from 91.1 to 92.8 (aver-
age 91.6) and 85.6 to 90.2 (average 88.3). NiO

Fig. 3. Compositional variation of phlogopite from the Guaniamo sheet kimberlites (diagram after Mitchell, 1995b).
572 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590

contents vary from 0.20 to 0.46 wt.%. The composi-
tion of the colorless olivine is similar to that in mantle
peridotite xenoliths (Mitchell, 1995a).
5.2. Phlogopite
All micas from Guaniamo kimberlites are mag-
matic; they do not show evidence of a metasomatic
origin.
Phlogopite macrocrysts (Table 3) are aluminous
(10.40 13.08 wt.% Al2O3) with widely varying TiO2
contents (0.54 8.12 wt.%), and Mg# from 89.2 to
93.6 (average 92.0). There is no difference in mineral
chemistry between single and deformed crystals of
phlogopite.
Matrix phlogopite is more ferruginous, with Mg#
from 88.3 to 92.1; cores have Mg# from 89.6 to 92.1
(average 90.9) and rims from 88.3 to 89.5 (average
88.9). Matrix phlogopite is aluminous (9.27 14.43
wt.% Al2O3) with lower TiO2 contents (0.27 1.55
wt.%) than macrocrysts.
Important compositional features of the phlogopites
are shown in Fig. 3 (Al2O3 TiO2). Los Indios phlogo-
pites are similar in composition to those from La
Ceniza, although slightly more aluminous. Ground-
mass core compositions are similar to their respective
phenocrysts. Some groundmass rim compositions are
similar to their respective cores but, most especially
from Los Indios, show much lower Al2O3 and TiO2 and
higher FeO. These differences may be due to alteration,
which is pronounced in the Los Indios samples.
Most phlogopites lie between, slightly overlapping,
the fields for Group 1 and 2 kimberlites. Some TiO2-
rich phlogopite macrocrysts (up to 8 wt.%) are similar
to lamproite-related micas (Fig. 3).
Rims in some mica macrocrysts and some matrix
laths are compositionally tetraferriphlogopite. These
micas have high iron contents (10.24 14.81 wt.%
FeO) and low Al2O3 (0.08 1.13 wt.%) and Cr2O3
( V 0.04 wt.%) contents. They are similar in composi-
tion to mica from Group 2 kimberlites (Mitchell,
1995b).

Table 4
Representative compositions of garnet (wt.%)
Sheet Sample # Grain color SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Cr2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O Total Mg# Group
Bulla de las LS-SL-7303 violet 41.11 0.41 18.96 5.82 7.00 0.38 20.38 5.11 0.03 99.20 83.9 G-9
Mujeres violet 40.47 0.15 18.71 6.62 7.91 0.43 19.10 5.77 0.06 99.22 81.2 G-9
violet 40.63 0.36 17.74 7.77 7.10 0.40 19.64 5.88 0.00 99.52 83.2 G-9
Candado-Julio KPS-130 violet 40.54 0.30 19.59 5.01 7.55 0.39 20.20 4.84 0.05 98.47 82.7 G-9
violet 40.87 0.25 19.08 5.79 7.17 0.37 20.02 4.98 0.00 98.53 83.3 G-9
violet 39.66 0.17 14.40 12.03 7.27 0.42 17.90 6.97 0.08 98.90 81.5 G-11
violet 39.08 0.12 13.22 13.21 8.03 0.53 16.06 9.14 0.02 99.41 78.1 G-12
Desengano KPS-D-129 orange 39.80 0.48 21.52 0.14 16.48 0.42 12.24 8.06 0.07 99.21 57.0 G-3
orange 41.36 0.13 22.98 0.19 7.55 0.16 16.23 10.66 0.02 99.28 79.3 G-6
purplish-red 41.84 0.26 22.20 1.47 9.21 0.38 19.93 4.59 0.00 99.88 79.4 G-9
La Ceniza DDH97-64 orange 40.07 0.33 21.70 0.01 19.66 0.52 11.39 5.99 0.14 99.67 50.8 G-3
purplish-red 42.35 0.39 22.03 1.77 7.89 0.39 20.50 4.13 0.00 99.45 82.3 G-9
violet 41.62 0.23 20.43 3.62 7.54 0.38 20.65 4.51 0.01 98.98 83.0 G-9
violet 41.20 0.19 18.45 6.30 7.54 0.24 20.10 5.11 0.00 99.13 82.6 G-9
pale pinka 41.92 0.06 21.60 2.08 9.30 0.43 19.31 5.12 0.00 99.82 78.7 G-9
DDH97-65 violet 41.79 0.31 20.34 4.04 7.75 0.36 20.65 4.36 0.01 99.60 82.6 G-9
violet 42.02 0.19 17.73 7.19 7.32 0.47 20.24 4.82 0.00 99.98 83.1 G-9
La Peinilla LP-18 violet 39.95 0.26 16.23 9.94 7.39 0.40 19.02 5.99 0.06 99.24 82.1 G-9
Los Indios DDH-45 purplish-red 41.39 0.07 20.05 4.39 8.08 0.33 19.04 5.78 0.00 99.13 80.8 G-9
violetb 41.09 0.09 18.49 6.03 7.74 0.30 18.51 6.60 0.01 98.86 81.0 G-9
LI-34-2 violet 40.76 0.05 17.83 8.01 7.32 0.40 21.50 3.08 0.00 98.95 84.0 G-10
violet 39.79 0.36 14.55 11.52 6.84 0.41 18.28 6.87 0.07 98.69 82.7 G-11
violet 39.94 0.21 12.44 13.89 7.66 0.46 15.41 8.68 0.03 98.72 78.2 G-12
violet 39.45 0.22 12.06 14.44 7.64 0.45 15.79 8.94 0.11 99.10 78.7 G-12
a
From pyrope peridotite inclusion.
b
Intergrowth with clinopyroxene.
 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590 573

5.3. Garnet Grain surfaces have a characteristic, sub-kelyphitic

Garnet is the second (after olivine) most abun-
dant mantle mineral (up to 1 vol.%) in Guaniamo
kimberlites, with grain sizes of up to 7 mm.
Garnet is much more abundant than chromian
spinel, but many grains are completely or partially
kelyphitized, such that relicts of fresh garnet occur
rarely (only several tens of grains per kilogram of
rock).
microrelief with comb-undulating and vuggy features.
Garnet surfaces from strongly weathered kimberlites
show signs of intense dissolution (etch channels,
trigonal pits and droplet features), leading, in extreme
cases, to the formation of a peculiar honeycomb
structure to the grains.
In terms of color, 45% of garnets are violet and
lilac, 30% purplish-red, and 15% orange, i.e., violet,
lilac and purplish-red pyrope garnets predominate.

