mnpl13 c3.pdf 6783292102

chap.
3
Underground mine planning
and designs techniques
Challenges in the construction plan
of access and transport tunnels at
Chuquicamata Underground
A common practice in the mining industry is to decompose the planning Winston Rocher and Gabriel
Espina. Codelco, Chile
process into different tasks, so the overall process and specific schedules can
be constructed easily. In particular, the development plans are performed
at first with a simple vision of advance rate limited by certain constrains, to
then be treated in further detail according to the steps of engineering. Nev-
ertheless, this usually brings the consequence that the designed and planned
scenario is not necessarily feasible nor the best option as it does not take
into account the constructability as the ability to perform a task given the
operation interferences, available resources, construction techniques, knowl-
edge of the rock mass quality, advance rate and the knowledge or abilities
that the working staff has.
Thus, the research summarized in this paper shows the challenges involv-
ing the constructability to develop two of the most important facilities at
Chuquicamata Underground Mine, the access and transport tunnel, and how
the different aspects of the constructability impact the sequence and schedule
of these mayor labours.
This paper presents analysis carried out during the first eight months of
construction, the way they dealt with the constructability problems and how
the improvement of the ability to build changed the projections of the devel-
opment plan.
***
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INTRODUCTION
Chuquicamata Underground Mine is a structural and strategic project that represents an important
part of Codelcos future and which considers transforming the worlds largest open pit mine,
located at 1.650 kilometres (km) north of Santiago of Chile, into a gigantic underground operation
which would involve mining part of the resources under the current open pit mine that, after
delivering wealth to Chile for almost hundred years, will cease to be profitable during the next
decade.
Under the existing open pit the amount estimated is 1,7 billion tonnes of copper ore reserves (0,71
per cent grade) and molybdenum (512 parts per million), representing more than sixty per cent of
what has been mined during the last ninety years. The technical and economic option recommends
extracting these reserves by building an underground mine, which would be one of the worlds
largest, most modern and efficient mining operations.
The project involves ore extraction by block caving with macro blocks variant, in an underground
mine that consists of four production levels, a main access tunnel (7,5 km), five clean air injection
ramps, and two air extraction shafts, in addition to other important facilities. Furthermore, the
expected throughput rate is 140.000 tonnes per day (t/d), which would mean a production of
340.000 tonnes of fine copper and more than 18.000 tonnes of molybdenum per annum.
During the construction (pre operational) it will create a maximum 3.767 jobs, constructing during
this period 112 (km) of tunnels, 11 (km) of vertical labours and a giant material transfer cavern
before the start up in late 2018, when the open pit mine will start its ramp down. And thus,
compromising the copper production of Codelco if the development plan of the underground mine
cannot be fulfilled on time when the open pit mine starts its closure. For that purposes, the
development plan consider to perform an early works stage that includes the main access tunnel
and the transport tunnel, both started at mid 2012 and it is programmed to finish at late 2015. Both
tunnels are performed by drill and blasting with a section of 9,3 x 6,2 meters (m) in access case and
8,7 x 5,9 (m) in transport case, with a total length of 7.451 (m) and 6.248 (m) respectively.
The specifications mentioned above carries many constraints that the Corporation has had to
internalize, especially as it relates to the production of copper and keep its position in the base
metal market. This results in that the construction deadlines are rigid and inflexible against any
delay. Being therefore this, one of the great challenges of developing mega Codelco Mining projects
on time and on cost.
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM REMARKS

There is a truth in common sense that a holistic view will be always better in the final result, but
this is practically impossible by the efficiency of calculate and understand the problem. This
statement is true mainly because when combining construction of a given civil endeavour and
production manufacturing several logistical issues, as inventory and infrastructure, need to be
carefully looking in order to avoid losses that can deteriorate the value of a project. And so appears
an activity program.
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An activity program follows the strategic plan, advantages the maximum resources, restricts the
time and avoids problems, but unfortunately we can see a few intermediate points of the path that
we programmed. This causes deviations from the plan either a kind of entropy or simply because
there are not the enough conditions (resources, capacity, adequate management, interference times
or esteemed advance rates that cannot be met in reality due to not having the resolution of
observation desired) to go to the next expected point (Figure 1). Should be noted that many times,
are considered constructability initial conditions which do not allow developing a project properly
and has to be adjusted later. Next, it has to apply deflectors to correct the path but not without an
additional cost.
Figure 1 Deflectors action
This cost could be observed in many ways, sometimes only delay the entire project and another
times this sacrifice a percentage of the project value (Figure 2). This effect is further enhanced in
large underground mines and is evidenced around the world. The closer case in Chile is at El
Teniente Mine (Daz, 2008) that has already been documented and is consistent with the stated here.
So the new question must be how can we prevent or at least minimize these undesirable problems?
It depends of when we are talking as explain Serpell (2003), but the things that it does at the
beginning are the roots of our future, therefore the most important or at least which have higher
influence and low cumulative cost yet. Thus, it makes sense to stop a while and think twice about
the congruence of the design and planning when it has still the flexibility, as originally proposed in
a previous research posed planning integrated with the constructability (Rocher, 2011). But
sometimes, when the construction is already in progress it is necessary to intervene to find the
opportunities for improvement, with appropriate ground control and analysis, which will fulfil the
promise of value and return to the path initially scheduled.
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Figure 2 Influences in the Project Time. Based on Serpell (2003)
For the case of study over which is supported this paper, where the construction is already started,
part of the process of analysis is to establish the correct organizational dynamic that will be able not
only to gather the necessary information considered significant in the potential universe of data, but
to identify the opportunities for improvement and implement accordingly.
Organizational concept to guide the construction

It is important to understand that is not enough to know what is needed to do, but to know how it
has to do, or otherwise the final goal may not be fulfilled. In this line, the organization is that can
conduit the intentions and articulate the analytical process iteratively, often forgotten by
organizations that are rigid (low entropy) and extrapolated from other successful projects without
put up local requirements or requirements imposed by the specific business.
The organization model implemented in this case follows the concept that between the construction
staff and the project control staff have to be an interface that can take the entire statistic collected
from project control department and interpret this data with construction unit to make realistic
projections of the tunnel breakthrough and raise early warnings regarding critical activities for the
program. So this interface is part of the project control staff but not focused on reportability, but on
analyse the statistical behaviour of the work in the day by day, in close collaboration with their
peers. It has to note that, this does not mean that the solution for a detected problem will appear
from these departments only (it also participates engineering staff) but is the mechanism to detect
problems.
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Figure 3 Organizational concept to guide the construction
ANALYSIS OF THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS IN THE ACCESS AND

TRANSPORT TUNNELS
Two months after starting work with the Italian company Astaldi in the construction of the tunnels,
and in response to low yields of progress showed by them during this time compared to what was
offered in the bidding, it performed the following analysis supported in the organizational
dynamics mentioned above, which was aimed at identifying issues impacting the construction cycle
times.
First, since the analysis to be performed must be meticulous and must understand the actions taken
in the field to determine the root causes, is made the distinction for possible genesis that brings the
inefficient times during the work advance:
Deviation by executing operations: Corresponds to the additional time of the scheduled for a
particular activity. It is considered that the task has all the resources to implement it.
Deviation by working conditions: Correspond to the loss of time due to problems with
resources. Example: "major equipment failure due to lack of maintenance", "lack of specialized
workers", not efficient technology, etc.
Deviation by activities not considered: Correspond to time losses attributable to activities not
considered in the cycle, such as "talk of trade union", "lunch", etc.
Then, the way that it was possible to make a baseline of improvements was trough taking all the
times of all the activities with personal that has to be all day in the working face. The shift boss has
to write down with accuracy and dedication every activity, see how was been doing, if it has a
problem, how much time was idle and the reason to be idle, generating daily reports of tunnels. At
the same time, field engineers had to analyse the procedures used and if they meet the
requirements conceptually as desired, analysis of construction drawing, maintenances programs,
staff and requirements of the construction sequence, generating thematic reports. Finally, all the
information was studied with detail by the same field personnel, to build a baseline for
improvements and its plan of action with implementation dates.
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It was analyzed the records of measurement of the first fortnight of September, and it was
determined for the transport tunnel that from the advancement cycle of 22,5 hours for five meters
drilling, eight hours can be improved as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Distribution of deviations in a cycle of 22,5 hours for 5 meters drilling
Type of Deviation Average of hours Percentage of hours losses

Executing operations 3,95 49%
Working conditions 2,10 26%
Activities not considered 2,00 25%
So the goal was to reduce the advancement cycle of 22,5 hours as much as possible though the
following list of improvements that appear when it disaggregate the three types of deviations
(which together form the baseline of improvements), spread between improvements in
management and technical improvements.
Improvements in management and logistics

These groups of improvements have relation with the administration of the time and the logic of
the set tasks and how interact in the constructive method employed to follow a specific purpose.
Management to eliminate downtime

Despite the declaration and the knowing of downtime, at the beginning all the measures that it took
to prevent these deviations were specific and focused to a particular problem, but without taking in
evidence the root causes. In consequence, it is possible to avoid a particular event but not
necessarily another similar, not eliminating the downtime as it wants and moreover not
understanding the real impact of a downtime in the development program. This problem
intensifies as it increase the length of the tunnel, because due to the limited space in the tunnel, it
increase the travel times of equipment, generating a timeout in the change from one activity to
another only by coordination. So it was recommended to take a strict control by Codelco staff
supervising all activities in the working face, identifying root causes, and to accompany the shift
leaders Astaldi to create better planning of the activities of the shift and of the week, thinking ahead
two activities.
Key operators and leverage of other to optimal level

Other deviation founded has relation with the operators. In one aspect is that it had not enough key
operators to satisfy the mining cycle, bringing downtime taking a downtime waiting a specific
operator from other tunnel or waiting while the same operator brings another machine that is the
only one who can drive it. In another way, some key operator did not have the required level to get
an effective time of activity. So it was recommended to incorporate in the short term, operators
from abroad of high level (specifically Venezuelans and Brazilians for the case) to accompany
young operators to increase the endowment of high level key operators.
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Avoid critical equipment failure
Another systematic problem showed during the construction was the failure of critical equipment
meanwhile were operating, so generates downtime due to the inability (eventually) to move the
equipment from the working face or due to waiting the equivalent equipment that goes from
another tunnel to the working face. So it was recommended to implement a maintenance program
demanding in terms of compliance and empower operators on the state of the different teams, ie
they have to take responsibility for the condition of the equipment and therefore review them while
not being used.
Regularization shotcrete delivery time

A typical deviation of a starting project, and this was not the exception, is caused by awaiting the
arrival of mixer truck from the commercial concrete plant. This means that despite the request in
advance the amount of the shotcrete required, the limited resources of the plant must meet various
projects, making impossible the arrival of the truck mixer at the right time. Finally, the total amount
of downtime due to this deviation can change all the projection of advance, but unfortunately is
time that is not under the control of the constructor company and therefore, impossible to optimize
and only rest to assume that time. So it was recommended to do a rapid construction of the own
concrete plant and deliver the resources necessary for such construction because the time lost
waiting for the mixer truck can be more harmful. This has to be a concern of every project because
the opportunity cost of not devoting enough attention, could eventually be high.
Review of the quality tests applied

Another challenge that it was necessary to analyse, corresponds the interferences induced by the
quality tests, which are required to ensure that the final product is good in all it extension. But most
part of these tests have to be done in the working face to measure at early stage the bolts and
shotcrete. So it was recommended to analyse which are the quality tests that could be changed in
periodicity or otherwise changing its procedure, without affecting the quality assurance of the
product.
Technical improvements
These groups of improvements have relation with the method, tactic and procedures to meet the
target, and are therefore proper to science, art or craft in particular in the mining labour.
Disuse of boltec equipment

An important technical improvement established to accelerate the mining cycle, is to stop using the
boltec equipment. This proposal is based on the conceptualization of the use of this equipment,
which was created to install in the working face only some bolts above of the section tunnel and to
be completed the support in a decoupled way, but not to install al the required bolts in the working
face. To illustrate this, it has to consider that the instant speed of drilling of the boltec is around 1,1
meters per minute (m/min), which is very low compared with the jumbo equipment, which instant
speed of drilling is around 1,8 (m/min) if it has one boom, but with two booms could be said that
increase its speed to 3,6 (m/min). So, despite boltec integration process because it installs the bolts
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with resin, it will take a lot of time. If it has to drill 35 bolts of 4 (m) each one, the boltec equipment
will take around 8 minutes per bolt as an optimum time in the complete process, which is a total of
4,6 hours just in bolts. So, taking the technical specifications for the case that requests complete
installation of support at the working front, it was recommended not to use the boltec equipment
and drill with the jumbo equipment.
Modification the jumbo of three booms

In the same line as the optimization of the logistic inside the tunnels to minimize the downtimes,
which is a critical issue meanwhile the length of the tunnels is increasing, it is necessary to eliminate
as possible the times of changing the equipment in the working face. So one opportunity found in
our equipment is the drilling. It had a jumbo with three booms with the strategy to drill the
advance face in the less time as possible with boom length of 6,2 (m), which is too much long to use
it to drill the bolts. But it has the option to cut the middle boom to 4,2 (m) and then drill the advance
face and the bolts at the same time. Despite now the drill of the face is taking a bit longer, is lesser
compared with the time of change the equipment in the working face and start to drill the bolts
separately. So it was recommended to fusion these activities on a single equipment to save time.
Additionally, it was recommended to change the clamp of the jumbo by one which can hold the
drill steel for coupling another as the boltec, so it is possible to drill holes longer and install self-
drilling bolts.
Correct use of jumbos technology of navigation

With the new models of mining equipment that are coming to market today, whose main
advantage is in the systems computer, it is important to understand that no all the operators are
prepared to these systems and moreover, could not properly use correctly the computerized
sensors subtracting effectiveness to the activity. This was not the exception and it started to find
lower advance per blasting of expected due to not using correctly the navigation system that has
the jumbo equipment. The navigation system appears as a tool for quickly positioning the
equipment without having to dial on the forehead the drilling locations with paint. So this is not
only faster, but safe. But the problem is that when an operator not understood completely the
navigation system, can make mistakes in the real length of drilling the rock done by choosing a
computational way that is not the better for the case. That was repeatedly observed in this case,
despite is reported a drilling length of 5,5 (m) the advance was only 5,0 (m). So it was
recommended to improve monitoring in this activity not from the technical viewpoint of drilling,
but from the operator's action.
Change the coil bolts for mechanical bolts

In line with take lesser cycle times, it appears the idea of using mechanical bolts instead of coil bolts
for a good rock mass quality. The concept is that, according to the construction requirements of the
project, coil bolts must be installed on the working front also with resin or grout. Moreover, if the
bolts are grouted must be considered that will not start working immediately. But mechanics bolts
begin to work immediately and can be grouted or resined in a decoupled way from the working
front, saving time by eliminating an activity from the advancement cycle. The only restriction is that
mechanical bolts must be installed in a competent rock mass, indicating that from the five
subdivisions of rock type used in this project (going from the best to the worst), it is possible to use
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it in three. So, it was recommended to make the change to mechanical bolt to improvement the
advancement cycle.
Changing the grout for pumpable resin in bolts in zones of poor rock mass quality
If the mechanical bolt helps in a good rock mass quality, it was important too to think which
improvement could be good for a poor rock mass quality. That searched improvement is the change
of grout, to pumpable resin for installs the coil bolts. That is because the grouting activity has a
great variability of time occupied depending on how prone to failure is the grouting machine. So it
was recommended to change to pumpable resin, in order to eliminate the variability of time and
potential failure of the machine. This means that the activity will be more expensive, but also a type
of insurance of the time. When added all time that could be lost in the years of construction due to a
failure in the grouting, could be easily a month of construction.
Changing the dynamite for emulsion in cartridge

Another improvement has relation with the blasting, which follows to have less time of ventilation
post blasting and less time of charging the explosive in the working face. The first goal is given by
the nature of the explosive that is wanted (emulsion), which emits less harmful gases. The second
one has relation with the size of the cartridge. The bigger the cartridge, better the blasting for being
more confined but also fewer cartridges to be entered per blasthole, reducing the total time of
charge of the working face. So it was recommended to change the dynamite for emulsion in
cartridge to improve blasting. It is important to mention that another idea could be use pumpable
emulsion, but for the size of the working face the total time to charge with cartridge or pumpable
are similar, therefore use capital shopping for a pumpable emulsion machine becomes meaningless
if you do not win in the cycle time of advance.
Optimizing the required tunnel support and construction drawings

