Correlates of Nonwork and Work Satisfaction Among Hotel Employees

Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 22:375406, 2013
Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 1936-8623 print/1936-8631 online
DOI: 10.1080/19368623.2012.667596
Correlates of Nonwork and Work Satisfaction

Among Hotel Employees: Implications
for Managers
UGUR YAVAS
Department of Management and Marketing, College of Business and Technology, East
Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee, USA
OSMAN M. KARATEPE
Faculty of Tourism, Eastern Mediterranean University Gazimagusa, Turkish Republic of
Northern Cyprus, Turkey
EMIN BABAKUS
Department of Marketing and Supply Chain Management, Fogelman College of Business
and Economics, The University of Memphis, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
This study develops and tests a research model that investigates job
satisfaction as a mediator of the effects of interrole conflicts, work
environment, and affectivity on career satisfaction and life satis-
faction. Based on data gathered from a sample of frontline hotel
employees in Turkey, these relationships were assessed through
structural equation modeling. Results reveal that while interrole
conflicts and work overload do not have significant impacts on any
of the satisfaction constructs, perceptions of organizational politics
show significant negative influences on career and life satisfaction,
mediated by job satisfaction. Job satisfaction also acts as a mediator
of the effects of the positive elements of work environment (per-
ceived organizational support, job autonomy, and participation in
decision-making) on career and life satisfaction. While negative
affectivity shows no significant influence on satisfaction constructs,
positive affectivity significantly influences career satisfaction and
life satisfaction directly and indirectly through the mediating role
of job satisfaction.
Address correspondence to Osman M. Karatepe, PhD, Faculty of Tourism,

Eastern Mediterranean University, Gazimagusa, TRNC, Via Mersin 10, Turkey. E-mail:
osman.karatepe@emu.edu.tr
375
376 U. Yavas et al.
KEYWORDS affectivity, career satisfaction, interrole conflict, job

satisfaction, life satisfaction, work environment
INTRODUCTION
Because of their boundary-spanning roles, frontline hotel employees play

a pivotal role in the delivery of quality services to guests and service
recovery in case of failures (Gil, Hudson, & Quintana, 2006; Kwortnik,
2006; Min & Min, 2005). However, interrole conflicts (e.g., work-family
conflict) may create a stressful mindset for employees in frontline service
jobs and may hamper their interactions with customers (Yavas, Karatepe,
& Babakus, 2011). In addition to interrole conflicts, both the positive (e.g.,
job autonomy) and negative (e.g., work overload) elements of work envi-
ronment can have enormous influences on the way frontline employees
feel and behave (Kusluvan, Kusluvan, Ilhan, & Buyruk, 2010; H.-R. Lee,
Murrmann, Murrmann, & Kim, 2010; Wan, 2010; Yang, 2010; Yavas et al.,
2011). Furthermore, affectivity (Iverson, Olekalns, & Erwin, 1998), an endur-
ing personal disposition, can influence the way frontline employees feel
about their jobs. All these factors can affect employees satisfaction not only
in work but also in nonwork spheres.
In the work sphere, job satisfaction is the most commonly studied type
of satisfaction. The dominant view in the management literature is that job
satisfaction is a pleasurable emotional state resulting from a persons assess-
ment of various facets of their job (cf. Hartline & Ferrell, 1996). Career
satisfaction is an internally defined (i.e., by the employee themselves) out-
come and refers to an employees satisfaction with the success the employee
feels they achieved toward the attainment of career goals (cf. Greenhaus,
Parasuraman, & Wormley, 1990). Also referred to as happiness, subjec-
tive well-being or affective well-being, life satisfaction arguably, is the type
of nonwork satisfaction which has attracted most attention from scholars.
Notwithstanding the debate whether it is a product of a vertical bottom-
up spillover process or a compensatory process, life satisfaction is a global
assessment of a persons quality of life according to criteria chosen by the
person (cf. Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). The overall life sat-
isfaction gives the best indication as to how a person is faring in their life
according to their beliefs.
Purpose
Against this background, the purpose of the current study is to develop and
test a research model that examines the potential effects of interrole conflicts,
work environment, and affectivity on job satisfaction, career satisfaction, and
Nonwork and Work Satisfaction Among Hotel Employees 377
life satisfaction. We also propose that job satisfaction plays a mediator role
between interrole conflicts, work environment and affectivity, and career
and life satisfaction due to its nature as a more immediate outcome of the
antecedent variables. We use data collected from frontline hotel employees
in Turkey to assess these relationships.
Our study is relevant and significant. Undoubtedly owing to their
importance from public policy and managerial perspectives, a plethora of
theoretical writings and empirical research in the past sought to determine
factors that drive individuals job, career, and life satisfaction. A careful
scrutiny of writings in the hospitality management and marketing literature
suggests that the scopes of the studies in the area are limited to one or at
most two forms of satisfaction (cf. Chuang & Lei, 2011; Clark, Hartline, &
Jones, 2009; Karatepe, 2010; B. C. P. Kim, Murrmann, & Lee, 2009; H. J.
Kim, Tavitiyaman, & Kim, 2009; C. Lee & Way, 2010; Zhao, Qu, & Ghiselli,
2011). In addition, while past studies have investigated various antecedents
(i.e., interrole conflicts, work overload, perceptions of organizational politics,
perceived organizational support, job autonomy, participation in decision-
making, affectivity) as correlates of job, career, or life satisfaction (e.g., Deery
& Jago, 2009; Herington & Weaven, 2009; Kusluvan et al., 2010), no study
to date has examined the simultaneous effects of these antecedents on job,
career, and life satisfaction, a void which is echoed in a recent study (Yang,
2010). Overall, undoubtdly owing to its critical role in customer satisfaction
and retention (e.g., Back, Lee, & Abbott, 2011; Y. K. Kim & Back, 2012;
C. Lee & Way, 2010), employee satisfaction in frontline service jobs (e.g.,
casino, hotel, airlines) continues to receive research attention.
We would like to note that, in Turkey where this study is conducted,
by relying on data obtained from managerial and nonmanagerial employees
in the hospitality industry, some empirical studies in the past examined the
antecedents and consequences of job satisfaction. For example, Pelit, Ozturk,
and Arslanturk (2011) assessed the effect of employee empowerment on job
satisfaction in the five-star hotels. Karatepe and Sokmen (2006) tested the
effects of role stress and interrole conflicts on job satisfaction, service recov-
ery performance, and turnover intentions among frontline hotel employees.
In a study of frontline hotel employees, Karatepe and Uludag (2008) exam-
ined the effects of supervisor support and interrole conflicts on work and
non-work satisfaction. In another study of hotel managers, Gunlu, Aksarayli,
and Percin (2010) investigated the relationship between job satisfaction and
three forms of organizational commitment. In addition, Gursoy, Boylu, and
Avci (2011) investigated the antecedents (e.g., job autonomy) and conse-
quences (i.e., job satisfaction) of emotional labor in the hospitality and travel
industry.
Our study differs from these works in two ways. First, none of these
empirical studies has assessed the simultaneous effects of interrole conflicts,
work environment and affectivity on career, job, and life satisfaction. More
378 U. Yavas et al.
importantly, none of these studies has treated job satisfaction as a mediator

of the effects of these antecedents on career and life satisfaction.
Besides filling in the informational void and serving as a frame of refer-
ence for future research, the findings of the present study may prove useful
to hotel managers who, recognizing the pivotal role of frontline employees
(Yang, 2010), desire to retain employees satisfied with their jobs, careers,
and life in general in the organization. If, for instance, this study shows
that the correlates of job satisfaction and life satisfaction are congruent, then
managerial actions to enhance employees job satisfaction will improve not
only their job satisfaction but also their overall life satisfaction (cf. Friedman
& Friedman, 2008). This becomes significant at a time when there is a grad-
ual move away from models that solely focus on profit/wealth maximization.
These days, the corporate world is examining viability of happiness as a goal
to strive for and is using the happiness construct as part of a cost-benefit
analysis (cf. Frey & Stutzer, 2005; Gavin & Mason, 2004).
LITERATURE REVIEW, HYPOTHESES, AND RESEARCH MODEL