Fig. 4. Plot of CaO vs. Cr2O3 for Guaniamo garnets with fields for harzburgite (left), lherzolite (center) and wehrlite (right) (dotted lines, after
Sobolev, 1971 and Sobolev et al., 1973) and G-9/G-10 boundary (solid line, after Gurney and Switzer, 1973 and Gurney, 1984). The lower field
is for eclogitic almandine-pyrope garnets.
574 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590

Compositionally, the following groups (after 6. Knorringitic uvarovite-pyrope (G-12 group) with
Dawson and Stephens, 1975) can be distinguished very high Cr2O3 (>12 wt.%), CaO (8 9 wt.%), and
(Table 4): Mg# 78.1 78.7.

1. Orange calcic pyrope-almandine (G-3 group) with
MgO 11 12 wt.%, Mg# 50.8 57.0, FeO 16 20
wt.%, and low Cr2O3 (0.01 0.14 wt.%).
2. Orange pyrope-grossular almandine (G-6 group)
with MgO 16 wt.%, Mg# 79.3, FeO 7.5 wt.%, and
low Cr2O3 (0.19 wt.%), typical of grospydite
xenoliths.
3. Purplish-red and violet chrome-pyrope (G-9 group)
with FeO < 10 wt.%, TiO2 < 0.41 wt.%, and Mg#
78.7 83.9.
4. Violet low-calcium chrome-pyrope of the diamond
association (G-10 group), with a high Cr2O3
content (>8 wt.%), a low CaO content ( < 4 wt.%)
and Mg# 84.0.
5. Lilac uvarovite-pyrope (G-11 group) with MgO
17 19 wt.%, Mg# 81.5 82.7, CaO 6 7 wt.%, and
Cr2O3 11 12 wt.%.
This compositional range occupies the entire
field of ultramafic-suite garnet compositions previ-
ously determined for the Guaniamo area, with the
exception of the most knorringite-rich inclusions in
diamonds from the Quebrada Grande placer (sam-
ples V-1 and V-2, Kaminsky et al., 2000) and the
anomalously Ca-rich, grossular xenocrysts found in
the El Candado and Cordero kimberlites (samples
PHN5750/3(12) and PHN5750/Cord4, Nixon et al.,
1994). Garnet data from Los Indios and La Ceniza
are plotted in Fig. 4 (Cr2O3-CaO), along with
garnet data from other weathered kimberlite local-
ities in Guaniamo (see Table 4). G-9 pyropes are
much more abundant than all other pyrope varieties,
and show a wide variation in Cr2O3 content (1.47
9.94 wt.%). Pyropes from different kimberlite
sheets are similar in composition. Only pyropes

Table 5
Representative compositions of chrome spinel (wt.%)
Sheet Sample # Grain # TiO2 Al2O3 Cr2O3 FeO MnO MgO ZnO V2O5 Total Mg#
Bulla de las Mujeres LS-SL-7303 1 0.54 6.68 63.05 19.83 0.22 8.08 0.10 0.35 98.85 42.1
2 0.78 7.44 64.53 16.57 0.25 9.40 0.11 0.40 99.48 50.3
3 1.68 18.19 31.47 36.71 0.26 9.63 0.23 0.32 98.49 31.9
Candado-Julio KPS-130 1 2.88 6.91 34.64 46.01 0.23 6.81 0.04 0.59 98.11 20.9
2 1.18 7.41 63.62 15.37 0.22 10.45 0.08 0.32 98.65 54.8
Desengano KPS-D-129 1 1.57 18.46 38.05 30.10 0.20 10.33 0.15 0.35 99.21 38.0
2 0.05 53.68 14.36 12.42 0.09 18.76 0.21 0.11 99.68 72.9
3 0.22 12.24 56.92 17.94 0.30 11.13 0.19 0.41 99.35 52.5
4 0.76 31.12 26.80 26.64 0.17 13.84 0.15 0.38 99.86 48.1
La Ceniza DDH97-64 1 0.15 19.62 42.22 25.08 0.29 12.53 99.89 47.1
2a 0.38 28.24 37.72 19.50 0.13 13.88 99.85 55.9
DDH97-65 1 0.39 7.66 59.89 21.20 0.28 10.58 100.00 47.1
2 2.11 8.35 55.02 23.05 0.23 11.09 99.85 46.2
La Peinilla LP-18 1 0.28 9.19 61.11 18.37 0.22 8.19 0.20 0.45 98.01 44.3
2 0.20 47.91 20.51 15.00 0.10 15.19 0.26 0.21 99.38 64.4
3 0.14 12.46 59.91 16.58 0.24 8.87 0.19 0.35 98.74 48.8
4 0.59 6.20 66.12 15.76 0.17 8.98 0.08 0.31 98.21 50.4
5 0.11 39.45 30.15 15.35 0.15 13.82 0.24 0.24 99.51 61.6
Los Indios DDH-49 1 0.21 6.62 62.60 16.57 0.36 12.02 98.38 56.4
LI-34-2 1 0.27 22.71 36.25 25.24 0.24 12.89 0.17 0.20 97.97 47.7
2 0.01 49.99 19.88 12.92 0.11 15.61 0.27 0.12 98.91 68.3
3 0.83 17.46 49.90 20.94 0.26 9.71 0.17 0.30 99.57 45.3
G-SL-7306 1 2.23 7.49 59.76 20.84 0.26 8.05 0.16 0.42 99.21 40.8
a
From the pyrope peridotite inclusion.
 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590 575

from Candado-Julio show a wider variation in 5.4. Chromian spinel

Cr2O3 content and contain G-3, G-11 and G-12
pyropes, which are absent in the Bulla de las Chromian spinel occurs predominantly as small
Mujeres sheet. (0.2 0.5 mm, rarely up to 0.7 mm) fragments and