Being tunnels that have a life time of at least 60 years, they have to take a high safety factor. This,
expressed in the construction drawings, has to be followed and completed as described in the basic
engineering of the project. But it exist the possibility, when is developing the detailed engineering,
to raise some change requests in line with not to manifested a lighter support, but more efficiency
in installation time when it inserts some new elements or it changes some elements of the support.
In this case was very important to the analysis of the support when was doing the detailed
engineering, refining changes as for example: shotcrete with mesh to shotcrete with fibre, or create
an intermediate class of support between two defined due to improve the gap of security factor
among the two mentioned and optimize the advance. So it was recommended to make an analysis
when it was doing the detailed engineering emphasizing the possible improvements in the
construction according to the field observations.
Optimizing the placement process of steel sets

Steel sets is considered a robust type of support that it has to be applied in the cases where
difficulty, with just the bolts and shotcrete, will resist the efforts of the rock mass, or in a different
genesis when the support considered will not work with a poor type of rock mass quality. Despite
it can be thought that the steel sets have to use in specific points in the tunnels, it has installed in a
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high percentage of the development done so far, taking a big amount of time in the installation of
one by one. That triggers to conduct a study to improve the placement of the sets, which for this
case are type HEB 120 (of three parts, two feet and one crown, which are joined in the place where it
will be placed). This analysis finished with the recommendation to add hinges between the feet and
the crown of the set, so the overall process can be done easily entering the steel set to the tunnel,
which was already joined outside, without worrying about colliding with the walls. Therefore is a
fast installation not only for save time of joining inside, but for the help and the guide that this
methodology provides to the topographic lace that has to be done. So finally, it was recommended
to take a special detention in the heaviest support, which could take higher times to install, because
may be more zones to put this kind of support of it wants or is considered.
Optimum choice of drilling length

Finally, the last improvement that was applied has relation with determine the optimum drilling
length per advance to increment the advance rate as much as possible. The way to do this is
studying, with the constructability that it has, the behaviour of the mining cycle. Three are the
variables that are important to consider and therefore to compare in curves of performance. The
first one is how increase the potential advance rate when it consider a different drilling length, but
in contrast with that, the second variable is how worsens the cycle time with increasing length of
the drill, reducing the potential advance rate. But that is not enough, because meanwhile the first
two variables have relation with techniques issues; the third one has relation with the emotional
intelligence of the working staff. In this case it did the next experiment: Just considering the first
and second variables, it was determined that a drilling length of 5,5 (m) has the same advance rate
per day than 4,0 (m) due to lineal increasing of the cycle time in this case. So it was decided of the
two tunnels, maintain one tunnel with an advance with 5,5 (m) and the other with 4,0 (m). The
result was that meanwhile the tunnel with an advance with 4,0 (m) it holds the time cycle and the
expectative in the time, for the other tunnel was very unstable the cycle time and impossible to get
the required advance rate. The difference was that in one case the cycle time was twelve hours,
taking one and just one shift, meanwhile the other case it took sixteen hours, taking more than one
shift. The explanation is that when a shift works with a tangible and short term goal, for example
the blasting, is easier to fulfil because they work hard and are motivated to make it happen. But
when a shift does not have a short term goal, there is a risk that they perform the activities in a
more relaxed way, causing unstable cycle time and more uncertainty about the fulfilment of the
budget. So it was recommended to always analyse which drilling length is better for the project,
which is not always the larger.
RESULTS
After putting all the recommendations in practice (which were started to implement at different
times because there were some recommendations more easily applied than others), it was possible
to observe a different working dynamic. With an advance cycle as showed in the Figure 4, it was
possible to decouple some activities and being at the same time more efficient in the management
of the time, leaving only five major activities in the working face, linking the drilling of the face and
bolts, resining the bolts and completing the shotcrete layer behind the front.
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Figure 4 Main steps in the final sequence of the advancement cycle
So the final result is a better advance cycle (Table 2) not only in the management time, represented
mainly by the time of installation and removal of equipment, but also in the way to construct a
meter of tunnel. With all the improvements mentioned above, is strange to see that some activities
did not change a lot in their time or moreover (in the case of the drilling) it appears that it takes
more time, but do not forget that exist in some cases more than one activity been doing at the same
time and simultaneously it involves better expertise of the operators.
Table 2 Improvement of the cycle in a good rock mass quality for five drilling meters
Activity Astaldi Unimproved advance Expected improve

offer (min) cycle (min)*** advance cycle (min)
Initial talk and instruction 20,0 15
Jumbo installation 10,0 20,0 15
Face drilling 85,0 170,0 180****
Jumbo uninstall 10,0 20,0 15
Manitou installation 20,0 15
Charging the face with explosive 71,0 150,0 90
Ventilation 30,0 30,0 30
Handling the muck 162,0 210,0 180
Scaling and topography 30,0 90,0 45
Geological mapping 30,0 15,0 15
Clean up the working face 5,0 15,0 10
Roboshot installation 7,5 25,0 15
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Shotcrete projection 78,0 115,0 50
Roboshot uninstall 7,5 20,0 15
Jumbo installation 15,0 15,0
Bolts drilling 266,0* 272
Jumbo uninstall 15,0
Manitou installation 15
Bolts installation 90
Manitou uninstall 15
Roboshot installation 20,0
Shotcrete projection to complete 90,0
Roboshot uninstall 20,0
Total cycle (min) 807,0 1.352,0 810
Total cycle (hours) 14,9** 22,5 13,5
* considered with boltec *** according to data of september
** with 90% of efficiency **** face and bolts drilling
Finally, in relation to the sensitivity of these improvements, it is understood that there is a physical
limit for carrying out such activities and therefore will be not enough only self-will. However, the
development of these improvements aimed at eliminating every extra minute of work inefficient.
Thus five minutes less in the development time of an activity is highly satisfactory. To illustrate
this, consider a 12 hour cycle for a four meter advance. In three years are approximately 2.040
blastings, from which by adding extra thirty minutes per cycle would be a total time of 42,5 days or
260 (m) of potential advance, which is too much.
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

Understanding the importance that this project, and consequently these developments, have for
Codelco is the base to give a specially significance in the analyses the considered development plan
and try to apply as much as possible a better constructive approach. This new development plan
has to be more reliable and at the same time in less time to be finished, which means to follow the
strategic plan, take advantage of the maximum resources and avoid problems in an advance way to
minimize deviations whether operational, of conditions or events not contemplated.
For the above, it was necessary to analyse the constructability of the project and study every aspect
of it independently to clearly identify opportunities for improvement by an adequate organization
for a construction project that could capture field data and interpret it properly. These
opportunities were recommended and subsequently applied to the project by changing the
constructability of it and making a positive impact on the development plan.
Therefore, is expressed in Figure 5 how changing the constructability of the project gives as result
different development plans. Figure 5 is a compilation of all the work done and where can be
distinguish the effect of the technical changes and the effect of the management changes, which
were applied at different times. It shows that in five months the management improvements
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improvements represent an improvement by itself of 27%. This means that when comparing the
initial and final constructability, in five months represented an improvement of 59% in the
development plan being a completely different dynamic of construction and making an impact
rated as very high.
Figure 5 How changed the development plan with a different constructability (on Excel)
Finally, the research expressed in this paper is a working example of coordinated and methodical
information capture and timely processing, which can be generalized and applied in other case
studies but always require as a first line: appropriate control indicators, field observation and a
willingness to understand every detail of what happened in the working face, to separate root
causes that are always mixed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Chuquicamanta Underground Project, CODELCO for providing
the tools and funds that made this research possible.
REFERENCES
Daz, G. & Morales, E. (2008) Tunneling and construction for 140,000 tonnes per day El Teniente mine
Codelco Chile, International Conference & Exhibition on Mass Mining, Massmin 2008, Lule, Sweden, 9
11 June, pp. 83-96.
Rocher, W., Rubio, E. & Morales, N. (2011) Eight-Dimensional Planning Construction of an Integrated Model
for Mine Planning Involving Constructability, Applications of Computers and Operations Research in the
Mineral Industry, APCOM 2011, Wollongong, Australia, 2430 September, pp. 393406.
Serpell, A. & Alarcn, L. (2003) Planning and Control of Projects, Catholic University of Chile, vol. 1, pp. 1618.
117
Challenges and opportunities in
rib pillar recovery at Chuquicamata
Underground Mine Project
Mine planning and the design of Chuquicamata Underground Mine Project Francisco Carrasco and Matas
Ferrada. Codelco, Chile
considers the existence of a rib pillar between west fault and the production
level exploitation limits. This rib pillar was delimited attending geotechnical
recommendations and mine planning criteria in order to avoid early
dilution.
The potential recovery of mineral resources remaining in the rib pillar of
the first production level represents an incorporation of marginal reserves
project which is preliminary estimated to contribute between 58Mt and 60Mt
at an average grade of 0.92% Cu and 0.97% Cu respectively. These figures are
obtained from a sensitivity analysis of the dilution entry point.
Given the opportunity to add value from the numbers above, this paper aims
to identify what are the main challenges to achieve a successful recovery of the
rib pillar. Different west slope failure mechanisms and growth of caving
behavior, described by mining consultants as a part of pre-feasibility and
feasibility studies for Chuquicamata Underground, allow to recognize these
variables as key issues that must be controlled and, therefore, will avoid un-
wanted caving propagation and a dilution early entrance.
Mine design, constructability and restrictions in the mining sequence also
represent challenges. Considering that crushing, transport and ventilation
services are turned off and moved after basic mining units (BMU) finish ex-
traction, there is a time span of only five years to mine the rib pillar. Also, to
prevent early horizontal dilution from the west fault zone, rib pillar might be
mined only after BMU important percentage of extraction had been reached.
Restrictions about subsidence generated by caving initiation on second pro-
duction level must be attended as well.
The results indicate that both draw control strategy and rock mass pre-
conditioning are needed to ensure and make feasible the recovery of the rib
pillar remaining mineral resources.
***
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INTRODUCTION
Chuquicamata Underground Mine is planned to be exploited using a variant of block caving
mining method. The mine design contemplates independent basic mining units (BMU), on their
development and production, covering large areas from 28,000 up to 39,000 m2. The mine has been
configured on four descendant production lifts, which will be developed and mined sequentially.
Production rate is expected to reach 140,000 tonnes per day after 7 years of rump-up, on the year
2025 (Long term mine plan , 2012).
Geotechnical issues set the existence of a large dimension pillar between west fault and production
level limits. This rib pillar is two and a half kilometres long, 350 to 700 meters height (growing up
from centre to north and south) and has an average width of 60 meters. Rib pillar primary function
is to avoid early dilution entering from the west side as a consequence of deviated growth of caving
(Board et.al, 2006; HATCH, 2011). The problem relies on high grade ore contained in the rib pillar,
which could represent an interesting opportunity to improve the mine schedule. However, the
opportunity to recover the rib pillar depends on caving has reached full propagation and absence of
early dilution risk.
The in-situ block model indicates the presence of high grade copper ore along the entire rib pillar,
predominantly on the central and southern zones as illustrated in Figure 1, where a characteristic
crossing section and a plant view are shown.
0% - 0.5%
0.5% - 0.6%
0.6% - 0.7%
0.7% - 0.8%
0.8% - 0.9%
0.9% - 1.0%
Higher than 1.0%
Figure 1 Rib pillar in-situ block model characteristic crossing section (left) and plan view (right) (Ferrada, 2013)
120
In consequence, the main objective of this study is to recognize what are the challenges to face in
order to successfully recover the rib pillar. These challenges are mostly related with caving growth,
lateral dilution and open pit west slope failure mechanism.
METHODOLOGY
The work methodology considers sequential steps described below.
1. Literature review on stability aspects of the west slope and gravity flow, collecting and
summarising studies conducted during previous stages of engineering regarding the condition
of the rib pillar.
2. Estimation of mineral resources applying economic parameters and the Laubscher (Laubscher,
1994) model for vertical dilution.
3. Determination of subsidence restrictions.
4. Conclusions about technical feasibility of recovering the rib pillar.
Most relevant studies

Since the beginning of the Chuquicamata Underground Mine Project, evolution and growth of
caving cavity had represented concerns due to the influence of the west fault and the open pit west
slope failure mechanism.
Due to technical and economic impacts that could have an unwanted behaviour of caving, there
have been numerous studies with significant investment of resources. For this work the authors
took three studies that could represent an appropriate summary. The studies are ITASCA/SRK
(Board et al., 2006), ITASCA Chuquicamata Underground Project Geotechnical Update (2009),
Universidad de Chile (Castro & Rubio, 2008), INGEROC (Navarro & Merino, 2008) and
Geomecnica LTDA. (Krstulovic, 2012). In these studies different tools as numerical modelling,
physical models and conceptual analysis were carried out to determine the following conclusions
(Figure 2).
The primary mechanism (red arrow) is the gradual spill sterile material from the slope of the
west wall of the pit. It is concluded that as the broken material contained in caving crater
descends, gradual incorporation of dilution will occur, that will fill the crater preventing the
west wall failing and collapsing violently. Then, the probability of a gradual failure of the west
wall is much higher than the probability of a violent collapse. The relevance of this mechanism
relies on the low grade or sterile material which is integrating and diluting the ore reserves.
The second mechanism (black arrow) corresponds to the early incorporation of dilution while
caving is growing. Geomecnica LTDA. demonstrates that rock mass heterogeneity and
consequently its propagation will affect on material near the west fault to gradually deviate to
the west allowing early dilution entrance. Though, no draw control strategy is considered in
this study. Also the growth of caving is simulated considering a preference on extraction where
the rock quality is the poorest and hence, caves easily.
121
Figure 2 West slope failure mechanisms and dilution incorporation (Ferrada, 2013)
Regarding caving propagation and gravity flow, there is consensus about the behaviour of the draw
columns near to the west fault. Flow shall be vertical at first and deviate their direction after, once
ore extraction it is advanced. As a consequence, draw of ore near to the west fault should be
avoided because it would increase the potential irruption of early dilution.
Figure 3 Draw control strategies (Ferrada, 2013)
122
Then, draw control strategy plays a major role when talking about behaviour of west wall/caving
growth and dilution entry point. Figure 3 illustrates two different hypothetical draw strategies.
Strategy 1 shows preferential draw near the west fault where the ore grades are higher, but this
could trigger the main mechanism earlier than expected. Strategy 2 shows an alternative draw
strategy prioritising draw from away of the west fault in order to relax stresses in the rib pillar and
avoid early dilution.
Besides draw control as a mitigation of the early dilution risk practice, there is the option to apply
rock mass preconditioning. This complementary practice seeks to weaken the rock mass using
either explosives or hydraulic fracturing by pumping high pressure fluids. Once rock is selectively
weakened, caving propagation can be predicted and controlled in an easier way.
Estimation of mineral resources

Mining the rib pillar and estimating mineral resources establish the need to adopt assumptions due
to its particular geometry and the unfavourable geotechnical rock mass conditions existing around
the west fault. In-situ estimations have calculated the total mineral resources available in the rib
pillar are 82.8 Mt at an average grade of 0.83% Cu and 183 ppm Mo. To estimate how many
economic mineral resources the following points were taken into account:
Based on caving growth behaviour and on the strong concordance between experts regarding
gravity flow condition on the rib pillar, vertical caving propagation is assumed. Horizontal or
lateral dilution is not considered.
Vertical mixing as described in the Laubscher dilution model is applied. This proceeding is
widely used and accepted in the mining industry regarding to dilution models.
The most unfavourable conditions according to the studies referenced before set a dilution entry
point as low as 47%. This pessimistic scenario considers the incorporation of lateral dilution as a
consequence of the collapse of the rib pillar at a height of extraction of 100 m (Castro & Rubio,
2008). Figure 4.
60,500 0.98
60,000 0.97
59,500 0.96
Ley Media Cu (m)
Tonelaje (kton)
0.95
59,000
0.94
58,500
0.93
58,000
0.92
57,500 0.91
57,000 0.90
56,500 0.89
30 40 50 60 70
Ton (kton) Cut
Figure 4 Dilution entry point sensitivity analysis
123
A sensitivity analysis performed varying the dilution entry point indicates that between 40% and
70% of extraction before first trace of dilution appears, the changes in the total resource tonnage
remains constant and only an average copper grade improvement is observed. Therefore, being
conservative a dilution entry point of 40% is considered to estimate economic mineral resources.
Results are detailed in Table 1.
Table 1 Mineral resources in rib pillar
Rib Pillar Tons (kt) Cu (%) Mo (ppm) Area (m2)

