EM4289

4-H MEMBER MANUAL

CAT PHYSIOLOGY
Suggested for Unit 3

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to give our sincerest thanks to the Purina Cat Care Center for allowing us the
privilege of using their Handbook of Cat Care in our 4-H cat project.

We extend our thanks to John and Sandy Edminster, now in Olympia, for starting the cat project
and getting us excited enough to continue and get our 4-H books printed.

Our thanks also go to Mary Smith in Auburn, who took over the Edminsters club and took the
time and effort to write the leaders guides and to compile the necessary pictures and materials.

We are also indebted to Sue Hall of Renton, and her club, who wrote the study questions for the
leaders guides.

Also, we wish to thank author J. J. McCoy for permission to use information from The Complete
Book of Cat Health and Care (New York: G.P. Putnams Sons, 1968).

Compiled by Mary C. Smith, Auburn 4-H leader. Contents reviewed by Roy J. Hostetler, former
Extension Veterinarian.

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 4-H MEMBER MANUAL
CAT PHYSIOLOGY
Suggested for Unit 3
LESSON 1INTRODUCTION
A knowledge of the cats body and how it func-
tions is important to every cat owner and will
prove useful in the pets daily care. It will also be
helpful when giving the veterinarian needed
information and in the treatment of cat ailments
and injuries.
Hair
First of all, the hair or fur serves as insulation
against heat and cold. Hair also protects the cat
against insect bites, stings, thorns, and other
dangers and annoyances.
The cat raises its hair, particularly the hair along
its neck and spine, as a protective device when
frightened or threatened. With its hackles raised,
the cat assumes a wary and defiant position. Back
arched, tail hairs bristling, muscles tensed, it turns
itself broadside. In this attitude, the cat appears
larger and more ferocious to its attacker.
Cats shed their hair according to climatic condi-
tions and their state of health. Hair is shed natu-
rally year-round, especially in the spring and fall.
Excessive shedding is a warning signal of possible
disease, poor diet, parasites, or overheating.
Therefore, it is important to pay attention to the
condition of your cats hair.
Skin
The cats skin is made up of an outer layer, the
epidermis, and an inner layer, the dermis. The
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epidermis consists of four sublayers, with the
innermost providing for the regeneration of skin
cells.
While the cats skin is somewhat waterproof, it is
not impermeable. That is, certain oils and medi-
cines can be absorbed through the skin. This
should be kept in mind when you use any
insecticides or medications on a cats skin. A
toxic substance may prove fatal if absorbed
through the skin.
The cats skin contains sweat glands. The cat also
has sweat glands in the pads of its feet. Little is
known about the purpose of these glands, but the
sweat glands in the skin do help regulate the body
temperature. The cat is cooled by radiation of heat
rather than by inner cooling, which is how the
human body temperature is regulated.
Cats also have glands in their skin that are con-
nected with the hair follicles, known as sebaceous
glands. They secrete an oily substance known as
sebum that solidifies when exposed to the air. It
coats the hairs, thus protecting the fur and making
it glossy. In a healthy state, the cats skin is always
elastic and pliable, with the ability to regenerate at
a rapid pace.
Skeleton
The cats skeleton is not so different from the
human skeleton. The cat has more bones230 as
opposed to 206but many are identical to those
in the human being. Cats have 13 ribs, humans
have 12. Most cats have no clavicles (collarbones).
Their forelegs are attached directly to the shoulder
blades or scapula. The cat has from 18 to 23
coccygeal vertebrae. On the inside of its forepaws
the cat has dewclaws, which serve no apparent
function.
The body of the skeleton consists of the skull, ribs,
spinal column, forelegs, and hind legs. The spinal
column is composed of the atlas, the axis, and the
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and coccygeal verte-
brae. The skull is attached to the spinal column at
the atlas. The front or foreleg consists of the
scapula or shoulder blade, humerus, radius, ulna,
carpus or wrist, metacarpus, and digits. The hind
leg consists of the femur, tibia, fibula, tarsus or
hock, metatarsus, and digits.
The cats skeleton serves as a strong framework
and, under normal conditions, provides protection
for the vital organs. The design of the skeleton
explains the cats particular freedom of movement.
The cat moves by advancing the forelegs and hind
legs on one side, then the forelegs and hind legs on
the other.
Unfortunately, motor vehicle accidents kill or
injure many cats each year. Most frequently
broken are the ribs, bones of the forelegs and hind
legs, and the pelvis.
Muscular System
The cats muscles are tough and well-coordinated
and help to make the cat an agile hunter. BasicalIy,
the cats muscles are geared for walking, running,
leaping, and twisting. Because of their unusual
musculature, cats are extremely nimble. The cats
muscular control and skeletal flexibility enable it
to right its body during a fall with incredible
speeda trick which is unique to cats.
Sense of Smell
The cats olfactory nerves, those concerned with
its sense of smell, are not as sensitive as those of
some other animals, but are quite adequate. Cats
can scent people, animals, and other objects at a
considerable distance, but they do not rely on this
sense as much as other animals do during hunting.

Anatomy of the Cat

Tail

Eye Skull

Cheek
Nose and Mouth Back

Jaw

Scapula

Ribs
Humerus Hip
Chest
(upper arm) Femur (thigh)
Stomach

Radius
(forearms long bone) Tibia (shinbone)

Ulna Metacarpus
Fibula
(forearms short bone) Carpus
Pad Metatarsus
Tarsus
Digits (4)