Fig. 5. Composition of chromian spinel from the Guaniamo kimberlites: TiO2 vs. Cr2O3 (top) and Al2O3 vs. Cr2O3 (bottom). Trends from
Kharkiv et al. (1989).
576 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590

fractions of grains with differing morphology. Most of
the grains (80%) are fragments with step like frac-
tures, numerous joints, and a corrosion related micro-
relief, imparting a collective lustre to their surfaces.
Other morphological types include intact, flat-faced
octahedral grains with varying degrees of distortion,
and combination-type crystals with blocky structures
(4%). A few chromian spinel grains have very thin
titanomagnetite rims. Compositionally, these rims are
similar to titanomagnetite from the rock matrix, and it
is likely that they formed during one of the latest
stages of magma crystallization.
Chromian spinels from weathered kimberlites are
characterized by the presence of numerous micro-
cracks, and by the occurrence of grains with zonal
internal structures, where MgO and Al2O3 contents
decrease from core to margin, and TiO2 and FeO
contents increase.
Chromian spinels from fresh kimberlite in La
Ceniza are rich in MgO (10 16 wt.%), and have a
wide range of Al2O3 and Cr2O3 contents (6 43 wt.%
and 22 64 wt.%, respectively). Data for these spinels
and other Guaniamo kimberlite localities (Table 5) are
shown in Fig. 5 (Al2O3 and Cr2O3) where they form a
well-defined peridotitic isomorphic Cr3 + Al3 + trend
(after Kharkiv et al., 1989). The chromian spinels are
related to different depth facies, from the spinel-
pyroxene facies (7 17 kbar) to the diamond-pyrope
facies (>40 kbar), and are notable for the high
proportion of high-Cr grains (with Cr2O3>55 wt.%)
from the diamond association (Sobolev, 1974). When
plotted on a Ti/(Ti + Cr + Al) vs. Fe2 +/(Fe2 +Mg) dia-
gram (after Mitchell, 1986), the chromites and titano-
magnetite rims plot within the field of worldwide
kimberlite spinels.
5.5. Ilmenite
Two types of ilmenite were recognized in Guaniamo
kimberlites: manganese ilmenite and picroilmenite.
The first most common type forms irregular, angular
grain fragments, 0.3 0.6 mm in size. These contain
significant concentrations of MnO (0.73 2.55 wt.%)
and are herein described as manganese ilmenite. In
contrast to magnesian ilmenite (picroilmenite), which
is common in kimberlites, the manganese ilmenite has a
low MgO content (0 1.39 wt.%), as well as low Al2O3
(0 0.19 wt.%) and Cr2O3 (0 0.10 wt.%) contents
(Table 6). It has very low Mg# from 0 to 4.7. Similar
Mn-ilmenites were previously found as inclusions in
Guaniamo diamonds (Kaminsky et al., 1997, 2000;
Sobolev et al., 1998). Such low-Mg, Mn-rich (up to 11

Table 6
Representative compositions of ilmenite (wt.%)
Sheet Sample # Grain # TiO2 Al2O3 Cr2O3 FeO MnO MgO ZnO V2O5 Total Mg#
Bulla de las Mujeres LS-SL-7303 1 50.07 0.42 5.25 31.02 0.27 11.89 0.02 0.50 99.44 40.6
Candado-Julio KPS-130 1 45.51 0.04 0.00 50.30 1.01 1.39 0.11 0.14 98.50 4.7
2 50.55 0.06 0.03 45.76 2.24 0.05 0.00 0.00 98.69 0.2
3 54.04 0.11 0.02 39.67 2.03 0.11 0.05 0.00 96.03 0.5
4 50.58 0.00 0.05 46.77 2.33 0.00 0.04 0.00 99.77 0.0
5 50.76 0.00 0.03 47.28 0.82 0.28 0.00 0.00 99.17 1.0
6 54.02 0.09 0.03 41.25 2.18 0.16 0.01 0.00 97.74 0.7
La Ceniza DDH97-64 1 43.50 0.11 0.10 55.25 0.10 1.01 100.07 3.2
DDH97-65 1 48.62 0.00 0.00 47.67 1.95 0.06 98.30 0.2
2 48.39 0.04 0.00 47.57 2.55 0.09 98.64 0.3
3 50.20 0.00 0.02 47.27 0.73 0.35 98.57 1.3
Los Indios DDH-45 1 51.35 0.19 0.00 46.14 1.82 0.27 99.77 1.0
DDH-49 1 53.77 0.08 0.00 40.84 1.43 4.17 100.29 15.4
2 53.26 0.13 0.05 37.87 1.46 6.28 99.05 22.8
DDH-45/1 11 50.03 0.17 0.03 44.43 1.64 1.02 97.32 3.9
12 53.41 0.25 0.00 35.29 1.14 8.72 98.81 30.6
13 54.04 0.21 0.00 31.63 1.03 11.97 98.88 40.3
LI-34-2 1 56.96 0.29 0.90 27.68 0.29 13.79 0.00 0.12 100.03 47.1
G-SL-7306 1 50.96 0.07 0.00 46.45 1.60 0.00 0.07 0.16 99.31 0.0
2 51.81 0.03 0.01 46.41 1.23 0.09 0.11 0.05 99.74 0.3
3 51.24 0.03 0.03 46.70 0.97 0.14 0.08 0.16 99.35 0.5
 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590 577

wt.% MnO) ilmenites are in other areas associated with
ferropericlase, majoritic garnet and CaTi-perovskite,
and are believed to belong to the superdeep association
(see Kaminsky et al., 2001, and references therein).
Some grains of manganese ilmenite from the Los
Indios kimberlite are characterized by a sharply het-
erogeneous Mn distribution, with MnO content varying
from 1.02 to 11.97 wt.%, within a single grain. In Fig.
6, Guaniamo ilmenite data are shown in comparison
with worldwide picroilmenite data. Most Guaniamo
ilmenites plot at lower MgO values on a TiO2 vs. MgO
diagram and at higher MnO and FeO values on a MnO
vs. FeO diagram (see Fig. 6).
The second type of ilmenite in Guaniamo kimber-
lites (found in the Los Indios and the Bulla de las
Mujeres sheets) is picroilmenite, found as very small