Total 59,698 0.928 210 160,729
Subsidence restrictions
Due to the subsidence generated by a caving operation, there are restrictions associated to the first
production lift operation period before second production lift, 216 m below, starts caving. A
subsidence angle of 50 it is considered according with geotechnical recommendations and
measurements. Plus, a safety factor equivalent to 128 m is set, so there must be at least 308 m of
abandoned operations on the first lift. Figure 5.
Propagation caving Subsidence Lv 1841

Fully propagated caving Subsidence Lv 1625
Figure 5 Subsidence restrictions (Ferrada, 2013)
The main challenge regarding subsidence is related to the operation of the mining systems.
Ventilation, crushers, conveyor belts and a several mine services and infrastructure must move
when a BMU ends extraction of ore. Hence, and matching with the long term mine plan, there is a
time span of only five years before second lift starts production to achieve the recovery of the rib
pillar.
124
Constructability and operational interferences
Construction and operation of rib pillar production level will certainly interfere with the operations
of extraction of the BMU, at least for two years. Coexistence of labours is predicted then, but this
fact does not mean infeasibility on the construction of the production level on the rib pillar, it only
supposes a decrease on construction rates and mining equipment performance (LHD loaders
mostly). The situation explained is represented on Figure 6, which illustrates coexistence between
the pillar and BMU, in terms of the mine plan.
10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
Mineral (kt)
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
-
2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027
Period
BMU Rib pillar
Figure 6 Coexistence BMU - Rib pillar
The quantification of the interference is a complex process that requires a simulation model that
accurately delivers results and sensitivities required.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results inferred from the review of the three studies establish draw control strategy as a mitigation
of early dilution risk but a trade off should be done in terms of what grades of ore are being left.
Strategy 1 goes for high grade ore assuming the risk of connecting the west fault and diluting an
important amount of ore reserves. On the other hand, Strategy 2 stays away from that risk but must
deal with a decline in the ore grade as in the eastern zones of the body grades are lower. Applying
Strategy 1 and then scheduling resources contained in the rib pillar by increasing the production
rate up to the 155,000 tonnes per day imply the adding of 160 MUS$ to the project NPV.
Whatever the case, the rib pillar is feasible to be mined after considered the facts just mentioned.
About mine planning, between 58 and 60 Mt of additional mineral resources are available to be
added to alternative plans and to be evaluated with a proper economic model. To consider a
125
dilution entry point of 30%, is equivalent to the hipothesis lateral early dilution because simulated
value should not be below 47% according the most pessimistic scenarios.
CONCLUSION
Opportunities associated to the recovery of the pillar are directly related to the important mineral
resources contained on it. The 59 Mt have the potential to add important value, up to 160 MUS$, to
the project considering this figure is a little more than a year of production at full mine capacity (50
Mt/year). Nevertheless assumptions about vertical propagation of the caving cavity and the absence
of lateral movements are source of uncertainty and error and should be treated more carefully for
instance, proposing the estimation of mineral resources using a dilution model incorporating
horizontal and lateral movements.
The three most relevant studies provide valuable information about what should be the main
challenges recovering the rib pillar. Principally they set draw control and rock mass
preconditioning as key factors to manage and control caving as expected on mine planning,
minimising dilution and ensuring average ore grades. With these variables on full control and
monitoring, rib pillar mining is more likely.
REFERENCES
Castro, R., Rubio, E. (2008) Efectos de los Mecanismos de Dilucin en la Estimacin de Reservas de la Mina
Chuquicamata Subterrnea. Universidad de Chile, technical inform prepared to Codelco VP.
Codelco VP - PMCHS (2011) Criterios del Plan de Produccin. Codelco VP.
Board, M., Pierce, M., Lorig, L., Jakubec, J., Campbell, R. (2006) Complementary Geotechnical Studies for
Conceptual Design of an Undergroung Mine at Chuquicamata. ITASCA & SRK technical inform.
Ferrada, M. (2013) Recuperacin Pilar Oeste Proyecto Mina Chuquicamata Subterrnea, Universidad de Chile,
Santiago.
HATCH (2011) Anlisis Geomecnico Optimizacin del Espesor del Rib Pillar, HATCH Chile, technical inform.
ITASCA (2009) Chuquicamata Underground Project, Geotechnical Update , ITASCA, technical inform.
Krstulovic, G. (2012) Aplicacin del Simulador ALCODER para Anlisis de Mecanismo de Falla Pared Oeste y
Propagacin del Caving, Geomecnica LTDA technical inform.
Krstulovic, G. (2012) Estimacin de Propagacin del Caving para el Proyecto Mina Chuquicamata Subterrnea
(PMCHS), Geomecnica LTDA technical inform.
Laubscher, D. (1994) Cave mining the state of the art, The Journal of The South African Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, SAIMM
Navarro, S., Merino, L. (2008) Modo de Falla de la Pared Oeste, INGEROC technical inform
126
Effect of the collapsed area
on productivity and allocation
of semi-autonomous LHD
using simulations
The use of simulations is a tool to study operational problems, with the aim Yerko Yvar, Francisco Carrasco
and Pamela Zapata. Codelco, Chile
of estimating the consequences and anticipate ways to mitigate them. The
objectives of this study are to analyze in the context of the Chuquicamata
Underground Mine Project the productive capacity of one basic mining unit
or Macro Blocks in production and assignment of the semi-autonomous LHD
(SA LHD), under the scenario of collapsed mining infrastructure. The analysis
is performed using an integrated simulation model that considers the pro-
duction level, ore pass system, crusher facilities and all transport level by
conveyor belts. The scope of the study is for a Macro Block productive lifetime,
making a base case scenario and several under the assumption collapse of
productive area, and sensitizing from 5 to 50% of collapsed area.
The results are based in the effect on the productivity of the production
level, in order to recognize answers in the short term contingencies generated
by the loss in production. This analysis allows us to incorporate the risk of a
major operational hazard that involves failure of the pillar left on and above
the extraction level and the solution may take uncertain time to figure out. It
can also be concluded that on the analysis of assignment equipment in the
study settings, where it seeks to estimate the effective fleet equipment, com-
pletes the production of the case study.
***
127
INTRODUCTION
The Chuquicamata open pit mine life is depleting due to increased operating costs related to the
long distances that are necessary to explore the current depth of the pit, increased the reason
waste/ore, low grades, etc. . To continue to benefit the reserves under the open pit mine has been
developed Chuquicamata Underground Project (From its spanish acronym, PMCHS). This project
consists of an underground mine to be located under the end of the mine pit, where the ore is
extracted using a variant of Block Caving method, comprising mining units known as macro block.
One of the important points in the studies of the project is to explore the critical variables that can
affect the mine planning. The collapses are one of the most relevant and common instability events
in mines operated by underground methods, reason why, for the different stages the Chuquicamata
Underground Mine Project has conducted studies to assess the potential occurrence of such
instability.
The objectives of this study are to analyze in the context of the Chuquicamata Underground Project
the productive capacity of one Basic Mining Unit or MacroBlocks in production and assignment
of the Semi-Autonomous LHD (SA LHD), under the scenario of collapsed mining infrastructure.
BACKGROUND
The collapses are one of the most relevant and common instability events in mines operated by
underground methods, reason why, for the different stages the Chuquicamata Underground Mine
Project has conducted studies to assess the potential occurrence of such instability.
The occurrence of collapse due to a local condition solicitation over the rock mass strength. Then, a
collapse occurs due to failure of the rock mass due to an unexpected increase of the applied loads
occurring in the sector from collapse. From this viewpoint, the factors that may cause a collapse,
interact with the rock mass increase so that the stress that is subjected to mining infrastructure.
The design of macro blocks or modular operation has the advantage of isolating areas in the event
that such a collapse and achieve manage more efficiently. Studies identified the areas of greatest
potential for occurrence of collapse for each Macro Blocks first level of exploitation, mainly based
on pre-mining conditions and variables defined mine design and planning. The Macro Block N 5-1
where chosen because comply two conditions that generate a potential collapse, first for structural
analysis and second for in situ ground stress.
METHODOLOGY
Using a simulation model developed for the discipline of Mine Planning, was performed a
simulation study of the production level of the macro block N 5-1. The simulation considers an
integrated mining system components of the Production Level and Crushing/Conveying Level.
Each parameter and criteria were defined Chuquicamata underground project.
Four scenarios of simulation have been designed, based on the percentage of collapsed area, raising
the number assignment LHD equipment, from one to eight LHD. The implementation of the
128
percentage of collapsed area is closing draw points from the west side of Macro Blocks until the
East.
Table 1 Simulation scenarios
Parameter Scenario Value Unit
LHD Fleet Allocation of LHD 1 to 8 [#]
Collapsed Area Collapsed Area in the Macro Block 5 %
15
25
50
Figure 1 Scheme collapsed area in the Macro Block
Furthermore, simulations were performed where only the number of LHD equipment sensitized
for a comparison of a base case. This information is to be considered as potential operational
parameters that can have the Macro Block.
129
The productivity results of the sensitization study to collapse the four scenarios area shown in
LHD Productivity Sensitization collapsed area
30.000
25.000
1 LHD
Production [tonne/day]
20.000
2 LHD
3 LHD
15.000 4 LHD
5 LHD
10.000 6 LHD
7 LHD
8 LHD
5.000
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
Percent collapse area[%]
Figure 2a and 2b . These are increasing slightly for configurations from four to eight LHD equipment,
finding a maximum value, and then fell drastically the productivity. It is understandable that as a
percentage of closing macro block area, production equipment have a less number of draw points; this
entails a number of operational interference generated by a drop in productivity due to declining the Yield
30.000
25.000
1 LHD
20.000
2 LHD
3 LHD
15.000 4 LHD
5 LHD
10.000 6 LHD
7 LHD
8 LHD
5.000
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
(see
Figure 2a and Figure 2b).
130
30.000
25.000
1 LHD
20.000
2 LHD
3 LHD
15.000 4 LHD
5 LHD
10.000 6 LHD
7 LHD
8 LHD
5.000
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
Figure 2a Production sensitizing the collapsed area
LHD Effective Yield by Collapsed Area

340 35.000
330 30.000
320
25.000
310
Production [tpd]
20.000
Yield [tph]
300
15.000
290
10.000
280
270 5.000
260 0
1 LHD 2 LHD 3 LHD 4 LHD 5 LHD 6 LHD 7 LHD 8 LHD
Number of LHD
50% 25% 15% 5% Base Case Yield Base Case Production
Figure 3b Comparision of Operations Index between colllapsed area and base case
On the other hand, according to the supposed of closing drawpoints adopted to simulate the
collapsed area in the macro block (drawpoints were closed from those closest to the West Fault,
equitably distributed through the four drift until the half of Macro Block), is possible appreciate
there is a time where LHD yields equipment tend to be "maximun" due to lower average
transportation distances in the semi-drifts. This causes th cycle time are lower and therefore may
have higher production peerformance, but at the cost of having a percentage of unused collapsed
area and their associated risks.
131
30.000
25.000
1 LHD
20.000
2 LHD
3 LHD
15.000 4 LHD
5 LHD
10.000 6 LHD
7 LHD
8 LHD
5.000
0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
In
Figure 2a and 2b you can see the relationship between the actual yields obtained for different
scenarios and sensitivity collapsed area LHD equipment for Macro Block, and then compare the
"Average Tonnage" and Average Performance" of sensitize the Base Case of Number of LHD
equipment. Remember, considered the results of the simulation in the sensitivity scenario the
number of LHD equipment, such as "expected values" or base case for comparison with other
scenarios. This will have to for some cases of collapsed area scenarios, throughput is lower or
higher than the effective yield "expected".
It follows an interesting analysis of this information, is able to make an allocation of LHD
equipment under the contingency that such a collapse and compromise a percentage of the macro
block area. For this it is possible to consider the data obtained from the simulation where the
collapsed area is sensitized to different configurations of LHD equipment and determine the
number of LHD equipment needed to meet production "expected", i.e., deal information of Yield
and Effective Hours of Manshift simulating collapsed areas, with information from the average
production of the simulation that sensitizes the number of LHD equipment (Production "expected")
(see Figure 4a and Figure 3b).
Figure 4a Effective Yield and allocation of number of LHD for 5% Collapsed area
132
LHD Effective Yield 15% Collapsed Area
340 10,0
330 9,0
8,7
8,0
320
7,6
7,0
310
LHD assignment[#]
6,4
6,0
Yield[tph]
300
5,2 5,0
290
4,1 4,0
280
3,0 3,0
270
1,9 2,0
260 1,0 1,0
250 0,0
Number of LHD
LHD Effective Yield LHD assignment
Figure 5b Effective Yield and allocation of number of LHD for 15%(right) Collapsed area
The allocation of the number of LHD equipment shows that will not always be possible to meet the
production capacity with the LHD equipment configuration you have. In Figure 4a we see a
graphic diagram (5% collapsed area scenario) to estimate the fleet in two steps which satisfies the
performance of production. In the example we see that for four LHD configuration, and by yield
and effective hours dropped by the simulations, it takes a number of 4.2 LHD equipment to meet
production, in other words, for a few hours of production must add a fifth team to increase
production LHD.
This is only an estimate is a guide to short-term planning, it is understood that incorporate more
team can bring greater operational interference, and thus, a lower incremental contribution in
production than expected. In Figure 4 4 is possible to see how it behaves allocation to other
scenarios.
340 10,0
330 9,0
8,7
8,0 8,0
320
7,0
310
LHD assignment[#]
6,5
6,0
Yield[tph]
300
5,2 5,0
290
4,2 4,0
280
3,1 3,0
270 2,0
2,0
260 1,0 1,0
250 0,0
Number of LHD
Figure 6 Effective Yield and allocation of number of LHD for 25% Collapsed area
133
340 18,0
17,1
330 16,0
14,6
320 14,0
310 12,1 12,0
LHD assignment[#]
Yield [tph]
300 10,0
8,5
290 8,0
280 5,8 6,0
270 3,8 4,0
260 2,2 2,0

1,2
250 0,0
Number of LHD
Figure 7 Effective Yield and allocation of number of LHD for 50%(right) Collapsed area
CONCLUSION
The study showed that when the collapsed area in the macro block closed drowpoint due to
collapse (considering a closed area with a direction from west to east), we arrive at a situation
where average distances of travel are reduced, thereby increasing the performance, and may have
an optimum production, but quickly shows a fall to begin closing the area to undertake drain
points. An important contribution of this study is the opportunity of planning in the allocation of
LHD equipment under the scenario of collapses area, because simulations is possible to identify the
Effective Yield and Effective Hours per Manshift by LHD equipment, and theoretically estimate the
required number of LHD equipment to recover productivity that is lost with the collapsed area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the Vice President of Projects, Chuquicamata Underground Mine Project, Codelco, for the
opportunity to finance and develop this paper.
REFERENCES
Brown, E.T. (2002) Block Caving Geomechanics. Queensland, Australia. JKMRC
Vicepresidencia de Proyectos, Proyecto Mina Chuquicamata Subterrnea, CODELCO (2012) Informe de