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Fastidious about odors, they dislike many of the
same smells that humans do. They will try to cover
up disagreeable smells.
Most cats have a particular fondness for catnip, a
member of the mint family. It is believed that they
are excited by the smell. Some authorities believe
that the odor of catnip stimulates the cat sexually.
Catnip is harmless and you can give your cat as
much of this feline snuff as it wants. It may enjoy
nibbling on the leaves of a catnip plant, or playing
with a catnip-stuffed toy. Some cats are not affected
by catnip, some become just quietly excited, others
roll, purr, and growl in ecstasies of delight.
Sense of Taste
The cats tongue is long and flat, with almost
parallel sides. It tapers slightly in front and some-
what more in the back of the mouth. The upper
surface of the tongue is covered with rasplike
papillae which enable the cat to scrape every piece
of meat off a bone or to lick its coat clean. The
tongue is covered with taste buds, particularly at
the tip and at the back of the throat. These taste
buds react to chemical stimuli to produce sensa-
tions of acidity, sweetness, bitterness, and saltiness.
Words to Remember
Dermis: Inner layer of skin.
Epidermis: Outer layer of skin.
Hair or fur: Slender, threadlike outgrowths of an
animals skin.
Impermeable: Allows nothing to pass through.
Regenerate: Regrow.
Sebum: Oily substance secreted from skin glands
that coats cats hairs.
Skeleton: Framework of bones that provides
support and protects the vital organs.
Vertebrae: Bones and segments that make up the
spinal column.
Questions: Lesson 1Skin, Hair, Skeleton,
Muscles, Smell, Taste
1. The outermost part of the cats body is called
what?
2. Name at least two functions of a cats hair.
3. What are the two layers of skin?
4. What does impermeable mean?
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5. Where are the cats sweat glands located?
6. Name the major bones in a cats body.
7. What are a cats muscles designed for?
8. What organ is used for smelling?
9. What is the name for the nerves in the nose?
10. What is the primary organ of taste?
11. What are the rasplike protrusions on the tongue?
12. Describe the function of the taste buds.
LESSON 2VISION, HEARING,
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Vision
Cats have exceptional eyesight. Particularly in the
early evening and at night, they see better than
humans. Most cats can see kinds of light, such as
ultraviolet, that are invisible to humans. In the
course of their development the ability to see at
night while hunting was favored over the ability to
see colors during the day. As far as scientists have
been able to tell, cats are more or less colorblind.
One phenomenon of cat vision is the tapetum
lucidum, or eye shine, the glowing of cats eyes
in the dark. A layer of irridescent cells at the back
of the eyeball reflect the light, which adds to the
cats ability to see at night.
The cats eyes are not complicated organs, but are
strong and durable. The eyes appear as large,
round globes or orbs, with a transparent covering
known as the cornea. Around the cornea is a ring
of white, shiny tissue called the sclera. The nictating
membrane, or third eyelid, is located in the lower
part of the cats eye. This eyelid serves as protec-
tion for the eye. Cats have partial vision through
the third eyelid, and often use it as protection when
fighting or when traveling through dense under-
brush. Intestinal disorders and internal parasites
can cause the nictating membrane to appear, so it
can also be a valuable diagnostic aid.
In the center of the eye is the pupil. It is actually a
hole which expands or contracts to let in the right
amount of light. When exposed to bright light, the
pupils contract into linear slits. In darkness they
open very wide to allow in as much light as
possible (see illustration). The colored part of the
eye which surrounds the pupil is the iris. It acts as
a shutter, to regulate the size of the pupil.
 Hearing

Cats are exceedingly sensitive to sound; their

The cats pupil
narrows in bright
light and opens
wide in dim light.
Behind the pupil is the lens, which focuses images
on the back of the eyeball. It is composed of
strong, crystallike fibrous tissue. Light rays
passing through the lens are bent to rest on a very
sensitive area on the back of the eye, the retina.
The retina receives light and images. It is richly
lined with nerves. Images are transmitted to the
brain by way of the optic nerve.
range of hearing extends well above and below
the range of human hearing. It is probable that the
cat has a keener sense of hearing than most dogs,
since it depends more upon sight and hearing
than smell when hunting.
Cats, like all four-legged animals, have cupped
ears which serve as receptors and conductors of
sound. When listening, the cat will move its head
this way and that, turning its ears in the direction
of the sound. The sound travels down through the
outer ear canal, which is fitted with small knobs
or protuberances.
The outer ear tapers and narrows near the cats
skull, then turns upward and inward, ending in
a delicate membrane known as the eardrum. The
eardrum is the only mechanism for hearing
located in the outer part of the ear. The rest of the
hearing faculties are protected within the skull.

Upper eyelid Beyond the eardrum are three small, delicate

bones: the hammer, anvil, and stirrup. The names
Lens describe the shapes of the bones which function
Pupil to transmit sounds into a section of the inner ear
Cornea known as the cochlea. The cochlea, a snail-
Iris shaped canal, contains the auditory nerve which
Optic relays sound messages to the brain. Near the
Retina
nerve cochlea are three horseshoe-shaped tubes known
Sclera as the semicircular canals. They contain fluid and
Lower eyelid function to maintain the cats excellent sense of
balance.
Cross Section of Eye

Words to Remember Semicircular canals

Stirrup Auditory nerve
Cornea: Transparent covering of the eye.
Anvil
Iris: Colored part of the eye, around pupil, which
regulates pupil size. Hammer
Lens: Crystallike fibrous tissue behind the pupil
Cochlea
which bends light rays to focus on the retina.
Nictating membrane: Third eyelid; strong, protec-
tive membrane. Eardrum
Optic nerve: Carries images to the brain.
Pupil: Hole in the center of the eye through
which light rays pass. Eustachian Tube
Retina: Receives and transmits images to the brain. Inside of Cats Ear
Sclera: White, shiny tissue around the cornea.