Fig. 6. Composition of ilmenite in Guaniamo sheet kimberlites: TiO2 vs. MgO (top) and MnO vs. FeO (bottom). The lines connect points of
composition of different areas in a single grain. Manganese ilmenite occupies the area distinct from picroilmenite in both plots. Data points for
worldwide picroilmenite are from I.P. Ilupin (personal communication, 2002).
578 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590

(0.2 0.3 mm) grains with a very peculiar, flat-faced
myriohedral habit. Picroilmenite with this habit occurs
rarely, predominantly as microinclusions in other
minerals. Chemically, these grains are similar to
kimberlite-related picroilmenites (Table 6, Fig. 6).
5.6. Chromian diopside
Chromian diopside (chrome-diopside) is rare and
occurs as single grains intergrown with pyrope.
Al2O3, Na2O and Cr2O3 contents range from 1.5 to
2.5 wt.% (Table 7). However, one grain exhibits
higher Al2O3 (6.0 wt.%), Na2O (3.0 wt.%) and
Cr2O3 (3.2 wt.%) and a lower magnesium index
(Mg# = 88.9 vs. 93.4 93.9 in other grains).
The calcic index (Ca#) of the clinopyroxenes varies
from 45.9 to 49.3. Assuming equilibrium of chrome-
diopside with orthopyroxene, this range of values cor-
responds to a formation temperature range of 900
1000 jC, using methods described in Sobolev (1974).
5.7. Mantle xenoliths
Mantle rock xenoliths occur in the examined
samples very rarely, as intergrowths of several
olivine grains with a common, uneven boundary
(dunite microxenoliths). Detailed examination of
polished sections of kimberlite sample DDH97-64
revealed a single xenolith of pyrope peridotite. This
sub-angular xenolith, 2 cm in size, consists of
partially altered olivine, phlogopite, pale pink py-
rope and chromian spinel. The pyrope garnet is of
G-9 type with a low Cr2O3 content (2.08 wt.%) and
a high FeO content (9.30 wt.%; Mg# = 78.7) (Table
4). The chromian spinel is a Mg-alumochromite of
the grospydite depth subfacies (22 34 kbar, after
Sobolev, 1974), with a moderate Cr2O3 content
(37.72 wt.%) and a high Al2O3 content (28.24
wt.%) (Table 5).
6. Major and trace element geochemistry
Major and trace element data are presented in Table
8 for representative samples from La Ceniza and Los
Indios. All major petrographical varieties of kimber-
lite (fine-, medium fine- and coarse-porphyritic kim-
berlites) are represented.
Contamination, either by weathering or xenoliths,
is a common problem in the interpretation of kimber-
lite geochemical data. The contamination index
(Clement, 1982) where C.I.=(SiO2 + Al2O3 + Na2O)/
(2K2O + MgO) is useful in this respect. Taylor et al.
(1994) used a maximum C.I. of 1.7 for olivine lamp-
roites and micaceous kimberlites, and a maximum of
1.5 for non-micaceous kimberlites.
The compositions of some samples are affected
by weathering and/or silicification. Samples DDH-
44/1, DDH-49/1 and G-R-7069 have SiO2 contents
greater than 50 wt.%, clearly suggesting silicifica-
tion, which is common in the Guaniamo kimberlites.
In particular, silicified kimberlite (DDH-49/1) has a
very low MgO content (2.43 wt.%) but has relative-
ly unaltered Cr (1520 ppm), Ni (3080 ppm) and
Co (188 ppm) contents, which are of typical kim-
berlitic values. These values are even higher than
average, in the olivine cumulate zone, where Ni,
previously disseminated in olivine, has partially al-
tered to millerite. The same holds true for a number
of other components with relatively low mobilities.
Other samples, such as DDH-39/2 and G-DD-7102,
have elevated SiO2 contents from 40 to 50 wt.%
and high K2O values above 4 wt.%, due to the
occurrence of xenoliths of granite in the kimberlite
samples.
Fresh kimberlites have low SiO2 (23.6 36.4
wt.%), high and variable MgO (18.5 37.2 wt.%),
low Al2O3 (1.38 5.05 wt.%) and TiO2 (0.38 1.41
wt.%), and variable FeO (6.1 12.6 wt.%) contents.
There is no significant difference between the Los

Table 7
Representative compositions of chrome-diopside (wt.%) from the Los Indios sheet, sample DDH-45
Grain # SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Cr2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O Total Mg# Ca#
1a 52.98 0.02 6.05 3.21 2.89 0.12 12.98 17.69 2.98 0.02 98.94 88.9 49.3
2 54.55 0.10 1.57 1.99 2.03 0.01 16.23 20.89 1.52 0.09 98.98 93.4 48.2
3 54.73 0.16 2.34 2.29 1.92 0.12 15.64 19.66 2.02 0.07 98.95 93.6 47.7
4 55.37 0.19 2.22 2.37 1.88 0.06 16.09 19.20 1.95 0.05 99.38 93.9 45.9
a
Intergrowth with pyrope.
 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590 579

Table 8
Chemical compositions of kimberlites from Guaniamo
Componenta La Ceniza sheet Los Indios sheet
DDH97-64/1 DDH97-64/2 DDH97-65/2 DDH97-65/3 DDH-44/1 DDH-45/1 DDH-45/3
Major elements (wt.%)
SiO2 32.64 26.39 33.49 53.94 48.79 44.06
TiO2 0.87 1.41 0.56 0.41 0.88 0.74
Al2O3 2.40 1.50 1.38 1.09 3.22 1.22
Fe2O3 8.85 12.60 8.52 5.40 6.54 7.00
FeO 1.96 2.77 1.24 1.25 5.66 6.82
MnO 0.20 0.24 0.19 0.18 0.35 0.51
MgO 36.05 33.49 37.25 17.85 13.62 14.11
CaO 3.49 5.88 5.10 4.68 3.73 5.76
Na2O 0.27 0.34 0.47 0.54 0.17 0.20
K2O 1.68 0.42 0.42 2.70 2.70 1.53
P2O5 0.02 0.08 0.12 0.05 0.25 0.32
LOI 10.78 14.38 10.78 12.00 13.29 16.92
Total 99.21 99.50 99.52 100.09 99.20 99.19
H2O 0.30 0.26 0.34 1.38 0.89 0.97
H2O + 4.42 5.03 3.77 5.01 2.67 3.36
CO2 6.02 9.32 6.75 3.14 9.00 12.61
Stot. 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.09 0.20 0.21
C.I. 0.90 0.82 0.93 2.39 2.74 2.65