Studies on Job Satisfaction in the Hospitality Industry
A stream of research in the past has investigated the antecedents and con-
sequences of job satisfaction and/or treated job satisfaction as a mediator
variable in studies among manigerial and non-manigerial employees in the
hospitality industry (Jang & George, 2012; Ko, 2012). For example, a study by
Arnett, Laverie, and McLane (2002), which used a sample of managerial and
nonmanagerial hotel employees as its setting, demonstrated that role clarity,
work environment, and evaluation of management were positively related
to job satisfaction, while job satisfaction was positively related to pride in
the organization and positive employee behaviors. Chiang and Jangs (2008)
study indicated that Taiwanese hotel employees who had autonomy in their
job and made decisions on their own about doing their work were satisfied
with their jobs. This, in turn, resulted in organizational commitment. B. C.
P. Kim et al.s (2009) study conducted with Thai frontline hotel employees
showed that training and rewards influenced extra-role customer service and
cooperation indirectly via job satisfaction. According to the results of another
study conducted with frontline employees in restaurants, job satisfaction fully
mediated the impact of empowerment on customers perceptions of service
quality (Gazzoli, Hancer, & Park, 2010).
In a study of frontline employees in international tourist hotels in
Taiwan, Yang (2010) reported that role conflict, burnout, socialization, and
job autonomy were significant predictors of job satisfaction, while affec-
tive and continuance commitment and turnover intentions were significant
outcomes of job satisfaction. In another empirical study, it was shown that
ethical leadership enhanced middle managers job satisfaction in the hotel
industry (W. G. Kim & Brymer, 2011). Such managers, in turn, had high
levels of organizational commitment and lower turnover intentions. Lam and
Chens (2012) study showed that surface acting reduced while deep act-
ing increased Chinese hotel service employees job satisfaction. They further
found that employees job satisfaction enhanced service quality as assessed
by their supervisors.
However, we would like to underline that none of these studies, as
well as the studies conducted in Turkey reviewed earlier, have treated job
satisfaction as a mediator of the simultaneous effects of interrole conflicts,
work environment, and affectivity on career and life satisfaction. Thus, by
investigating these relationships our research partially addresses the research
void existing in the area.
Hypotheses
INTERROLE CONFLICTS
Workfamily conflict and familywork conflict are the two types of of
interrole conflicts. Workfamily conflict refers to a form of interrole con-
flict in which the general demands of, time devoted to, and strain created by
the job interfere with performing family-related responsibilities and family
work conflict refers to a form of interrole conflict in which the general
demands of, time devoted to, and strain created by the family interfere with
performing work-related responsibilities (Netemeyer, Boles, & McMurrian,
1996, p. 401).
We argue that an immediate consequence of interrole conflicts as they
relate to ones job is reduced job satisfaction (cf. Lapierre et al., 2008). The
two types of interrole conflicts are negatively associated not only with job
but life satisfaction as well (Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Sutton, 2000; Kossek &
Ozeki, 1998). In addition, research done with Turkish frontline hotel employ-
ees suggests that both forms of interrole conflicts have detrimental effects on
employees career satisfaction, while only familywork conflict has a nega-
tive impact on their life satisfaction (Karatepe & Uludag, 2008). Another study
conducted with Turkish frontline hotel employees reveals that work-family
conflict influences career satisfaction deleteriously, while familywork con-
flict does not significantly affect career satisfaction (Karatepe, Kilic, & Isiksel,
2008). Zhao et al. (2011) have found that familywork conflict has a delete-
rious effect on life satisfaction among managerial hotel employees in China,
while workfamily conflict does not. A few studies also demonstrate that job
satisfaction mediates the effects of workfamily conflict and/or familywork
conflict on life satisfaction (e.g., Lapierre et al., 2008).
An employees satisfaction with his or her career can be determined
by various aspects of their job such as pay, advancement, achievement of
career goals, and development of new skills (cf. Greenhaus et al., 1990;
380 U. Yavas et al.
Kong, Cheung, & Song, 2012; Parasuraman, Purohit, Godshalk, & Beutell,
1996). Similarly, an employees life satisfaction can be determined by various
aspects of their life in the work sphere (cf. Lapierre et al., 2008). Once
employees are satisfied with different aspects of their job, they have higher
career and life satisfaction. Consequently, the effects of workfamily and
familywork conflicts on career and life satisfaction can be direct or indirect
through job satisfaction. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H1: Job satisfaction mediates the effects of interrole conflicts in the

form of work-family conflict and familywork conflict on (a) career
satisfaction and (b) life satisfaction.
Work Environment
Elements of work environment may be physical, psychological, or social
in nature and may be located at the organizational and task levels, in
interpersonal/social relations and the organization of work (Barrows &
Ridout, 2010; Solnet, Kandampully, & Kralj, 2010). In our study, we focus
on both the negative and positive elements of work environment. Work
overload and organizational politics perceptions are the negative elements,
and perceived organizational support, job autonomy, and participation in
decision-making are the positive elements of work environment examined
in this study.
NEGATIVE ELEMENTS
Work overload describes an inappropriately onerous magnitude of work
requirements which typically happen when employees face demands that
exceed their abilities/resources. This is a common occurrence among
Turkish frontline hotel employees (Babakus, Yavas, & Karatepe, 2008;
Kusluvan, Kusluvan, & Eren, 2003). Research shows that work overload
leads to reduced job and life satisfaction (De Cuyper & De Witte, 2006) and
career satisfaction as demonstrated by Karatepe et al. (2008) in a study with
Turkish frontline hotel employees. Furthermore, work overload negatively
influences life satisfaction through full mediation of job satisfaction (Iverson
& Maguire, 2000).
Organizational politics refers to phenomena in which organizational
members attempt either directly or indirectly to influence other members
by means not sanctioned by formal standard operating procedures or infor-
mal norms, in an attempt to achieve personal or group objectives (Witt,
Andrews, & Kacmar, 2000, p. 342). When employees recognize that they
work in a political environment, they perceive this environment as uncertain,
risky, threatening and unfair. These beliefs become potential sources of stress
(Treadway et al., 2005) and reduce job satisfaction. A politically charged work
environment can result in poor physical health and low levels of life satis-
faction (Kaiser & Polczynski, 1982) as well as low levels of job satisfaction
(Miller, Rutherford, & Kolodinsky, 2008; Vigoda-Gadot & Talmud, 2010).
Both work overload and perceptions of organizational politics can influ-
ence career and life satisfaction directly and also indirectly through job
satisfaction. We surmise that an immediate outcome of the presence of a
political work environment with excessive job demands is dissatisfaction with
the job. Feelings of dissatisfaction with the job will eventually spillover into
career and life in general. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H2: Job satisfaction mediates the effects of the negative elements of