Proyecto: Potencial Ocurrencia de Colapsos Primer Nivel de Explotacin 1841, Informe Tcnico.
Yvar, Y. (2013). Robustness and Flexibility Study Production Plan of Chuquicamata Underground Mine
Project. Thesis to obtain the title of Mining Engineer. Santiago, Chile: University of Chile, Faculty of
Physical and Mathematical Sciences.
134
Variating extraction rate due
to technology improvements:
Mine planning implications
Mean extraction rate in caving operated mines reflects the global effectiveness Francisco Carrasco, Emilio Castillo
and Edisson Pizarro. Codelco, Chile
of mine production. In these terms, the spreading of caving is an important
barrier to achieve a better productive performance, considering that mean
extraction rate would not increase proportionally to high reaping rates. Mine
planning of new caving projects is constantly receiving new information that
expands the boundaries of extraction rates, especially by the use of precondi-
tioning and continuous mining.
Continuous production is not a new concept in underground mining. In
the first half of the twentieth century, there were various coal projects using
the philosophy of rock factory. From now on, Codelco represents one of the
biggest companies developing continuous technology for underground mining
in hard rocks. In this context, Chuquicamata Underground Mine Project
(PMCHS), implements a continuous mining modulus with the purpose of
incorporate this technology to unique rock mass conditions.
In order to evaluate continuous mining in PMCHS, specific characteristics
need to be considerate, there are opportunities for continuous mining option
to improve by caving control and reducing necessary time for production
ramp-up, with direct impact in project value due to higher grades in first years
of operation. Impacts on propagation rate by preconditioning are also included
on mine schedule, creating an important economic effect.
Value added by continuous mining is not only generated by increasing
production capacity, but also comes from the possibility to establish a full
autonomous, mechanized and remote operate process. The system gives the
opportunity to reduce underground personnel which is an important variable
to take into account for new mining projects.
***
135
INTRODUCTION
Mine planning in underground caving mines it is a primary activity which generates a starting
point for mine project valuation. This activity needs to incorporate many complex variables and
specific restrictions associated to mineral deposit. . Long term schedule need to integrate
geotechnical and design variables, such as sequence, subsidence when different lifts are operating
and caving propagation.
First step to value opportunities from technology improvements is to reflect impacts on mine
schedule. In this context new technology expands previous planning boundaries in underground
mining projects.
METHODOLOGY
This study presents main results coming from evaluation of continuous mining at Chuquicamata
Underground Mine. Analysis had been divided in seven scenarios which represent different
planning setups incorporating variables, like technology as preconditioning (PC) or continuous
mining (CM) as a modification of extraction rate. Some fundamentals are required to comprehend
the value of this technology and their impact on mine schedule.
Fundamentals
Extraction performance in caving mines requires the interaction of multiple variables. The
aggregated information is summarized by mean extraction rate, which can be considered as a
measure of global process effectiveness. In order to comprehend the relevance and variation of this
indicator, some issues must be discussed.
Extraction rate
Mean extraction rate in caving operated mines reflects the global effectiveness of mine production.
In these terms, the spreading of caving is an important barrier to achieve a better productive
performance, considering that mean extraction rate would not increase proportionally to high
reaping rates (Carrasco, Encina, & Maas, 2004). Mine planning of new caving projects is constantly
receiving new information that expands the boundaries of extraction rates, especially by the use
preconditioning and continuous mining.
Literature defines mean extraction rate ( ), as a relation between spreading rate ( ), percentage of
tonnage extracted during propagation phase ( ) and ratio between spreading and reaping area ( ).
Equation (1) shows this relation (Carrasco, Encina, & Maas, 2004) y (Encina, Baez, Geister, & J.,
2008):
(1)
=
+1
Previous equation indicates a limit value to mean extraction rate when :
(2)
lim =
+1
136
So, considering this simplified theoretical approach, there are two main ways to increase mean
extraction rate: increase caving propagation and increase area utilization. Equation (2) shows that
resources assigned to increase mean extraction rate are always limited by the capability of the
ground to cave, so investment on technology related to caving propagation would be greater
returns.
Technology improvements
Looking for greater caving productivity, technology research has focus on two main techniques:
preconditioning and remote operated continuous production.
In first instance, preconditioning has been a common practice in Codelcos mines, proving its
effectiveness by getting a better caving performance and less seismic activity. In practical terms,
preconditioning is expected to maintain spreading rates up (annual average) to 0,35 0,4
(Instituto de Innovacin en Minera y Metalurgia IM2, 2009).
On the other hand, continuous mining refers an alternative mine design developed since late 90s to
increase the draw points utilization from block cave mines.
Continuous production is not a new concept in underground mining. In the first half of twentieth
century, there were various coal projects using the philosophy of rock factory. Recent work
indicates that reaping rate considering continuous mining reach peaks close to1,8 , which is an
remarkable result in comparison with LHD system with 0,8 (annual average) (Steinberg,
Frenzen, & Krings, 2012).
By now on, Codelco represents one of the biggest companies developing continuous technology for
underground mining in hard rocks. Mine scale test is expected to be operated during 2014 to 2016 at
Andina mine. Results from this industrial validation would be an important input for
Chuquicamata Underground mine project (PMCHS), which considers the implementation of a
continuous mining modulus of 28.000 m2 with the purpose of incorporate this technology to
Chuquicamata Underground mine unique rock mass properties.
Background
PMCHS represents one of the major projects to Codelco, expanding life of mine of Chuquicamata
mine. Mineral resource under actual mine had been quantified in 1.760 million tonnes @ 0,71% Cu
and 512 ppm Mo. Mine production reach 340.000 tonnes of copper and 18.000 tonnes of
molybdenum per year with 140.000 tonnes per day of mine production rate. Ore exploitation is
made through macro blocks (block caving variant, with an average area of 36.000 m2 per block) in
four different production lifts, distanced 216 meters from each other.
Mine planning criteria

Most important planning restrictions come from geotechnical subjects, which add restrictions to
production sequence. For PMCHS FS study, a subsidence angle of 50 between each level and one
macro block has to be considered as a security zone for production:
137
Figure 1 Subsidence restriction for macro sequence: four lifts scenarios (left) and three lift scenarios (right)
Another aspect comes from the caving propagation rate, which is considered by the ratio 1:5 (when
removing 20% of tonnage in extraction column, remaining 80% is considered as broken).
Propagation rate was estimated considering a conservative preconditioning effect, but not all of its
improvements on spreading rate.
Annual requirement to incorporate new production area is limited by an average capacity of 36.000
m2 per front. The previous capacity means that an average of two macro blocks developed per year.
For economic envelopes and heights, a minimum column height of 100 m and a maximum of 400 m
had been considerate. Economic parameters and their own probability distribution to define
mineable resources, comes from PMCHS mine planning economic model, which differentiates cost
associated to continuous mining or LHD system. Economic envelope for each level comes from
certainty analysis of probability to have positive benefits in each column (Fuentes, 2003). Certainty
analysis considers 90% accuracy for first level, 60% for second and 50% for third and fourth level
Finally, extraction rate considered for every technology are shows in :
Table 1:
Table 1 Expected extraction rate for different technology
Maximum extraction rate mine planning LHD + LHD + PC CM + PC

criteria Base
Extraction rate [tpd/m2] Spreading 0,20 0,38 0,38
Reaping 0,70 0,70 1,50
Mean extraction rate (theoretical) [tpd/m2] 0,43 0,54 0,94
Spreading area / Reaping area (1) 0,75 0,39 0,99
Operation years per MB (theoretical) (2) 4,64 3,70 2,11
(1) As example, CM+PC require 1 MB in spreading phase for each one MB in reaping phase to
operate.
(2) 1 MB, 36,000 m2 area, 270 m column height, 2,65t/m3 density.
138
Scenario analysis
In order to evaluate the impacts of new technology development, ten planning scenarios had been
defined. First of all, base case represents current (feasibility study) PMCHS mine schedule, without
considering preconditioning in spreading phase improvements and LHDs in production level.
After that, new schedule is generated by considering all the benefits1 of preconditioning, which
improve propagation rate, but limit reaping rate to LHD production. The third and fourth cases
incorporate preconditioning and continuous mining, limiting production capacity at 140 and 160
ktpd (maximum average capacity of haulage system defined on FS study), respectively. Three last
scenarios evaluated, contrasts previous ones in the number of production level, reducing them to
three. Two of these three level scenarios consider LHD technology and preconditioning at 140 and
160 ktpd and the last one considers continuous mining at 160 ktpd.
Table 2 Planning scenarios to measure technology impact
Correlative Scenario Technology Production capacity Production levels Comparison base

1 Base LHD 140 ktpd 4 -
2 2 LHD & PC 140 ktpd 4 Base
3 2* LHD & PC 160 ktpd 4 2
4 3 CM & PC 140 ktpd 4 2
5 4 CM & PC 160 ktpd 4 3
6 4* LHD 140 ktpd 3 Base
7 5 LHD & PC 140 ktpd 3 4*(2)
8 6 LHD & PC 160 ktpd 3 5
9 7 CM & PC 140 ktpd 3 5
10 8 CM & PC 160 ktpd 3 7
Figure 2 Feasible planning scenarios and comparison base for each case
1 Base case considers PC investment, but not all of its benefits related to spreading rate. Future engineering studies must
confirm adicional cost in this area.
139
It is important to notice that two planning cases were infeasible (unable to achieve annual tonnage
because of subsidence restriction): base case with three lifts without preconditioning (4* scenario)
and LHD technology with preconditioning in four lifts (2* scenario). In this case, comparison base
of fifth scenario correspond to second scenario (shown in parentheses).
As listed above, every scenario is compared to notice marginal variation and leave isolated every
improvement from comparison base.
In order to show proper results and respecting confidentially issues about economics parameters2,
results will be provided distinguishing following aspects: copper, molybdenum and arsenic present
tonnage, capital, extraction, preparation cost and NPV percentage difference.
Technical and economical results

As mention in previous section, results for every scenario are listed below in :
Table 3 and
Table 4:
Table 3 Main results from planning scenarios

Scenario Copper present Moly present Arsenic present Mean extraction Ramp Mean
tonnage [kton] tonnage [kton] tonnage [kton] rate [tpd/m2] up years active area
[Ha]
Base 3,630 255 232 0.38 7 32.1
2 3,997 274 250 0.49 5 26.2
3 4,248 303 277 0.77 4 18.1
4 4,579 333 304 0.79 4 18.7
5 4,034 281 260 0.47 5 26.1
6 4,333 304 281 0.50 6 27.4
7 4,146 289 267 0.72 4 19.6
8 4,477 314 291 0.74 4 21.0
Table 4 Economic results for planning scenarios. CM results appear highlighted

Scenario Capital cost [%] Extraction cost [%] Preparation cost [%] NPV [%]
Base - - - -
2 0% -4% 1% 24%
3 10% -14% 21% 5%
4 0% -1% 0% 13%
5 -4% 0% -3% 5%
2Economic model was validated by comparison with feasibility study of PMCHS, with percentage difference less than 1% in
present values.
140
6 0% -2% -1% 13%
7 8% -14% 21% 4%
8 0% -2% -1% 13%
From tables show above, main average results come from four different areas:
Table 5 Main result from key areas from planning scenarios

Area Capital cost [%] Extraction cost [%] Preparation cost [%] NPV [%]
Preconditioning 0% -4% 1% 24%
Continuous mining 8 to 10% -14% 21% 4 to 7%
Production capacity 0% -2 to -1% -1 to 0% 13%
Lifts number -4% 0% -3% 5%
Geometallurgical and Lifts coexistence results

Other planning issues come from impacts generated in grade variation due to continuous mining
technology. In this case, less active area required to achieve production and important differences
in main metals content among every macro block considered by PMCHS, lead to less blending
effect (for metallurgical considerations) and higher peaks or singularities on grades in mine
schedule. Figure 3 illustrate this situation, taking as an explanatory way arsenic grade variation
(considered a critical contain for this project) from production plan between 2026 and 2040:
Figure 3 Impact on arsenic (left) and molybdenum (right) grade considering different technology
As shown above, plannning considering continuous mining maintain higher variance in arsenic
grande for this mineral deposit than only considering preconditioning. This variability in grades
increase standard deviation for arsenic grade from 11% to 22%, which would be an important
aspect to take into account for mineral proccesing. For molydenum, standard deviation in selected
years increase from 10% to 16%.
Multi lift production in PMCHS need to consider the important effect to have simultaneus
production among different levels. As can be seen in Table 6, production coexistence could be a
future operational problem because of infraestructure utilization, which is important to notice and
considered from mine schedule:
141
Table 6 Years of simultaneous production between levels
Scenario Coexistence between 1st Coexistence between 2nd Coexistence between 3rd
and 2nd level [years] and 3rd level [years] and 4th level [years]
Base 7 4 5
2 10 6 6
3 7 6 6
4 2 7 5
5 6 4 -
6 5 5 -
7 3 7 -
8 3 7 -
Application of continuous mining did not reflect a major variability in coexistence between
production lifts, but shows higher area development (as shown in
Figure 4). Continuous mining also improve years that each lift could mantain stable prouction.
Figure 4 Mine schedule by level for base (left) and third (right) scenario
CONCLUSION
Increasing extraction rate during caving propagation lead to a higher value added in PMCHS, this
situation gives a signal about necessary efforts on investing in technology as preconditioning
caving operated mines. On the other hand, result from valuation for continuous mining indicates
that, after industrial validation, this technology would be a real option in future caving operations,
leading to a better production control, high automation potential, extraction cost reduction, less
active area and better work conditions for miners.
142
REFERENCES
Aguayo, A., Uribe, G., & Pedrero, J. (2012) Multi-lifts production scheduling at the Chuquicamata
Underground project. Massmin 2012, Sudbury.
AMEC, Proyecto Mina Chuquicamata Subterrnea (2013) Informe final minera de alta productividad,
Santiago: API N09DM41.
Carrasco, F., Encina, V., & Maas, S. (2004) Extraction rate: As an index of effectiveness, Massmin 2004,
Santiago, pp. 469473.
Encina, V., Baez, F., Geister, F., & J., S. (2008) Mechanized continuous drawing system: A technical
answer to increase production capacity for large block caving mines, Massmin 2008, Lule, pp.
553562.
Fuentes, S. (2003) Planning block caving operations with metal price uncertainty, Kingston: Thesis MSc.
Instituto de Innovacin en Minera y Metalurgia IM2 (2009), Impacto en variables mineras por
aplicacin de acondicionamiento, divisiones Salvador, Andina y El Teniente, Codelco, Chile,
Santiago: Gerencia Corporativa Proyecto Minera Subterrnea.
Proyecto Mina Chuquicamata Subterrnea (2011) Definicin e integracin de reservas mineras,
Santiago: API N09DM41.
Proyecto Mina Chuquicamata Subterrnea (2011) Integracin de reservas Ingeniera Bsica, Santiago:
Codelco.
Proyecto Mina Chuquicamata Subterrnea (2013) Informacin econmica ingeniera bsica, Santiago:
API N09DM41.
Steinberg, J., Frenzen, M., & Krings, J. (2012) Block Cave Mine 2020 - Case study on a continuously
operated Mega Mine, Massmin 2012, Sudbury.
143
State of the art in cave mining
The most important mines using Block/Panel Cavign techniques in the world, Hugo Constanzo, Sixto Lpez and
Juan Videla. Codelco, Chile
use mainly two methods: Post-undercut (POU) and pre-undercut (PRU). The
former, presents two different options, Narrow Cut and Crinkle Cut. The El
Teniente mine has a long tradition of knowledge in POU and PRU, both of
them characterized by usign a dynamic undercut front, that modifies the rock
mass condition, depending on the panel caving variant used; all translates
in more or less damage to the mine infrastructure.
As the extraction gets deeper in mines using Panel Caving, the overall
complexity will increase and the common challenges from the mining asso-
ciated to the caving process, will concentrate in finding solutions to the same
type of problems. The material removal form the undercut level, is complex
from a safety point of view, and also a critical variable in the caving process,
since the cut of the panel base must be assured. The mine collapses have been
observed in different mines around the world, independent from the caving
method used. The rockburst issues and collapses will be more complex, if we
are not able to find design solutions and mining options adapted to areas
with a higher stress state.
***
145
INTRODUCTION
One of the main aspects that condition the productivity and the costs associated to Panel Caving
mining, are the availability of extraction points, also known as mine infrastructure availability. El
Teniente (DET) with more than 100 years of experience shows that in all its productive areas, there
is a percentage of mine infrastructure that is not available for the ore extraction at some point in
time. The factors that control this phenomenon are the rock mass quality, the stress state of the area,
and the type of mining applied. On the last factor, two elements are important, the progressive
advance of the area to undercut and incorporate to production (width, orientation, and delay
between undercut and extraction fronts), and the quality of drilling and blasting of the drawbells
and its connections. Efficient designs and a correct development of the plans will optimize the
availability of mine infrastructure.
The following work shows the behavior that different panel caving options have presented in El
Teniente, and also in mines from Australia, Indonesia, USA, and Canada. The main analysis criteria
focused in design, drilling, and blasting parameters. The parameters were analyzed from a stability,
rock mass damage, planning, and construction point of view.
DRAW POINTS
The importance of evaluating the damage in the draw points is based in the associated repair time
of them and the negative impact on the maintenance cost per square-meter at the production level.
The extraction points play an important role since their operation and the resultant extraction of the
ore from them is the base for the business. A damage assessment from different mines form El
Teniente was carried, showing that in areas where there is advanced undercutting, there was less
damage to the draw points, and in mines that use conventional panel caving, the damage to the
draw point is higher (Figure 1).
Comportamiento de Dao Puntos de Extraccin Mina Ten 4S - ESM - DR
70
65 T4S PCC (Histrico)

