Design and Construction of the Millennium Dome, UK
Ian Liddell, Civil Eng.
Paul Westbury, Civil Eng. Buro Happold, Bath, UK
Foundations and Anchorages
Ground investigation works were car-
ried out, including extensive bore- holes, trial pitting, and the use of seis- mic and geophysical techniques, to evaluate existing structures. The aim of the detailed investigation was to deter- mine whether ground improvement would be acceptable, or whether piling into the terrace gravels below the silt, or into the London clay below that, was necessary. Since the exhibition was intended to be temporary, it was at- tempted to avoid covering the site with piles that could hamper future rede- velopment. A critical finding of the investigation was the extent and depth of spent lime. Fig. 1: The Millennium Dome under construction Because of the loose nature of the top 4 m of fill and the 6 m of soft alluvium, the anticipated settlements were of the order of 300 mm. Because of this and the requirements of the Environmen- Introduction ber of old underground structures that tal Agency, which prohibited the use of had to be broken out or reused. vibro-replacement stone columns, dri- The Millennium Experience is to be ven cast-in-situ piles were adopted for held in the year 2000 on the Green- Highways Issues the general piling, with augered piles wich Peninsula, London. After investi- adjacent to the Blackwall tunnel in dr- A further constraint was the south- gating ways of housing the exhibitions der to transfer the loads to a depth be- bound carriageway of the Blackwall in conventional halls, a large umbrella low the tunnel. Tunnel, which pa>sesunder the site, over the site was proposed. The struc- To resist the uplift forces from the ten- with a vent structure that would be ture, which is now complete, covers an sioned cable structure, screw-in an- within the dome. The potential impact enclosed area of 80000 m2 with a of the Dome foundations on the Tun- chors and grouted cable anchors were polytetrafluoroethane (PTFE)-coated nel therefore had to be assessed. In ad- used. Mass concrete blocks were used glass-fibre fabric roof (Fig. I). The pro- dition, the future construction of the as anchors in anticipation of the Third ject has been the subject of continuous Third Blackwall Crossing, comprising Blackwall Tunnel. controversy, but has already become an another tunnel between the two exist- icon for the new millennium. This ing Tunnels, had to be taken into ac- paper presents the design and con- count. Roof Structure struction of the Dome, which are de- scribed in more detail in [l]. Environmental Issues Engineering Concept The Environment Agency required that Tension structures rely on the shape of Site Constraints contaminant migration to the mi-nor the stressed surface for their perfor- aquifer in the terrace gravel was mance under load. Forces are resisted Site History eliminated, and all foundation solu- by the tension and the curvature; the tions considered had to be evaluated on greater the curvature, the less the ten- The site was used as a town gasworks environmental grounds. In addi-tion, sion required to resist a given load. from the late 1880s until the early all works within 16 m of the river wall Over the past 25 years, the accepted 1970s. As a result, there was extensive required approval from the Envi- form for fabric structures had became contamination due to deposition of ronment Agency. In the north-east sec- the anticlastic doubly curved surface; waste and to leakage from under- tion of the site, one of the Dome an- however, the structural concept of the ground tanks and pipes, which were re- chorages comes within this range, and Millennium Dome departs radically moved during statutory remediation the construction works therefore had to from this form. The new concept is in- works in 1996. There were also a num- be formally approved. novative, yet apparently very simple.
172 Structures for the Next Millennium Structural Engineering International
3/99 A total of 72 tensioned steel cables are cause as the span of the fabric panels arranged radially on the surface of the increases, their deflection under load dome, forming a structure with a diam- also increases. Circumferential cables eter of 400 m. The cables are support- through the nodes were used to main- ed at the nodes from external masts by tain their spacing. If these cables were means of hangers and tie-down cables in the surface of the fabric they could at 25-m intervals. Two rings of masts cause a dam at each circumferential were proposed: a central ring of twelve line, possibly initiating ponding; there- and an outer ring of 24 masts. The radi- fore, an arrangement was required that al cable lines reduced from 72 at the would take these cables away from the perimeter to 48 at the centre. The radi- surface. This was achieved by raising al cable forces were to be taken at the the circumferential cables above the perimeter by raking ground anchors in Fig. 2: Isometric of the cable net surface of the dome by means of with a typical marquee arrangement. rigid members (wishbones) and con- necting them to the nodes via bracing The surface of the dome is defined as a cables. Lower circumferential cables spherical cap. Between the cables, flat Design Development were also required to control the tie- tensioned coated fabric is used as down cables; these were also distanced cladding. Loads are carried by the ten- In the final design, the diameter of the from the surface, but without the use sioned cables and the cladding through Dome to the walls was reduced from of bracing cables. deflection, accompanied by some in- 400 to 320 m, and the internal height at crease in tension. While this concept is the centre was fixed as 48 m. The main To control the deflection of the radial simple, there are risks associated with inner masts were moved out and made cables, each of which