work environment emanating from work overload and perceptions
of organizational politics on (a) career satisfaction and (b) life
satisfaction.
POSITIVE ELEMENTS
Frontline service jobs in the Turkish hospitality industry, similar to else-
where, require long and unsocial work hours and excessive job demands
(cf. Karatepe & Sokmen, 2006; Karatepe & Uludag, 2008). Under these cir-
cumstances, employees expect the organization to value and appreciate
their contributions and may evaluate tasks as displeasing if the organiza-
tion is not supportive (Susskind, Borchgrevink, Kacmar, & Brymer, 2000).
Perceived organizational support reflects employees general beliefs regard-
ing the degree to which the organization cares about their well-being and
values their contributions (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa,
1986). As the social exchange theory posits, relationships between employ-
ees and their organization evolve over time into a trusting and loyal modality
if the parties abide by certain rules of exchange (Cropanzano & Mitchell,
2005). Once employees have favorable perceptions of organizational support
in terms of praise, approval, pay, and promotion, they become satisfied with
their jobs. Such employees, as shown in Susskind et al.s (2000) study, also
exhibit higher levels of life satisfaction and lower levels of turnover inten-
tions. Research also indicates that perceived organizational support enhances
job satisfaction (Muse & Stamper, 2007), career satisfaction (Armstrong-
Stassen & Ursel, 2009), and life satisfaction (Dixon & Sagas, 2007).
Job autonomy refers to the degree to which the job provides discre-
tion to the individual in performing the job, independence and freedom
(Spreitzer, 1995). It reflects a felt ability to determine the nature of a task,
arrive at a course of action and have feelings of personal responsibility and
ownership of the job (Wang & Netemeyer, 2002). Research indicates that job
autonomy enhances job satisfaction among frontline hotel employees (Yang,
2010), life satisfaction (De Cuyper & De Witte, 2006) and career satisfaction
(Karia & Ahmad, 2000).
382 U. Yavas et al.
Since frontline employees in the hospitality industry, especially in

Turkey, have to deal with a number of constantly complaining customers
(cf. Karatepe & Sokmen, 2006) and are expected to serve customers in a
friendly and polite manner and deal with customers requests and problems
effectively, they desire to be able to use personal initiative and judgment
in doing their jobs (cf. Karatepe, Avci, & Tekinkus, 2005). Unfortunately,
many Turkish hospitality managers feel threatened by job autonomy and
do not wish to relinquish control over their subordinates (cf. Pelit et al.,
2011) which leads to reduced job satisfaction. In short, it seems that such a
human resource practice is not widespread in the Turkish hospitality industry
(Kusluvan et al., 2003).
Due to their boundary-spanning roles, frontline employees in the hos-
pitality industry are also good sources of information about customers
needs and expectations and are valuable contributors to service delivery
process (Chiang & Jang, 2008). Recognizing this, managers should allow
employees participate in decisions that influence the service delivery process,
development and adoption of new policies and programs in the organiza-
tion. Indeed, research shows that participation in decision-making enhances
employees job and career satisfaction (Karia & Ahmad, 2000) and commu-
nication with coworkers influence their career satisfaction mediated by job
satisfaction (Murawski, Payakachat, & Koh-Knox, 2008). Our experiences
show that lack of opportunity given to employees to voice their opinions and
a heavy-handed management style, in short, lack of participation in deci-
sions involving their jobs is a major source of dissatisfaction among frontline
employees in Turkey.
Based on the preceding discussion, we expect perceived organizational
support, job autonomy, and participation in decision-making to influ-
ence career and life satisfaction directly and indirectly via job satisfaction.
Accordingly, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H3: Job satisfaction mediates the effects of the positive elements of

work environment emanating from perceived organizational sup-
port, job autonomy, and participation in decision-making on (a)
career satisfaction and (b) life satisfaction.
Affectivity
Affectivity is a personality variable and manifests itself in terms of nega-
tive affectivity and positive affectivity. Negative affectivity is an individuals
tendency to experience discomfort across time and situations and reflects
negative self-concept and negative emotional states such as anger, scorn,
revulsion, guilt, self-dissatisfaction, a sense of rejection, and, to some extent,
sadness (Watson & Clark, 1984, p. 465). In contrast, positive affectivity
reflects the extent to which a person feels enthusiastic, active, and alert
(Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988, p. 1063). Hiring candidates with the suit-
able personality traits (e.g., positive affectivity) matching the requirements
of frontline service jobs is a major determinant of employee satisfaction and
retention in the hospitality industry (Karatepe & Tizabi, 2011).
Evidence shows that both negative and positive affectivity are linked to
job, life, and career satisfaction. For instance, positive affectivity enhances
and negative affectivity reduces job satisfaction (Bowling, Hendricks, &
Wagner, 2008). Barsky, Thoresen, Warren, and Kaplan (2004) found that neg-
ative affectivity was inversely related to job and life satisfaction. The results of
another empirical study indicated that both negative and positive affectivity
were significantly associated with career satisfaction (Hochwarter, Kiewitz,
Gundlach, & Stoner, 2004). Finally, Iverson and Maguire (2000) discovered
that both negative and positive affectivity were linked to life satisfaction indi-
rectly via job satisfaction. We expect employees with negative affectivity to
be less satisfied with their jobs and in turn to experience lower levels of
career and life satisfaction. In contrast, we expect employees with positive
affectivity to be more satisfied with their jobs and, in turn, to have higher
levels of career and life satisfaction.
Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:
H4: Negative affectivity reduces (a) career satisfaction and (b) life
satisfaction through the mediating role of job satisfaction.
H5: Positive affectivity enhances (a) career satisfaction and (b) life
satisfaction through the mediating role of job satisfaction.
Control Variables
Past research suggests that variables such as age, gender, education, orga-
nizational tenure, marital status, number of children, and hotel type may
influence the key constructs in our study and may confound the relation-
ships depicted in Figure 1 (e.g., Abbott, White, & Charles 2005; Babakus,
Yavas, Karatepe, & Avci, 2003; Cordes & Dougherty, 1993; Ito & Brotheridge,
2005; Karatepe & Uludag, 2008; Reynolds & Tabacchi, 1993). Hence, to allow
for better delineation of the relationships proposed in our model (Figure 1)
and to provide a more rigorous test of the theoretical linkages, in our study
we include these variables as control variables.
Research Model
The main theoretical proposition in our model (Figure 1) is that job satisfac-
tion has a mediator role due to its proximity to the antecedent variables.
In other words, the effects of interrole conflicts and elements of work
environment are first felt in the form of job satisfaction or dissatisfaction
since they all have something to do with job experiences. Affectivity is also
384 U. Yavas et al.
Interrole conflicts
Career satisfaction
Work-family conflict
Family-work conflict
Work environment
Work overload
Perceptions of organizational
politics Job satisfaction
Perceived organizational support
Job autonomy
Participation in decision-making
Affectivity
Life satisfaction
Negative affectivity
Positive affectivity
Control variables:
Age, gender, education, organizational tenure, marital status, number of children, type of hotel
42
FIGURE 1 Research model.
expected to impact job satisfaction directly. Feelings of job satisfaction or

dissatisfaction subsequently feed or spillover into the more distal constructs
of career and life satisfaction (cf. Adams, King, & King, 1996; Lapierre et al.,
2008; Murawski et al., 2008; Saari & Judge, 2004). As shown in Figure 1, the
model also specifies the possibility of direct influences from the antecedent
variables to career and life satisfaction constructs.
METHOD
Sample and Procedure
Judgmental sampling, which refers to picking cases that are judged to be
typical of the population in which we are interested, assuming that errors of
judgment in the selection will tend to counterbalance one another (Judd,
Smith, & Kidder, 1991, p. 136), was used in this study. In our empirical
study, data were obtained from a judgmental sample of full-time frontline
hotel employees to assess the hypothesized relationships.
Information we received from the Ministry of Culture and Tourism indi-

