1.

ETHANOL FERMENTATION FROM BIOMASS RESOURCES: CURRENT

STATE AND PROSPECTS-

In recent years, growing attention has been devoted to the conversion of biomass
into fuel ethanol, considered the cleanest liquid fuel alternative to fossil fuels.
Significant advances have been made towards the technology of ethanol
fermentation. This review provides practical examples and gives a broad overview
of the current status of ethanol fermentation including biomass resources,
microorganisms, and technology. Also, the promising prospects of ethanol
fermentation are especially introduced. The prospects included are fermentation
technology converting xylose to ethanol, cellulase enzyme utilized in the hydrolysis
of lignocellulosic materials, immobilization of the microorganism in large systems,
simultaneous saccharification and fermentation, and sugar conversion into ethanol.

2. HEALTH HAZARD DATA-

Routes of entry for methanol are primarily absorption through the skin, eye contact,
inhalation, or ingestion. Industrial exposures are primarily vapor exposures and skin
contact. Initial symptoms from ingestion or inhalation may be only mild intoxication,
but may become severe after 12-18 hours. Toxic effects from repeated over
exposure to methanol have an accumulative affect the central nervous system,
especially the optic nerve. These symptoms may linger for several days after
exposure. Methanol can seriously impair vision and may cause blindness.

3. EMERGENCY FIRST AID PROCEDURE-

EYE CONTACT: Methanol can seriously impair vision and may cause blindness.
Immediate signs and symptoms include the following: vapors are slightly
uncomfortable and splashes very irritating; irritation with painful burning or stinging
sensation; watering of eyes; inflammation of the eyelids; eyes are sensitive to and
painful in the light.
SKIN CONTACT: Direct skin contact with methanol may cause irritation, dermatitis,
erythema, and scaling. Methanol is highly volatile and will produce a feeling of cold.
Alcohols remove oils form the skin, which becomes dry and eventually develops
cracks or dermatitis. Methanol which can be absorbed by the skin, causes
headache, fatigue, and reduction of visual acuity.
INHALATION: Sign and symptoms of acute poisoning include the following: slight
irritation of the nose and eyes; head feels hot and face is flushed; excitability and
talkativeness; drunken behavior; staggering and lack of coordination; headache;
mental confusion and visual disturbance; tiredness.
INGESTION: Signs and symptoms of acute poisoning are gastrointestinal irritation;
head feels hot and face is flushed; excitability and talkativeness; drunken behavior;
staggering and lack of coordination; headache; mental confusion and visual
disturbance; tiredness.

4.PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES-

APPEARANCE- Clear, colorless liquid.

ODOR: Alcohol odor.
PHYSICAL STATE: Liquid.
VAPOR PRESSURE: (at 20o C ) 96 mmHg
VAPOR DENSITY: (air = 1) 1.11
MELTING POINT: -97.6o C
BOILING POINT: (at 760 mmHg) 64.5 C
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: (water = 1) 0.7915 at 68 F
EVAPORATION RATE: (Butyl Acetate = 1) 4.6
PERCENT VOLATILES: 100% (by volume)
BULK DENSITY: 6.63 lbs. per gallon
SOLUBILITY IN WATER: Miscible.
SOLVENT SOLUBILITY: Solubility in alcohols, ketones, esters.
MOLECULAR WEIGHT: 32.04
CHEMICAL FORMULA: CH3OH
CHEMICAL FAMILY: Alcohols

5. PRECAUTIONS FOR HANDLING AND STORAGE-

STORAGE TEMPERATURE: Keep cool.

SHELF LIFE: Unknown.
SPECIAL SENSITIVITY: Methanol is a flammable substance.
HANDLING / STORAGE PRECAUTIONS: Store containers in well-ventilated place.
Large volume storage should be remote from inhabited buildings or structures. Keep
away from all sources of ignition. Wear chemical goggles or face shield, supplied-air
or self contained breathing apparatus, rubber gloves, aprons and boots.

6. TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION-

ROUTES OF ENTRY: A human poison by ingestion. Poison experimentally by skin

contact. Moderately toxic experimentally by intravenous and intraperitoneal routes.
Mildlly toxic by inhalation.
EFFECTS OF ACUTE EXPOSURE: The main toxic effect is exerted upon the
nervous system, particularly the optic nerves and possible the retina which can
progress to permanent blindness. Once absorbed, methanol is only very slowly
eliminated. Coma resulting from massive exposures may last as long as 2-4 days. In
the body, the products formed by its oxidation are formaldehyde and formic acid,
both of which are toxic. Because of the slow elimination, methanol should be
regarded as a cumulative poison. Though single exposures to vapors may cause no
harmful effect, daily exposure may result in the accumulation of sufficient methanol
in the body to cause illness.
SYMPTOMS: Gastrointestinal irritation; slight irritation of nose and eyes; head feels
hot and face is flushed; excitability and talkativeness; drunken behavior; staggering
and lack of coordination; headache; mental confusion and visual disturbance;
tiredness.
EYE EFFECTS: Methanol can seriously impair vision. It may cause blurred vision,
constricted visual fields, blindness, changes in color perception, double vision, and
general visual disturbances. Eye examinations have shown sluggish pupils, pallid
optic discs, retinal edema, papilledema, hyperemia to the optic discs with blurred
edges and dilated veins. 1200 ppm to 8300 ppm: visual disturbances, dilated
unreactive pupils and dim vision.
SKIN EFFECTS: Skin exposure may cause irritation and dermatitis. Poison
experimentally by skin contact. Skin - rabbit: LD50: 15,800 mg/kg
ACUTE ORAL EFFECTS: Ingestion of methanol may cause acidosis, headache,
visual disturbances, dizziness, nausea and vomiting, severe upper abdominal pain,
dilated nonreactive pupils and death. Death from 2 to 8 ounces has been reported.
ACUTE INHALATION EFFECTS: May cause headache, dizziness, nausea,
vomiting, weakness, vertigo, chills shooting pains in the lower extremities, unsteady
gait, numbness, prickling, shooting pain in the back of the hands and forearms,
nervousness, gastric pain, insomnia, acidosis, and formic acid in the urine. Inhalation
- human: TCL0 = 86,000 mg/m3 ( lowest published toxic concentration).
Concentrations of 200-375 ppm may cause severe, recurrent headaches. IDLH -
25,000 ppm.
CHRONIC EFFECTS / CARCINOGENICITY: This agent is not considered a
carcinogen by NTP, IARC or OSHA. Effects from repeated over-exposure to
methanol are considered to be harmful . Because of the slow elimination, methanol
should be regarded as a cumulative poison. Though single exposures to fumes may
cause no harmful effect, daily exposure may result in the accumulation of sufficient
methanol in the body to cause illness.
MUTAGENICITY: Reproductive effects: an experimental teratogen in rats exposed to
20,000 ppm. Reported to cause birth defects.
ORGANS AFFECTED BY LONG-TERM EXPOSURE: Repeated exposure to
methanol vapor may be manifested by conjunctivitis, headache, giddiness, insomnia,
gastric disturbances, and bilateral blindness.