spans 25 m, a the resulting deflections, particularly higher (100 m), and the outer ring of pretension of 400 kN, about 70% of from ponding of snow or heavy rain. To masts was eliminated (Fig. 2). To keep the ultimate strength, was used. The ensure that the structure functions the tie-down cables clear of the prestreas in the fabric was planned to satisfactorily, it is necessary to under- planned internal structures, the masts be 4 kN/m. stand the behaviour of the materials and were supported on pyramidal bases 10 the structure as a whole, and to en-sure m high. The-radial cables run from the that the geometry is correct. perimeter to a 30-m-diameter cen-tral Structural Detailing The straight-cable concept was pro- ring consisting of 12 cables, each 48 posed in response to the designers idea mm in diameter (F&s. 3 and 4). At the With cable structures, it is essential to provide a large umbrella over the perimeter, the radial cables are linked that the detailing respects the system entire site. It was carried out at a stage via catenary cables to 24 an-, chorage lines and system points of the cables when cost and time were critical. The points at ground level. To re-sist the and their intersections, as well as the structural concept had already been cable forces, vertical anchors are likely rotations of the cables at the used on two structures in the UK: one arranged with a ring beam in order connections. If the radial cables were to take the horizontal component of, encompassing tennis courts; the other 1 y continuous through the node points, forming an audience tent of 18000 mZ. the forces. the flexing at those noints would cause The latter had proved very economical the cables to fail due to fatigue. To The straight-cable structure is very ef- and successful in terms of construction avoid this flexing, the cables have to ficient as far as strength is concerned, time and ease of installa-tion. be terminated at each node and the but it relies on deflections as part of its Therefore, it was considered that the con-nection details have to allow for load-carrying behaviour. Consequent- Millennium Dome structure, which was rota-tion in the vertical and horizontal ly, it is necessary to ensure that pond- fivefold larger, could be devel-oped and planes. Barrel pins were used in clevis ing under snow or rain does not occur. constructed in the limited time scale and plate type fittings to provide for In this respect, the roof shape, with ta- available. these rotations. pering segments, is advanmgeous be-
Fig.3: Detail of the central cable truss Fig. 4: Masts and cable net during construction
Structural Engineering International 3199
Structures for the Next Millennium 173 Ground snow loading was derived that of daylight. The objective was to __j__ Almnininm from statistical analysis of snowfall have a total light transmission above fabric clips data from the nearest stations. The roof 10%. A double skin construction was accumulation factors were taken from required to minimise the risk of con- Primary radial cables the snow loading code and other densation, which would otherwise re- references concerning snow drifting on duce the light transmission. large roofs [3]. Fittingsto support The roof was originally designed with raincap mast over The results of the analyses gave peak polyvinylchloride (PVC)-coated poly- loads on the components that were de- ester. At this time, the Dome was ex- Tensioning jack tailed according to normal design rules. pected to be temporary and the aim The masts were designed to re-sist was to minimise costs. However, in Perimeter mast top wind and ice loads, as well as buck- June 1997 it was decided that all op- ling. tions should be kept open regarding Tieback cables the long-term use of the Dome, and a Resistance of the whole structure to accidental damage is provided by re- subsequent review concluded that dundancy, i.e. the structure can toler- PTFE-coated glass fibre would be a Plan ate the loss of an individual compo- more appropriate material. The life nent without collapse. This principle expectancy of the roof would be much Section also applies to the support pyramids, longer, and PIPE-coated glass fibres do not suffer from the dirt-retention and which are designed to withstand the discolouration problems experi-enced Primary radial cable removal of a leg. by PVC-coated polyester. The overall diameter of the masts was limited by transportation require- ments, and a great deal of computer Steelwork Construction calculation went into verifying their load capacity. The limiting load was The steel contractor prepared shop calculated using the LUSAS program drawings based on the engineers de- in a non-linear mode. Since the masts sign drawings. These drawings, show- are leaning, deflections under self- ing the dimensions of all the plates, as % weight-and icing have to be taken into well as the welding and connection de- A account, as well as initial out-of- tails, were reviewed and approved by Elevation straightness. Wind loading is also sig- the engineer prior to the start of fabri- nificant, but this does not occur simul- cation. Fig. 5: Radial cable . taneously with the peak vertical loads connections at the masts The cables were wound from wires that from snow and ice. had been drawn and galvanised. Class A galvanising, the lightest class Selection of Cladding available, was specified for cables be- Each mast was constructed from eight neath the roof, while Galfan, a mixture 323-mm-diameter steel tubes braced and the Internal Environment of aluminium and zinc that is much with rings at 2.5-m centres. The cables The roof is to providea controlled en- more durable than zinc alone, was were connected to radial plates at the vironment for the exhibition and for specified for the external cables. Cable top and bottom, which are arranged to any future use. It was desirable to have lengths were