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Chapter 2
Structural systems and members
2.1. Structural systems possible and utilise the tension or compression capacities of
The beauty of the suspension and arch structures comes the structural members. From the beam, we can derive a
from their economic structural shape. Their economy is evident suspension cable or an arch in which the horizontal force is
from Figure 2.1(a), which shows the trajectories of principal resisted by an internal strut or tie (Figure 2.1(b)). In the case
stresses in a uniformly loaded simply supported beam. From of foundations, which are capable of resisting horizontal
the gure, it is evident that the maximum stresses occur only forces, we can substitute the strut or the tie by stiff footings
at mid-span section and only in the top and bottom bres. (Figures 2.1(c), 2.2 and 2.3).
The beam has a signicant amount of dead mass that does
not contribute at all to resistance of the external loads. A uniformly loaded concrete arch can span several kilometres
and a suspension cable can span even more. Their shape has
From the gure, it is clear that if we want to reduce the weight to be funicular to the given load, however, and the structures
of the beam we have to eliminate as much dead mass as need to have an economic rise or sag.
Figure 2.1 Cable and arch structure: (a) trajectories of principal stresses; (b) self-anchored cable and arch; and (c) cable and arch
13
Figure 2.2 Natural Arch, Utah, USA Figure 2.4 Cable stiffening
Figure 2.3 Hukusai Bridge, Japan Figure 2.5 Loading test of the Prague-Troja Bridge, Czech Republic
14
Figure 2.6 Beam stiffening of the cable Figure 2.8 Virginia Railroad Bridge, Virginia, USA
If the suspension cables are situated above the deck, the load
is transferred from the deck into the cables by tensioned
hangers. In structures with cables situated under the deck, the
load is transferred from the deck into the cables by compression
struts.
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system (Figures 2.11(b) and 2.11(d)). In the latter case, the foot- above the deck. Systems with suspension or stay cables
ings are stressed by vertical reactions only. anchored in anchor blocks can also include cables anchored
in the deck. Of all the possible variations, two solutions for
Typical arrangements of cable-supported structures with cables long-span structures are presented in Figure 2.13.
situated above or under the deck are presented in Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.12 shows structural systems in which cables are situ- Figure 2.13(a) shows a bridge where the central portion of the
ated both above and under deck. It is clear that it is possible deck is supported on suspension cables; the portion of the
to combine the suspension and stay cables situated below or deck close to the towers is supported on stay cables. This
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arrangement, used in the past on several structures, has the tensioned. The fact that the erection of the deck depends on
modern equivalent of a proposed cable-stayed structure the terrain under the bridge means that use of this system is
referred to as a bi-stayed bridge (Muller, 1994; Figure not possible in some cases.
2.13(b)). In this structure, the longest back-stay cables are
anchored in abutments that also serve as anchor blocks. The Contrary to the self-anchored suspension structure, the self-
longest stays anchored in the main span are overlapped anchored cable-stayed structure can be erected without consid-
(coupled) by span tendons. Since the horizontal component of eration of the terrain under bridge. The deck can be erected
the stay cable is the same as the force in the span tendon the progressively in cantilever and supported on symmetrical stay
stay cable, together with the span tendon, behaves as a sus- cables (see Section 9.2).
pension cable in that it does not stress the structure with a
compression force. This relief is critical for the design of 2.1.1 Stiffening of the structures
support sections of long-span cable-stayed structures. From The importance of the stiffening of directly walked suspension
the above, it is clear that this structure functions similarly to structures, shown in Figure 2.4, is evident from Figure 2.15 in
the structure presented in Figure 2.13(a). which four stress ribbon structures are compared.
It is interesting to note that the famous Brooklyn Bridge (Figure Figure 2.15 shows a bridge of 99 m span with a maximum dead
2.14), completed in 1883 across the East River in New York, load slope of 8%, which yields maximum sag at mid-span of
combined suspension and stay cables. In the side spans, the 1.98 m. The bridge is formed
suspension cables are situated both above and below the deck.