ETHANOL-

HISTORY: The fermentation of sugar into ethanol is one of the

earliest biotechnologies employed by humans. The intoxicating effects of ethanol
consumption have been known since ancient times. Ethanol has been used by
humans since prehistory as the intoxicating ingredient of alcoholic beverages. Dried
residue on 9,000-year-old pottery found in China suggests that Neolithic people
consumed alcoholic beverages.[92]
The medieval Arabs used the distillation process extensively, and applied it to
the distillation of alcohol. The Arab chemist Al-Kindiunambiguously described the
distillation of wine in the 9th century.[93][94][95] The process later spread from
the Middle East to Italy.[93][96]Production of alcohol from distilled wine was later
recorded by the School of Salerno alchemists in the 12th century.[97] Mention of
absolute alcohol, in contrast with alcohol-water mixtures, was later made
by Raymond Lull in the 14th century.[97]
In China, archaeological evidence indicates that the true distillation of alcohol began
during the 12th century Jin or Southern Songdynasties.[98] A still has been found at
an archaeological site in Qinglong, Hebei, dating to the 12th century.[98] In India, the
true distillation of alcohol was introduced from the Middle East, and was in wide use
in the Delhi Sultanate by the 14th century.[96]
In 1796, German-Russian chemist Johann Tobias Lowitz obtained pure ethanol by
mixing partially purified ethanol (the alcohol-water azeotrope) with an excess of
anhydrous alkali and then distilling the mixture over low heat. [99] French
chemist Antoine Lavoisier described ethanol as a compound of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen, and in 1807 Nicolas-Thodore de Saussure determined ethanol's
chemical formula.[100][101] Fifty years later, Archibald Scott Couper published the
structural formula of ethanol. It was one of the first structural formulas
determined.[102]
Ethanol was first prepared synthetically in 1825 by Michael Faraday. He found that
sulfuric acid could absorb large volumes of coal gas.[103] He gave the resulting
solution to Henry Hennell, a British chemist, who found in 1826 that it contained
"sulphovinic acid" (ethyl hydrogen sulfate).[104] In 1828, Hennell and the French
chemist Georges-Simon Serullas independently discovered that sulphovinic acid
could be decomposed into ethanol.[105][106] Thus, in 1825 Faraday had unwittingly
discovered that ethanol could be produced from ethylene (a component of coal gas)
by acid-catalyzed hydration, a process similar to current industrial ethanol synthesis.
Ethanol was used as lamp fuel in the United States as early as 1840, but a tax levied
on industrial alcohol during the Civil War made this use uneconomical. The tax was
repealed in 1906.[108] Use as an automotive fuel dates back to 1908, with the Ford
Model T able to run on petrol (gasoline) or ethanol.[109] It fuels some spirit lamps.
Ethanol intended for industrial use is often produced from ethylene,Ethanol has
widespread use as a solvent of substances intended for human contact or
consumption, including scents, flavorings, colorings, and medicines. In chemistry, it
is both a solvent and a feedstock for the synthesis of other products. It has a long
history as a fuel for heat and light, and more recently as a fuel for internal
combustion engines.

PROPERTIES-

Physical Properties: Ethanol is a volatile, colorless liquid that has a slight odor. It
burns with a smokeless blue flame that is not always visible in normal light. The
physical properties of ethanol stem primarily from the presence of its hydroxyl group
and the shortness of its carbon chain. Ethanol's hydroxyl group is able to participate
in hydrogen bonding, rendering it more viscous and less volatile than less polar
organic compounds of similar molecular weight, such as propane.
Ethanol is slightly more refractive than water, having a refractive index of 1.36242 (at
=589.3 nm and 18.35 C or 65.03 F).[47] The triple point for ethanol is 150 K at a
pressure of 4.3 104 Pa.