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Connecting the middle ear to the throat is the
Eustachian tube. Its main purpose is to equalize
pressures. Without this safety device, the eardrum
would be ruptured when subjected to great
pressure. When pressure is exerted on its ears, a
cat swallows and sticks out its tongue.
Words to Remember
Anvil: One of three small bones in the middle ear
which transmits sound to the cochlea.
Auditory nerve: Relays sound messages to the
brain.
Cochlea: Snail-shaped canal that contains the
auditory nerve.
Eardrum: Membrane in the ear which turns sounds
into sound waves.
Eustachian tube: Connects ear and throat; equal-
izes pressure.
Hammer: One of three small bones in the middle
ear which transmits sound to the cochlea.
Semicircular canals: Contain fluid; essential to
cats balance.
Stirrup: One of three small bones in the middle
ear which transmits sounds to the cochlea.
Respiratory System
The respiratory system functions primarily to
transfer oxygen from the air to the blood, and to
remove carbon dioxide from the blood and carry
it out to the air. Oxygen is vital to the bodys
maintenance. Carbon dioxide is a waste product
of the maintenance process. The cat breathes in air
through its nose and mouth. A tube extends from
the throat into the cats chest and branches into
two other tubes, known as bronchial tubes, one of
which connects to each lung. The lungs are
located on each side of the chest. The bronchial
tubes branch into smaller tubes, bronchioles, and
finally into air sacs. Each air sac is enclosed by a
network of blood capillaries. At this point, oxygen
is absorbed into the blood, and carbon dioxide is
passed out of the blood.
All mammals have a partition which divides the
chest cavity, separating the lungs from the other
internal organs. In the cat, this membrane is very
thin and allows both lungs to collapse if one side
is injured. The respiratory system also aids in
regulating the body temperature.
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Words to Remember
Air sacs: Sac enclosed by blood capillaries which
allows gases to escape or be absorbed.
Bronchial tubes: Tubes which connect the throat
and the chest, through which air passes.
Bronchioles: Small tubes which carry oxygen and
carbon dioxide through part of the lungs.
Lungs: Respiratory organs located in chest which
function to transfer oxygen into the blood and
remove carbon dioxide from the blood.
Questions: Lesson 2Sight, Hearing,
Respiratory System
1. What is another name for the tapetum
lucidum?
2. What is the cornea?
3. What is the white, shiny tissue around the
cornea?
4. What is the name of the cats third eyelid?
5. What is the pupil?
6. What is the colored ring around the pupil?
7. What does the lens do?
8. What receives and transmits images?
9. What might the appearance of the third eye-
lid indicate?
10. What is the function of the optic nerve?
11. What is the only hearing mechanism located
in the outer ear?
12. What are the names of the three little bones
behind the eardrum?
13. What is their function?
14. What is the cochlea?
15. What relays sound messages to the brain?
16. What do the semicircular canals contain?
17. What is the function of the semicircular
canals?
18. What is the Eustachian tube?
19. Where are the lungs located?
20. What connects the throat and the chest?
21. What do the bronchioles and the air sacs do?
LESSON 3CIRCULATORY
AND DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS
Circulatory System
The cat is a warm-blooded animal with an intri-
cate circulatory system.
 Heart and Blood VesselsBlood nourishes the
cats body. It transports nutrients and oxygen
to the body cells, collects wastes from the cells,
and carries the wastes to the organs of excre-
tion. At the core of this complex system is the
four-chambered heart, a hollow, muscular
organ. It receives blood from the veins and
pumps it through the arteries to all different
parts of the body.
Impure blood is carried into the heart by the
anterior and posterior vena cavas, two large veins.
The heart contracts in a squeezing motion,
forcing the blood into two large arteries, the
anterior and posterior aortas. One aorta carries
impure blood to the lungs. There, the blood
releases carbon dioxide, picks up oxygen, and
circulates again to the heart. From there it is
pumped through the aorta to all parts of the
cats body, to distribute oxygen and pick up
waste material.
BloodBlood is composed of cells suspended
in a special fluid called plasma. In the plasma
float the red blood cells, which contain a chemi-
cal known as hemoglobin, which functions in
oxygen distribution. Hemoglobin is a pigment
which gives blood its characteristic red color.
The blood also contains white corpuscles of
different size and number. By surrounding
impurities and microbes that enter the blood,
the white corpuscles act to fight infection.
Another constituent of blood are the platelets,
small oval bodies which play a part in causing
the blood to clot or coagulate.
Spleen and Lymph NodesThe spleen is a long,
narrow organ, purplish in color, situated behind
the stomach. The cats spleen averages three to
four inches in length. It functions to store blood
and to destroy old blood cells.
Lymph nodes, located at different points along
the blood route, also act as filtering devices.
Their function is to purify the blood by destroy-
ing bacteria, viruses, and other alien matter.
Lymph, the fluid discharged by the lymph
glands, is circulated by muscular activity and
intestinal action.
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Words to Remember
Anterior and posterior aortas: Circulate blood
through body and lungs.
Anterior and posterior vena cavas: Veins which
carry blood to the heart.
Blood: Fluid in body that carries nourishment and
oxygen to body cells, and carries waste prod-
ucts away from cells.
Lymph nodes: Filtering devices located along the
blood route.
Plasma: Fluid part of the blood.
Red blood cells and hemoglobin: Function in the
distribution of oxygen and carbon dioxide;
hemoglobin gives blood its red color.
Spleen: Organ which stores blood and destroys
old blood cells.
White corpuscles: Cells in blood which function to
fight infection.
The Digestive System
The cats digestive system is comprised of the
mouth, teeth, tongue, esophagus, stomach,
pylorus, small intestine, large intestine, liver,
pancreas, and rectum. All of these organs work to
process the food a cat eats. They change it into a
usable form that is distributed by the blood. What
is not utilized is passed out of the body.
MouthThe cats mouth is the doorway to the
digestive systemthe opening through which it
takes in food. Its lips hold in food and retain
saliva. The tongue is rough and covered with
hooklike appendages. A cat uses its tongue to
lap up liquids and to scrape food off bones, etc.
Incisor teeth
Canine tooth
Premolar teeth
Molar tooth
Molar tooth
Premolar teeth
Canine tooth
Incisor teeth
 TeethCats have 30 permanent teeth. A first set
of 26 teeth, the milk teeth, fall out when the cat
is between five and seven months old and are
quickly replaced by the permanent teeth. Its
permanent teeth are made up of 12 incisors, 4
canines, 10 premolars, and 4 molars. The ability
to hold and tear food is essential to a cat, which
is why it has mainly incisors and canines.
The crown is the part of the tooth visible above
the gums. Below the gums lies the root. At least
half of each canine tooth grows below the gum
line. The roots of all permanent teeth are strong
and deeply imbedded.
Enamel covers the crown and neck of each tooth.
Inside each tooth is the pulp, which houses the
nerves and blood vessels. Although they rarely
develop cavities, cats do develop trouble involv-
ing the nerves and pulp.
Crown
Enamel
Dentine
Gum
Neck
Pulp cavity
Jaw bone
Root
Capillary and nerves
Cross Section of Tooth
EsophagusThe esophagus, or gullet, is a
strong, elastic tube which carries food from the
mouth to the stomach. It may become infested
with worms, although it is not often subject to
disease.
StomachThe cats stomach, a saclike organ