cated that, at the time of the study, 11 five-star hotels, 27 four-star hotels, and
38 three-star hotels were operating in Ankara, Turkey. Management of these
hotels was contacted prior to data collection and permission was granted by
10 five-star hotels, 22 four-star hotels, and 32 three-star hotels. According to
management of the hotels, these hotels collectively employed 1,339 full-time
frontline employees and had 6,432 rooms. Questionnaires were then dis-
tributed to all of these employees by the research team. Employees were
given assurance of confidentiality (that only the aggregate results would
be shared with management) and were requested to fill out the question-
naires in a self-administered manner. By the cut-off date for data collection, a
total of 620 usable questionnaires from frontline employees (e.g., front-desk
agents, bell attendants, wait staff, concierges, guest relations representatives,
door attendants, and bartenders) were retrieved for a response rate of about
46%, which is comparable to the response rate obtained in another study
conducted among frontline hotel employees in the same locality (Karatepe,
Yavas, & Babakus, 2007).
As shown in Appendix A, about 45% of the respondents were between
the ages of 18 and 27, 39% were between the ages of 28 and 37, and the rest
were older than 37. The sample was fairly balanced in gender (55% male
and 45% female). About 24% of the respondents had graduated from 2-year
colleges and about 24% from 4-year colleges. Almost 2% of the respondents
had graduate degrees. Approximately 48% of the respondents had secondary
and high school education. The rest (2%) had primary school education.
About 47% of the respondents had tenures of 15 years, 30% had tenures of
610 years, and 7% had over 10 years. The rest (16%) had been with their
hotels for less than 1 year. More than half of the respondents (52%) were
single or divorced, while the rest were married. About 52% of the respon-
dents had no children and nearly 46% had one or two children. The rest
had more than two children. Finally, about 39% of the respondents worked
at five-star hotels and a third of the sample came from four-star hotels.
An examination of respondents across hotel types showed that respondents
from five-star hotels were significantly more educated and composed of a
higher percentage of females relative to four- and three-star hotels.
Measurement
Multiple item indicators from well-established scales were used to opera-
tionalize the independent and the dependent variables of the study.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
Workfamily conflict and familywork conflict were measured via five items
from Netemeyer et al. (1996) and Boles, Howard, and Donofrio (2001). Work
386 U. Yavas et al.
overload was operationalized via four items from Price (2001). Perceived
organizational support was measured via six items from Eisenberger et al.
(1986). Twelve organizational politics perceptions items came from Kacmar
and Ferris (1991). Job autonomy was measured via four items from Wang
and Netemeyer (2002). Four items taken from Hage and Aiken (1967) were
employed to measure participation in decision-making. Negative and positive
affectivity were each measured via three (3) items from Agho, Price, and
Mueller (1992).
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Life satisfaction was measured via five items from Diener et al. (1985). Career
satisfaction was operationalized via five items from Greenhaus et al. (1990).
Eight items from Hartline and Ferrell (1996) were used to operationalize job
satisfaction.
Responses to each of the study items, with the exceptions of the eight
items used to operationalize job satisfaction and four items used to oper-
ationalize participation in decision-making, were elicited on 5-point scales
ranging from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree). Job satisfaction items
were recorded on 5-point scales ranging from 5 (extremely satisfied) to 1
(extremely dissatisfied), and responses to participation in decision-making
items ranged from 5 (always) to 1 (never). As shown in Appendix B, after
reverse coding negatively worded items, composite scores were generated
for each independent and dependent variable. Higher scores consistently
indicated higher levels of each variable (e.g., higher workfamily conflict,
work overload, positive affectivity, and career satisfaction).
The survey instrument was initially prepared in English and then trans-
lated into Turkish via the back-translation method (Malhotra, 2007). That
is, the researchers prepared the original questionnaire in English. Then,
two bilingual individuals (fluent in both Turkish and English) participated
independently in the translation process. To ensure that the item contents
were cross-linguistically comparable and generated the same meaning, two
faculty members of a Turkish university fluent in both languages further
checked the questionnaire. Prior to administering in the field, the question-
naire was pre-tested with a pilot sample of 30 frontline hotel employees and
no changes in the wording of the questions were deemed necessary. Thus,
the questionnaire clearly demonstrated face validity.
RESULTS
Measurement Results
The entire set of items comprising the measurement scales of study vari-
ables was initially subjected to an exploratory factor analysis (principal
components) with oblique rotation. The results showed that 12 factors