T4S Crinkle Cut
60 T4S PCC - Ext Sur
Bloque 1 ESM
55
Diablo Regimiento
50
45
40
% Dao PE
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000 45000 50000 55000 60000 65000
Tonelaje Extrado
Figure 1 Behavior of the damage in draw points
146
AVAILABILITY AREA
The damage effect on the rock mass associated to the production level is reflected in the overall
availability that this infrastructure has, to be ready to produce. By having available infrastructure to
produce, the completion of the production plans is assured according to what was planned. Any
variation in availability will be directly reflected on the operational budget from a productive area,
and all this will translate to higher or lower operational costs.
A Pareto analysis is used to estimate the different factors that have high importance (not vital)
and those that are less important (trivial), from comparing and qualifying them.
In El Teniente mine, there have been economic evaluations of the different mining methods used,
accounting for the effect of the variables and its relationship to the damage of the infrastructure in
the production level, the results show that 25% of the factors (availability and utilization) account
for a 74% of the result in the economic evaluation, this relationship shows the high impact of these
variables in the operational costs on a panel caving mine.
The behavior of the availability in different productive areas of El Teniente (Table 1) was analized,
during the years 1996-2006 and 2003-2006, for Ten 4Sur, 2008-2012 for Reservas Norte, 2004-2012 for
Esmeralda, and 2007-2012 for Diablo Regimiento, obtaining a better indicator factor in mines where
advanced Panel Caving (99%) is used and a substantially lower availability in mines using
conventional panel caving (70%).
Table 1 Availability and utilization in El Teniente Areas

Sector Mine Variant D U DxU Front Material handling
(%) (%) width
(m)
1 Tte. 4 Sur HC 70 53 37 690 Lhd-rock breaker-bin-FFCC
2 Tte. 4 Sur HC 82 54 44 240 Lhd and rock breaker-bin-

FFCC
3 Reservas HA 96 76 73 180 Lhd-Plate feeder-haul
Norte truck-bin-FFCC
4 Reservas HAZA 96 73 70 180 Lhd-Plate Feeder-haul
Norte truck-bin-FFCC and LHD-
rock breaker-bin-FFCC
5 Esmeralda HA 83 78 65 150-180 Lhd and rock breaker-bin-
FFCC-bin-FFCC
6 Diablo HA 99 82 81 150 Lhd-Plate Feeder-crusher-
Regimiento belt conveyor-bin-FFCC
OPTIMAL MINE SIZE

To establish the optimal size in El Teniente mines, graphs to relate the open v/s the available area
were used (Figure 2). The analysis shows that there are four different area groups, they correspond
to: Group I, from 0-40,000 m2, Group II: from 40,000-50,000 m2, Group III: from 50,000 to 70,000 m2,
and Group IV: from 70,000-100,000 m2. The results show that as the open area increases, the
available area decreases, making it less attractive to have greater open area. If the available area is
correlated with the monthly production from different areas, from 1987-2008, the first thing that
147
stands out is that the average relationship is 1:2, this means that to obtain 20,000 tpd of production,
we would need an average of 40,000 m2 of available area. It can also be seen that as the relationship
increases there is more dispersion (from 20,000 tpd and up). The analysis alone is not sufficient to
establish the optimal size that a new area should have.
Figure 2 Production based of available area for El Teniente sectors
To better establish the optimal size of a new rea, the Decreasing Marginal Performance Law was
used, or Decreasing Marginal Production (DMT), to encompass the extraction curve against the
available area from where the production will be obtained. The relationship between production or
extracted material versus the available area in El Teniente was used.
The productivity for the different reas from DET according to the DMT was analyzed, all this for
real cases with monthly data up to the last 20 years in some cases.
Figure 3 Production Curve Marginal Production v/s Available Area
148
The level of production increases as the area increases up to the Efficient Available Area, from
this point on, the production rate decreases. From the open area relationship and the available area
with the efficiency productive curve, we have that for an open area less than 50,000 m2, we could
have a maximum of 40,000 m2 of available area, and at the same time this area would be associated
to a maximum feasible production of approximately 27,500 tpd (Figures 4 and 5).
Figure 4 Available Area v/s Open Area
Figure 4 shows that for an open area of 50,000 m2, there is a steady state at 40,000 m2 of available
area.
Figure 5 Productive Efficiency El Teniente Sectors
149
Figure 5 shows that the 40,000 m2 available area is related to a production of approximately 27,500
tpd, value that is near the maximum feasible production form El Teniente in this study.
WIDTH OF THE UNDERCUT FRONT

To define the width of the productive front, information from the extraction and incorporation of
area was collected and analyzed. The information was obtained for the following El Teniente mines:
Ten 4Sur, Esmeralda, Reservas Norte, Puente Fortuna Regimiento. The mining sequence (geometry
and undercutting front width) developed for each area though the years and the inestabilities
(mainly collapses), were studied using section views (Figure 6). The results show that:
The mining of the different productive areas in El Teniente has allowed the use of undercut fronts
of up to 400-660 m, these fronts has suffered inestabilities and collapses, mainly in the central part
of them. All this results in the definition of a HW zone and a FW zone, both of them mines
independently from one another (Figure 7).
The activity developed between these two areas, with front widths in the order of 180-250 m, for the
HW area and 140-240m for the FW area, has not generated extraction problems or any new
associated collapses.
Figure 6 Productive Areas Front Width El Teniente Mine
150
Figure 7 Dimension and Distances recommended for the macro-sequences
PANEL CAVING MINING OPTIONS USED IN THE WORLD

The El Teniente mine has used post-undercut and advanced undercut. There was also a transition
process when the pre undercut was established at Esmeralda, with collapses and productive losses
in the area. The post undercut was applied for the first time in 1982, on the Teniente 4 level, up to
the year 2007 in the area Teniente 4 Sur. Its application in other mines in the world has been applied
using different designs some optimized (Henderson), up to the change to other designs using
advanced undercut (Grasberg).
With the idea to define a panel caving method that assures continuity in the incorporation of rea
for the New Mine Level Project, technical visits to mines using caving techniques in Australia,
Indonesia, USA, and Canada, focusing in the mine design parameters, drilling, blasting, planning,
and construction, from the stability and damage point of view. The overall conclusions show that
using a crinkle-cut technique has been successful in all the mines visited, and it has a simple
operational sequence making it more robust in terms of the narrow undercut (john wayne pillars)
for an advanced undercut. It was also realized that there was lower damage in the production
levels visited, when compared to a conventional post-undercut, but on the other hand the advanced
undercut option with panel caving has not had a good performance in El Teniente.
An evaluation of the main aspects related to the undercut success was developed, to see which of
these designs shows the best risk score (Table 2).
151
Table 2 Undercut and drawbell development success main aspects for underground mines (1:
Verygood, 2: Good, 3: Regular, 4: Poor, 5: Very Poor)
The evaluation shows that the design for Ridgeway Deeps (Crinkle Cut) and the Conventional
Panel Caving, show a better technical development associated to the key variables to assure the cut
of the base and the drawbells development, but the results of these two methods is completely
different if the evaluation is centered around the undercut or production level.
As the mining goes deeper and deeper, in the mines using panel caving, the process will only be
more comples and the challenges will continue to be the same as today, they will concentrate in
finding solutions to similar problems, in the undercut level designs that assure the stability of the
level, and an optimal undercut (without remnant pillars), allowing a constant progression of the
cavity. The panel caving method must assure the availability of the area while minimizing the rock
bursts in the production level.
A future panel caving option should consider the key advantages seen in Table 2 for the production
and undercut level.
CONCLUSIONS
The evaluation shows that the design for Ridgeway Deeps (Crinkle Cut) and the Conventional
Panel Caving, show a better technical development associated to the key variables to assure the cut
of the base and the drawbells development, but the results of these two methods is completely
different if the evaluation is centered around the undercut or production level.
The behavior on the availability of different productive areas of El Teniente, shows that there is
more availability in areas using advanced panel caving (99%) than in areas using conventional
panel caving (70%).
The productive efficiency curve for El Teniente, shows that for an open area less than 50,000 m2,
there will be a maximum of 40,000 m2 of available area, that is associated to a maximum feasible
production of approximately 27,500 tpd.
152
The extraction fronts widths are in the order of 180-250 m on the west and 140-240 m on the east
have not generated any extraction problems or any new collapses.
As the mining goes deeper and deeper, in the mines using panel caving, the process will only be
more complex and the challenges will continue to be the same as today, they will concentrate in
finding solutions to similar problems, in the undercut level designs that assure the stability of the
level, and an optimal undercut (without remnant pillars), allowing a constant progression of the
cavity. The panel caving method must assure the availability of the area while minimizing the rock
bursts in the production level.
REFERENCES
Constanzo, H.E., Pierola M.A. (2009) Infrastructure Design Effects on the Pipa Norte Mine, Fragblast 2009.
Araneda, O., Sougarret A. (2008) Lessons learned in cave mining at the El Teniente mine over the period 1997-
2007, MassMin 2008.
Constanzo, H.E., Canales R. (2009) Back Analysis Available Correlation Area El Teniente Mine, Years 1987 &
2008, Internal Report, Codelco Chile, Division El Teniente
153
Design criteria and its impact on
production capacity in mines
operated by Panel Caving method
With the objective to understand the impact on productive capacity in mines Hugo Constanzo and Francisco
Rodrguez. Codelco, Chile
operated by Panel Caving method located in primary rock, three common
design criteria to any project are studied. First, the selection of the mining
method, second the operative front width, and finally the material handling.
The main question to answer is how and how much the selection of the
mining method, the width of the operational front and the material handling,
impacts the availability and utilization of an area of the mine placed in primary
rock.
It is important to mention the availability of open area, since it is useful
(but not enough) to estimate the maximum productive capacity of a project,
and the utilization of the available area, to visualize the efficiency in the re-
source usage from the operational areas. The use of overrated parameters has
its consequences, generating unachievable production goals that compromise
the success of the project and its investments.
As a part of the study, a back-analysis of six El Teniente mine areas was
conducted, three areas with Panel Caving and advanced undercutting, one
area with Panel Caving and advanced undercutting using high trenches, and
two final areas using Panel Caving with conventional undercutting.
***
155
INTRODUCTION
As part of the study of undercut variant NNM project, is performed the assessment of the Post
Undercut panel caving variant (HC) in Tte. 4 South mine (Figure 3 and 4), Pre Undercut panel
caving variant (HA) in Reservas Norte mine (Figure 5), Diablo Regimiento mine (Figure 8) and
Esmeralda mine (Figure 7), and finally Pre Undercut with high ditch panel caving variant (HAZA)
in Reservas Norte mine (Figure 6). The analysis is focused on the results of two important Key
Performance Indices (KPI) for mine planning, open area availability and the utilization of available
area.
Objective
To understand the impact in the selection of the mining variant, width of the operational front, and
material handling, related to the availability and utilization of an area of the mine placed in
primary rock.
METHODOLOGY
The study researches a development methodology based on historical analysis of the extraction at
different areas El Teniente, the stages used are:
Stage 1: Definition and statistical analysis

Defined periods of time and specific polygons to analyze in each mine. Each sector is characterized
by mining method variant, front width and type of material handling. At this stage an analysis of
the following KPIs availability of open area and utilization of the available area.
Stage 2: Comparison matrix

This matrix is constructed from the analysis of the results of the availability and utilization by
sector, focusing on the undercut variant, front width and material handling characteristics.
Stage 1: Definition and statistical analysis

The following figures represent the most relevant differences between post undercut panel caving
and pre undercut panel caving mining methods.
156
Figure 1 Post undercut panel caving variant, 1) undercut front, 2) production front, 3) incorporation area front
4) fully developed and 5) partially developed
Figure 2 Pre undercut panel caving variant, 1) undercut front, 2) production front, 3) incorporation area front
4) fully developed and 5) partially developed
Period of statistical analysis
Table 1 Periods
Sector Mine Variant Start year End year
1 Tte. 4 Sur HC 1996 2006

2 Tte. 4 Sur HC 2003 2006
3 Reservas Norte HA 2008 2012
4 Reservas Norte HAZA 2008 2012
5 Esmeralda (*) HA 2004 2012
6 Diablo Regimiento HA 2007 2012
(*) Esmeralda Hw (west) sector (period 2004-2012)
157
Area definition
Figure 3 Sector 1, 70.000 m2 Figure 4 Sector 2, 22.000 m2
Calle 15 Calle 09
Calle 20
Calle 15
Area
34.000 m2
Area
32.000 m2
Calle 47
Calle 33
Area
50.000 m2
Calle 21
XC SLOT
Area
55.000 m2
158
Design characterization
Table 2 Characterization
Sector Mine Variant Front Elevation Elevation Distance Material handling

width NH NP NH and
(m) NP (m)
1 Tte. 4 Sur HC 690 2372 2354 18 Lhd-rock breaker-bin-
FFCC
2 Tte. 4 Sur HC 240 2372 2354 18 Lhd and rock breaker-
bin-FFCC
3 Reservas HA 180 2120 2102 18 Lhd-Plate feeder-haul
Norte truck-bin-FFCC
4 Reservas HAZA 180 2102 2102 18 Lhd-Plate Feeder-haul
Norte truck-bin-FFCC y Lhd-
rock breaker-bin-FFCC
5 Esmeralda HA 150-180 2211 2193 18 Lhd and rock breaker-
(*) bin-FFCC-bin-FFCC
6 Diablo HA 150 2210 2190 20 Lhd-Plate Feeder-
Regimiento crusher-belt conveyor-
bin-FFCC
Stage 2: Comparison matrix
Table 3 Results
Sector Mine Variant D U DxU Front width Material handling

(%) (%) (m)
1 Tte. 4 Sur HC 70 53 37 690 Lhd-rock breaker-bin-FFCC
2 Tte. 4 Sur HC 82 54 44 240 Lhd and rock breaker-bin-