with elastic walls, has a comparatively large
9
capacity for food storage. In the stomach, some
of the early stages of digestion take place; acid
liquids help to break down proteins and fats.
Small intestineThe pylorus, a valve sur-
rounded by muscle located at the bottom of the
stomach, regulates the passage of food from the
stomach into the duodenum, the first section of
the small intestine. Bile is produced by the liver
and stored in the gall bladder. As needed, it flows
into the duodenum to break down fat into tiny
globules. Other digestive substances called
enzymes are secreted into the intestines from
the pancreas. The small intestine itself secretes
substances which first convert starches into
dextrin, then break them down into glucose.
After all food has been broken down into a
usable form, it is absorbed into the bloodstream
in the last section of the small intestine.
Gullet
Duodenum
Stomach
Large intestine
Small intestine
LiverThe liver is the largest organ in the cats
body, situated in front of the stomach on the right
side of the body. Among its many functions are
the manufacture of bile and urea, destruction of
bacteria, and regulation of sugar utilization.
PancreasIn addition to producing juices that
aid in digestion, the pancreas regulates the
utilization of sugar in conjunction with the liver.
The pancreas is located near the stomach. The
islets of Langerhans are located in the pancreas.
Their function is to produce insulin which helps
the body use sugar. Diabetes is the condition
which results from the lack of insulin.
Large intestineAfter food has passed through
the small intestine, and nutrients have been
absorbed into the bloodstream, what remains is
deposited in the large intestine. There, large
amounts of water are absorbed and much
bacterial action occurs to break down unused
material. Wastes are then excreted through the
rectum and anus.
 Urinary systemThe important organs of the
cats urinary system are the kidneys, ureter,
bladder, and urethra. Liquids are filtered
through the kidneys, which are located on
either side of the body in the lumbar region.
Liquid wastes are passed through the ureters
to the bladder where they are stored. They are
then discharged through the urethra, a tube
connecting the bladder and the exterior of the
body.
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary bladder
Urethra
The Urinary System
Words to Remember
Bile: Fluid made by the liver and stored in the
gall bladder; secreted into the duodenum where
it breaks down the fat.
Bladder: A sac which serves as a receptacle for
liquid wastes.
Crown: Visible part of the tooth.
Dentine: Inner part of the crown.
Duodenum: First section of the small intestine
where much digestion takes place.
Enamel: Hard, protective, outer covering of the tooth.
Ureters: Tubes which connect kidneys and bladder.
10
Urethra: Tube which connects bladder and exte-
rior of body.
Esophagus: Strong, elastic tube connecting mouth
and stomach.
Kidneys: Filtering organs of the urinary system.
Large intestine: Last part of digestive system
where wastes are processed and stored.
Liver: Largest organ in the body; makes bile and
urea, destroys bacteria, and helps regulate sugar
utilization.
Mouth: Doorway to digestive system.
Pancreas: Manufactures insulin, functions in
sugar utilization.
Pylorus: Valve surrounded by muscle at bottom of
the stomach; connects stomach and duodenum.
Root: Part of the tooth located below the gum line;
holds tooth in place.
Small intestine: Tubes into which food passes from
the stomach; process of digestion is completed;
nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream.
Questions: Lesson 3Circulatory and
Digestive Systems
1. The mouth, teeth, esophagus, stomach, py-
lorus, and intestines belong to what system?
2. How many teeth does an adult cat have?
3. What is the visible part of the tooth called?
4. What covers the crown and neck of the tooth?
5. What are the four inner parts of the tooth?
6. What part of the tooth lies under the gum?
7. What is the tube which connects the mouth
and stomach?
8. What is the function of the stomach?
9. What is the largest organ in the cats body?
10. Which two organs function in the utilization
of sugar?
11. What is the main function of the large intestine?
12. What are the two organs that filter liquid
wastes?
13. What is one function of the blood?
14. What carries the impure blood to the heart?
15. What is the fluid of the blood called?
16. What surrounds impurities that enter the
blood?
17. What is the function of the platelets?
18. What is the main function of the spleen?
19. What are the other filtering devices along the
blood route?
20. What is hemoglobin?
LESSON 4REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Cats are fertile animals. A female may produce
two or three litters of kittens a year, which is one
reason for the large number of stray, unwanted
cats. Female cats go into heat during which time
they are interested in mating and can conceive
(get pregnant) if they do mate. A female can mate
with more than one male. Periods of heat last a
few days. Rolling, stretching, rubbing, crying, and
yowling characterize a female cat in heat. If the
cat does not mate and conceive, the cycle will be
repeated in a few months.
It is possible to prevent a female cat from becom-
ing pregnant. You can keep her in the house,
isolated from any tomcats (unneutered males
see Male Reproductive Organs) during her heat.
Or, you can have her spayed (neutered). Spaying
is a surgical procedure which involves removal of
the female reproductive organs. The operation is
usually performed at age six to seven months,
although it can be done successfully later on, after
a cat has had kittens. After being spayed, a cat is
no longer interested in mating, nor is she able to
conceive.
Many cat owners choose to have their pets
neutered. This is done to prevent the birth of
unwanted kittens, and also to make male cats
more suitable house pets. Neutering a male cat
involves surgical removal of the testicles. A
neutered male no longer shows interest in
mating. Unneutered, a male tends to get into
many fights, and will mark his territory by
spraying urine on walls, both inside and out.
The odor is enduring and unpleasant.
Male Reproductive Organs
The tomcats organs of reproduction are the
penis, scrotum, testicles, and prostate gland. A male
cat has two testicles which are suspended in a
saclike structure, the scrotum, outside of its
body. The testicles produce and store sperm,
which is the seed that fertilizes the eggs pro-
duced by the female. Testosterone, a hormone
which is essential to the males sexual develop-
ment and activity, is also produced by the tes-
ticles. The prostate gland produces seminal fluid,
which transports the sperm.
11
When two cats mate, the male mounts the female
and inserts his penis into her vagina. This act of
copulation ends after the male ejaculates seminal
fluid into the females vagina. The sperm in the
seminal fluid then swim up through the vagina
into the uterus, and fertilize the egg or eggs in the
uterus.
Prostate gland
Urogenital canal
Spermatic cord
Penis
Testicles
Male Reproductive Organs
Female Reproductive Organs
The external parts of the female reproductive
system consist of the vagina and the vulva. The
vulva are the lips of the vagina, located just below
the anus. The vagina connects the outer and inner
parts of the reproductive system. During copula-
tion, it serves as the passageway for the tomcats
penis. It is also the birth canal through which
kittens pass as they are born.
The ovaries, cervix, uterus, and fallopian tubes make
up the inner reproductive system. The cervix is
the opening of the uterus which connects the
vagina and uterus. The female cat has two ovaries
located in the front of the abdomen, just behind
the kidneys. Ova, or eggs, are formed in the
ovaries and released into the fallopian tubes,
which join the ovaries with the uterus. If the eggs
are fertilized by male sperm they implant into the
walls of the uterus and develop into kittens.
Unless a female mates, no ova are released into
the fallopian tubes.