with eigenvalues larger than 1.0 collectively accounted for 62% of the
total variance. The first factor accounted for 21% of the variance, which
indicates that common method variance may not be a problem in this study
as suggested by Harmans single-factor test (McFarlin & Sweeney, 1992).
Inspection of the results showed that most of the items loaded heavily on
their respective underlying factors with loading estimates ranging from .59 to
.81. However, two items of the familywork conflict scale and four items in
the organizational politics scale showed cross-loadings that were larger than
.40. Since these scales have been validated previously and the item-to-total
correlations did not identify any specific problems, we did not discard these
scale items.1 As reported in Appendix B, the internal consistency reliabilities
(coefficient alphas) of the 12 study measures with the exceptions of work
overload and familywork conflict measures exceeded the commonly
accepted threshold of .70.
The measures were next subjected to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
using LISREL 8.80 (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1996) for further psychometric eval-
uation. However, instead of trying to fit a measurement model with 64 items
that comprise 12 scales measuring study constructs, we followed a partial
aggregation approach to reduce the number of items (Bagozzi & Edwards,
1998; Bagozzi & Heatherton, 1994). The partial aggregation approach has
been advocated, because it reduces model complexity, improves distri-
butional properties of the indicators, and increases indicator reliabilities
(Williams & OBoyle, 2008).2 With the exception of perceptions of organiza-
tional politics, negative and positive affectivity scales, we randomly divided
items comprising scales into two groups (equal numbers when there were
even number of items), and then computed the average scores of each group
to create two composite indicators for each construct. The perceptions of
organizational politics scale had a relatively large number of items (12 items),
so it was randomly split into three subscales to create three composite indi-
cators. Since the positive and negative affectivity scales contained only three
items each, they were not subjected to partial aggregation.
The correlations, means and standard deviations of the measures are
provided in Table 1. A close examination of the correlations reveals that
correlations among indicators of the same construct (intracorrelations) are
uniformly high and remain higher than those correlations among indicators
of different constructs (intercorrelations). This observed pattern of correla-
tions provides strong initial evidence indicating that the measures exhibit
convergent and discriminant validity (Bagozzi, 1981).
We tested the 12-factor measurement model using these new set of
composite items. The confirmatory factor analysis results showed that the
proposed measurement model fits the data well as indicated by the overall
fit measures ( 2 258 = 687.3, RMSEA = .058, NFI = .96, CFI = .97, SRMR =
.04). Detailed results of the CFA are presented in Table 2.
TABLE 1 Means, standard deviations, and correlations among measures (n = 620)
Item WO1 WO2 WF1 WF2 FW1 FW2 POP1 POP2 POP3 POS1 POS2 JA1 JA2 PD1 PD2 NA1 NA2 NA3 PA1 PA2 PA3 JS1 JS2 CS1 CS2 LS1 LS2
WO1 1.000
WO2 .547 1.000
WF1 .308 .389 1.000
WF2 .322 .361 .760 1.000
FW1 .161 .175 .432 .307 1.000
FW2 .119 .162 .450 .365 .555 1.000
POP1 .171 .212 .228 .133 .266 .226 1.000
POP2 .138 .178 .230 .150 .258 .233 .844 1.000
POP3 .155 .184 .245 .157 .303 .261 .784 .769 1.000
POS1 .090 .126 .267 .231 .151 .219 .515 .507 .457 1.000
POS2 .055 .095 .211 .215 .212 .293 .480 .452 .453 .708 1.000
JA1 .036 .073 .114 .078 .044 .031 .331 .288 .287 .342 .260 1.000
JA2 .027 .105 .124 .066 .094 .058 .370 .354 .311 .350 .273 .804 1.000
PD1 .033 .001 .063 .042 .056 .057 .224 .239 .118 .218 .124 .288 .269 1.000
PD2 .050 .016 .049 .005 .017 .062 .263 .279 .191 .247 .184 .304 .331 .750 1.000
NA1 .013 .120 .008 .016 .146 .066 .246 .223 .135 .108 .092 .007 .089 .010 .002 1.000
NA2 .156 .165 .173 .100 .353 .241 .337 .286 .282 .227 .185 .026 .044 .035 .005 .580 1.000
388
NA3 .149 .194 .167 .114 .312 .282 .318 .272 .289 .257 .262 .067 .102 .017 .046 .426 .555 1.000
PA1 .019 .005 .089 .028 .028 .026 .143 .108 .143 .246 .094 .347 .292 .195 .228 .071 .051 .062 1.000
PA2 .087 .128 .047 .072 .005 .015 .126 .104 .176 .238 .177 .278 .194 .160 .184 .021 .041 .060 .558 1.000
PA3 .011 .009 .142 .134 .118 .072 .268 .234 .241 .380 .319 .392 .354 .223 .259 .113 .219 .158 .486 .489 1.000
JS1 .115 .125 .236 .184 .195 .207 .555 .537 .556 .439 .474 .379 .411 .265 .353 .167 .173 .213 .190 .201 .361 1.000
JS2 .091 .047 .210 .171 .141 .178 .517 .479 .524 .426 .435 .374 .391 .242 .311 .110 .106 .155 .231 .229 .341 .854 1.000
CS1 .064 .101 .141 .110 .033 .078 .266 .275 .227 .349 .273 .353 .376 .188 .198 .027 .021 .108 .247 .174 .194 .331 .312 1.000
CS2 .001 .077 .159 .096 .055 .082 .293 .312 .257 .320 .252 .411 .461 .216 .265 .001 .001 .063 .312 .220 .247 .363 .346 .754 1.000
LS1 .052 .056 .159 .131 .049 .050 .275 .254 .229 .344 .248 .494 .460 .258 .239 .091 .050 .113 .319 .286 .399 .359 .368 .432 .413 1.000
LS2 .075 .083 .181 .158 .022 .070 .243 .230 .181 .323 .226 .484 .449 .331 .252 .007 .020 .050 .396 .315 .379 .313 .334 .434 .450 .775 1.000
Mean 3.63 3.91 3.51 3.84 2.66 3.00 3.07 3.02 2.95 3.19 3.22 3.06 3.17 2.00 2.48 3.20 2.64 2.74 2.99 2.75 3.50 2.97 3.03 2.75 2.93 2.53 2.41
SD .70 .72 .79 .84 .74 .90 .79 .79 .80 .75 .75 .90 .90 .99 1.10 1.16 1.17 1.14 1.18 1.12 1.00 .85 .72 .80 .96 .79 .88
Note. WO = work overload; WF = workfamily conflict; FW = familywork conflict; POP = perceptions of organizational politics; POS = perceived organizational support;
JA = job autonomy; PD = participation in decision-making; NA = negative affectivity; PA = positive affectivity; JS = job satisfaction; CS = career satisfaction; LS = life
satisfaction. With the exception of negative affectivity items (NA1NA3) and positive affectivity items (PA1PA3), all measures are composite indicators as shown Table 1.
Item scores range from 1 to 5, with a higher score indicating a higher level of work overload, work-family conflict, etc. Correlations stronger than .083 are significant at
the .05 level or better.
TABLE 2 Confirmatory factor analysis results
Scale Standardized loading t value
Work overload (AVE = .56, 2 = .00.26)

WO1 .66 14.5
WO2 .88 17.1
Workfamily conflict (AVE = .77, 2 = .00.37)
WF1 .94 26.7
WF2 .81 22.1
Family-work conflict (AVE = .56, 2 = .00.37)
FW1 .76 18.4
FW2 .73 17.7
Perceptions of organizational politics (AVE = .85, 2 = .07.40)
POP1 .93 30.0
POP2 .90 28.6
POP3 .85 25.8
Perceived organizational support (AVE = .71, 2 = .03.40)
POS1 .89 24.6
POS2 .80 21.5
Job autonomy (AVE = .81, 2 = .01.36)
JA1 .90 26.3
JA2 .89 26.1
Participation in decision-making (AVE = .76, 2 = .00.14)
PD1 .81 19.2
PD2 .93 21.9
Negative affectivity (AVE = .54, 2 = .00.20)
NA1 .64 16.0
NA2 .88 22.9
NA3 .65 16.2
Positive affectivity (AVE = .51, 2 = .01.31)
PA1 .71 17.9
PA2 .70 17.5
PA3 .73 18.5
Job satisfaction (AVE = .86, 2 = .02.40)
JS1 .95 29.8
JS2 .90 27.2
Career satisfaction (AVE = .76, 2 = .01.31)
CS1 .84 22.6
CS2 .90 24.6
Life satisfaction (AVE = .78, 2 = .00.36)
LS1 .86 24.7
LS2 .90 25.9
Note. Model fit statistics: 2 258 = 687.3, RMSEA = .058, NFI = .96, CFI = .97, SRMR = .04. With the
exception of negative affectivity and positive affectivity scales, the indicators of constructs are composite
indicators computed via partial aggregation of scale items.
A formal test of Harmans single-factor criterion was also undertaken

based on CFA by modeling all indicators as reflections of a single underlying
factor and comparing the results with those of the 12-factor CFA. The single-
factor measurement model resulted in a 2 value of 5302.3 (df = 321). A 2
difference test by comparing the single-factor and 12-factor models indicate
model fit deteriorates significantly with the single-factor model ( 2 63 = 4615,
390 U. Yavas et al.
p < .001). This provides additional evidence that common method variance
may not be a problem with the current data (Boyer & Hult, 2005).
As shown in Table 2, all factor loadings were significant (t values >
2.00) suggesting convergence of the indicators with the appropriate under-
lying factors (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). The average variance extracted
(AVE) by each underlying construct was above .50, and none of the shared
variances (2 ) between pairs of constructs was larger than the average
variance extracted by each construct. Collectively, these results show that
the measures are reliable, and exhibit convergent and discriminant validity
(Fornell & Larcker, 1981).
Tests of Structural Model and Research Hypotheses