determined after pre- ensure that the cables meet at a single a bright translucent roof (Fig. 6) with a stretching under a specified prestress point (Fig. 5). The base of the mast is light spectrum as close as possible to load, in order to allow for stretching supported on the pyramid with a rubber during construction. pot bearing to allow a small amount of rotation. Erection Design Verification During the design development stages, The lifting of the masts (Fig. 7) was the structure was analysed using soft- planned with great care. This involved ware developed specifically for tension selecting a suitable crane and devising structures. This software is able to han- lifting positions that would not over- stress the masts. Each mast was lifted dle large deflections of the structure and guyed with two permanent back- under load. It can also calculate the stays and two temporary forestays. form of the structure under specified While the crane was being released, tensions representing the prestressed only one forestay could be used, and a condition. short-term guy was therefore added The wind loads were initially derived from the centre of the mast to the adja- from published data [2]. Subsequently, cent base. While the mast was held by they were confirmed by wind tunnel the temporary forestays, the central ring testing, although the results from the was lifted by the permanent forestays. tunnel tests were generally lower than Fig. 6: Interior of the dome during construc- During derigging of the crane and those calculated. tion changing of the guy posi- 174 Structures for the Next Millennium StmctumiEngineering International 3/W dard method of representation using with clamp bars at the edges. The net triangular elements. The basic geome- patterns were developed directly from try patterns were converted by the the typical fabric patterns with the contractor into cutting patterns, who boundary line defined to align with the allowed for stretch compensations, top of the vent. The net was erected in which were defined after biaxial tests the same way as the fabric, using the on the production cloth and considera- same extruded hooks modified with a tion of the edge details. steel plate to which the cable termina- tions were attached. The fabric attachment detail was a double-luff groove extrusion fitted onto the radial cable pairs to accept a roped edge on the fabric. The contrac-tor Conclusions proposed a 12-mm edge cable in the The Millennium Experience, a tempo- fabric, which would hook into spe-cial rary exhibition to celebrate the new clamps fixed to the cables. The clamps millennium, has been surrounded in were developed into two-part controversy. However, the dome struc- extrusions cut into 50-mm lengths and ture that has been erected to enclose retained by two 12-mm bolts. Fabric- the exhibition is now a dominant land- sealing flaps were closed over the tops mark on the Greenwich Peninsula (see Fig.7:Thr IOOmhigh n~(lsts of the site joints and sealed using an cover of this issue). The dome struc- iron at 380C and an FEP (flourinated ture was completed, on schedule and ethylene propylene) interlayer (Fig. 8). within budget, in December 1998, and tions, the tensions in the guys had to be work is now progressing on the assem- carefully controlled to maintain the bly of the internal features. stability of the mast. After lifting the ring, the guy system was moved so that the rest of the cable References net could be assembled and lifted into [l] LIDDELL, W. I.; MILLER, I? W. The place. This was carried out using hy- draulic cable jacks, with the hoisting desig n an d constructio n of the Millennium cables running over sheaves on top of Dome. The Structural Engineer, Vol. 77, No. the masts. 7,1999, pp. 18-25. [2] COOK, N. J. The designers guide to wind loading of building structures. Butterworths, Final Tensioning London, 1985. When the net was completely assem- [3] LIDDELL, I. Minnesota Metrodome. A bled and all the cable lengths checked, each of the 72 pairs of radial cables had study of the behaviour of air supported roofs under environmental loads. Structural Engi- to be tensioned (Fig. 5). This was ,.i neering Review, Vol. 6, No. 3-4,1994, pp. achieved in several steps using a 55-t capacity pull jack in the jacking points SE1 Data Block at the front of the perimeter masts. Be- cause of the flexibility of the central ring and the boundary cables, tension- Owner: ing of the radial cables had to be per- formed to specified dimensions rather The New Millennium than to specified loads, with final ad- Experience Co. Ltd justments made at the end of the pro- Architect: cedure. Fig.8:Installatiorlofthefabric Imagination Ltd, Richard Rogers Partnership Str~rcturrrl design.
Fabric work Buro Happold
Tunnel Vent Area Contractors: Because of the arrangement of the panels within the cable net, and the fact A 50-m-diameter hole was required in McAlpinciLaing Joint Venture, that the cloths were to be fitted into the roof around the Blackwall tunnel Watson Steel, Birdair dead lengths, the patterns had to be vents in order to maintain the air sup-ply Wind tmnrltevting: extremely accurate. Since the warp to the ventilation structure. After direction of the panels of the outer BMT considering a number of ways of incor- fabric ran radially along the roof with stcc1 (1): 2000 porating a hole in the fabric, a net of 8- 25-m-long cloths, it was necessary to mm cables at l-m centres was adopted, Fabric (111): 100 000 model the fabric as an equal mesh net which would replicate the stress-carry- , in order to represent the warp and fill ing capacity of the fabric yet would al- Total cost (USD millions): 60 lines of the cloth. This method is much low the air vent to pass through. The Service date: January 2000 more time consuming than the stan- cable net was attached to the fabric
Structural Engineering International 3199 Structures for the Next