Fallopian Tube
Ovary
Ovarian
Ligament
Body of Uterus
Vagina
Female Reproductive Organs
Words to Remember
Cervix: Opening to the uterus, which connects
vagina and uterus.
Copulation: The mating act of the male and female
which results in fertilization of egg by sperm.
Fallopian tubes: The tubes connecting the ovaries
with the uterus.
Fertilization: Union of egg and sperm, necessary
for egg to develop into a kitten.
Heat: Period during which female can mate and
get pregnant; a time when she shows a strong
interest in mating with male cats.
Ova: Eggs produced by the ovaries.
Ovaries: The bodies in the female cats reproduc-
tive system which form the eggs or ova.
Penis: Male reproductive organ which is used in
copulation.
Prostate gland: Produces the seminal fluid.
Scrotum: Saclike structure which holds the testicles.
Seminal fluid: Fluid produced by prostate gland
which transports the sperm; during copulation,
seminal fluid is ejaculated through the males
penis into the females vagina.
Spay or neuter: Surgical removal of females
internal reproductive organs or males testicles.
Sperm: Seed produced by the male, stored in the
testicles, which fertilize the eggs or ova.
12
Testicles: Manufacture and store sperm; manufac-
ture testosterone.
Testosterone: Hormone produced by the testicles,
essential to males sexual development and
activity.
Uterus: Female internal reproductive organ where
eggs are fertilized, and where fertilized eggs
develop into kittens.
Vagina: Connects outer and inner female repro-
ductive systems; passageway for tomcats penis
during copulation; canal through which kittens
pass as they are being born.
Vulva: External part of female reproductive
organs.
Questions: Lesson 4Reproductive
System
1. Can a female mate with more than one male
during a heat period?
2. Name the different organs of the female
reproductive system.
3. What are the different parts of the male
reproductive system?
4. How many litters of kittens can a female cat
produce in a year?
5. What are some of the characteristic behaviors
of a female cat in heat?
LESSON 5CARE OF THE
PREGNANT CAT AND KITTENS
Nothing contributes more toward a healthy litter
of kittens than good care during the mothers
pregnancy. If she is in good health at the time of
mating, her pregnancy should pose no problem.
Early in her pregnancy, begin to feed her vitamin
and mineral supplements, treat any skin condi-
tions, eliminate parasites, and make sure that she
is in good health.
The average gestation periodthe time from
mating to the birth of kittensis from 61 to 63
days. It is not unusual for a cat to deliver her
kittens a few days before or after this period.
However, if the gestation period lasts longer than
67 days, and if you are certain of the breeding
date, consult a veterinarian. The cat may be
having some trouble, or may be undergoing a
false pregnancy.
False Pregnancy
A false pregnancy is a condition in which the
female displays physical and emotional signs of
pregnancy, but is not carrying kittens. The cats
breasts swell and produce milk. Her abdomen is
distended. She eats more and gains weight, and
continually works at preparing a nest for the
kittens she expects, but is not to have. The symp-
toms usually appear after the cat has gone out of
heat and may persist for several months. You will
have to wait a month or so before you can deter-
mine whether or not the cat is pregnant. After a
month, you can check for signs of kittens by
gently feeling through her abdominal wall for
lumps. As a true pregnancy progresses, the
kittens, which feel like lumps in the cats abdo-
men, grow. Although she will manifest most other
signs of pregnancy, a cat with a false pregnancy
will not have any apparent lumps.
If your cat has a false pregnancy, you will have to
cater to her peculiarities. Tranquilizers may help
calm a cat that is constantly meowing, working on
a nest, or mothering old shoes or other objects.
False pregnancies can recur. While the cat can
mate and bear kittens, there is no way of knowing
if and when a false pregnancy might happen
again. Spaying (the removal of the cats reproduc-
tive organssee Lesson 4) will eliminate the
condition.
Prenatal Care
The cat should be given a health examination
early in her pregnancy. Examine her for fleas, lice,
and ticks, and keep her free from other pests.
Have a veterinarian examine a stool specimen for
signs of worms or other internal parasites. Re-
member, roundworms and hookworms can be
transmitted to the fetuses. Worming is not advis-
able after the second week of pregnancy, however,
since there is danger of aborting the fetuses. If
your cat shows signs of worms later in the preg-
nancy, do not worm her until after the kittens are
born. The kittens can be wormed at eight to ten
weeks of age.
The pregnant cat is hungry most of the time,
especially in the later stages. Feed her well with-
out overfeeding her. After the first month, two or
three meals a day will suffice. She should receive
13
her regular ration plus milk and a vitamin and
mineral supplement. Additional calcium is
important, as pregnancy drains the mother cats
body reserves of calcium (see eclampsia, next
lesson).
As her pregnancy continues to progress, the cat
will become more and more inactive and will lie
about. Leave her alone as this is perfectly normal.
Around the eighth week of pregnancy, milk
usually appears in the cats breasts. The breasts
will swell and may become hard and caked, and
the cat will show signs of discomfort. She will
constantly lick her breasts in an effort to relieve
the pressure. If her breasts are dry or caked, apply
olive or mineral oil.
As the time for her delivery draws near, the cat
will become very restless, wandering around and
scratching at her bed. Keep an eye on her as she
may decide to have her kittens in some secluded
place, such as a cellar, garage, or even in an old
barrel, box, drawer, or other such out-of-the-way
place. The cat may lose her appetite from 12 to 24
hours before the kittens are due. Also, her tem-
perature will drop a degree at that stage.
Preparing for the Arrival of the Kittens
You can make some preparations for the big
event. If your cat is long-haired, trim away the
hair around her breasts. This will help the kittens
find the nipples. Also trim the hair around the
anus and vagina.
Birth
In a normal birth, all kittens will be born within
two to eight hours after labor begins. If a cat
continues to labor more than eight hours, some-
thing is wrong. Call your veterinarian for instruc-
tions. Also consult him or her if more than three
hours elapse between kittens.
Questions: Lesson 5Care of the Pregnant
Cat and Kittens
1. How long is the normal gestation period?
2. If your cat has not given birth after the normal
gestation period, how long should you wait
before contacting a veterinarian?
3. Describe a false pregnancy.
4. How can you tell if a cat is pregnant?
5. Name at least two things you should do for
your cat early in her pregnancy.
6. What should you do if her breasts become dry
and caked?
7. In a long-haired cat, prior to delivery, fur
should be trimmed from what areas?
8. In a normal birth, all kittens should be deliv-
ered in how many hours?
9. What should you do if more than three hours
pass between the delivery of one kitten and
the next?
LESSON 6CARE OF THE
PREGNANT CAT AND KITTENS
(continued)
The Placenta
Each kitten is born encased in a transparent sac or
membrane (a grayish, bulky mass), through which
the kitten is visible. The membrane is attached by a
cord to the placenta, or afterbirth, which should
come out immediately after the kitten. The pla-
centa, the lifeline from the mother cat, is the means
by which the kitten feeds while in the uterus.
Do not become alarmed if your cat eats the
placenta; this is normal. It may be her way of
removing all traces of the birth, or perhaps it
provides her with a temporary source of nourish-
ment, since she will be unable to leave the new-
born kittens for some time.
Try to keep count of the placentas as each one is
expelled. A placenta should follow the birth of
each kitten. Sometimes a placenta is retained
when the cord between the fetal membrane and
the placenta breaks. If the cat does not expel the
placenta, it must be removed in another way.
Grasp the broken cord with a clean towel and
gently and slowly pull out the placenta. A re-
tained placenta may interfere with the birth of the
next kitten and, if retained after the last kitten is
born, will decompose and cause infection.
As the Cat Continues Labor
Even after the first kitten is born, there is no
assurance that the others will follow quickly.
14
Remain near the cat and if more than three hours
elapse between the arrival of one kitten and the
next, call a veterinarian. Tell the veterinarian
when the first kitten was born, whether it was a
normal or breech delivery, how long the cat has
been in labor with the present kitten, and other
pertinent information.
If all goes well, the kittens should be delivered and
nursing within a few hours. The mother will stop
laboring and panting shortly after delivering the
kittens and will settle down to taking care of her