To determine the relative influences of interrole conflicts, elements of work
environment and affectivity on three forms of satisfaction, the model in
Figure 1 was tested using LISREL 8.80.3 The results, presented in Table 3,
show that the model fits the data relatively well as indicated by a number
of model fit statistics ( 2 359 = 839.4, RMSEA = .048, NFI = .95, CFI = .97,
SRMR = .038). The model explains a significant proportion of variance in
job satisfaction (R 2 = .53), career satisfaction (R 2 = .34), and life satisfaction
(R 2 = .46).
As shown in Table 3, job satisfaction has a significant association with
career satisfaction ( = .15, t = 2.94) and life satisfaction ( = .10, t =
2.38) constructs. Interrole conflicts did not show a significant association
with any of three satisfaction constructs. Therefore, H1 is not supported
by the current data. Of the two negative elements of work environment,
work overload did not emerge as a significant predictor, while perceptions
of organizational politics showed a significant influence on job satisfaction
( = .40, t = 7.93) and its indirect effects on career and life satisfaction
are significant based on Sobels test (Sobel, 1982). Hence, H2 is partially
supported and the effects of perceptions of organizational politics on career
and life satisfaction are fully mediated by job satisfaction.
The positive elements of work environment, perceived organizational
support ( = .13, t = 2.47), job autonomy ( = .14, t = 3.27), and participa-
tion in decision-making ( = .12, t = 3.09) all exert significant influences on
job satisfaction and exert significant impacts on career satisfaction and life
satisfaction through the mediating role of job satisfaction (all indirect effects
were significant beyond the .05 level per Sobels test). Perceived organiza-
tional support demonstrated a significant direct association with career satis-
faction ( = .13, t = 2.48) in addition to its indirect influence via the mediat-
ing role of job satisfaction. Hence, job satisfaction acts as a partial mediator
of the effect of perceived organizational support on career satisfaction, while
it is a full mediator between perceived organizational support and life satis-
faction. Job autonomy showed strong direct influences on career satisfaction
TABLE 3 Tests of structural model and research hypotheses
Parameter Standardized estimate t valuea
Interrole conflicts
WorkFamily Conflict Job Satisfaction .09 1.15
FamilyWork Conflict Job Satisfaction .01 .16
Work environment
Work Overload Job Satisfaction .03 .54
Perceptions of Organizational Politics .40 7.93
Job Satisfactionb
Perceived Organizational Support .13 2.47
Job Satisfactionb
Job Autonomy Job Satisfactionb .14 3.27
Participation in Decision-Making .12 3.09
Job Satisfactionb
Affectivity
Negative Affectivity Job Satisfaction .04 .96
Positive Affectivity Job Satisfactionb .12 2.40
Job Satisfaction Career Satisfaction .15 2.94
Positive Affectivity Career Satisfactionc .11 1.97
Job Autonomy Career Satisfactionc .35 6.61
Perceived Organizational Support .13 2.48
Career Satisfactionc
Job Satisfaction Life Satisfaction .10 2.38
Positive Affectivity Life Satisfactionc .34 6.79
Job Autonomy Life Satisfactionc .39 7.91
Control variables:d
Gender Job Satisfaction .10 3.09
Org. Tenure Job Satisfaction .15 4.62
Model fit statistics:e 2 359 = 839.4, RMSEA = .048, NFI = .95,
CFI = .97, SRMR = .038
R2 for Job Satisfaction: .53
R2 for Career Satisfaction: .34
R2 for Life Satisfaction: .46
Note. a t values corresponding to one-tail tests at various significance levels: t > 1.3, p < .10; t >1.65,
p < .05; and t > 2.33, p < .01. b The indirect effects of perceptions of organizational politics, perceived
organizational support, job autonomy, participation in decision-making, and positive affectivity on career
and life satisfaction, through job satisfaction, are all statistically significant based on Sobels test (Sobel,
1982). c Significant direct effect in addition to the indirect effect mediated by job satisfaction. d Gender
and organizational tenure were the only control variables that had significant relationships as indicated
here. Other control variables (age, education, marital status, number of children, and type of hotel) did
not show any significant influences. e Measurement parameter estimates (loadings) remained the same as
CFA results up to three decimal places, so they are not reported in this table for the sake of simplicity.
Significant at the .05 level.
( = .35, t = 6.61) and life satisfaction ( = .39, t = 7.91) in addition to sig-

nificant indirect effects mediated by job satisfaction. This means that job sat-
isfaction partially mediates the effects of job autonomy on career satisfaction
and life satisfaction. Finally, the effects of participation in decision-making on
392 U. Yavas et al.
career satisfaction and life satisfaction are fully mediated by job satisfaction
based on Sobels test. Collectively, these results support H3.
Results in Table 3 indicate that negative affectivity did not emerge as
a significant predictor of any of the satisfaction constructs. Hence, H4 is
not supported by the current data. Positive affectivity showed a significant
influence on job satisfaction ( = .12, t = 2.40), direct significant influences
on career satisfaction ( = .11, t = 1.97) and life satisfaction ( = .34, t =
6.79) in addition to significant indirect impacts mediated by job satisfaction.
These results show that job satisfaction partially mediates the influence of
positive affectivity on career and life satisfaction constructs, indicating that
H5 is supported.
Of the control variables, gender and organizational tenure showed sig-
nificant effects on job satisfaction. Females were significantly more satisfied
with their jobs than males ( = .10, t = 3.09) and organizational tenure had
a positive impact on job satisfaction ( = .15, t = 4.62).4 Other control vari-
ables (age, education, marital status, number of children, and hotel type) did
not have any significant effects.
DISCUSSION
Assessment of Findings
Using data from frontline hotel employees in Turkey, this study developed
and tested a research model that examined job satisfaction as a mediator
of the impacts of interrole conflicts, elements of work environment, and
affectivity on career and life satisfaction. Our results suggest that neither
work-family conflict nor family-work conflict is significantly related to job,
career, and life satisfaction. Though these nonsignificant findings seem to
be partially consistent with those of Karatepe and Uludag (2008) and Zhao
et al. (2011), a potential explanation for these null findings is related to the
research context. In Turkey, the presence of family networks enables singles
or married parents to delegate housework and childcare responsibilities to
relatives/parents and thus makes them deal with work and family roles effec-
tively (cf. Aycan & Eskin, 2005). Therefore, two types of interrole conflicts in
the present study might not have played a significant role to influence three
forms of satisfaction. Potentially, emotional exhaustion/burnout could have
played a mediating role in the relationship between two forms of interrole
conflicts and satisfaction outcomes. This warrants further research.
Our results do not lend empirical support to the effect of work overload
on job, career, and life satisfaction. These nonsignificant findings might
be due to the fact that Turkish frontline employees are used to having
excessive job demands (Karatepe, 2010). They might also have perceived
work overload as a challenge stressor and viewed it as an opportunity to
learn and promote personal growth (cf. Crawford, LePine, & Rich, 2010).
Under these circumstances, heavy workload may not necessarily result

