1.

Gender
a. In 1972 Ann Oakley talked about the difference between sex and gender.
i. Sex - biological features of one physiology - either male or female
ii. Gender - cultural and social ideas (traits and features, roles) of
masculinity and femininity that we assign to male and female.
1. Women caring and nurturing; Male rational, logical = this
means women naturally suited for jobs like nursing and men for
scientists and engineers
b. Prejudice based on gender is deeply rooted in many cultures
2. Gender Sensitivity
a. Gender sensitization "is about changing behaviour and instilling empathy into
the views that we hold about our own and the other gender."
b. How it helps?
i. Gender mainstreaming is important in public service by designing
policies, programmes and activities, with gender sensitivity, will lead
to effective implementation and success. Tools gender budgeting,
ii. Recruitment, retention of best talent equal employment and
representative public service
3. Gender budgeting tool for gender mainstreaming
a. Women constitute 48% percent but still lag behind education, health,
economic opportunities. Therefore special attention required.
b. It is not an accounting exercise but an ongoing process of keeping a gender
perspective in policy/ programme formulation, its implementation and review.
c. To ensure gender commitments are translated in to budgetary commitments.
4. Gender Analysis
a. ??
5. Eco-feminism
a. Vandana Shiva, Maria Mies, Bina Aggarwal, Gabriel Dietrich
b. It is a value system, a social movement, and a practice (which) also offers
a political analysis that explores the links between androcentrism and
environmental destruction.
c. It is an awareness that begins with the realization that the exploitation of
nature is intimately linked to Western Mans attitude toward women and tribal
cultures.
d. Chipko movement in the Garhwal Himalayas where women wilfully
struggled for the protection and regeneration of the forests; showed 3 rd world
women are not simply victims of development process but also possess the
power for change.
6. Women in Development (WID)
a. Introduced in early 1970s by Washington-based network of female
development professionals.
b. Originated as a result of three major feminist waves
i. womens suffrage movement NA in late 19th century equal right
in votes and politics
ii. social and cultural inequalities women were faced with in everyday
affair i.e. sexual violence, reproductive rights, sexual discrimination
and glass ceilings. UN organized the first global conference on women
back in 1975 at Mexico. United Nations Decade for Women (1976-
1985)
iii. Ester Boserup publication on Womens Role in Economic
Development. The book sent a shock wave through northern
development agencies and humanitarian organization.
1. The book talks about how increasingly specialized division of
labor associated with development undermines or neglects the
value of womens work and status especially in the developing
world.
c. Basis of WID
i. Traditional view was that womens role as that of mothers and wives
so development approach was limited to social welfare nutrition etc
ii. Policies and national plans often overlook needs and priorities of
women. Their goes unnoticed or undervalued informal, home
iii. Historical as well as cultural factors limit womens access to resources,
means of development. E.g education
d. WID placed emphasis on egalitarianism and on the development of
strategies and action programs aimed at minimizing the disadvantages of
women in the development process.
e. WID perspective was closely linked with the modernization paradigm which
was the then prevailing view that development would trickle down to all. WID
challenged the trickle down theories of development and said that
modernization was impacting differently on men and women. Instead of
improving womens rights and status, the development process appeared to be
contributing to a deterioration of their position.
f. Major points about WID
i. Liberal feminist (equal rights, employment, equity and citizenship
for women) + Modernization = WID
1. Central to liberal feminism was the idea that womens
disadvantages stem from stereotyped customary expectations
held by men and internalized by women, and promoted through
various agencies of socialization.
ii. Offshoot of traditional modernization theory
 1. WID was grounded in traditional modernization theory. It said
women had fared less well from development efforts of the
1960s therefore a new strategy was called for.
2. Most of the interventions suggested to correct the imbalance
development were technological
a. transfer of technology
b. provision of extension services and credit facilities
c. development of appropriate technologies which would
lighten womens workloads
iii. WID accepted existing social structures
1. Did not examine why women had fared poor inspite of
development strategies but only focussed on how their position
could be improved. This was because WID was rooted in
modernization theory, and hence more radical or critical
perspectives such as dependency theory or Marxist were not
analysed.
iv. WID approach tended to focus exclusively on the productive
aspects of womens work, ignoring or minimizing the reproductive
side of womens lives.
v. WID is based on the assumption that gender relations will change
of themselves as women become full economic partners in
development.