Trace elements (ppm)

Ni 1972 1889 1178 2641 1290 1100 1400
Cr 1960 2989 3442 1005 460 2700 2400
Co 114 110 102 114 73 85 127
Sc 15 21 22 9.3 27 20
V 27 72 60
Pb 6.7 7.2 12 7.3 18 25 24
Cu 52 177 67
Zn 52 55 58
Zr 22 26 62 28 71 52 37
Hf 0.6 2.1 2.0 0.5 1.5 0.7
Nb 88 66 350 140 444 237 219
Ta 6.5 7.5 20 6.4 21.0 13.0
Th 5.2 6.7 28 16 53 13.5 9.6
U 1.0 1.0 3.2 1.2 21 2.4 2.2
Sr 430 500 960 1000 94 630 734
Ba 779 1316 1015 803 53 960 523
Rb 50 85 23 26 184 156 92
Cs 1.0 2.0 1.1 0.04 2.9 2.4
Y 1.0 1.0 2.7 5.5 5.5 5.8 7.4
La 112 171 250 213 44 395 394
Ce 121 186 275 245 102 455 470
Nd 28 34 65 65 20 80 101
Sm 1.9 2.8 3.8 4.5 2.1 7.2 7.9
Eu 0.4 0.9 0.5 0.8 1.9 2.0
Tb 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.6
Yb 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.9 0.2
Lu 0.03 0.1 0.05 0.08 0.02 0.07
a
Major oxideswet silicate analysis; Ni, Cr, Co, Sc, Hf, Ta, Th, U, Cs, La, Ce, Nd, Sm, Eu, Tb, Yb and Luneutron activation analysis; V,
Pb, Cu, Zn, Y, Zr, Nb, Sr and RbXRF analysis.
580 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590

Indios and La Ceniza samples. High LOI values
(10.7 22.2 wt.%) reflect high volatile contents,
particularly in dolomite in both the groundmass
and in veins. High Ni (426 2641 ppm), Cr (195
3442 ppm), and Co (32 114 ppm) values attest to a
mantle origin for the kimberlite magma.
In detail there is clear correspondence between
geochemistry and kimberlite petrography. Mica-
ceous kimberlite from La Ceniza (DDH97-64/2)
has higher Al2O3 and K2O than non-micaceous
samples (DDH97-65/2 and DDH97-65/3). These
differences are shown in Fig. 7 on diagrams of

Fig. 7. Major element chemical composition of Guaniamo kimberlite sheets compared with fields for other kimberlite types, including group 1
and group 2 kimberlites (kimberlite fields after Mahotkin et al. 1997); composition of primitive mantle after Jagoutz et al. (1979), composition
of depleted mantle after Sablukov et al. (2002).
 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590 581

Al2O3 TiO2 and K2O TiO2, where the micaceous
kimberlite samples overlap the field for Group 2
kimberlites. Less micaceous samples show slight
overlap with the Group 1 kimberlite field. Alkali
ratios (Na2O/K2O) are approximately 1 in non-
micaceous kimberlite, while they are much less
than 1 in micaceous kimberlite. Among the trace
elements, Y, Nb, Pb, Th, Sr, La, Ce, Nd, and Sm
values are lower in micaceous vs. non-micaceous
kimberlite, while the opposite is true for Rb which
correlates with K2O and Al2O3, suggesting this
element resides in phlogopite.
In non-micaceous coarse-porphyritic kimberlite Ni/
Cr = 2.6, reflecting the high olivine content, while in
fine-porphyritic varieties Ni/Cr = 0.34 as a result of
the higher proportion of chrome spinel. This is also
responsible for higher MnO and Sc in fine-porphyritic
kimberlite. Fine-porphyritic kimberlite has higher Th,

Fig. 8. Sc Ta and Zr Nb plots for Guaniamo kimberlites, compared with primitive and depleted mantle, and other ultramafic compositions.
Sample symbols are the same as in Fig. 6. Fields for Arkhangelsk kimberlites after Sablukov (1990), other fields after Mahotkin et al. (1997).
582 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590

Fig. 9. Primitive mantle (Jagoutz et al., 1979; McDonough et al., 1992) normalized plot for kimberlites from Guaniamo.

U, Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf, Ti and LREE, and lower Y than
coarse-porphyritic kimberlite. These differences are
shown in Fig. 8 for Sc-Ta and Zr-Nb. The kimberlites
show a wide range of Nb values (28 350 ppm) at low
Zr (22 132 ppm).
MgO correlates negatively with increasing CaO,
and CO2 positively, both reflecting increase of car-
bonate and phlogopite as olivine and serpentine de-
crease. Sr and Ba, to a lesser extent, correlate
positively with CaO.
The distribution of major and trace elements in
the La Ceniza and Los Indios sheets, normalized to
primitive mantle composition (McDonough et al.,
1992; Jagoutz et al., 1979), are shown in Fig. 9.