Solvent properties-
Ethanol is a versatile solvent, miscible with water and with many organic solvents,
including acetic acid, acetone, benzene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, diethyl
ether, ethylene glycol, glycerol, nitromethane, pyridine, and toluene.[47][49] It is also
miscible with light aliphatic hydrocarbons, such as pentane and hexane, and with
aliphatic chlorides such as trichloroethane and tetrachloroethylene.[49]
Ethanol's miscibility with water contrasts with the immiscibility of longer-chain
alcohols (five or more carbon atoms), whose water miscibility decreases sharply as
the number of carbons increases.[50] The miscibility of ethanol with alkanesis limited
to alkanes up to undecane: mixtures with dodecane and higher alkanes show
a miscibility gap below a certain temperature (about 13 C for dodecane[51]). The
miscibility gap tends to get wider with higher alkanes and the temperature for
complete miscibility increases.
Ethanol-water mixtures have less volume than the sum of their individual
components at the given fractions. Mixing equal volumes of ethanol and water
results in only 1.92 volumes of mixture.[47][52] Mixing ethanol and water is exothermic,
with up to 777 J/mol[53] being released at 298 K.
Mixtures of ethanol and water form an azeotrope at about 89 mole-% ethanol and 11
mole-% water[54] or a mixture of 95.6 percent ethanol by mass (or about 97% alcohol
by volume) at normal pressure, which boils at 351K (78 C). This azeotropic
composition is strongly temperature- and pressure-dependent and vanishes at
temperatures below 303 K.
Hydrogen bonding in solid ethanol at 186 C
Hydrogen bonding causes pure ethanol to be hygroscopic to the extent that it readily
absorbs water from the air. The polar nature of the hydroxyl group causes ethanol to
dissolve many ionic compounds, notably sodium and potassium
hydroxides, magnesium chloride, calcium chloride, ammonium chloride, ammonium
bromide, and sodium bromide.[49] Sodium and potassium chlorides are slightly
soluble in ethanol.[49] Because the ethanol molecule also has a nonpolar end, it will
also dissolve nonpolar substances, including most essential oils[56] and numerous
flavoring, coloring, and medicinal agents.
The addition of even a few percent of ethanol to water sharply reduces the surface
tension of water. This property partially explains the "tears of wine" phenomenon.
When wine is swirled in a glass, ethanol evaporates quickly from the thin film of wine
on the wall of the glass. As the wine's ethanol content decreases, its surface tension
increases and the thin film "beads up" and runs down the glass in channels rather
than as a smooth sheet.
Flammability-
An ethanol-water solution that contains 40% alcohol by weight will catch fire if heated
to about 26 C (79 F) and if an ignition source is applied to it. This is called its flash
point.The flash point of pure ethanol is 16.60 C (61.88 F), less than average room
temperature.

The flash points of ethanol wt % concentrations-

wt % Temperature

10% 49 C (120 F)

20% 36 C (97 F)

30% 29 C (84 F)

40% 26 C (79 F)

50% 24 C (75 F)

60% 22 C (72 F)

70% 21 C (70 F)

80% 20 C (68 F)

90% 17 C (63 F)

96% 17 C (63 F)

PRODUCTION-
Ethylene Hydration: Ethanol for use as an industrial feedstock or solvent
(sometimes referred to as synthetic ethanol) is made from petrochemical feed
stocks, primarily by the acid-catalyzed hydration of ethylene:
C2H4+ H2O CH3CH2OH
The catalyst is most commonly phosphoric acid,[67][68] adsorbed onto a porous
support such as silica gelor diatomaceous earth. This catalyst was first used for
large-scale ethanol production by the Shell Oil Company in 1947.[69] The reaction is
carried out in the presence of high pressure steam at 300 C (572 F) where a 5:3
ethylene to steam ratio is maintained.[70][71] In the U.S., this process was used on an
industrial scale by Union Carbide Corporation and others, but now
only LyondellBasell uses it commercially.

Fermentation: Ethanol fermentation, also called alcoholic fermentation, is

a biological process which converts sugars such as glucose, fructose,
and sucrose into cellular energy, producing ethanol and carbon dioxide as a side-
effect. Because yeasts perform this conversion in the absence of oxygen,
alcoholic fermentationis considered an anaerobic process. It also takes place in
some species of fish (including goldfish and carp) where (along with lactic acid
fermentation) it provides energy when oxygen is scarce.[1]
Ethanol fermentation has many uses, including the production of alcoholic
beverages, the production of ethanol fuel, and bread cooking.