1. by two cables on which timber boards are placed. The
The decision on what type of structure can be used is also total area of the cables is As 0.0168 m2. The dead load
strongly inuenced by the construction possibilities. In suspen- g 5 kN/m and the horizontal force Hg 3094 kN
sion structures, the cables have to be erected rst. The erection 2. by two cables that support concrete panels of 125 mm
of the deck then proceeds without consideration of the terrain thickness. The total area of the cables is As 0.0252 m2
under the bridge (see Section 8.2). For the self-anchored sus-
pension bridge, the erection of the deck has to be completed
Figure 2.14 Brooklyn Bridge, New York, USA
rst and the suspension cables can then be erected and
17
5
0.20 t = 125 mm
3 4
0.40 4
2
0.60
t = 250 mm
5
0.80
1
1.00
1.20
0.00 49.50 99.0
3. by a concrete band of 125 mm thickness that is supported Hg 10 519 kN. Structure 5 is stressed by a dead load
by two cables. The total area of the cables is g 33.35 kN/m with corresponding horizontal force
As 0.0252 m2. The cables are embedded in the band that Hg 20 635 kN. The contribution of the prestressing tendons
is fully prestressed and therefore uncracked and reinforcing steel to the tension stiffness of the band is
4. by a concrete band of 125 mm thickness that is supported neglected in structures 35.
by two cables. The total area of the cables is
As 0.0252 m2. The cables are embedded in the band that The above structures were analysed for the effects of the dead load
is partially prestressed and therefore cracks can form in the g and live load p 20 kN/m placed on one half of the structure.
concrete. It is assumed that the crack spacing is 125 mm The analysis was performed for the structure modelled as a
and that the concrete between cracks resists the tension. cable of effective tension stiffness Es Ae and zero bending stiffness.
The area of concrete that resists the tension is taken as The effective stiffness Es Ae was determined from the modulus of
elasticity of the cable Es 195 000 MPa and an effective area Ae
Ac that depends on the area of the cable As and concrete band Ac
Ac;cr
2 (or Ac,cr, respectively) as well as the ratio of the modulus of elas-
ticity of steel Es and concrete Ec. Effective area is dened:
as shown in Figure 2.15(b)(4).
5. by a concrete band of 250 mm thickness that is supported Ec 36
Ae As Ac As A:
by two cables. The total area of the cables is As 0.0392 m2. Es 195 c
The cables are embedded in the band that is fully prestressed
and therefore uncracked. Resulting deformations of the structures are presented in Figure
2.15(c) and Table 2.1. From the results it is evident that the
In Figure 2.15(b), structures 24 are stressed by a dead fully prestressed band of thickness of 250 mm has the smallest
load g 17 kN/m with corresponding horizontal force deformations. Fully and partially prestressed structures also
18
Table 2.1 Maximum deformation of structures depicted in Figure 2.16 Studied structures
Figure 2.15
p
Structure g
(a)
1 2 3 4 5
1.98
Es Ae (MN) 3276 4914 27 414 16 164 51 233
% 6 10 54 32 100
w (m) 1.039 0.609 0.298 0.372 0.179
% 580 340 290 360 100 (b)
The above analysis was completed for the structure without Ic(1) 6.51 103 m4
considering the bending stiffness. To understand the inuence
Ic(2) 1.00 102 m4
of the bending stiffness of the prestressed band, extensive
studies on the one-span structure were performed (Figure Ic(3) 5.00 102 m4
2.16(a)). The structure of span L 99.00 m and sag f 1.98 m Ic(4) 1.00 101 m4
( f 0.02L) was developed from Structure No. 5 shown in
Figure 2.15. The deck of constant area but different bending Ic(5) 5.00 101 m4
stiffness was analysed for several positions of the live load Ic(6) 1.00 m4
and for effects of temperature changes. Deformation, bending
Ic(7) 5.00 m4
moments and normal force for two loadings are depicted in
Figures 2.17 and 2.18. Ic(8) 1.00 101 m4
Ic(9) 5.00 101 m4
A concrete band of width 5 m and depth 0.25 m was assumed
with a modulus of elasticity Ec 36 000 MPa. The area of the Ic(10) 1.00 102 m4
concrete band Ac is calculated as:
The band was suspended on bearing tendons of total area
Ac bh 5:00 0:25 1:25 As 0.0392 m2 and modulus of elasticity Es 195 000 MPa.
and the moment of inertia Ic as: The band had a constant area and therefore the dead load
was also constant. Its value, including the weight of bearing
1
Ic 12 bh3 12
1
5:00 0:253 0:00651: tendons, was g 33.35 kN/m.