Table 9
Trace element ratios for Guaniamo kimberlites compared with other kimberlite groups
Element ratio Guaniamo Group 1 Group 2 Olivine Koidu Aries Tres Arkhangelsk
kimberlite kimberlite lamproite kimberlite kimberlite Ranchos
n = 10 r n = 17 r n = 14 r n = 60 r n = 22 r n=3 r n=1 n=9 r
P2O5/Ce ( E + 04) 18.1 17.9 58 16 33 6 34 14 18 9 9 3 18 99 45
Nb/Zr 4.0 2.2 1.1 0.8 0.48 0.29 0.2 0.08 1.7 0.8 4.2 0.6 1 0.45 0.11
Nb/U 60.7 37.7 42 11 25 6 95 46 62 16 100 31
Ba/Rb 19.9 13.2 26 14 19 15 20 7 24 8 12 2 35 16 9
Nb/La 1.0 0.8 1.8 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.8 0.2 1.4 0.3 1.7 0.1 0.8 1.6 0.7
U/Th 0.2 0.1 0.21 0.05 0.17 0.04 0.11 0.06 0.16 0.05 0.1 0.04
Ce/Sr 0.3 0.1 0.24 0.12 0.32 0.1 0.31 0.12 0.57 0.11 0.74 0.37 0.38 0.12 0.05
Ni/MgO 43.5 14.4 40 8 49 12 42 6 42 5 61 14 49 46 5
Sc/Al2O3 7.8 3.8 7.2 2.3 6 2.1 5 1.9 6.7 0.7 6.2 0.8 6.2 3.3 1.3
Comparative data from Taylor et al., 1994, and Beard et al., 2000.
 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590 583

The Guaniamo kimberlites are strongly enriched in
incompatible elements and LREE, with approximate-
ly normal values of HREE and major elements. In
general, the kimberlites are characterized by negative
K, Rb, Cs, U, Hf, Zr and Y peaks and positive Th,
Nb, Ta and LREE peaks. The Al, Fe, Nb, Ta, Sc,
LREE and CO2 contents of the La Ceniza and Los
Indios sheets are close to Group 1 kimberlites,
whereas their Ti, K, Ca and H2O+ contents are more
similar to Group 2 kimberlites. The most distinctive
geochemical characteristics of the La Ceniza sheet
are its very high Nb/Ti ratio and very low P, Zr, Hf

Fig. 10. Results of multi-element discrimination analysis for: Amajor element oxides, and Bmajor element oxides and trace elements.
Fields and factors after Taylor et al. (1994).
584 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590

T(CHUR)
and Y contents relative to Groups 1 and 2 kimber-

0.968
0.821
0.815

0.822
lites (Smith et al., 1985).
In terms of trace element ratios (Table 9), average

T(DM)
values of U/Th, Ce/Sr, Ni/MgO, and Sc/Al2O3 for

1.377
1.216
1.217

1.209
Guaniamo kimberlites are similar to Group 1 kimber-
lite average values. Ba/Rb and Ce/Sr average values

4.4
2.1
1.9

2.1
are similar to Group 2 kimberlites and olivine lamp-

eNd
roite average values. P2O5/Ce and Nb/U average

Nd/144Nd(I)
values are similar to those for the Koidu dykes in West
Africa, while P2O5/Ce and Nb/Zr values are similar to

0.511496
0.511616
0.511624

0.511614
the Aries kimberlite of north-west Australia. Com-

143
pared with Arkhangelsk kimberlites from the Zolotitsa
field (Beard et al., 2000), Ba/Rb and Ni/MgO ratios are

0.511790 F 8
0.511856 F 6
0.511875 F 7

0.511839 F 6
Nd/144Nd
similar. When the ranges of values for the trace
element ratios are considered, there is more overlap
between Guaniamo and other kimberlite groups. It is

143
noteworthy that, at the 1r level, there is still no overlap

Sm/144Nd
of Nb/Zr values between Guaniamo and Groups 1 or 2

0.06315
0.05150
0.05392

0.04839
kimberlites. This ratio is very similar to the Aries
kimberlite and there is strong overlap.
147
Discriminant plots based on results of multigroup

(ppm)

19.94
68.55
72.85
discriminant analysis for major element oxide compo-

46.1
Nd
sitions (after Taylor et al., 1994) show that Guaniamo (ppm)
kimberlites overlap fields for Group 1 kimberlites (Fig.
2.083
5.840
6.498

3.690
Sm

10). Applying the same analysis to both trace and major

element oxides, a more complex picture emerges.
17.2
18.5
15.6

17.6
17.0
11.5
eSr

Group 1A, 1B, and 2 kimberlites form separate, well-

defined fields (Fig. 10), as do Koidu and Aries in Taylor
Sr/86Sr(I)

0.704872
0.704965
0.704761

0.704903
0.704863
0.704476
et al. (1994). Guaniamo samples form a broad field
overlapping Group 1A, Koidu, and Aries kimberlite
Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotope composition of the Guaniamo kimberlites
87

fields. The Guaniamo field comes close to the Group 2

0.770503 F 19
0.712676 F 17
0.708743 F 19

0.708362 F 17
0.709653 F 15
0.705167 F 14

kimberlite field due to the influence of sample DDH97-

64/2, which is a micaceous kimberlite.
Sr/86Sr
87

7. Isotope characteristics and age

0.3414 F 18
0.4727 F 18
6.477 F 3
0.7610 F 3
0.3930 F 2

0.0682 F 5
Rb/86Sr

In order to gain more precise information on the

nature of the mantle source of the Guaniamo kimber-
87

lite samples and to assess their emplacement age, the

85.47
(ppm)

617.4
713.6

Initial ratios refer to 710 Ma.

Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr isotope characteristics of the La

406
514
954
Sr

Ceniza and Los Indios kimberlites were determined

(ppm)

97.0

47.9
83.9
22.5
190.1
162.2

(Table 10).
Rb

The age of the Los Indios sheet, as determined

Los Indios sheet

La Ceniza sheet

from a three-point Rb-Sr isochron, is 710.3 F 6.5 Ma

DDH97-64/1
DDH97-64/2
DDH97-65/2
DDH 45/1
DDH-44/1

DDH-45/3

(IR = 0.70486 F 0.00028; MSWD = 0.65; 87Rb/86Sr%

Table 10

Sample

errors = 0.5; 87Sr/86Sr% errors = 0.05). This dating

agrees well with the age of La Ceniza sheet kimber-
 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590 585