PURIFICATION-
Distillation: Ethylene hydration or brewing produces an ethanolwater mixture. For
most industrial and fuel uses, the ethanol must be purified. Fractional distillation at
atmospheric pressure can concentrate ethanol to 95.6% by volume (89.5 mole%).
This mixture is an azeotrope with a boiling point of 78.1 C (172.6 F), and cannot be
further purified by distillation. Addition of an entraining agent, such
as benzene, cyclohexane, or heptane, allows a new ternary azeotrope comprising
the ethanol, water, and the entraining agent to be formed. This lower-boiling ternary
azeotrope is removed preferentially, leading to water-free ethanol.[68]
At pressures less than atmospheric pressure, the composition of the ethanol-water
azeotrope shifts to more ethanol-rich mixtures, and at pressures less than
70 torr(9.333 kPa), there is no azeotrope, and it is possible to distill absolute ethanol
from an ethanol-water mixture. While vacuum distillation of ethanol is not presently
economical, pressure-swing distillation is a topic of current research. In this
technique, a reduced-pressure distillation first yields an ethanol-water mixture of
more than 95.6% ethanol. Then, fractional distillation of this mixture at atmospheric
pressure distills off the 95.6% azeotrope, leaving anhydrous ethanol at the bottom.

GRADES OF ETHANOL-
Denatured alcohol:Pure ethanol and alcoholic beverages are heavily taxed as
psychoactive drugs, but ethanol has many uses that do not involve its consumption.
To relieve the tax burden on these uses, most jurisdictions waive the tax when an
agent has been added to the ethanol to render it unfit to drink. These
include bittering agents such as denatonium benzoate and toxins such
as methanol, naphtha, and pyridine. Products of this kind are called denatured
alcohol.

Absolute alcohol
Absolute or anhydrous alcohol refers to ethanol with a low water content. There are
various grades with maximum water contents ranging from 1% to a few parts per
million (ppm) levels. If azeotropic distillation is used to remove water, it will contain
trace amounts of the material separation agent (e.g. benzene).[82] Absolute alcohol is
not intended for human consumption. Absolute ethanol is used as a solvent for
laboratory and industrial applications, where water will react with other chemicals,
and as fuel alcohol. Spectroscopic ethanol is an absolute ethanol with a low
absorbance in ultraviolet and visible light, fit for use as a solvent in ultraviolet-visible
spectroscopy.
Pure ethanol is classed as 200 proof in the U.S., equivalent to 175 degrees proof in
the UK system.

Rectified spirits
Rectified spirit, an azeotropic composition of 96% ethanol containing 4% water, is
used instead of anhydrous ethanol for various purposes. Wine spirits are about 94%
ethanol (188 proof). The impurities are different from those in 95% (190 proof)
laboratory ethanol.

REACTIONS-
Ethanol is classified as a primary alcohol, meaning that the carbon its hydroxyl group
attaches to has at least two hydrogen atoms attached to it as well. Many ethanol
reactions occur at its hydroxyl group.

Halogenation: Ethanol is not used industrially as a precursor to ethyl halides, but the
reactions are illustrative. Ethanol reacts with hydrogen halides to produce ethyl
halides such as ethyl chloride and ethyl bromide via an SN2 reaction:
CH3CH2OH + HCl CH3CH2Cl + H2O
These reactions require a catalyst such as zinc chloride.[73] HBr
requires refluxing with a sulfuric acid catalyst.[73] Ethyl halides can, in principle, also
be produced by treating ethanol with more specialized halogenating agents, such
as thionyl chloride or phosphorus tribromide.[50][73]
CH3CH2OH + SOCl2 CH3CH2Cl + SO2 + HCl
Upon treatment with halogens in the presence of base, ethanol gives the
corresponding haloform (CHX3, where X = Cl, Br, I). This conversion is called
the haloform reaction.[88] " An intermediate in the reaction with chlorine is
the aldehyde called chloral, which forms chloral hydrate upon reaction with water:[89]
4 Cl2 + CH3CH2OH CCl3CHO + 5 HCl
CCl3CHO + H2O CCl3C(OH)2H