19
Figure 2.17 Deflection, moments and normal forces in stress Figure 2.18 Deflection, moments and normal forces in stress
ribbon structure due to live load ribbon structure due to temperature drop
w (m) w (m)
x (m) x (m)
0.05 0.20 1, 2
8, 9, 10 3
0.00 0.16
7
6
0.05 5 0.12
4
0.10 0.08
4 5
0.15 0.04
3 8, 9, 10
6
1, 2 7
0.20 0.00
0 12 27 42 57 72 87 99 0 12 27 42 57 72 87 99
M (MN m) x (m)
x (m)
M (MN m) 10.00
8, 9, 10 8, 9, 10
4.00 7
6 7 5.00 6
5
5
4 4
0.00 0.00
1, 2, 3
1, 2, 3
5.00
4.00
10.00
8.00
15.00
12.00
0 12 27 42 57 72 87 99 20.00
0 12 27 42 57 72 87 99
N (MN) N (MN)
Ic (m4) Ic (m4)
25.00 25.00
20.00 20.00
bearing tendons bearing tendons
15.00 15.00
10.00 10.00
deck
deck
5.00
5.00
0.00
0.00 100 10 1 10 100
100 10 1 10 100
20
p 20.00 kN/m situated on only one half of the structure. The The suspension structure is formed by a suspension cable of span
values of the normal force in the bearing tendons and in the L 99.00 m and sag f 0.1L 9.90 m on which a concrete deck
concrete deck at the mid-span section as a function of its is suspended. The total area of the cables is As 0.00862 m2 and
bending stiffness are also presented. modulus of elasticity is Es 195 000 MPa. It is assumed that the
suspenders are pin-connected stiff bars. At the mid-span the
The same results for loading by dead load and temperature drop of suspension cable is connected to the deck.
t 208C are presented in Figure 2.18. From the gures it can
be seen how the deformations and bending moments depend on The deck has the same material and sectional characteristics as
the stiffness of the deck. It is evident that, in the range of the deck in the previous example. Since the deck has a constant
bending stiffness from 6.51 103 m4 to 5.00 102 m4, the area, the dead load g 31.25 kN/m2 is also constant. The initial
deformation and bending moments are nearly the same. The stresses in the suspension cables are derived from the horizontal
structure resists the load by its tension stiffness and not by its force (kN):
bending stiffness. The deformations and normal forces are the
same as those for the cable without bending stiffness. gL2 33:35 99:002
Hg 20 635:
8f 8 1:98
It also evident that the bending stresses in slender structures are
very low and originate only close to the end anchor blocks. Along The structure was analysed as a 2D geometrically non-linear
the whole length, the structure is stressed by normal forces only. structure with the program ANSYS for (a) zero and (b) innite
stiffness of the horizontal springs.
A similar analysis was performed for the suspension (Figure
2.16(b)) and cable-stayed structures (Figure 2.16(c)). The deck Figure 2.19 shows the deformation w(x) and bending moments
was supported on movable bearings and connected to the abut- M(x) along the length of the bridge for loading by dead load
ments with horizontal springs. and live load p 20.00 kN/m situated on only one half of the
Figure 2.19 Deflection and moments in suspension structure due to live load
(a) (b)
0.35 0.35
0.15 0.15
9, 10 8, 9, 10
0.00 0.00
7 8 6 7
0.15 6 0.15 54
5
4 1, 2 3
0.35 0.35
3
0.55 1, 2 0.55
0 12 27 42 57 72 87 99 0 12 27 42 57 72 87 99
M (MN m) x (m) M (MN m) x (m)
3 1, 2
0.00 1 0.00
2 3
4
4
5
4.00 5 4.00
6 6
8.00 8.00
7 7
8 8
12.00 12.00
9, 10 9, 10
0 12 27 42 57 72 87 99 0 12 27 42 57 72 87 99
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Figure 2.20 Deflection and moments in cable-stayed structure due to live load
(a) (b)
0.10 0.10
9, 10
9, 10
8 8
0.00 0.00 7
6 7
5
0.10 4 0.10 6
5
3 4
3
0.20 2 0.20 2
1 1
0 12 27 42 57 72 87 99 0 12 27 42 57 72 87 99
M (MN m) x (m) M (MN m) x (m)
1 2 1, 2 3
0.00 0.00
3 4 5
4
5
6 6
4.00 4.00
7 7
8.00 8.00
8 8
9 9
12.00 12.00
10 10
0 12 27 42 57 72 87 99 0 12 27 42 57 72 87 99
22
Figure 2.22 Deformations of the suspension structure Figure 2.23 Tension stiffening
p (a) F
k
103.00 H H
linear
(a) y (m) nonlinear
0.3
0.2 (b) F
0.1 q
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
0.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
k=?