in an erosion of job, career, or life satisfaction. Our results suggest that
perceptions of organizational politics, a common phenomenon in Turkey
(cf. Kusluvan et al., 2003), can have detrimental effects on career and life
satisfaction indirectly via job satisfaction. Consonant with the findings of
Miller et al. (2008) and Vigoda-Gadot and Talmud (2010), it appears that
the employees surveyed here are dissatisfied with their jobs. Obviously,
as a hindrance stressor or demand, organizational politics hinders personal
growth, heightens negative emotions, and makes employees uncomfortable
(Crawford et al., 2010). Such employees in turn are dissatisfied with their
career and life in general. As argued by Vigoda-Gadot and Talmud (2010),
due to different personality traits not every employee will show the same
reaction (e.g., satisfaction outcomes) to a political environment. Therefore,
job resourcefulness as a situational-level personality trait could have a
moderating role in this process (cf. Yavas et al., 2011). This is a gap that
remains and warrants further research.
Our results suggest that perceived organizational support enhances
employees job and career satisfaction. These results are consistent with
those of Muse and Stamper (2007) and Armstrong-Stassen and Ursel (2009).
Results also suggest that job satisfaction mediates the impact of perceived
organizational support on career and life satisfaction. Specifically, perceived
organizational support enhances career satisfaction directly and indirectly via
job satisfaction, while it increases life satisfaction indirectly only through job
satisfaction. As the social exchange theory contends, employees with favor-
able perceptions of organizational support experience higher levels of job
satisfaction, because a two-way relationship between the employer and the
employee in terms of rules of exchange has been achieved. Higher job sat-
isfaction subsequently leads to higher career and life satisfaction. It seems
that perceived organizational support does not spillover into employees
nonwork lives directly. Instead, job satisfaction has a full mediation role
in this process.
Job autonomy has a positive impact on respondents job, career, and life
satisfaction. These results are consonant with the findings of De Cuyper and
De Witte (2006) and Yang (2010). Results also suggest that job satisfaction
partially mediates the effects of job autonomy on career and life satisfaction.
In addition, our results suggest that job satisfaction has a full mediating role
in the relationship between participation in decision-making and career and
life satisfaction. That is, employee participation in decisions does not directly
affect career satisfaction since it may not directly add to employees career
progress. Additionally, participation in decision-making does not appear to
spillover into employees nonwork lives directly.
Results pertaining to the effects of negative and positive affectivity on
job satisfaction are partially congruent with other studies (e.g., Bowling et al.,
2008) in that negative affectivity did not show any significant effect on job
394 U. Yavas et al.
satisfaction. However, positive affectivity enhances career and life satisfaction

directly as well as indirectly through job satisfaction. As argued by Kaplan,
Warren, Barsky, and Thoresen (2009), positive affectivity seems to influence
job attitudes via more affective means, while negative affectivity appears to
require cognitive processing.
Managerial Implications
In todays highly competitive Turkish hospitality industry, reinforcing and
more importantly enhancing frontline employees satisfaction in work and
nonwork realms are crucial for delivering a high level of customer service.
Implementation of strategies to reinforce employees satisfaction requires a
multifaceted approach. The results of our study are illuminating in showing
that several factors examined here can contribute to employee satisfaction
and conjure up some useful implications for managerial action.
For instance, our results suggest that it might behoove hoteliers to
devote greater effort to develop a workplace conducive to autonomy within
work groups. To achieve this, in designing jobs, management should focus
on the capabilities of employees and empower them to decide how to go
about doing their work. Jobs should be designed in such a way that they
involve diverse tasks, emphasize employee performance and competencies
while minimizing close monitoring of employees (cf. Wang & Netemeyer,
2002).
To reinforce and/or enhance employees organizational support
perceptions that are also related to our respondents satisfaction in the
work domain, Turkish hotel managements can use a two-pronged approach.
On one hand, on a periodic basis management can send appreciation letters
to employees to communicate managements respect for employees and its
recognition of the employee contributions to the organizational goals. On the
other hand, management can show its concern for employees and its com-
mitment to help employees reach their goals through visible support, which,
among others, could include provision of training programs and mentor-
ing. To alleviate the detrimental impact of organizational politics on frontline
employees happiness in the work domain, management should focus on
practices to make the workplace as fair and equitable as possible and initiate
policies to create a work environment where politics is minimized.
Management cannot make any changes in current employees affect
dispositions or personalities, yet they can consider the personality charac-
teristics of the candidates during employee selection and hiring (cf. Yavas,
Karatepe, & Babakus, 2010). Given that positive affectivity is significantly
associated with all forms of satisfaction, hotels must be selective in hiring
new employees and should make a conscious effort to recruit individuals
with high positive affectivity. Management must make a positive affectivity
measure an integral part of any recruitment and selection tool. Management
must also devise proactive strategies to keep employees high on positive

affectivity in the organization.
In this connection, however, it is useful to remember an important
adage. Internal marketing and effective human resource management prac-
tices start with a desire at the top and any change in corporate culture
necessitates strong leadership from the top. Only then it succeeds with
commitment and perseverance by everyone in the organization. This, how-
ever, poses a major challenge in Turkey where use of modern human
resource management practices is not widespread (Aycan, 2001; Cetinel,
Yolal, & Emeksiz, 2009) and unfair human resource practices (e.g., favoritism,
unfair rewards and promotions) are commonplace. Therefore, it is neces-
sary for hotel managements in Turkey to jump on a progressive bandwagon
and to implement the necessary changes in practices and procedures that
facilitate the implementation of actions to induce satisfaction among the
employees.
CONCLUSION
This study makes several contributions to the hospitality management and

marketing literature in general and stream of research in Turkey in particular.
First, several studies in the past have examined the effects of interrole con-
flicts, negative and positive elements of work environment, and affectivity
on one or at most two forms of satisfaction. Our study by developing a com-
prehensive model investigates the simultaneous effects of interrole conflicts,
work environment and affectivity on career, job, and life satisfaction. Second,
the current literature is devoid of empirical research pertaining to job satis-
faction as a mediator of the effects of the aforementioned antecedents on
career and life satisfaction. Our study addresses that void. Third, our study
provides useful implications for hotel managers in Turkey.
It should be noted that although this study expands our knowledge base
and provides useful insights, several gaps remain and viable prospects for
further research exist. For instance, the setting of this study consisted of full-
time frontline employees who were employed in the hospitality sector in a
particular city in Turkey. This may have led to sampling artifacts. Therefore,
generalizations beyond the specific context of this research must be guarded.
Replications are in order.
Furthermore, the cross-sectional design of our study does not permit
causal inferences. Future studies employing longitudinal designs would be
helpful in establishing causal relationships. Our study focused on individ-
ual frontline employees perceptions as a unit of analysis. In future research
assessing the relationships in our research model at the organizational level
would be useful. Finally, it should be noted that involvement in work and
family roles does not always lead to workfamily conflict and familywork
396 U. Yavas et al.
conflict. Participation in multiple roles can also make individuals integrate

their work and family roles effectively and can lead to satisfaction with
their job, career, and life. Thus, incorporating the positive side of work
family interface (workfamily facilitation and familywork facilitation) into
the research model in future studies would be illuminating.
In conclusion, in todays competitive hospitality industry retaining
frontline employees satisfied with their jobs, careers and lives is a must for
success and survival. Therefore, a richer and deeper understanding of factors
impacting frontline employees satisfaction will continue to be important. The
insights gained in this study can potentially provide a more solid theoretical
foundation for future research. We hope that our study will inspire other
researchers to pursue these and other relevant issues in the future. Such
research cannot only further our understanding of drivers of satisfaction in
work and nonwork domains in the hospitality industry but can also facilitate
managerial decisions.
NOTES
1. Details of the exploratory factor analysis results are available from the authors.
2. Prior to confirmatory factor analysis, we examined the distributions of scale items and found that
many items had skewed distributions. This is not unexpected especially for scales like job satisfaction.
The partial aggregation approach provided some remedy and led to distributions that resemble more
closely to a bell-shaped distribution.
3. Our focus was on the relationships among constructs as hypothesized in Figure 1. However,
we also explored potential differences on the magnitudes of the study constructs across the three types
of hotels. A multivariate analysis variance (MANOVA) indicated that respondents from four-star hotels
reported significantly higher levels of job autonomy and work overload relative to those in three- or
five-star hotels. The results also showed that respondents from five-star hotels perceived significantly
higher levels of organizational support compared to respondents from other types of hotels. There were
no other significant differences.
4. While we did not have formal hypotheses, we explored the possibility of gender, marital status,
and type of hotel playing a moderator role (buffering or enhancing the relationships) in the research
model. We conducted tests of equality of variance-covariance matrices of all study variables between
males and females, married and single employees, and among three-, four-, and five-star hotels. The
variance-covariance matrices were not significantly different across gender, marital status, or type of hotel.
These results suggest that gender, marital status, and hotel type do not buffer or enhance the relationships
hypothesized in the research model (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1996). Similarly, we also explored the possibility
of moderator roles of both positive (PA) and negative affectivity (NA). None of the interaction variables
(computed as products PA and NA with other predictor variables after centering all independent variables
in the model) showed significant effects.
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APPENDIX A. Sample profile