FFCC
3 Reservas HA 96 76 73 180 Lhd-Plate feeder-haul truck-
Norte bin-FFCC
4 Reservas HAZA 96 73 70 180 Lhd-Plate Feeder-haul truck-
Norte bin-FFCC and LHD-rock
breaker-bin-FFCC
5 Esmeralda HA 83 78 65 150-180 Lhd and rock breaker-bin-
(*) FFCC-bin-FFCC
6 Diablo HA 99 82 81 150 Lhd-Plate Feeder-crusher-belt
Regimiento conveyor-bin-FFCC
159
Figure 9 Availability and utilization for the different areas studied
CONCLUSION
The type of Panel Caving variant used, determines the availability of the open average area for the
sector, according to their width front.
The greater availability of open area is obtained with a Pre undercut panel caving variant using a
narrow operational front.
The lower availability of open area is obtained with the Post undercut panel caving variant using a
wide operational front.
The utilization of available area depends on the design of the mining variant, mainly on the
material handling system designed to allow continuity of LHD equipment, and the compliance of
the defined extraction strategy.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My sincere thanks to the professionals of the Superintendence of Production Management for their
feedback, also to all the professionals operating the Reservas Norte, Diablo Regmiento, and TTE 4-
SUR mines for their valuable comments and insights on the subject.
NOMENCLATURE
HC Post undercut
HA Pre undercut
HAZA Pre undercut with high ditch
SGP Superintendent of production management
FFCC Railroad
NH Undercut level
NP Production level
160
KPI Key Performance Indicators
D Open area availability
U Open area availability utilization
REFERENCES
Castro, J.M. (2007) Xprod herramienta para la simulacin de planes de produccin mina, Superintendencia de
Planificacin, pp. 1017.
RCR Ingeniera de minas (2012) Evaluacin de reservas extrables para el proyecto de explotacin Dacita, pp.
1020.
Rojas E., Molina R., Bonani A., Constanzo H. (2000) The Pre-Undercut Method at the El Teniente Mine,
Codelco Chile, MassMin 2000.
Barraza M., Crorkan P. (2000) Esmeralda Mine Explotation Project, MassMine 2000.
Araneda O., Sougarret A. (2008) Lessons learned in cave mining at the El Teniente mine over the period 1997-
2007, MassMin 2008.
Superintendencia de Gestin Produccin (SGP) (2009) Manual de Tiraje, Mina El Teniente, Codelco Chile,
Divisin El Teniente.
SGP (2007) Principales indicadores de gestin produccin ao 2006, Codelco Chile, Divisin El Teniente.
SGP (2012) Base de datos control produccin mina (CPM), Codelco Chile, Divisin El Teniente.
161
Technical back-analysis Crinkle
Cut method El Teniente mine
In order to guarantee the area incorporation plans in the mid-long term of El Hugo Constanzo, Sixto Lpez and
Antonio Madrid. Codelco, Chile
Teniente, during the year 2008, it was decided to try and study a new alternative
undercutting technique. In order to do this an industrial undercut test using
Crinkle Cut in the Ten4-Sur mine was developed. The Crinkle Cut method is
an undercut variant that has been applied with success in other mining op-
erations worldwide. Palabora, DOZ, North Parkes and Ridgeway Deeps, among
others, use pre-undercut as the undercutting method with a herringbone
extraction layout, which in the El Teniente case used a Teniente layout with
15 17m, pre-undercut to the limit, pre-charged holes and emulsion as the
main explosive.
The study identified relevant aspects, which could support the area incor-
poration plans in the mid-term and also could serve as a guide for the long
term projects. The aspects mentioned are related to the undercut and produc-
tion level stability, mine design improvement, state of the infrastructure from
the production level, and also assuring the propagation and cave growth, that
in the test allowed a continuous growth in the incorporated area, better utili-
zation and availability and D U of the area, thus achieving the preparation
and extraction plans of the defined area, facts that can be used in defining a
planning criteria for the Crinkle Cut method.
***
163
INTRODUCTION
During the year 2008 in El Teniente, it was decided to try and study a new variant of undercutting
in order to guarantee the incorporation area plan in the mid-long term. Thus, an industrial
undercut test was designed in the 4Sur area (May to September 2010) using a Crinkle Cut in the
undercut level (Figure 1).
Then, from August 2013, began the development of a study to examine the mining variants used in
El Teniente, a study that considers the execution of different stages, that addresses the issues such
as back analysis of the Panel Caving method for different mining variants, Crinkle Cut made in
South Extension 4Sur sector, Advanced Undercut in the sector Diablo Regimiento and Reservas
Norte and Conventional Panel Caving in the Esmeralda sector (Block 1), and it considers
conducting a benchmarking study (State of the Art) of other underground operations.
As part of this stage of the study to develop, the analyses developed to back analysis the Crinkle
Cut variant used in the south extension 4Sur area, addressing issues such as: rock mass condition in
the pillars, support and damage state of the infrastructure and extraction back-analysis conducted
in the area.
Figure 1 Representative section of the Crinkle-Cut method from 4-South Extension
ROCK MASS CONDITION & INFRASTRUCTURE DAMAGE
Rock Mass Condition

The analysis of the condition of the rock mass at the undercut level of the Crinkle Cut area from
4Sur sector, considered three aspects, rock mass damage, undercut drill holes, and exploration
drilling with core recovery in the pillars. The results showed, among other things, the following: the
evaluation of the rock mass showed a good condition on the overall damage, during the process of
164
incorporation of area, the condition in drill holes showed a clear difference in the level of damage
subhorizontal shots (65%) with respect to subvertical (35%), this difference is related to the
redistribution of stresses in the abutment stress zone due to increased vertical stress effect on the
subhorizontal drill holes, redistribution stress in the geometry of pillar with inclined undercut,
generated a lower level of damage on flat undercut, a situation that was clearly observed in the drill
holes where the plane corresponding to the pillar has a high degree of damage. Accordingly, it is
likely to consider this type of geometry (flat shot) for design in the undercut level, in areas where
the stage of pre-mining streess exceeds measured 4Sur sector (S1: 32 Mpa), increase the degree of
loss and damage to the drilled shot.
Figure 2 Plan view of the production level Crinkle-Cut method & Damage Zone from 4 South Extension
Regarding the assessment of the condition of the rock mass, the largest areas with strong damage in
the rock mass at the undercut level were mainly recorded in C17L, which has direct relation with
the "step" consists of the front cave between C17L and C15Fw (crinkle cut undercutting and
conventional undercutting) and the presence of structures in the area (figure 2).
There was no strong or support damage observed in the area corresponding to the production level
of the south extension. The undercut area with crinkle cut, showed a 100% fortification in good
condition from the 84% of the zone with a conventional panel caving (Figure 2). In this context, it
can be mentioned that according to historical assessments Hw areas, Central and South Fw for
conventional area, they had values of 0, 8 and 5% respectively of support in good condition. This
situation marks a clear difference in the state of South Extension support (Crinkle Cut and
Conventional areas), with conventional panel caving from 4Sur sector.
The analysis of drill holes at the undercut level shows that (figure 3), there is a higher percentage of
shots with heavy damage or moderate in the "John Wayne" drill holes (flat shots), in inclined
165
drilling (65% vs 35% respectively). This difference is related to the redistribution of stresses in the
abutment stress due to increased vertical stress effect on the shots subhorizontal drill holes or John
Wayne (flat shots).
Figure 3 Plan & section view of the drillholes at the undercut level Ten 4 South Extension
The results for the drill holes located in the crinkle cut show a greater degree of damage to the flat
drill holes (GSI 42-60) and minor damage and intermediate in the inclined shots (GSI 50-70). On the
other hand, the pillar located in the conventional, has a low level of damage (GSI 65-80).
For the pillars of the undercut level defined form the crinkle cut type (same effective width), there is
a difference of approx. 30-35% higher GSI values, recorded in the inclined abutment plane. This can
be directly related to the geometry defined by each of them, where the stress distribution in plane
geometry has a high degree of damage.
The best state of the condition of the rock mass and support, both in the production level and the
undercut level, defines a clear improvement in the state of the productive infrastructure of the
South Extension area with respect to the damage observed historical conventional 4Sur area.
Infrastructure Damage
Considering the evaluation to the draw points for the Crinkle Cut and Conventional areas from
South Extension, one can see that in general there is a low level of damage points located in the area
of Crinkle Cut, with respect to points located in the conventional sector, indeed for similar tonnages
the evidence shows the loss of up to 2 still arches in this latest variant, a situation not observed in
the Crinkle Cut.
When comparing the results of the evaluation of damage of draw points located on the Crinkle Cut
zone, for presenting historical damage points within conventional 4Sur sector (figure 4), we see a
166
higher damage points on the last one, for a tonnage mined between 25-45 Kton, which epitomizes
both improved the state of damage of the draw points, as a possible improvement in the availability
of productive area.
Figure 4 Draw Point Damage Behaviour from 4-South & Crinkle Cut Area
Regarding the state of the damages in the and support at the production level, there state of the
support and drawpoints in the Crinkle Cut and generally throughout the South Extension area was
good, a situation that shows a clear difference when compared to the historical damage in
fortification and draw 4Sur Conventional area.
Thus, the lower damage level recorded and evidenced in the infrastructure and support for the area
corresponding to the south extension, is likely to be directly related to the width of the cave front,
shorter on the South Extension than on the 4Sur area (190m v / s 700m).
EXTRACTION ORE BACK ANALYSIS

Extraction analysis conducted in the South Extension, revealed for both conventional and Crinkle
Cut area, the availability and utilization of the productive area of this zone, and compare it with the
conventional area indicators of the 4Sur area (figure 5). The analysis of the indicators of production
occurring in the South Extension and Crinkle Cut zone (Availability, Utilization and AxU) AxU
showed higher values than those of the conventional zone 4Sur sector, so to compare these
indicators with the area the Conventional 4Sur values obtained were up to 20% higher for the
variant Crinkle Cut. This situation is related to better state observed in draw points and the minor
damage to the fortification demonstrated in the streets or galleries of the South Extension area and
the Crinkle Cut, a situation that impacts positively on the availability and utilization indicators of
productive area and helps to sustain the production plans of mid-long term.
167
Figure 5 Plan view of the production level Ten 4 South, Nudo Isla Zone & South Extension
Two sectors with conventional panel caving can achieve different availabilities, Ten 4 South 70%
and Nudo Isla area 82%. The main difference may be associated with a lower front cave width (690
v/s 240 m respectively).
In the case of the South Extension area with conventional panel caving variant, the availability of
area is 89%, the same value as the Crinkle Cut test area with advanced undercut. The main
difference with the previous point may be associated with a lower front width (240 v / s 190 m),
which according to the geomechanical analysis, may generate less damage to infrastructure.
According to the analysis, the type of Panel Caving variant determines expected availability of the
area in terms of its width front cave (Table 1 and Figure 6).
Table 1 Summary of Availability, Utilization and D x U by analysed area
Zone Availability (%) Utilization (%) Ax U Width Cave Front (m)

Crinkle Cut 89 68 60 180
Conventional P. Caving South Extension 89 63 56 180
Conventional P. Caving Ten 4 South Nudo Isla Area 82 54 44 240
Conventional P. Caving Ten 4 South 70 53 37 690
168
Figure 6 Comparison of availability, uses and D x U by analysed area
CONCLUSIONS
The best state of the condition of the rock mass and support, both in the production level at the
undercut level, defined a clear improvement in the state of the South Extension area to the damage
observed historical 4Sur conventional sector.
Regarding the state of damage of the productive infrastructure of the production level, there was a
good extraction points and support in the Crinkle Cut and generally throughout the South
Extension area, showing a situation clear difference when compared to the damage at the
drawpoints and support at the Conventional 4Sur area. Thus, the lower level of damage recorded in
productive infrastructure is related to lower operating width Front in South Extension on 4Sur area
(190m v / s 700m).
The analysis of the indicators of production occurring in the South Extension and Crinkle Cut zone
(Availability, Utilization and AxU) showed higher values than those of the conventional zone 4Sur
area, the situation is related to better state observed at the drawpoints and less damage to the
support evidenced in the galleries of the South Extension area Crinkle Cut, a situation that impacts
positively on the availability and use indicators of productive area and helps to sustain the
production plans of mid-long term.
REFERENCES
Madrid, A. (2012) Back Analysis Rock Mass Condition & Infrastructure Crinkle Cut Test, South Extension 4
Sur Sector, SIN-I-007/2012, Internal Report, Codelco Chile, Division El Teniente.
Rodriguez, F.J. (2012) Technical Back Analysis Crinkle Cut Test Mine Planning, SIN-I-008/2012, Internal
Report, Codelco Chile, Division El Teniente.
169
Operational definition of the
three undercutting fronts for the
New Level Mine Project
The mining of different productive areas at the El Teniente mine, has been Antonio Madrid and Hugo
Constanzo. Codelco, Chile
done with undercutting fronts in the range of 400-660m, which have suffered
collapses mainly in the central and surrounding areas (east and west) , close
to the collapsed location the caving has progressed in independent form. The
collapse in these widely productive mining fronts translates to a greater de-
crease in the availability of extraction areas.
The mineral extraction in productive areas with advancing fronts in the
order of 180-250m has not generated any extraction problems or new collapses.
The recovery of reserves associated to the collapses in the central area of
places with wide productive fronts, has been done from lower levels without
any associated collapses.
The New Mine Level Project of El Teniente Division, uses productive areas
with high availability levels as a design criteria, to achieve this, the project
implements a mining macro-sequence with three fronts, which allows three
independent fronts of 210m and a central pillar in a lower level. With this
design and mining planning, the idea is to assure better availability and
independent fronts that allow more flexibility in the mining process.
***
171
INTRODUCTION
The mining process in El Teniente, has developed different productive areas, each of them with its
own rock characteristics dependent of the level where they are located (stress, lithology,
topography, reserves, etc.).
The following work describes the mine sequencing developed in Ten4Sur, Esmeralda, and Reservas
Norte, showing the geometries, and undercut fronts during the developing stages. Also
relationships of available area, open area and production are used to establish referential
parameters to define and plan the mining macro-sequence considered in the New Mine Level
Project.
STUDY
The definition of the design parameters for the macro-sequencing considered in the mining of the
New Mine Level, are estimated in a preliminary matter from the results of the different studies.
Analysis of Mining Geometries used in Productive Areas
Undercut Front width analysis
Geometric Analysis of Productive Areas on the Mine

The design and width of the undercut front is related with a series of criteria and parameters that
impact on the behaviour of a productive area when the different mining activities are developed,
directly influencing the rock mass general conditions (stability, productivity, seismic response, etc.)
Ten 4Sur
The mining sequence used in Ten 4Sur, mainly related to the width of the undercut front, can be
summarized as:
172
Figure 1 Mining Sequencing Ten 4 Sur Mine area D-FW, showing distances obtained from the undercut front,
showing the collapsed area in the central zone
From the sequencing of the undercut fronts, it can be realized that:

Before incorporating the area D-FW (1990), the area located to the HW (west) if C23L
considered a maximum front width of 450 m, with a collapse between the drift C5L to C13L
(120 m).
Then when the area D-FW is incorporated, the undercut front is increased to 500 m, in the year
1991 and to 660 m in the year 1993, the maximum width for this area.
From 1993 the area for the D-FW uses an undercut front of 660 m, meanwhile in the south area;
the front was slightly convex with widths that vary from 400 m up to 660m in the year 1999. It
must be noted that with the collapse on the central zone, and the defined undercut front widths,
two areas were generated of approximately 330 m each.
The area that was mined using undercut fronts of 660 m has the greater distances to the cavity
area in the FW side, where the topography increases and has elevation values of up to 3100
masl (meters above sea level).
From the areas and sequencing of collapses that happened in this area, smaller zones have been
developed (panels) that are used to recover a collapsed zone from a lower level. The mine 4Sur has
developed the Panel I (1991), Panel III (2007), and Panel IV (2008). The following figure shows the
sequencing developed in these areas:
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Figure 2 Mine sequencing of collapsed areas in mine 4 Sur, recovered by Panel (Panel I, III, IV)
From the images shown in Figure 2, we can check:

The start of the mining for the referenced area with Panel I, begun when the undercut front was
at a distance of 90-100m (decoupled). The decoupled for Panel III was of around 320 m and
almost Zero for Panel IV, from the front geometry of the area of C3L-C11L.
The collapse localized in the areas for Panel III, IV and Ten 4 Sur mine, generated a central pillar
of 90m y 130m respectively, with low extraction height. Defining areas of HW and FW
extraction with respect to the pillars. The dimensions for the undercut front correspond to
220m, 240m for Panel III and 180m-240m for Panel IV.
During the mining of the Panel I (5 years) there is no collection of big issues or problems
associated to the extraction and recovery activities of the collapsed area. To date there has not
been any problems with mining Panel III or Panel IV, both of them producing consistently for
the mine Ten 4 Sur.
Esmeralda Mine
The mine sequence used in Mine Esmeralda, the area incorporated and the undercut front is shown
in the following figures.
174
Figure 3 Mining sequencing of Esmeralda Mine, showing the distances of undercut area, collapsed zones and
extraction heights from Esmeralda and Ten 4 Sur
From the sequencing of Esmeralda mine it can be seen that:

Esmeralda starts to being developed in 1997, under the shadow of Ten 4 Sur (mainly in the
north area); Esmeralda was able to sustain undercut fronts of 420m (year 2000) without any
type of collapses.
In the year 2003, the first collapses happened in the production level, mainly between C17-C21
(70m) which also had low extraction. The width of the undercut front in this year was of almost
480 m.
Right now the area collapsed from Esmeralda covers the zone located between C17-C25 (140m)
and the undercut front is of approximately 560 m.
The collapsed area in the production level is consistent with collapses that happened in the
production level in the Ten 4 Sur mine (distance between levels of 160 m).
The collapses in the central area of Esmeralda mine, define a central pillar of low extraction
height of approximately 140 m. This defines two areas of mining closer to the pillar (HW, FW),
where each one of these areas considers an undercut front width of around 210 m.
175
As mine Ten 4 Sur, the recovery of the collapsed area for Esmeralda is being done using Panel 1,
up to this date the panel has recovers 5,800 m2 with a production of 800tpd, without any major
damage or instability in the area.
Reservas Norte Mine