NATURAL OCCURANCE-
Ethanol is a byproduct of the metabolic process of yeast. As such, ethanol will be
present in any yeast habitat. Ethanol can commonly be found in overripe
fruit.[59] Ethanol produced by symbiotic yeast can be found in bertam palm blossoms.
Although some animal species such as the pentailed treeshrew exhibit ethanol-
seeking behaviors, most show no interest or avoidance of food sources containing
ethanol.[60] Ethanol is also produced during the germination of many plants as a
result of natural anerobiosis.[61] Ethanol has been detected in outer space, forming
an icy coating around dust grains in interstellar clouds.[62] Minute quantity amounts
(average 196 ppb) of endogenous ethanol and acetaldehyde were found in the
exhaled breath of healthy volunteers.[63] Auto-brewery syndrome, also known as gut
fermentation syndrome, is a rare medical condition in which intoxicating quantities of
ethanol are produced through endogenousfermentation within the digestive system.

ETHYLENE-
Ethylene (IUPAC name: ethene) is a hydrocarbon.It is a colorless flammable gas
with a faint "sweet and musky" odour when pure.[4] It is the simplest alkene (a
hydrocarbon with carbon-carbon double bonds).
Ethylene is widely used in the chemical industry, and its worldwide production (over
150 million tonnes in 2016[5]) exceeds that of any other organic compound.[6][7] Much
of this production goes toward polyethylene, a widely
used plastic containing polymer chains of ethylene units in various chain lengths.
Ethylene is also an important natural plant hormone, and is used in agriculture to
force the ripening of fruits.[8] Ethylene's hydrate is ethanol.

STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES-

Orbital description of bonding between ethylene and a transition metal.

This hydrocarbon has four hydrogen atomsbound to a pair of carbon atoms that are
connected by a double bond. All six atoms that comprise ethylene are coplanar. The
H-C-H angle is 117.4, close to the 120 for ideal sp hybridized carbon. The
molecule is also relatively rigid: rotation about the C-C bond is a high energy process
that requires breaking the -bond.
The -bond in the ethylene molecule is responsible for its useful reactivity. The
double bond is a region of high electron density, thus it is susceptible to attack by
electrophiles. Many reactions of ethylene are catalyzed by transition metals, which
bind transiently to the ethylene using both the and * orbitals.
Being a simple molecule, ethylene is spectroscopically simple. Its UV-vis spectrum is
still used as a test of theoretical methods.