Demographics Frequency %
Age
1827 276 44.5
2837 240 38.7
3847 92 14.8
4857 12 2.0
Total 620 100.0
Gender
Male 338 54.5
Female 282 45.5
Total 620 100.0
Education
Primary school 12 2.0
Secondary and high school 296 47.7
Vocational school 149 24.0
College graduate 150 24.2
Graduate degree 13 2.1
Total 620 100.0
Organizational tenure
Less than 1 year 98 15.8
15 years 293 47.2
610 years 187 30.2
1115 years 42 6.8
Total 620 100.0
Marital status
Single or divorced 325 52.4
Married 295 47.6
Total 620 100.0
Number of children
None 322 51.9
12 284 45.8
More than two 14 2.3
Total 620 100.0
Type of hotel
Three-star 177 28.5
Four-star 202 32.6
Five-star 241 38.9
Total 620 100.0
APPENDIX B. Scale items and reliabilities

Workfamily conflict ( = .83)
1. The demands of my work interfere with home, family, and social life.
2. Because of my job, I cant involve myself as much as I would like in maintaining close
relations with my family, spouse, relatives, or friends.
3. Things I want to do at home do not get done because of the demands my job puts on me.
4. I often have to miss important family and social activities because of my job.
5. There is a conflict between my job and the commitments and responsibilities I have to
my family, spouse, relatives, or friends.
Familywork conflict ( = .66)
1. The demands of my family, spouse, relatives, or friends interfere with work-related
activities.
2. I sometimes have to miss work so that family and social responsibilities are met.
3. Things I want to do at work dont get done because of the demands of my family,
spouse, relatives, or friends.
4. My home and social life interfere with my responsibilities at work such as getting to work
on time, accomplishing daily tasks, and working overtime.
5. My co-workers and peers at work dislike how often I am preoccupied with my family
and social life.
Work overload ( = .65)
1. I do not have enough time to get everything done in my job.
2. My workload is heavy on my job.
3. I have to work very hard in my job.
4. I have to work very fast in my job.
Organizational politics perceptions ( = .88)
1. There is a group of people in this department who always get things their way because
no one wants to challenge them.
2. There has always been an influential group in this department that no one ever crosses.
3. I have seen changes made in policies here that only serve the purposes of a few
individuals, not the work unit or the hotel.
4. People in this hotel attempt to build themselves up by tearing others down.
5. Favoritism rather than merit determines who gets ahead around here.
6. People here usually dont speak up for fear of retaliation by others.
7. Promotions in this department generally go to top performers.a
8. Rewards come only to those who work hard in this hotel.a
9. Employees are encouraged to speak out frankly even when they are critical of well-
established ideas.a
10. There is no place for yes-men around here; good ideas are desired even when it means
disagreeing with superiors.a
11. In our hotel, pay and promotion policies are not politically applied.a
12. When it comes to pay raise and promotion decisions policies are irrelevant.
Perceived organizational support ( = .79)
1. This hotel values my contribution to its well-being.
2. This hotel strongly considers my goals and values.
3. This hotel is willing to help me when I need a special favor.
4. This hotel shows very little concern for me.a
5. This hotel cares about my opinions.
6. This hotel takes pride in my accomplishments at work.
Job autonomy ( = .85)
1. I have significant autonomy in determining how I do my job.
2. I can decide on my own how to go about doing my work.
3. I have considerable opportunity for independence and freedom in how I do my job.
4. This job allows me to use personal initiative or judgment in carrying out the work.
(Continued)
406 U. Yavas et al.
APPENDIX B. (Continued)
Participation in decision-making ( = .91)

1. How frequently do you usually participate in the decision to hire new staff?
2. How frequently do you usually participate in decisions on the promotion of any of the
professional staff?
3. How frequently do you participate in decisions on the adoption of new policies?
4. How frequently do you participate in the decisions on the adoption of new programs?
Negative affectivity ( = .77)
1. Minor setbacks sometimes irritate me too much.
2. Often I get irritated at little annoyances.
3. There are days when I am on edge all of the time.
Positive affectivity ( = .76)
1. For me life is a great adventure.
2. I live a very interesting life.
3. I usually find ways to liven up my day.
Job satisfaction ( = .89)
1. My overall job.
2. My fellow workers.
2. My supervisor(s).
4. This hotels policies.
5. The support provided by this hotel.
6. My salary.
7. The opportunities for advancement with this hotel.
8. This hotels customers.
Career satisfaction ( = .82)
1. I am satisfied with the success I have achieved in my career.
2. I am satisfied with the progress I have made toward meeting my overall career goals.
3. I am satisfied with the progress I have made toward meeting my goals for income.
4. I am satisfied with the progress I have made toward meeting my goals for advancement.
5. I am satisfied with the progress I have made toward meeting my goals for the
development of new skills.
Life satisfaction ( = .83)
1. In most ways my life is closer to my ideal.
2. The conditions of my life are excellent.
3. I am satisfied with my life.
4. So far I have gotten the important things I want in life.
5. If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.
a
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Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 22:375406, 2013

Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Correlates of Nonwork and Work Satisfaction

Address correspondence to Osman M. Karatepe, PhD, Faculty of Tourism,

KEYWORDS affectivity, career satisfaction, interrole conflict, job

Because of their boundary-spanning roles, frontline hotel employees play

importantly, none of these studies has treated job satisfaction as a mediator

LITERATURE REVIEW, HYPOTHESES, AND RESEARCH MODEL

H1: Job satisfaction mediates the effects of interrole conflicts in the

H2: Job satisfaction mediates the effects of the negative elements of

Since frontline employees in the hospitality industry, especially in

H3: Job satisfaction mediates the effects of the positive elements of

FIGURE 1 Research model.

expected to impact job satisfaction directly. Feelings of job satisfaction or

Information we received from the Ministry of Culture and Tourism indi-

components) with oblique rotation. The results showed that 12 factors

TABLE 2 Confirmatory factor analysis results

Scale Standardized loading t value

Work overload (AVE = .56, 2 = .00.26)

A formal test of Harmans single-factor criterion was also undertaken

Tests of Structural Model and Research Hypotheses

TABLE 3 Tests of structural model and research hypotheses

Parameter Standardized estimate t valuea

Significant at the .05 level.

( = .35, t = 6.61) and life satisfaction ( = .39, t = 7.91) in addition to sig-

Under these circumstances, heavy workload may not necessarily result

satisfaction. However, positive affectivity enhances career and life satisfaction

must also devise proactive strategies to keep employees high on positive

This study makes several contributions to the hospitality management and

conflict. Participation in multiple roles can also make individuals integrate

Kaiser, J. S., & Polczynski, J. J. (1982). Educational stress: Sources, reactions,

APPENDIX A. Sample profile

APPENDIX B. Scale items and reliabilities

Participation in decision-making ( = .91)

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