The mining sequencing, area incorporation and undercut fronts for Reservas Norte mine is shown
in the following figures:
Figure 4 Mining sequencing of Reservas Norte mine
The previous images show that for the Reservas Norte mine:
The beginning of the mining in Reservas Norte (1990), concentrated mainly up to C8 (2000),
achieving an undercut front width of around 305 m. During this time, the extraction was
concentrated mainly between C4-C8 with extraction heights greater than the Ten 4 level (2345)
and without any collapses or instabilities in the area.
176
In the year 2001, the extraction starts in C9, with a collapse in the level in the connection 21.
During the same year there is a collapse of C7 in the connection 29.
After the year 2001, and due to the collapse in C9, the area HW is immediately incorporated,
leaving as a pillar the collapsed zone. The developed sequence up to this date allows for the
definition of an undercut front of around 405m, which in the year 2009 increases to a width of
450 m. The used dimension generated an extraction area to the HW of C9 of approximately 250
m, and other area to the Fw of C7 of around 140 m, considering a central pillar (C7-C9) of 60m.
Undercut Fronts
Given the various undercut widths developed in the different areas of the mine, its of importance to
define a certain relationship between the undercut front and the associated damages from the
mining of these areas.
The productive areas of Reservas Norte, TTE 4 Sur, and Diablo Regimiento were analyzed, with
undercut fronts accordingly to the time period shown in Table 1. For the areas mentioned, a
damage index was estimated, defined by the total damage divided by an evaluation perimeter.
The results in Figure 5 show that there is a direct geometry effect between the undercut front and
the damaged area.
Table 1 General Characteristics of the areas
177
The incorporation rate was also studied for the different areas, to do this the relationship between
the incorporated squared meters and the perimeter of the undercut front (Figure 6), showing that
wide undercut fronts incorporate less squared meters on a yearly basis, this is related to a slow
movement of the undercut front, defining a slow moving front, that impacts in the damage and
deterioration of the surrounded infrastructure and rock mass.
Considering the previous statements, and the collapses in the central areas of the undercut fronts (>
400 m), the operational practices and the developed designs in the recovery of reserves using the
panel solution, widths of no more than 220 m are thought to be used in macro-sequences of
mining.
178
Figure 4 Representative scheme of the recommended dimensions and macro-sequences for the mining of the
NMLP
CONCLUSIONS
The mining activity developed in the Esmeralda and Reservas Norte mine was able to use undercut
fronts of up to 420 m and 305 m respectively before suffering the first collapses.
The mining of the different areas in El Teniente has allowed the use of undercutting fronts in the
range of 400-660 m, which have suffered some instabilities related to collapses mainly in the central
area of them. This has translated in the definition of annex areas (Hw and Fw) that start to develop
independent areas between them, with undercut fronts in the order of 180-250m to the Hw area and
140-240 m for the Fw area. These independent areas have not shown extraction problems or
collapses and have solved the semi static undercut fronts, providing greater productive and
incorporation indices.
The efficiency productive curve for El Teniente shows that for an open area of 50,000 m2 or less,
there should be a maximum of 40,000 m2 of available area which would be associated to a
maximum feasible productive area of 27,500 tpd.
Based on the lessons learned and the geotechnical conditions present in the New Mine Level area, a
design criteria requires productive areas with high availability levels, that allows the use of
decoupled undercut fronts of around 210 m, with a central pillar in a lower level. With this design
and mine planning, it is hoped to assure the availability of the project and independent fronts that
allow obtaining the required production and a more flexible mining.
REFERENCES
Madrid, A. (2009) Geometries Undercut Fronts and Collapsed Zone Production Sectors Teniente Mine,
Internal Report, Codelco Chile, New Level Mine Project.
Valdivia, R. (2010) Geotechnical Guidelines for the Definition of Macrosequence, Internal Report, Codelco
Chile, New Level Mine Project.
179
Optimized design of
models in mining
If there is need in analyzing a mining problem with any mining application Eduardo Crdova
and Hugo Constanzo. Codelco, Chile
package, such as geological models, structural interpretations, mine design,
finite elements, planning scenarios, or others; most of the time individual
models are developed on a case by case basis. The common incompatibility
between generated models translates to extra time spent, when new geometries
must be generated for each requirement, loosing efficiency in the process.
The importance of planning & designing an optimized model from its
conception is advantageous because the model is developed and thought out
from the beginning to be interchangeable between software used in the anal-
ysis, making the model transfers easier among the different applications
(AutoCAD, Vulcan, 3D Studio Max, Mine2-4D, Abaqus, etc.), while minimizing
the information re-interpretation time. The process of learning and under-
standing the adaptability of the different applications must consider an initial
trial period to verify the interactions between them. The future of modeling
is in being able to develop an interactive unified model that can easily be
adapted and transferred, maintaining an acceptable resolution for the differ-
ent types of analyzes required.
***
181
INTRODUCTION
A model can be though as a representation of reality, that could vary from a very simple and basic
model to a detailed and complex one. As the required detail increases and more characteristics from
reality are needed as part of the model, the complexity and time required to develop it also
increases substantially.
The knowledge of the different software packages to be used in the analyses and the way the model
is conceptualized from the beginning can play an important role in the final efficiency of the
modeling process.
Since the same model might be used with different software packages that sometimes do not work
seamlessly with each other, it is important to spend time figuring out what is the best way to
develop a model and what is also the best technique to transfer the work from one application to
the other.
A robust model is built from the beginning by understanding the pros and cons of a model, the way
the information is transferred between applications, the changes required to make an available
model work when is sent to a different application, while optimizing the modelling process by
avoiding the duplication of work.
A unified model should have an inherent combination of complexity and simplicity where the
result comes from transforming something detailed into something simple that captures the most
important aspects from reality while simplifying the parts that might not be needed in the analyses.
CONSTRUCTION METHODOLOGY
Models usually start in paper and are first represented in two dimensional views (2-D) that are built
to develop a simple representation on of the main aspects of the final design.
Figure 1 Representative section of the Crinkle-Cut and Conventional method from 4-South Extension
182
Figure 2 North-South Section of Crinkle-Cut method and the connection to an existing cave
Figure 3 Plan view of the production level
The first task to build the model is to take what is in 2-D and use it to build a 3-D representation of
it. The basic model can consist of the main general areas to model in detail just to provide a
feeling of how everything should look in 3-D in the end. To build the first model different software
packages can be used, from the most common commercial package such as AutoCAD (with
increased 3-D modelling tools in its latest versions), to more advanced and specialized mining
packages such as Datamine, Gemcom, Minesight, or Vulcan.
A plan view of the different areas to model (production and undercut level) is useful to define the
main extents from the model, and to visualize the information that sections in 2-D cant capture
such as spacing between the developments, and shape of the undercut and production level.
183
THREE DIMENSIONAL MODEL PLANNING
Before starting to develop the 2-D information into a 3-D model, it must be decided the end result
that is required for the model. Depending on the final result needed, the conceptualization of the
model will change.
A robust model will try to combine and plan for different options and future requirements, taking
into account that if time permits it, it is much easier to rebuild a simpler model from a more
detailed one than the other way around.
Building a general model of the area as a visual model is a good practise that will provide valuable
information on where to focus when building a model with more details.
Visual Models (VM)

Visual models can be thought of as a model that is built to place it on 3-D where everything can be
visualized to give an impression of how it looks in reality. These models are usually focalized in the
external detail of the geometries and based in achieving an optimal external look. The focus on the
external looks sometimes means that not enough care is taken to obtain consistent geometries and
solids that can be easily transferred without errors.
Figure 4 Isometric view of an Autocad model of the Crinkle Cut area
Time Dependant Models (TDM)

These models might be a variant of the visual models and are different in the sense that geometries
and solids are cut or sectioned at certain time intervals. As an example in a model at a monthly
184
resolution, one development as a drift could consist of different pieces that represent the monthly
advance. This modelling approach is usually used to check if considerations of the mining method
used are being correctly followed, to see if shown delays are related to other activities, and to
understand a project evolves over time. In a TDM all the activities are separated and then each
activity is sectioned on a monthly basis, allowing the analysis of individual activities or a group of
them under a certain time frame.
Figure 5 Time dependant model of the area at monthly resolution
Design Models (DM)

These models are based in achieving a reasonable overall geometry that will represent the main
aspects of the area under study. The end use of these models are engineering and modelling
applications like Boundary Element (BEM) or Finite Element (FEM), where the quality of the
geometries and volumes play an important role in the expected result. The creation of these models
should take into account the following aspects:
Type of geometries and its complexity: Should laser scanned topography be used to analyse
developments that lie 400m below into the ground or most.
Solids definition: Solids should comply with certain standards to ensure the best
compatibility between applications. Solids should at least be closed (having all its triangles
connected creating a closed shell), consistent (making sure there are no overlapping triangles or
one edge connected to more than two triangles), and without crossing triangles.
Contacts: For most engineering applications the contact between different solids must be
consistent to avoid having one solid overlapping in the space with another body. Special care
185
must be taken when doing boolean operations within two geometries to make sure that the
original geometries and the boolean result complies with the basic solid geometry quality.
Intersections: Creating clean intersections it is very important to make sure volumes are not
counted twice in space and to make sure errors are not present when building elements inside
the sold geometry.
Existing Cave
Undercut Level
Extracted Material
Drawbells
Production Level
Figure 6 Crinkle-Cut geometries to be used in a FEM model
UNIFYING THE MODELS

For the El Teniente 4-South Extension, the unified model was built with a mining package. The
main reason for using a specialized mining package was that all the general information specially
geological and structural was being already developed with it, so it was only natural to use the
underground developing tools already available in the application.
A few solid geometries were imported from other CAD applications, but they were only used as a
base for building a final geometry within the mining tool. The main reason to rebuild the
geometries was to make sure that the new volumes would fully comply with the mining package
definitions for consistent geometries (closed, not crossing, edge compliance).
The main concern at this stage is to make sure to not go into great details if these details are going
to be actually lost in the end.
A good way to see if the modelling will be effective is to compare the original model resolution to
the required resolution in the future analyses, as an example a model can have the greatest detail in
the intersections and the development sections could be perfectly shaped to correspond as much as
possible with reality, but if in the end in the FEM model the smallest element will be of one or two
186
meters (because the analysis is not centred in the developments), all this detail will be lost and
similar results could be achieved with simpler shapes (Figure 8).
Figure 7 Detail of intersections (blue and green) and a simplified model from pillars
RESULTS
The first model generated was focused on explaining operational challenges encountered in the
area by the LHD operator and the removal of material from the flat and inclined undercut in the
area where the Crinkle-Cut method was tested (Figure 8).
Figure 8 Side view showing the LHD position with respect to the flat (red) and inclined (yellow) undercut
A line of drawbells in the west area was isolated to show the use a drawbell with the Henderson
layout, to assure the connection to the existing cave from the TTE4-South area (Figure 9).
187
Figure 9 NS Section showing the different drawbells used in the west area of the model
The different types of crown pillars (CP) associated to the Conventional and Crinkle-Cut undercut
were modelled in 3-D to establish the approximate volume of CP left by each variant.
Figure 10 Different drawbells and crown pillars used in the model
188
The model was also used to show the position of the undercut with respect to the drawbell
incorporation at certain times (Figure 11).
Frente
Socavacin
Batea
Crinkle-Cut
10 m
10 m
Frente
Socavacin
Figure 11 Position of the undercut front v/s drawbell incorporation at a certain time
CONCLUSIONS
Planning a robust model allows the use of the same base model to generate the needed geometries
for the different analyses required (general visualization, time dependant, numerical modelling,
back-analysis).
Models must be centralized and developed having in mind the required resolution for the different
sub-models that might be generated from the base model. A robust model will capture the essential
details in the geometries while optimizing them for ease of translation form one analysis package to
the other, without losing the essential characteristics in them.
The generation of a base model using one design package will serve to minimize the uncertainty
generated when developing models from different sources, and optimize the time required to
create sub models used in different analyses.
REFERENCES
Crdova, E.A. (2012) 3-D Modelling of the Crinkle-Cut test in TTE4 South Extension Area, SIN-I-
005/2012, Internal Report, Codelco Chile, Division El Teniente.
189
Cadia East: A case study in
applied innovative design
As the metaliferous mining industry continues to mine deeper and lower Lino Manca and Geoff Dunstan.
Newcrest Mining Limited, Australia
grade deposits large scale bulk mining methods such as Block Caving (BC)
and Panel Caving (PC) are becoming increasingly popular. The evolution of
Newcrest Mining Limiteds (Newcrest) modern caving capabilities is provided
in the paper by Manca & Flores 2013. This paper will use Newcrests Cadia East
mine in NSW Australia as a case study in how Panel Caving can be implemented
at a depth of over 1,000m. The innovative design and implementation strategies
use experience gathered from Newcrests Sub Level Cave (SLC) and BC mines
and international technical visits.
Cadia East is being implemented using a number of processes combined
to engineer the cave to achieve the key objectives of cavability and fragmen-
tation. These processes include intensive pre-conditioning and cave propa-
gation management.
To overcome the impacts of stresses at over 1,000m, Cadia East has max-
imised the amount of rock pillar in the layout by using a large spacing between
extraction drives (32m), drawbells (20m) and between the undercut and ex-
traction level (26m). A new blasting sequence through the drawbells and
undercut minimises operator exposure and maintains a pillar around the
undercut drives. In addition to this the mine is utilising unique establishment
approaches on the extraction level to maximise the pillar size on the extraction
level and combat the abutment loads as the undercut passes over it.
Productivity from the extraction level has been maximised during the
pre-production and steady state phases through the design and implementa-
tion of innovative materials handling system innovations.
***
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INTRODUCTION
The Cadia East mine which is using the panel caving (PC) method near Orange in New South
Wales is the latest in the evolution of modern caving operations within Newcrest Mining Limited
(Newcrest). This project is based on the last 12 years of applied experience in the design,
implementation and operation of caving mines across its portfolio of Australian operations. As
further experience has been gained with mining method variants and differences in the challenges
faced in the extraction of these mineral resources, the learnings from each step change has been
applied to the design and implementation of the next. The evolution in caving technology and
application within Newcrest is discussed in greater detail in Manca & Flores 2013.
Due to the size, depth, rock mass quality and heterogeneous nature of the ore deposit, a number of
new approaches have been adopted for the design of Cadia East (after Manca & Flores 2013).
Building on these approaches and taking the learnings from the practical application of these
designs and reaction to strategic changes has led to the development of further innovative
approaches and optimisations to ensure the success of the project. The key innovations discussed in
this paper are:
Materials handling
Production development sequence
Integrated drawbells and undercutting
Cave management
Cave education
A long section through Cadia East is provided in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Cadia East long section
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MATERIALS HANDLING
Within the context of this paper, the materials handling system refers to the transport of broken
rock from the drawpoint to the initial discharge destination on the surface (either a rehandle
stockpile or mill stockpile).
At Cadia East, two key innovations have been applied during the implementation phase to
optimise both medium term cave set-up material movements and the longer term steady state
production requirements:
Pre-production crushing and conveying
Integrated extraction level LHD layout
Pre-production Crushing and Conveying

A conveying system was selected as the materials handling solution for Cadia East. Due to the
depth of the extraction level at PC1 (1200m), approximately 13.8 equivalent kilometres of
development was required to establish the permanent crushing and conveying system to the base
of PC1. The geometry of the conveyor layout required excavation in very poor ground conditions
and in locations well away from the mining block centroid and therefore the mining of this total
system took over 4 years to complete.
Cave startup for PC1 was planned for July 2011 with a development rate of 1500 metres/month, a
drawbell opening rate of 12 drawbells/month and an undercutting rate of 6000m2/month. A fleet of
18 trucks was being used to deal with the development material and could not meet the additional
movements required for the cave start-up.
At the time that the cave start-up was planned to commence, the permanent conveying system had
been partially constructed. A new design was implemented to install interim connections to extend
the system to PC1 while the permanent system was completed. The key elements of this system
were a) a vertical conveyor installed in a 60 metre inclined shaft near conveyor transfer station 2;
and b) 2 x mobile surface jaw crushers located at PC1 extraction level discharging onto a coal mine
conveying system which then discharges onto the permanent system at Conveyor Drive (CVD) 4.
The pre-production configuration is illustrated in Figure 2.
Transfer Station 2 Vertical Conveyor