family. The mother will sometimes become so
involved with her kittens that she will refuse to eat.
Place a saucer of warm milk near her. Some moth-
ers have been known to go as long as 24 hours
without eating. When she does want to eat she will
let you know in unmistakable ways. Then feed her
her regular rations fortified with vitamins and
minerals. Canned or whole milk is good for a
nursing cat. Keep fresh water near her at all times.
Some Possible Obstetric Difficulties
Most cats have no difficulty in delivering kittens.
Obstetric troubles, when they do occur, may be
caused by disease or malfunction of the reproduc-
tive system.
Breech delivery In a breech delivery, the
kitten arrives hind feet first. Usually the head of
a breech kitten is large and the cat has difficulty
in expelling the kitten.
Caesarian sectionWhen kittens cannot be
born in a normal manner they must be deliv-
ered through an incision in the cats abdominal
wall and uterus. This operation is called a
Caesarian section.
The need for a Caesarian section can sometimes
be anticipated early in pregnancy when the
veterinarian determines either by x-rays, or by
feeling, that the kittens are going to be too large
to be delivered normally. Sometimes the veteri-
narian must perform a Caesarian to remove the
remaining kittens after one or two kittens are
born. A cats uterine muscles may become
overly tired, particularly if she has a long and
difficult labor, making her unable to expel the
kittens. Call the veterinarian if your cat labors
more than eight hours.
 EclampsiaEclampsia is a serious condition
that often happens to a female cat following the
birth of her kittens. It is brought on by a deple-
tion of the blood calcium. The symptoms
include excessive panting, loss of appetite, a
temperature above 103F, a stilted walk, and
convulsions, eventually followed by collapse
and coma. There is nothing you can do. Rush
the cat to the veterinarian, where she can be
quickly revived by the injection of calcium
gluconate into her bloodstream.
Postnatal Period
The cat will have a discharge from her vagina for
a week or ten days. This discharge should be red
or dark red in color. If it is greenish or greenish
yellow, there is something wrong. A placenta may
have been retained despite your vigilance and
serious infection may result. Such an infection
may cause the cats milk to dry up and eventually
lead to her death and that of her kittens. When
you see a green or greenish yellow discharge,
contact your veterinarian immediately!
Care of the Newborn Kittens
The mother and kittens should be left strictly alone
for the first two or three days. Nursing kittens are
very delicate, so avoid unnecessary handling.
Caution children not to pick up the baby cats.
During the first ten days of life, the physical
activities of the newborn kittens are very limited.
They cannot see or hear; their legs are too weak
to support their bodies; and they must get
around by crawling on their abdomens with a
swimming motion. Baby cats will cry when they
are hungry and sometimes stray from the
warmth of their mothers body. Provide some
barricade to prevent the kittens from getting too
far from the mother.
Watch the kittens closely for the first week to
make certain they are getting enough to eat. The
mothers rear breasts contain the most milk and
the most vigorous kittens will monopolize them.
You can rotate the kittens on the rear breasts so
that all get enough nourishment.
Excessive leanness, weakness, and constant
crying are signs that a kitten is not getting
15
enough milk. Such kittens quickly become
dehydrated. To check for dehydration, pinch the
skin at the back of the kittens neck with your
thumb and forefinger, then quickly release it. If
the animal is dehydrated, the skin will not snap
back to its former position, but will remain
pinched. If your mother cat does not have
enough milk, or dies while nursing, you will
have to bottle feed the kittens.
Bottle feedingYou should have little diffi-
culty in getting the kittens to feed from a bottle
or eyedropper. Use an eyedropper, baby doll
bottle, or special baby animal bottle for the first
few days, and later switch to a larger bottle.
Two- or three-day-old kittens do not eat much
at a feeding. An average newborn kitten
consumes from about 5 to 25 drops at one
feeding. Use the dehydration test to see if the
kittens are getting enough of the formula. You
should keep a supply of formula stocked in the
refrigerator and warm any portion you feed to
the kittens. If you use a commercial formula,
follow the directions of the manufacturer.
Clean and sterilize all utensils and bottles after
each feeding. Here is a formula that has proved
successful: 1/2 cup evaporated milk, 1/2 cup
water, 1/10 cup light cream, and 2 drops
water-soluble vitamins.
Weaning the kittensThe mother will begin
to wean the kittens somewhere around the
fourth or fifth week. First she will reduce the
number of feedings each day by spending
more and more time away from them. Then
she will begin to bring food to the kittens and
teach them how to eat. When she begins to
wean the kittens, take up the feeding yourself.
Remember to introduce new foods gradually
and avoid overfeeding. Finely chopped beef,
baby cereals with milk, and strained baby
vegetables are all excellent foods. Food should
be at room temperature. When the kittens are
eight weeks old, they should be totally
weaned.
Remember to provide the weaned kittens with
their own sleeping quarters, food and water
pans, and a litterbox if one is not already avail-
able. The mother cat will take care of house-
breaking her kittens.
You should handle and groom the kittens from
now on. A visit to the veterinarian for distemper
shots and a general checkup is in order.
Remember, it is cruel, inhumane, and illegal to
abandon kittens. If you are unable to care for or
find homes for the kittens, take them to your
local humane society.
Words to Remember
Delivery: Passage of kittens from the uterus,
through the birth canal, to the outside world.
Eclampsia: Depletion of blood calcium; serious
condition which sometimes follows birth of
kittens.
False pregnancy: Cat shows all of the physical and
mental signs of pregnancy without actually
being pregnant.
Fetus: The unborn kitten developing in the uterus.
Gestation: The time from mating to the birth of
kittens.
Placenta: Lifeline from the mother to the kitten;
means by which the kitten feeds while in uterus.
Pregnancy: Having a fetus or fetuses developing
in the uterus.
Questions: Lesson 6Care of the Pregnant
Cat and Kittens (continued)
1. What is the placenta or afterbirth?
2. How many placentas will be delivered with
the kittens?
3. Does the cat normally eat the placenta?
4. Why would you remove a retained placenta?
5. After delivery, how long might a mother cat
go without eating?
6. What is a Caesarian section?
7. What is eclampsia?
8. After the kittens are born, what color is the
normal discharge from the mother cats
vagina?
9. How many days should the mother and new-
born kittens be left alone without handling?
10. Can newborn kittens walk?
11. How do you check for dehydration?
12. What should you use to bottle feed a kitten?
13. When will a mother cat begin to wean her
kittens?
14. When can a kitten be completely weaned?
15. What are some good foods for the weaned
kitten?
16
LESSON 7BEHAVIOR
Intelligence
The cat is an intelligent animal, capable of learn-
ing quickly and retaining what it has learned. It
also appears to exercise a certain degree of reason-
ing in solving problems. For example, a cat will
examine a building to find out if there is more
than one exit from a mouses lair. If satisfied that a
mouse can escape from no other exit, a cat will sit
for hours in front of a mouse hole, waiting for its
unsuspecting dinner to appear.
Although it is not easy to teach cats to perform on
command, they can learn tricks. But, the process
takes infinite patience. When its own welfare is
involved, a cat is quick to learn. Otherwise, it is
simply too aloof and independent to be brought
under the same control as a dog.
Temperament
Cats temperaments, or dispositions, vary greatly.
On the whole they are inclined to be more aloof
and independent than dogs. Some of them are
moody, aggressive, nervous, and quick to resent
any hurt or neglect. On the other hand, many cats
are docile and even-tempered. Most respond well
to affection, gentle handling, and pampering.
Anger
An angry cat assumes a classic pose. Ears laid
back and a switching tail are early signs of irrita-
tion. When really angered, it reacts rapidly by
arching its back and stiffening its body; all hairs
stand on end, and the cat snarls and spits. The cat
may drop into a crouch, with its tail lashing from
side to side. As it prepares to fight, the ears are
pressed flat against the head, mouth is partly
open, fangs bared, forefeet firmly planted, claws
extended.
Affection
In expressing affection, a cat is pure gentleness. It
will arch its back, hold its tail stiff and straight,
perk its ears, rub its head and muzzle against
people and objectspurring its delight to the
world. Kneading with forepaws, claws retracted,