0.1 k = 1 109
k = 1 108
0.2 k = 1 107 H H
k=0
0.3
0.4 nonlinear
linear
(b)
p
23
The towers can be constructed from concrete or steel; a possible Figure 2.26 Willamette River Bridge, Oregon, USA
arrangement is shown in Figure 2.25(a). They can have the
shape of the letter H, V or A (Figure 2.26) or they can be
formed by single columns situated in the bridge axis (Figure
2.27) or be located on one side of the deck (Figure 2.28). The
suspension and cable-stayed structures that are supported on
the edges can have cables arranged in vertical or inclined
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Figure 2.27 Max-Eyth-See Bridge, Stuttgart, Germany (courtesy of Figure 2.29 Shiosai Bridge, Japan (courtesy of Sumitomo Mitsui
Schlaich Bergermann and Partners) Construction Co. Ltd)
If the deck is suspended in the bridge axis, the towers can have a
similar arrangement. The suspension of the deck on one side by
an inclined column requires anchoring of the column by trans-
verse cables, and should therefore only be used if necessary.
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Figure 2.31 Tension members: (a) cables developed by steel industry; and (b) cables developed by prestressed concrete industry
Figure 2.32 Anchoring of the cables: (a) plain cylindrical socket; (b)
The tension members (stay or suspension cables) can be made threaded cylindrical socket with bearing nut; and (c) open socket
from structural steel or cables developed by the steel or
prestressed concrete industries. They can also be composite or
prestressed concrete members.
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Figure 2.33 Anchoring of the cables: (a) prestressing tendon; and Figure 2.34 Hungerford Bridge, London, UK
(b) stay cable
27
Figure 2.36 McKenzie River Bridge, Oregon, USA Figure 2.38 Tobu Bridge, Japan (courtesy of Oriental Construction
Co. Ltd)
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Figure 2.41 Grouting of suspension cables: (a) elevation; (b) cross-section; and (c) stresses in the strands, tubes and cement mortal
temporarily loaded before the cables were grouted; the load was For a cable-stayed structure the process was similar (Strasky,
created with plastic tubes lled with water. When the mortar 1993). During the erection of the structure the strands were
reached a sufcient strength the loading was released: the water tensioned to their design stress. Before grouting, the whole
was drained from the plastic tubes. In this way, compression cable was tensioned to higher tension (Figure 2.42). When
stresses in both the steel tubes and cement mortar were obtained. grouting was completed, a closure weld between the steel
Figure 2.42 Grouting of stay cables: (a) tensioning of the cable; (b) grouting; and (c) release of stresses
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tubes was done. As soon as the grout reached sufcient However, to protect the wires against wind erosion and ultra-
strength, the length of the completed stay cable was adjusted violet radiation, polyethylene sheaths are used.
by loosening the rectication nut. In this way, compression
stresses in both the steel tubes and the cement mortar were REFERENCES
created. The value of the compression stress in the steel tubes Muller J (1994) Reections on cable-stayed bridges. Revue
was as large as 220 MPa; in cement mortar this would be generale des routes et des aerodromes. Paris.
14 MPa. Podolny W and Muller J (1982) Construction and Design of
Prestressed Concrete Bridges. John Wiley & Sons, New
Cables made from parallel wires of carbon-bre reinforced York.
polymer (CFRP) or bars of carbon-bre composite were Post-Tensioning Institute (1993) Recommendations for stay-
recently built in Switzerland and France. These cables are cable design, testing and installation. Post-Tensioning
seven times lighter than steel cables with the same breaking Institute, Committee on Cable-stayed Bridges, August 1993.
load. Since the cables are resistant to corrosion and chemical Strasky J (1993) Design and construction of cable-stayed
attack, no corrosion-inhibiting compound or grout is necessary. bridges in the Czech Republic. PCI Journal 38(6): 2443.
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