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3.1 Definitions
By definition, a porous medium consists of pores between some
particulate phase, contained within a vessel, or some control volume,
as illustrated in Figure 3.1. The fluid flow rate through the bed is Q
(m3 s1) and the bed cross sectional area is A (m2). Thus the superficial
(or empty tube) velocity U0 is the total flow rate divided by the cross
sectional area. The existence of the particles within the bed will
reduce the area available for fluid flow; i.e. to preserve fluid
continuity with the entering superficial flow the fluid will have to
squeeze through a smaller area; hence the velocity within the bed (U
interstitial velocity) will be greater than the superficial. In Particle
Technology calculations it is the volume fraction that is most
important, and not the mass fraction. The volume fraction of solids
present (i.e. volume solids in bed divided by total bed volume) is
usually referred to simply as the volume concentration, or solids
fraction, and the remaining fraction is that of the voids. The void
fraction is also called the voidage and the bed porosity. It is important
to realise that, in liquid systems, the voids are usually filled with
liquid and not to assume that the bed consists of just solids and air.
The porosity is usually an isotropic property (i.e. the same in all
directions); hence, the interstitial velocity is simply related to the
superficial velocity by the following expression, which comes from a Fig. 3.1 Illustration of
consideration of fluid continuity. fluid flow through a
porous medium and
U
U= o (3.1) consideration of the
volume fractions present
Clearly, the resistance to fluid flow through the porous medium is
related to the amount of particles present, or volume concentration,
but it is conventional to work in terms of bed porosity. At one
extreme, when the bed is full of solids (porosity is zero possible exercise 3.1
with cubic particles placed carefully within the bed) the resistance is Using continuity:
infinite. At the other, when no solids are present and the porosity is i.e. Q = constant,
unity, the interstitial velocity will be the same as the superficial deduce equation (3.1)
velocity. The resistance to fluid flow gives rise to a pressure drop in
22 Fluid flow in porous media
R
(3.9)
U 2
Equation (3.9) is the friction factor and R is the shear stress, or drag
force per unit area, on the particle surface. A force balance at the Force balance on a pipe
particle surface can be constructed as follows. wall
surface area of particles= S (1 ) LA (m2) (for pure fluid no
v particles)
drag force = R. particle surface area (N)
and
pressure drop on fluid= P (N m2)
force by fluid= PA (N)
Equating the two forces and rearranging gives
force on wall:
P
R= (3.10) Rd .x
S v (1 ) L force on fluid:
Note that equation (3.10) is the analogue of that provided for pipe d 2
flow in the box. Finally, expanding into a friction factor, equation P
4
(3.9), together with equation (3.1) gives combine and integrate:
R 3 P 1 Pd
= (3.11) RL = or
U 2 S v (1 ) L U 2 4
o d P
Alternatively, the pressure drop per unit length is R=
4 L
2
P R S v (1 ) U o c.f. equation (3.10)
= (3.12)
L U 2 3
where the bracketed term is the friction factor. So, given a flow rate, Laminar flow
hence superficial velocity, it is possible to calculate the Modified Carman correlation
without the turbulent
Reynolds number from equation (3.3) and the friction factor from
correction is
Figure 3.4. This can then be used in equation (3.12) to provide the
R 5
pressure drop, or gradient, under conditions of laminar or turbulent =
flow through the porous medium. U 2 Re1
Using equation (3.10) and
3.5 Carman and Ergun correlations (3.3) provides
The friction factor plot, with Reynolds number, for fluid flow through 3 P 1
= ...
porous media is a smoother function than that found in pipe flow. S v (1 ) L U 2
This is due to the smooth increase in turbulences within the bed as o
flow rate increases. Thus the friction factor plot can be represented by K (1 ) S v
... =
just one, or two, empirical curves. The Carman correlation is U o
generally used for solid objects forming a bed So,
R
=
5
+
0 .4
(3.13) P K (1 ) 2 S v 2
2 Re 0 .1 = U o
U 1 Re1 L 3
The Ergun correlation is for hollow objects, such as packing rings
R 4.17 i.e. equation (3.7)
= + 0.29 (3.14)
U 2 Re1
The form of both equations is similar: with a correction term added to
the laminar flow term to account for resistance due to turbulences.