lites as determined from a three-point Rb-Sr isochron
at 783 F 83 Ma (IR = 0.70444 F 0.00040; MSWD =
0.55; 87Rb/86Sr% errors = 0.5; 87Sr/86Sr% errors =
0.05). The isochrons, with data-point error ellipses
as 2r, are presented in Fig. 11. The emplacement of
both the La Ceniza and Los Indios sheet kimberlites
occurred in the Neoproterozoic.
The average age of all Guaniamo kimberlites, as
determined from a six-point Rb-Sr isochron (samples
from La Ceniza and Los Indios sheets; Fig. 11), is
711.6 F 5.9 Ma (IR = 0.70478 F 0.00017; MSWD =
1.13; 87Rb/86Sr% errors = 0.5; 87Sr/86Sr% errors =
0.05). By excluding sample DDH-44/1, which has
an anomalously low Sr content (85.5 ppm) and high
87
Rb/86Sr ratio (6.477), the five-point Rb-Sr isochron
gives an age of 757 F 49 Ma (IR = 0.70452 F
0.00032; MSWD = 0.39; 87Rb/ 86Sr% errors = 0.5;
87
Sr/86Sr% errors = 0.05). We accept the value of
712 F 6 Ma as the most probable age of emplacement
of the Guaniamo kimberlite sheets; it includes all
determinations and has the lowest error value. This is
much younger than the Paleoproterozoic age (1730
Ma), which was previously reported for Guaniamo
kimberlites by Nixon et al. (1994), who did not have
access to fresh drill core, only to highly tropically
weathered kimberlite clays. The Sm-Nd model ages
(TDM = 1377 1209 Ma; Table 10) indicate the possi-
ble age of mantle metasomatism.
In the eSrt eNdt diagram corrected for an emplace-
ment age of 710 Ma (Fig. 12), the Guaniamo kim-

Fig. 11. Rb-Sr isochron diagrams for Guaniamo kimberlites.

586 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590

Fig. 12. Sr-Nd isotope diagram of the Guaniamo kimberlites. 1 4, kimberlites and related rocks of the Arkhangelsk area: 1kimberlite, 2
kimmelilitite, 3olivine melilitites, 4kimberlite and kimpicrites (Mahotkin et al., 1997). Group 2 kimberlite after Smith et al. (1985).