indicates pleasure and affection. A cat may also
show its affection by licking and by touching and
sniffing delicately with its nose.
Courage
Cats are very courageous animals, often attacking
animals twice their size, especially when their
young are threatened. They will chase away large
dogs, kill large birds of prey, and sometimes get
badly injured in the process of protecting their
young or homes.
Questions: Lesson 7Behavior
1. What is a word for the capability to learn and
retain what has been learned?
2. How would you describe a cat which had its
ears laid back and whose tail was switching?
3. What is a cat displaying when it arches its
back, perks its ears, rubs itself against people,
and purrs?
4. A cat which attacks larger animals in defend-
ing its young or home is displaying what
quality?
LESSON 8REVIEW OF
PHYSIOLOGY LESSONS
The first lesson began a study of the cats body
and how it functions. We learned that the outer-
most part of the cats body is called hair or fur.
Under the hair is the skin, which is composed of
two layers, the epidermis and the dermis. The
skin is not impermeable; medicines or poisonous
substances can be absorbed (impermeable means
that nothing can penetrate the skin).
Some of the major bones in the cats body are the
skull, the bone framework of the head; the spinal
column, which runs down the back; the scapula
or shoulders; and the ribs on the cats sides. In
the forelegs are the humerus, radius, ulna,
carpus, metacarpus, and digits. The hind legs
contain the femur, tibia, fibula, tarsus, metatar-
sus, and digits.
In the mouth is found the primary taste organ, the
tongue. Small bumps that react to chemical
stimuli to produce sensations of taste, called taste
buds, are located on the tongue.
17
In the back of the cats eye is the tapetum lucidum,
also known as the eye shine, which aids in night
vision. The pupil is the small hole in the middle of
the eye which controls the amount of light let into
the eye. Around the pupil is a colored ring called
the iris. The sclera is the white part of the eye
around the iris. Covering the whole eye is a
transparent layer of cells, the cornea. Behind the
pupil is the lens which bends light rays onto the
back of the eye, the retina. The retina receives
light and images and transmits them to the brain
via the optic nerve.
A cats ears are cup-shaped and very sensitive.
Cats turn their ears in the direction of sound. The
only hearing mechanism in the outer ear is the
eardrum. Under the eardrum are three little
bones, the stirrup, anvil, and hammer, which
transmit the sound to the cochlea. The cochlea
houses the auditory nerve, which carries sound
signals to the brain. Also near the cochlea are
three small, snail-shaped tubes known as semicir-
cular canals, that contain fluid to help the cat
maintain balance. Connecting the middle ear and
the throat is the Eustachian tube. It equalizes
pressures between the inner ear and the outside.
The lungs are the main organ of the respiratory
system. In the lungs, oxygen is transferred to the
blood; carbon dioxide is removed. Connecting the
mouth, nose, and chest are the bronchial tubes.
They branch into smaller tubes, known as bron-
chioles, and finally into air sacs. The air sacs are
enclosed by a network of blood capillaries that
allow gases to escape and to be absorbed.
The circulatory system is made up of the heart,
arteries, veins, blood, and lymph nodes. Two large
veins, the anterior and the posterior vena cavas,
lead away from the heart. One leads to the lungs,
the other to the rest of the body. Plasma is the
liquid part of blood. The red cells contain a chemi-
cal known as hemoglobin which functions in
oxygen distribution. Also found in the blood are
white corpuscles that surround and kill impurities
in the blood. Platelets cause the blood to clot.
The cats mouth represents the first part of the
digestive system. There are 30 teeth in the adult
cats mouth. The visible part of the tooth is called
the crown. As protection, the crown and neck of
the tooth are covered with enamel. Inside the
tooth are the dentine, pulp, nerves, and blood
vessels. The root of the tooth lies under the gum.
The esophagus leads from the throat to the
stomach, where digestion begins. From there food
enters the small intestine at the duodenum by
way of a small valve called the pylorus.
The liver, the largest organ in the cats body,
manufactures bile, regulates sugar utilization, and
manufactures urea. The pancreas also regulates
the bodys ability to utilize sugar.
After most of the nutrients are absorbed into the
blood in the last part of the small intestine, waste
products pass into the large intestine. There, a great
deal of water is absorbed, and wastes are stored.
On either side of the cats body are located the
kidneys, the major organs of the urinary system
which filter liquid wastes. The ureters carry urine
from the kidneys to the bladder where it is stored.
It is eventually expelled through the urethra.
The vulva is the outermost part of the female
reproductive system. It covers and protects the
vagina. The vagina is a canal which connects the
outer and inner reproductive organs. The ovaries
produce eggs, or ova, which descend through the
fallopian tubes to the uterus. If fertilized, they
develop in the uterus into kittens.
The male reproductive system is composed of the
testicles, prostate glands, scrotum, and penis. The
testicles are located outside the body in the saclike
scrotum. Sperm are manufactured and stored in
the testicles. Seminal fluid, in which the sperm
travel, is produced by the prostate gland. During
mating, the seminal fluid is forced through the
penis and is deposited in the females vagina.
After mating, if a female becomes pregnant, she
will carry her kittens from 61 to 63 daysthe
normal period of gestation. Sometimes a cat can
have a false pregnancy; she looks and acts preg-
nant, but actually is not.
The pregnant cat should be wormed before or
during the first two weeks of her pregnancy.
Roundworms and hookworms can be transmitted
to the fetuses.
18
At about the eighth week of pregnancy, milk will
appear in the cats breasts. If her nipples become
swollen and dry, apply a little oil to them.
After labor begins, the kittens all should be deliv-
ered within eight hours. When a kitten starts to
emerge, it should come out head first. Each kitten
is enclosed in its own transparent sac. If in an
emergency you should have to pick up a kitten, use
a clean towel and both hands. Be very gentle.
The mother cat will eat the placentas after the
birth of each kitten. This is normal. If she retains a
placenta, she may become very sick or may die.
Some kittens may be born tail end first, which is
known as a breech birth. Occasionally a cat will
have to have a Caesarian section, an operation to
remove kittens through her abdominal wall.
After all of the kittens have been born, place a
bowl of warm milk near the mother and feed her
when she demands it.
Occasionally a cat will get eclampsia after her
kittens are born. This is a serious condition caused
by a lack of blood calcium. This can be treated by
a veterinarian.
If your cat develops a green or greenish yellow
discharge after the birth of her kittens, she prob-
ably has retained a placenta. Take her immedi-
ately to a veterinarian so the placenta may be
cleaned out and any infection she may have can
be taken care of.
Do not handle the kittens for the first ten days,
unless you have to rotate them on the nipples to
make sure they all get enough milk, or if you have
to bottle feed them. Make sure that the kittens are
in a confined area so that they do not stray too far
from their mother or get lost.
Excessive leanness, weakness, and constant crying
are signs of dehydration. Test for this by pinching
the skin at the back of the kittens neck. If it does
not snap back into place, the animal is dehydrated
and will need more milk. The average kitten
nurses every hour, taking in from 5 to 25 drops of
milk.
During weaning, some good foods to give a kitten
are finely chopped beef, baby cereals mixed with
milk, and strained baby vegetables. Later on, add 25. What is the fluid part of the blood?
cat food diluted with milk and specially prepared 26. What do the platelets do?
kitten foods. 27. What is hemoglobin?
28. What is the average gestation period of a cat?
After ten weeks you should handle the kittens. 29. Can certain types of worms be transmitted
Groom them daily, clip their claws as needed, and from the mother to the fetuses?
play with them to accustom them to handling. 30. About what time does milk appear in the
Now is the time to take them to the veterinarian breasts of the pregnant cat?
for a general checkup and inoculations. 31. In a normal birth, all of the kittens will be
delivered within how many hours?
Remember that it is inhumane and illegal to 32. When it is born, how does a kitten normally
abandon kittens. If you cannot care for them or emerge?
find homes for them, take them to your local 33. What is each kitten enclosed in when it is
animal shelter or humane society. born?
34. How do you pick up a newborn kitten? why?
Review Questions on Lessons 18