26 Fluid flow in porous media
3.7 Summary
In this chapter we have seen the importance of specific surface: it
defines the surface area that is present within a porous medium; and
it is the friction of fluid flowing over that area that causes a pressure
drop. Finer particles provide a higher surface area per unit volume
than coarser ones, therefore, a higher flow resistance. Turbulences
within the fluid inside the bed, at higher flow rates, cause an
additional flow resistance, or pressure drop. Thus, a calculated
pressure drop by a laminar flow equation, Darcys law or Kozeny-
Carman, will always underestimate the true pressure drop if
significant turbulence is present. Often the temptation to use Kozeny-
Fundamentals of Particle Technology 27
Carman, rather than the procedure described in Sections 3.4 and 3.5,
is too great even when the Modified Reynolds number is high. This
will lead to an under-design, or specification, for equipment such as
pumps and fans. Providing another example of the failure in design
discussed in the Forward.
Even under conditions of laminar flow, the use of the median size
to respresent the size distributed solids rather than the Sauter mean
diameter can cause significant errors, as shown in Section 3.3. Finally,
a brief consideration of particle packing arrangements has been
included, but in most processes the packing arrangement is random
and not structured. Hence, the safest procedure for the analysis of a
flow through porous media problem is to conduct experiments to
deduce characteristics such as the permeability and if it varies with
Equation summary
flow; a possibility if the finer particles become transported within the Under laminar flow:
bed or if suspended solids within the fluid deposit inside the bed.
P K (1 ) 2 S v 2
The latter is depth filtration, which is covered in the next chapter. = U o
L 3
3.8 Problems
where K is the Kozeny
1. constant At high values of
(i) A powder is contained in a vessel to form a cylindrical plug 0.8 the 'Modified Reynolds
cm in diameter and 3 cm long. The powder density is 2.5 g cm3 and Number' (Re1>2):
2.20 grams of powder was used to form the plug. The porosity inside Uo
Re1 =
the plug of powder is (-): (1 ) S v
a: 0.58 b: 0.42 c: 0.75 d: 0.25 turbulent conditions
pertain. A pressure drop
(ii). Air was drawn through the plug at a rate of 6.6 cm3 per minute. given a flow rate can still
A mercury manometer was used to measure the pressure drop be deduced, but first the
during this process: a pressure drop of 60 mm Hg was recorded. The Modified Reynolds number
specific gravity of mercury is 13.6, thus the pressure drop across the is required, then the
friction factor using say the
plug was (Pa):
Carman correlation:
a: 80 b: 800 c: 8000 d: 80000
R 5 0 .4
(iii). The superficial gas velocity in (ii) was (m s1): = +
a: 0.0022 b: 3.65x105 c: 2.2x106 d: 0.00365 U 2 Re1 Re 0.1
1
A force balance on the
5
(iv).The viscosity of the air was 1.8x10 Pa s, using the Kozeny- surface of the solids and on
the fluid gives:
Carman equation, the specific surface area per unit volume of the
RS v LA(1 ) = PA
powder was (m-1):
where L is the bed height
a: 2310 b: 3.0x1011 c: 5.5x105 d: 1.2x106
or depth. Given a value for
the shear stress on the
(v). The Sauter mean diameter of the powder was (m): solids (R) calculated from
a: 2600 b: 22 c: 11 d: 5.0 the Carman correlation
then the pressure drop (P)
(vi). The air density was 1.2 kg m3, the Modified Reynolds Number can be calculated from the
of the system was (-): force balance.
a: 0.10 b: 8.4x1010 c: 4.6x104 d: 0.00021
28 Fluid flow in porous media
2.
(i). A cylindrical ion exchange bed composed of spherical particles 2
mm in diameter packed at a bed voidage of 0.45 is to be used to de-
ionise a liquid of density and viscosity 1100 kg m3 and 0.0075 Pa s
respectively. The design flow rate is 5 m3 hour1 and the bed height
and diameter are 2 and 0.2 m respectively, using the Kozeny-Carman
equation the pressure drop is (Pa):
a: 99000 b: 1.32x107 c: 4400 d: 44000
(v). Using the Carman correlation the shear stress on the ion
exchange beads is (Pa):
a: 17.2 b: 3.5 c: 13.5 d: 27.0
(vi). Hence the dynamic pressure drop over the bed is (kPa):
a: 84 b: 130 c: 99 d: 150
(viii). If the liquid has a datum height equal to the position at the base
of the ion exchange vessel and, therefore, needs raising to the top of
the column before it enters the ion exchange bed the additional
pressure drop to effect this, i.e. the static pressure drop over the bed,
is (kPa):
a: 2.16 b: 21.6 c: 216 d: 0.22