Production: Global ethylene production was 107 million tonnes in 2005,[6] 109
million tonnes in 2006,[16] 138 million tonnes in 2010 and 141 million tonnes in
2011.[17] By 2013 ethylene was produced by at least 117 companies in 32
countries. To meet the ever increasing demand for ethylene, sharp increases in
production facilities are added globally, particularly in the Mideast and in China.
Ethylene is produced in the petrochemical industry by steam cracking. In this
process, gaseous or light liquid hydrocarbons are heated to 750950 C, inducing
numerous free radical reactions followed by immediate quench to stop these
reactions. This process converts large hydrocarbons into smaller ones and
introduces unsaturation. Ethylene is separated from the resulting mixture by
repeated compressionand distillation. In a related process used in oil refineries, high
molecular weight hydrocarbons are cracked over zeolite catalysts. Heavier
feedstocks, such as naphtha and gas oils require at least two "quench towers"
downstream of the cracking furnaces to recirculate pyrolysis-derived gasoline and
process water. When cracking a mixture of ethane and propane, only one water
quench tower is required.
History: Some geologists and scholars believe that the famous Greek Oracle
at Delphi (the Pythia) went into her trance-like state as an effect of ethylene rising
from ground faults.[42]
Ethylene appears to have been discovered by Johann Joachim Becher, who
obtained it by heating ethanol with sulfuric acid;[43] he mentioned the gas in
his Physica Subterranea (1669).[44] Joseph Priestley also mentions the gas in
his Experiments and observations relating to the various branches of natural
philosophy: with a continuation of the observations on air (1779), where he reports
that Jan Ingenhousz saw ethylene synthesized in the same way by a Mr. Ene in
Amsterdam in 1777 and that Ingenhousz subsequently produced the gas
himself.[45] The properties of ethylene were studied in 1795 by four Dutch chemists,
Johann Rudolph Deimann, Adrien Paets van Troostwyck, Anthoni Lauwerenburgh
and Nicolas Bondt, who found that it differed from hydrogen gas and that it contained
both carbon and hydrogen.[46] This group also discovered that ethylene could be
combined with chlorine to produce the oil of the Dutch chemists, 1,2-dichloroethane;
this discovery gave ethylene the name used for it at that time, olefiant gas (oil-
making gas.)[47]
In the mid-19th century, the suffix -ene (an Ancient Greek root added to the end of
female names meaning "daughter of") was widely used to refer to a molecule or part
thereof that contained one fewer hydrogen atoms than the molecule being modified.
Thus, ethylene (C
2H
4) was the "daughter of ethyl" (C
2H
5). The name ethylene was used in this sense as early as 1852.
In 1866, the German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann proposed a system of
hydrocarbon nomenclature in which the suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine, -one, and -une
were used to denote the hydrocarbons with 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 fewer hydrogens than
their parent alkane.[48] In this system, ethylene became ethene. Hofmann's system
eventually became the basis for the Geneva nomenclature approved by the
International Congress of Chemists in 1892, which remains at the core of
the IUPAC nomenclature. However, by that time, the name ethylene was deeply
entrenched, and it remains in wide use today, especially in the chemical industry.
Nomenclature: The 1979 IUPAC nomenclature rules made an exception for retaining the non-
systematic name ethylene,[51] however, this decision was reversed in the 1993 rules[52] so the
IUPAC name is now ethene.
Safety: Like all hydrocarbons, ethylene is an asphyxiant and combustible. It is listed as
an IARC class 3 carcinogen as there is no evidence at present that it causes cancer in humans.
Polymerization: Polyethylene consumes more than half of the world's ethylene supply.
Polyethylene, also called polyethene, is the world's most widely used plastic. It is primarily used
to make films in packaging, carrier bags and trash liners. Linear alpha-olefins, produced
by oligomerization (formation of short polymers) are used
as precursors, detergents, plasticisers, synthetic lubricants, additives, and also as co-monomers
in the production of polyethylenes.[10]
Oxidation: Ethylene is oxidized to produce ethylene oxide, a key raw material in the production
of surfactants and detergents by ethoxylation. Ethylene oxide is also hydrolyzed to
produce ethylene glycol, widely used as an automotive antifreeze as well as higher molecular
weight glycols, glycol ethers and polyethylene terephthalate.
Halogenation And Hydrohalogenation: Major intermediates from
the halogenation and hydrohalogenation of ethylene include ethylene dichloride, ethyl
chloride and ethylene dibromide. The addition of chlorine entails "oxychlorination," i.e. chlorine
itself is not used. Some products derived from this group are polyvinyl
chloride, trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, methyl chloroform, polyvinylidene
chloride and copolymers, and ethyl bromide.
Alkylation: Major chemical intermediates from the alkylation with ethylene is ethylbenzene,
precursor to styrene. Styrene is used principally in polystyrene for packaging and insulation, as
well as in styrene-butadiene rubber for tires and footwear. On a smaller scale, ethyltoluene,
ethylanilines, 1,4-hexadiene, and aluminium alkyls. Products of these intermediates
include polystyrene, unsaturated polyesters and ethylene-propylene terpolymers.
Oxo reaction: The hydroformylation (oxo reaction) of ethylene results in propionaldehyde, a
precursor to propionic acid and n-propyl alcohol.[12]
Hydration: Ethylene has long represented the major nonfermentative precursor to ethanol. The
original method entailed its conversion to diethyl sulfate, followed by hydrolysis. The main
method practiced since the mid-1990s is the direct hydration of ethylene catalyzed by solid acid
catalysts:[13]
C2H4 + H2O CH3CH2OH