1. What is the outermost part of the cats body

called?
2. What are the two layers of a cats skin?
3. What does impermeable mean?
4. Name the major bones in a cats body.
5. What is the name for the nerve in the nose?
6. What is the primary organ of taste?
7. What are the small bumps in the mouth that
react to chemical stimuli?
8. What is another expression for the tapetum
lucidum?
9. What is the hole in the center of the eye?
10. What is the iris?
11. What does the optic nerve do?
12. What is the only hearing mechanism in the
outer ear?
13. What do the semicircular canals contain and
why?
14. What are the three little bones behind the
eardrum called?
15. What is the function of the lungs?
16. The mouth, teeth, stomach, pylorus, and
intestines belong to what system?
17. How many teeth does an adult cat have?
18. What is the visible part of the tooth called?
19. What are the crown and neck of the toot
covered with?
20. What are the four inner parts of the tooth?
21. What is the largest organ in the cats body?
22. What is one important function of the pan-
creas?
23. What are the two organs that filter liquid
wastes?
24. What is the function of the blood?

19
 CAT
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with federal and state laws and regulations on nondiscrimination regarding race, sex, religion, age, color, creed,
national or ethnic origin; physical, mental or sensory disability; marital status, sexual orientation, and status as a
Vietnam-era or disabled veteran. Evidence of noncompliance may be reported through your local Cooperative
Extension office. Trade names have been used to simplify information; no endorsement is intended. Reprinted
March 2002. Subject code 812. C.

EM4289

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