berlites lie between fields for Group 1 and Group 2
kimberlites, although closer to the Group 1 field. They
plot close to the field for transitional type kimberlites
(Skinner et al., 1994). However, the Guaniamo sam-
ples coincide closely with the field for Al-series
diamondiferous kimberlites of the Arkhangelsk dia-
mond province (Mahotkin et al., 1997; Beard et al.,
2000).
8. Discussion and conclusions
8.1. Classification of the Guaniamo kimberlites
The La Ceniza and Los Indios kimberlite sheets are
separate horizons, with the Los Indios unit approxi-
mately 70 m above the La Ceniza layer (Channer et al.,
2001). This study has not found any significant
mineralogical, geochemical, or isotopic difference
between the two sheets. Therefore, it is likely that
the two sheets, and probably also the other kimberlite
sheets in Guaniamo, formed as part of the same
intrusive event from the same source region.
The Guaniamo kimberlites cannot readily be clas-
sified as either basaltoid Group 1 or mica Group 2
kimberlites (Smith et al., 1985). Based on petrograph-
ic and mineralogical characteristics, the rocks being
studied show the following similarities to Group 2
kimberlites: sharp predominance of the ultramafic
chromian mineral association (forsterite, pyrope and
chromian spinel), a subordinate role of eclogitic suite
minerals (pyrope-almandine), and the almost com-
plete absence of ultramafic iron-titanian association
minerals (picroilmenite and orange titanian pyrope).
Quantitatively, garnet is much more abundant in the
examined rocks than chromian spinel. In addition,
phlogopite is abundant in the groundmass and both
clinopyroxene and perovskite are rare. A peculiar
feature of the Guaniamo kimberlites is the presence
of manganese ilmenite, which is also known to occur
as inclusions in Guaniamo diamonds (Kaminsky et
al., 2000). In contrast, the abundance of olivine
 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590
macrocrysts is a feature more commonly found in
Group 1 kimberlites.
Chemically the Guaniamo kimberlites are equally
difficult to categorize. The least altered La Ceniza
sheet kimberlites have Al, Fe, K, Nb, Ta, LREE and
CO2 contents close to those of Group 1 South African
kimberlites, and Ti, Ca and H2O+ contents similar to
those characteristic of Group 2 kimberlites (Smith et
al., 1985). Trace element ratios such as U/Th, Ce/Sr,
Ni/MgO, and Sc/Al2O3 are similar to Group 1 kim-
berlite average values, while Ba/Rb and Ce/Sr are
closer to Group 2 kimberlite average values. The most
prominent geochemical features of the Guaniamo
kimberlites are their very high Nb/Zr ratio and very
low P, Zr, Hf and Y contents. The high Nb/Zr ratio of
the Guaniamo kimberlites is similar to the geochem-
ically distinctive Aries kimberlite of Australia (Taylor
et al., 1994). Taylor et al. (1994) suggested the
existence of a compositional spectrum between non-
micaceous Group 1 kimberlites, through mica-bearing
Koidu kimberlites, to the Aries end member. Using
multidiscriminant analysis of geochemical data (after
Taylor et al., 1994), the Guaniamo kimberlites plot in
the region between Group 1 kimberlites and Aries,
overlapping the Koidu kimberlites, and supporting the
ideas of Taylor et al. (1994).
Guaniamo kimberlites have etNd < 0 while etSr val-
ues are similar to Group 1 kimberlites (Fig. 12).
Isotopically, the Guaniamo kimberlites show close
correspondence to Al-series kimberlites of the
Arkhangelsk Province (Sablukov, 1990). Transitional
kimberlites (Clark et al., 1991) have higher etSr and
slightly higher etNd than Guaniamo kimberlites. Group
2 kimberlites have much higher etSr and much lower
et Nd than the Guaniamo kimberlites. The Tres
Ranchos kimberlite in Brazil (F. Kaminsky and S.
Sablukov, unpublished data) has an isotopic signature
which overlaps the field for transitional kimberlites
and which is quite close to the Guaniamo signature.
Hence, the Guaniamo kimberlites, while petro-
graphically similar to Group 2 kimberlites, on chem-
ical and isotopic grounds, are clearly part of a
compositional spectrum which appears to exist be-
tween the standard reference Group 1 and 2 kimber-
lites, and other possible extreme end members such as
the Aries kimberlite.
The Guaniamo kimberlites show some similarities
with the Snap Lake kimberlite dyke in Canada
587
(Pokhilenko et al., 2001; Kirkley et al., 2003), most
obviously in morphology and high diamond grade.
Mineralogically, they both have low KIM content, the
presence of pyrope and chromian spinel with an
almost complete absence of picroilmenite, and the
presence of pyropes of lherzolite (and wehrlite) para-
genesis with Cr2O3>12 wt.%. However, there are also
sharp differences between the two kimberlites. The
majority of Snap Lake diamonds are peridotitic
(Pokhilenko et al., 2001), in contrast to Guaniamo.
Isotopically, the Snap Lake kimberlite is clearly a
Group 1 kimberlite with an age of 522.9 Ma (Kirkley
et al., 2003).
8.2. Nature of the mantle source
The sub-calcic pyrope garnets in the Guaniamo
kimberlites are derived from depleted harzburgitic and
lherzolitic subcontinental lithospheric mantle
(SCLM), which in the case of harzburgite is unique
to the Archean (Griffin et al., 2003). The limited
geochemical and isotopic data available for igneous
rocks of the Cuchivero Province of the Guyana Shield
show that this province is primarily juvenile Protero-
zoic crust (Tassinari and Macambira, 1999), but the
presence of sub-calcic garnets in the Guaniamo kim-
berlites is a clear sign that Archean SCLM has been
preserved to some extent beneath the Guyana Shield.
The high ultramaficity of the Guaniamo kimber-
lites (high Ni, Cr, Mg# and low Al2O3 and CaO) is
further evidence of the derivation from a depleted
harzburgite mantle source. However, the high concen-
trations of volatiles, incompatible elements and LREE
enrichment show that mantle metasomatism had oc-
curred before or syn-kimberlite melt formation. The
Mesoproterozoic model Nd age range for the Gua-
niamo kimberlites (TDM = 1377 1209 Ma) gives an
indication of when this metasomatism may have
occurred, producing incompatible element enriched
mantle peridotite. The Guaniamo kimberlites repre-
sent low degree partial melts of this metasomatised
mantle (Mitchell, 1986). The incompatible trace ele-
ment ratios in the Guaniamo kimberlite reflect the
original signature of the metasomatised mantle source,
plus any fractionation effects caused by residual
phases during partial melting.
The mantle beneath the Guaniamo area, judging by
an unusually high proportion of eclogitic-type inclu-
588 F.V. Kaminsky et al. / Lithos 76 (2004) 565590
sions in diamonds, was affected by subduction of
oceanic crust (Sobolev et al., 1998; Kaminsky et al.,
2000). Further support for this hypothesis was recent-
ly found in extremely elevated d18O values (from
+ 10.2x to + 16.4x) in coesite included in Gua-
niamo diamonds (Schulze et al., 2003a,b). Additional
support comes from the elevated oxygen isotope ratio
(up to + 9.26 x d18O) found in eclogitic garnet xen-
ocrysts from the La Ceniza kimberlite (Schulze et al.,
2003c).
It is possible that subduction beneath the Guyana
Shield at around 1200 Ma, the age of the Nickerie
event in the Guyana Shield, dragged K-metasomatised
peridotites from the mantle wedge down into the
mantle, along with the oceanic crust. As suggested
by Taylor et al. (1994), these peridotites would have
high Nb and F, and low Sr and P. This mechanism
provides both the metasomatising material plus the
carbon for eclogitic diamond genesis, and the oceanic
crust for eclogite formation.
8.3. Age of the Guaniamo kimberlites
In previous studies, Guaniamo kimberlite sheets
have been dated at 1730 Ma (Nixon et al., 1994), an
age which could suggest possible ingress of diamonds
into Proterozoic Roraima Supergroup sedimentary
rocks (1900 1550 Ma; Gaudette et al., 1996; Santos
et al., 2003), from Guaniamo area kimberlite sheets or
kimberlites of similar age. Whether diamonds
reported in Roraima Supergroup (Reid and Bisque,
1975) come from older, still undiscovered primary
sources, or from younger kimberlites intruded into the
Roraima, remains to be determined.
The results of this study, according to which local
kimberlite sheets were re-dated at 712 F 6 Ma, allow
the identification of a new, Neoproterozoic kimberlite
formation epoch in the Guyana Shield.
Neoproterozoic kimberlites are not common, but
kimberlite rocks dated at approximately 700 Ma do
occur in the West African Craton (Bardet and Vach-
ette, 1966), which, according to plate tectonic recon-
structions, occurred during the Paleoproterozoic
integral to the Guyana Shield (see Zhao et al., 2002).
Zhao et al. (2002) review evidence for the existence of
a Paleo-Mesoproterozoic supercontinent, named Co-
lumbia, which broke up between 1.6 and 1.2 Ga, a
time of abundant mafic magmatism in the Guyana
Shield. This period was then followed by the assembly
of another supercontinent, known as Rodinia, which
finally broke up around 800 700 Ma (see Meert and
Torsvik, 2003 for a recent review), at the time when
the Guaniamo kimberlites were emplaced. The relative
positions of the continents are, however, less well
constrained during this time, due to lack of reliable
paleomagnetic data (Meert and Torsvik, 2003).
The presence of high diamond grade kimberlites in
a non-traditional setting, combined with the chemi-
cal and isotopic evidence for a distinctive source, in
which subduction of oceanic crust played a key role,
is of significant importance with regard to identifica-
tion of new prospective areas, which might previously
have been regarded as uninteresting.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to D.Z. Zhuravlev for the
Rb-Sr and Sm-Nd isotope analyses of the kimberlites
and to K.R. Ludwig for supplying us with program
ISOPLOT-3.00, which we used for calculation of
kimberlite ages. We thank our reviewers, Peter Nixon
and Jacques Letendre, for their valuable, constructive
comments, and the editor, Larry Heaman, for his
careful work with the manuscript. D. Schulze kindly
presented us with his unpublished manuscripts. I.
Coulson helped us with editing the manuscript.
Guaniamo Mining Company and its President, R.E.
Cooper provided financial support for this research.
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