AIR SEPERATION-
An air separation plant separates atmospheric air into its primary components,
typically nitrogen and oxygen, and sometimes also argon and other rare inert gases.
The most common method for air separation is fractional distillation. Cryogenic air separation
units (ASUs) are built to provide nitrogen or oxygen and often co-produce argon. Other methods
such as membrane, pressure swing adsorption (PSA) and vacuum pressure swing
adsorption (VPSA), are commercially used to separate a single component from ordinary air.
High purity oxygen, nitrogen, and argon used for semiconductor device fabrication requires
cryogenic distillation. Similarly, the only viable sources of the rare gases neon, krypton,
and xenon is the distillation of air using at least two distillation columns.

CRYOGENIC LIQUIFICATION PROCESS-

The processes are used for scientific, industrial and commercial purposes. Many gases can be
put into a liquid state at normal atmospheric pressure by simple cooling; a few, such as carbon
dioxide, require pressurization as well. Liquefaction is used for analyzing the fundamental
properties of gas molecules (intermolecular forces), for storage of gases, for example: LPG, and
in refrigeration and air conditioning. There the gas is liquefied in the condenser, where the heat
of vaporization is released, and evaporated in the evaporator,where the heat of vaporization is
absorbed. Ammonia was the first such refrigerant, and is still in widespread use in industrial
refrigeration, but it has largely been replaced by compounds derived
from petroleum and halogens in residential and commercial applications.
Liquid oxygen is provided to hospitals for conversion to gas for patients with breathing problems,
and liquid nitrogen is used in the medical field for cryosurgery, and by inseminators to
freeze semen. Liquefied chlorine is transported for eventual solution in water, after which it is
used for water purification, sanitation of industrial waste, sewage and swimming pools, bleaching
of pulp and textiles and manufacture of carbon tetrachloride, glycol and numerous other organic
compounds as well as phosgene gas.
Liquefaction of helium (4He) with the precooled HampsonLinde cycle led to a Nobel
Prize for Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1913. At ambient pressure the boiling point of liquefied
helium is 4.22 K (268.93 C). Below 2.17 K liquid 4He becomes a superfluid (Nobel
Prize1978, Pyotr Kapitsa) and shows characteristic properties such as heat conduction
through second sound, zero viscosity and the fountain effect among others.
The liquefaction of gases is a complicated process that uses various compressions and
expansions to achieve high pressures and very low temperatures, using, for
example, turboexpanders.
The liquefaction of air is used to obtain nitrogen, oxygen, and argon and other atmospheric noble
gases by separating the air components by fractional distillation in a cryogenic air separation
unit.

NON CRYOGENIC SEPERATION-

The separation of nitrogen from gas mixtures is the basis for several non-cryogenic industrial
processes, among which the production of oxygen from air by a PSA process (Pressure Swing
Adsorption: adsorption under modulated pressure) is one of the most important. In this application, air
is compressed and conveyed through an adsorbing column having a marked preference for the
nitrogen molecule. Oxygen, at approximately 94-95%, and argon are thus produced during the
adsorption cycle. After a certain period of time, the column is reduced in pressure and then
maintained at the low pressure, during which period the nitrogen is desorbed. Recompression is
subsequently provided by means of a portion of the oxygen produced and the cycle continues. The
advantage of this process with respect to cryogenic processes is the greater simplicity of the plants
and their greater ease of maintenance. The quality of adsorbent used is the key to an efficient and
competitive process. The performance of the adsorbent is related to several factors, among which
may be mentioned: the nitrogen adsorption capacity, which will be determining in calculating the ideal
column sizes, the selectivity between nitrogen and oxygen, which will condition the production yield
(ratio between the oxygen produced and oxygen entered), and the adsorption kinetics, which will
enable the cycle times to be optimized and the productivity of the plant to be improved.
ETHYLENE OXIDE-