1. This fails to accept the reality that when womens income-
generating capabilities improve they often are appropriated by
men.
g. Mosers five-fold schema: welfare, equity, anti-poverty, efficiency and
empowerment
i. Equity between men and women in development
ii. Anti-poverty Womens economic status, access to resources etc
makes her poorer than men
iii. Efficiency development is efficient and effective by using the
contribution of women
iv. Empowerment Since subordination of women by men, so advocates
fighting it.
h. WID was the first contemporary movement to try and integrate women in the
development agenda. It was followed by movements Women and
Development (WAD) >> Gender and Development (GAD).
i. Weakness of WID see point (f) above
i. Assumes that all men are the beneficiary of development processes
ii. Focussed mainly on employment opportunities for women in
development agenda
iii. Unintended consequences of women being depicted as someone whose
claims are conditional on their productive value.
 iv. Equated increased female status with the value of cash income in
womens lives
7. Women and Development (WAD)
a. Emerged during the second half of the 1970s as an alternative to WID
b. It discusses womens issues from a neo-Marxist and dependency theory
perspective.
c. Unlike WID, WAD approach said that women was always part of
development processes and the idea of integrating women into development
was closely linked to the maintenance of economic dependency of Third
World and especially African countries on the industrialized countries.
d. WAD focuses on the relationship between women and process of capitalist
development rather than only on strategies for the integration of women into
development.
i. WAD maintained that women always have been integrated into their
societies and that the work they do both inside and outside home, is
central to the maintenance of those societies.
ii. However, this integration serves primarily to sustain existing
international structures of inequality.
e. WAD offers a more critical view of womens position than does WID but it
fails to undertake a full-scale analysis of the relationship between patriarchy,
differing modes of production and womens subordination and oppression.
f. The WAD perspective implicitly assumes that womens position will
improve if and when international structures become more equitable. In
the meantime the under representation of women in economic, political and
social structures can be solved by carefully designed intervention strategies.
g. Weakness
i. There is an inherent tension within the WAD perspective which
discourages a strict analytical focus on the problems of women
independent of those of men since both sexes are seen to be
disadvantaged within oppressive global structures based on class and
capital. Since no focus on ideology of patriarchy therefore discussion
limited to international and class inequalities.
ii. singular preoccupation with the productive sector at the expense of the
reproductive side of womens work and lives. Therefore have tended to
concentrate on the development of income-generating activities
without taking into account the time burdens that such strategies place
on women. Tasks performed by women in the household, including
those of social reproduction have been ignored as private domain
and outside the purview of development projects.
h. The tendency of both modernization and dependency theorists has been to
utilize exclusively economic or political economy analyses and to discount the
insights of the so-called softer social sciences.
8. Gender and Development (GAD)
 a. Originated in 1980s by socialist feminism and takes a holistic approach of
looking at the totality of social, economic and political life in order to
understand the shaping of particular aspects of society.
b. It origin relates back to the Development Alternatives with Women for a New
Era (DAWN) network, when it was first initiated in India.
c. GAD is not concerned with women per se but with the social construction of
gender and the assignment of specific roles, responsibilities and expectations
to women and men.
d. GAD rejects the public/private dichotomy which commonly has been used as
a mechanism to undervalue family and household maintenance work
performed by women.
i. GAD enters the private sphere and gives special attention to the
oppression of women in the family.
e. GAD also puts greater emphasis on the participation of the state in promoting
womens emancipation.
f. The GAD approach sees women as, agents of change rattier than as passive
recipients of development and it stresses the need for women to organize
themselves for more effective political voice.
g. GAD also focuses on womens legal rights, including the reform of
inheritance and land laws.
h. GAD goes further than WAD
i. not only to the design of intervention and affirmative action strategies
which will ensure women are better integrated into the development
process
BUT
ii. also focuses on re-examination of social structures and institutions
which leads to gender inequalities.
9. WID-WAD-GAD
a. It is difficult to find examples of development projects which have been
designed from a GAD perspective. Read below
b. Problems of women in third world countries
c.
i. Each of the problems identified above is with the assumption of
culpability Lin the part of the developing countries and neutral
disinterest on the part of the industrialized countries.
ii. None questions the fundamental inequities of an international
system which perpetuates the dependency of the South on the
North and none questions the social construction of gender which
has relegated women to the domestic realm In both North and
South.
10.
11. General commentary
a. Despite gender mainstreaming efforts
i. Women make up the 70% of individuals living in poverty
ii. in sub-Saharan Africa 57% of HIV infected individuals are women.
iii. disproportionate ratio of women to men in the job market and at
leadership position
iv. low level of education among women
v. low socio-economic status among women.
12. Women, Environment and Sustainable Development (WED)
a. Originated from grassroots women experiences in third world countries.
i. Chipko, Narmada
b. Also associated with women who worked for peace.
c. Associated with Eco-feminism.
d. Womens relationship with environment and how degradation of environment
impact womens lives.
i. Air pollution
ii. Water scarcity > carry water from far, security issues
e. Sustainable development
i. Harmony with nature
ii. People centric
iii. Women centered
iv. Cater to needs of majority
v. Decentralisation of decision making
vi. Democracy must be entrenched
vii. Peace, non-violence and respect for life
13.