In order to provide a connection between CVD2 and CVD3 prior to the construction of the
permanent transfer station, a solution was proposed through the installation of an inclined
conveyor in a 60 metre long shaft excavated at an angle of 60 degrees.
The conveyor system proposed for the connection was based on systems utilised in food processing
and grain storage industries and was strengthened and modified for application to the Cadia East
requirement. The conveyor system had an initial rated capacity of 500tph which was downrated to
100tph at the time of installation.
The system ultimately proved to be unsuitable for this application and the permanent Transfer
Station 2 construction was completed and commissioned 2 months after the vertical conveyor was
commissioned at which point the vertical conveyor was removed from the system.
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Figure 2 Pre-production conveying configuration to PC1
PC1 Crushing and Conveying

The interim crushing and conveying system at PC1 consists of two Sandvik UJ440 mobile jaw
crushers with a capacity of 500 tph each (as illustrated in Figure 3), a 755 metre long coal mine
conveyor belt and a small transfer arrangement mounted from the backs of the permanent
conveyor drive.
The crushers are located in an area on the south eastern side of the PC1 footprint away from the
permanent jaw-gyratory crusher location and near the cave start-up position. This area will
ultimately be consumed by the PC2 cave and therefore no permanent infrastructure has been
compromised by this installation.
The crushers can only handle a lump size of approximately 600mm and have some tramp metal
removal facilities. The oversize issue is overcome by only tipping well blasted material from the
drawbell and primary undercut firing through the system, while the tramp metal removal issue has
been overcome by the Cadia East undercutting method mention previously.
Initially this part of the pre-production system was constrained by the vertical conveyor mentioned
above, however since the permanent Transfer Station 2 has been installed an additional 900kt of
material has been produced from Cadia East. More importantly it has enabled a timely cave
establishment which ultimately leads to the successful ramp-up of the project.
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Figure 3 Pre-production crushing and conveying configuration at PC1
Integrated Extraction Level LHD Layout

The extraction level layout adopted for Cadia East is the El Teniente layout. The reasons for the
selection of this layout are discussed in a paper by Manca & Flores 2013.
The construction and production plan for Cadia East required that jaw-gyratory crushers capable of
accepting the larger lump size of material generated during the primary fragmentation phase
would be installed to enable the cave ramp-up. To avoid abutment stress from the cave opening
and reduce capital and operating costs by not installing a run of mine (ROM) haulage level, the
crushers were located outside the orebody footprint with direct tipping straight off the extraction
level to a ROM ore bin located immediately above the crusher.
This initial design, which was subsequently applied to PC1, has LHDs loading material at the
drawpoint, tramming via the extraction drive and then turning a 90 degree corner midway along
the tramming route onto the perimeter drive before coming to a complete halt to change direction
and tram to the crusher tip point. This significantly impacts upon the production system efficiency
as the LHD has to decelerate in the middle of the highest speed period both to and from the
crusher.
During the preparation of final design for PC2, the extraction level layout was optimised by
removing perimeter drives and creating extraction drives that directly approach the crusher tip
point with obtusely angled, sweeping bends. The LHD still has to stop and change direction when
hauling from drawpoints with the bucket facing away from the tip point, however with the
optimised layout turning points are located relatively close to the crusher so that LHDs can
maintain maximum speed for longer periods during the tramming phase to and from the
drawpoint, the most efficient period of the LHD production cycle.
Both PC1 and PC2 extraction level layouts are illustrated in Figure 4.
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Figure 4 Extraction level layouts at Cadia East
PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT SEQUENCE

Whilst Cadia East is nominally using the Post Undercutting technique to establish the cave it has
established a new extraction level establishment sequence to combat the high stresses associated
with the technique. Following a number of technical visits to Chile and the USA a new sequence
was devised that would allow:
early access to drawbell establishment activities
separation of extraction level activities
the establishment of long slender pillars to combat abutment stresses associated with Post
Undercutting
the establishment of the majority of extraction drives in a de-stressed environment
A key observation of high stress extraction levels was that no matter the amount of ground support
installed, the ground stresses would always be greater. Initial modelling from the Feasibility Study
indicated that substantial levels of ground support would be need on our extraction levels as the
undercut passed over. The idea was to come up with a method which would allow the key
infrastructure of the cave (the extraction drives) to be excavated in a de-stressed environment which
would improve their longevity. A number of Map3D stress models were run to give a comparative
assessment of the expected damage in the pillars and then a more detailed ABAQUS stress model
was run on the final solution.
With Newcrests experience in SLC and the use of the El Teniente layout for Cadia East the idea
was to develop along the drawbell drives first and to only establish enough extraction drives to
reduce the tramming distances of the loaders and provide the best scheduling outcome for the
196
level. The extraction drives that were established were heavily supported with multiple layers of
fibrecrete, mesh, rebar and cable bolts.
Once a drawbell drive broke through from one extraction drive to the next in the sequence it was
then handed over to the production team. The production team then coordinated the drilling of the
drawbells, the installation of the brow beams and the installation of the cable bolts both at the
brows and at the future extraction drive breakthroughs. The initial intention was to have only one
activity in each drawbell drive at a time, though there were many occasions where multiple
activities took place.
Upon completion of all cave establishment tasks within the drawbell drive the production charge
team would be sent in to charge and fire a drawbell. With the limited number of extraction drives
on the level the majority of drawbells only had one drawpoint available for the removal of fired
material. Often this drawpoint would have a less than direct route back to the crushers; this
suboptimal loader efficiency was the trade off for overall extraction level stability.
Once the full undercut has been fired into the drawbells then the intermediate extraction drives are
developed through. At the time of writing this paper over 50% of the drawbells on the level have
been fired and the cave is well past Hydraulic Radius. There has been minimal damage to the
pillars on the extraction level and the modelling predictions are being validated. The current status
of the extraction level is illustrated in Figure 5.
Marked Up Drawbell
Drilled Drawbell
Charged Drawbell
Fired Drawbell
Figure 5 Cadia East extraction level status March 2013
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INTEGRATED DRAWBELLS AND UNDERCUTTING
Newcrest has developed considerable expertise in drilling and confined blasting techniques within
its SLC operations at Ridgeway and Telfer (after Popa, L., Trout, P. & Jones, C. 2012). This
experience has resulted in SLC ring heights of >30 metres.
During the construction and implementation phase of the Ridgeway Deeps BC, new methods of
drawbell excavation were developed that provided reliable, consistent drawbell establishment to a
height of 14 metres (after Dunstan, G. & Popa, L. 2012).
The combined learnings and experience from these operations and designs and a review of the
design used in the drawbell and undercut excavation process at the Henderson mine (after
Keskimaki, K. et al., 2008) has led to an integrated undercut and drawbell design and sequence
known as the Cadia East undercutting method.
Mark I Design
Initially, the design was based on a 16.5 metre high 17m diameter drawbell blasted in a single firing
from the extraction level. A primary undercut firing was then blasted to a level approximately half
way up the wall of the undercut drive above with holes charged and fired to the collars to create the
final shape of the major apex. The purpose of the primary undercut firing was to extend the height
of the drawbell to create sufficient void to accommodate the secondary undercut firing which
completed the sequence. Both primary and secondary undercuts were blasted across the full extent
of the drawbell in a direction facing the caved zone in confined blasting situation.
Early in the PC1 cave establishment phase this design was modified to overcome the following
issues:
Firing into a circular drawbell with parallel undercut rings resulted in a varying amount of void
being available as the undercut advanced across them
Access to the lower holes in the secondary undercut rings were commonly blocked with
significant recovery costs
Destabilisation of the undercut drive walls over large spans creating a failure mechanism
hazard
Two drawbells were required to accommodate the material from a single secondary undercut
blast
Due to the nature of the secondary ring firings and the need to extract enough material to open
the brow there was an airblast exposure risk to operators after a very small number of firings.
This led to a mass blast of 200,000t of ore with 80,000kg of emulsion to ensure the Airblast risks
within the Cadia East Cave Management plan were not triggered.
The intertwined secondary rings resulted in a large front being created across the undercut.
This design and sequence is referred to as the Mark I design and was then superseded by the Mark
II design.
198
Mark II Design
The Mark II design was designed with a 16.5 metre high 12.5m diameter drawbell blasted in a
single firing from the extraction level. The primary undercut is then blasted to a level
approximately level with the floor of the undercut drive above to extend the height of the drawbell
for the secondary undercut firing. The key differences between the Mark I and Mark II designs are
a) holes are left uncharged for a distance of approximately 6 metres around the perimeter of the
undercut drive; and b) holes are fired radially from the bottom hole in the ring into the drawbell
rather than forwards.
The Mark II design provided the following advantages:
Uncharged collars create a pillar around the undercut drive allowing safe and efficient charging
of the secondary undercut rings
Increased major apex height improving the long term integrity of the pillar
Reduction in tramp metal from ground support during the early cave ramp up period
The evolution in the design and sequences is illustrated in Figure 6.
Figure 6 Evolution of Cadia East Undercutting Method
CAVE MANAGEMENT
Within Newcrest, the term Cave Engineering refers to the combination of a number of processes to
modify the ore deposit rock mass to ensure rapid, controlled cave propagation, finer fragmentation
and reduced secondary breakage activities and hang-ups. The key cave engineering objectives are
cavability and fragmentation. The innovative cave engineering processes applied at Cadia East are:
Intensive pre-conditioning (discussed in detail in a paper by Manca & Flores 2013)
Cave propagation management
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- Propagation assistance utilising existing geological structures and excavations
- Interaction management
Cave Propagation Management
Cave Propagation Assistance

Ridgeway was the first caving operation developed by Newcrest Mining Limited. A key learning
was the rapid progression of the cave along a major geological structure at a global rate of 1.3
metres per day.
Telfer provided the next opportunity for learning within Newcrest. Again rapid cave progression
occurred at a global rate of 0.6 metres per day. It was predicted that growth would occur along
another major geological structure. In fact, growth occurred parallel to the structure following a
path created by two old ventilation raises that existed in the area above the cave. These raises had
over broken considerably from their original diameter of 3.5 metres.
Based on the experience drawn from the Ridgeway and Telfer caves, a hypothesis was established
that the existence of a large opening in the area of a planned cave back can provide a path for
directing cave growth and assist in ensuring cave propagation. Drawing on this, two raises were
planned for excavation at Cadia East at the cave start points of both the Panel Cave 1 (PC1) and
Panel Cave 2 (PC2) footprints.
Due to operational and schedule constraints and available raise boring resources at the time that the
raise site became available, a smaller 2.4 metre diameter raise was excavated and the cave start
point was relocated to a position 30 metres to the north of the cave propagation raise at PC1.
Monitoring of the raise post excavation and undercut commencement has found that it has had no
impact upon cave propagation. This may be due to the changes from the original design mentioned
above however based on this outcome the propagation raise planned for PC2 has been removed
from the design.
Geological structures will be used at Cadia East to assist in cave propagation. The footprint on PC1
has been designed to undercut a major geological structure to provide the best opportunity for
rapid cave growth over the 1200 metres to surface. Parallel structures existing between PC1 and
PC2 and the combined footprint between the two caving blocks will provide the final growth
mechanism to surface for the initial Cadia East mining blocks.
Cave Interaction Management

Prior to Telfer, Newcrest had limited experience in the management of interaction between a
propagating cave and an active mining block. The management of this interaction is described in a
paper by Singh, Dixon & McArthur 2010.
Learnings from the Telfer experience were applied during the development of the Ridgeway Deeps
cave and production was successfully maintained in the SLC area above the propagating cave with
no disruption to the mining plan. This experience will again be applied to the Cadia East deposit
with the schedule incorporating three sacrificial extraction drives on PC1 planned to maintain
production until monitoring requires abandonment of the zone as PC2 caves towards this area.
200
The evolution of these innovative cave engineering processes used at Cadia East is illustrated in
Figure 7.
Figure 7 Cave engineering evolution applied to Cadia East
CAVE EDUCATION
One of the challenges faced by the Cadia East project was the number of major design differences
between it and other mines operated by Newcrest. This combined with the difficulty in accessing
experienced personnel recruited for the project due to low availability of experienced operators
created by the global mining boom led to an education strategy for the entire workforce from
management through to operator level of how the new design practices were intended to work.
Having an informed workforce created a sense of ownership that enhanced the application of the
new approaches from the design through to field implementation.
A number of visual aids were developed for the education process:
Panel caving process cartoon to provide a simplified, non-technical illustration of all stages
A number of 3D physical scale models of the Cadia East undercutting method segmented into
each stage to allow operators and staff to visualise the integration of all the stages.
An exact 1:1 replica of the PC1 extraction level laid out on the surface to provide a training
ground for LHD operators and production engineers to identify issues prior to implementation
The educational visual aids are shown in Figure 8.
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Figure 8 Cadia East educational visual aids
CONCLUSION
Cadia East has been designed and built with a vision and strategy of extending the current cave
design practices to enable the extraction of a low grade, large scale resource at a sustainable high
margin.
Applied learnings from previous Newcrests growing caving experience, as well as other caving
operations have allowed new practices to be developed and improved at each phase of
implementation.
The learnings from Cadia East will evolve into the next phase in the development of Newcrests
caving strategy and will move the company towards the next generation of super caves.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Newcrest Mining Limited for allowing the publication of this
paper. We would also like to acknowledge all those involved in the Cadia East feasibility,
construction and operations teams for their invaluable effort in making this project real and having
the drive and passion to meet challenges head on and overcome them with the vision and
innovation as evidenced in this paper.
REFERENCES
Dunstan, G. & Popa, L. (2012) Innovative Cave Establishment Practices at Ridgeway Deeps, Proceedings of
MassMin 2012, Sudbury 2012, Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum (CIM).
202
Dunstan, G. & Power, G. (2003) Managing Technical Risk at Ridgeway Sublevel Caving Mine, Proceedings of
the Mining Risk Management Conference, Sydney 2003, The Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, pp. 213221.
Google Maps, viewed 21 March 2013, <http://google/maps>.
Keskimaki, K., Nelson, B., Callahan, M., Golden, R., Teuscher, S., deWolfe, C. & Hansen, A. (2004)
Hendersons new 7210 production level, Proceedings of MassMin 2004, Santiago 2004, Chilean
Engineering Institute, pp. 397403.
Manca, L, & Flores, G. (2013) Modern Planning Practices for Cave Mining, Proceedings of the Third International
Seminar on Mine Planning, 2426 July 2013, Santiago, Chile.
Popa, L.I., Trout, L.P., & Jones, C.E. (2012) The Evolution and Optimisation of Sublevel Cave Drill and Blast
Practices at Ridgeway Gold Mine Production Rings, Proceedings of MassMin 2012, Sudbury 2012,
Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum (CIM).
Singh, U., Dixon, R.A. & McArthur, C. (2010) Interaction between a propagating cave and an active pit at
Telfer Mine Part I: interaction management, Proceedings of Caving 2010, Perth 2010, Australian
Centre for Geomechanics, pp. 307-320.
203
Modern planning practices for
cave mining
Over the last 13 years Newcrest Mining Limited has developed applied expe- Lino Manca and German Flores.
Newcrest Mining Limited, Australia
rience in the design, implementation and operation of caving mines across
its portfolio of Australian operations. These mines include Ridgeway and
Telfer (Sub Level Caving), Ridgeway Deeps (Block Caving) and Cadia East
(Panel Caving).
Modern, large scale caving involves rapid access, progressive infrastruc-
ture, high grade block location, rock mass preparation through pre-condi-
tioning, development of efficient cave design, fast ramp ups and high
production draw heights. Cadia East required these step changes to deliver a
practical business case.
The planning process for Cadia East incorporated mine design and sched-
uling parameters that establish new modern caving practices and move towards
the next phase of super cave design. These mine planning parameters are
based upon systematic investigation of design, implementation and operation
of large scale caves, the gaps between these practices and the requirements of
Cadia East.
This paper provides an overview of these modern planning practices ap-
plied to mineral resources selected for cave mining within Newcrest.
***
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INTRODUCTION
Newcrest Mining Limited (Newcrest) is one of the worlds top 5 gold mining companies by
reserves and market capitalisation. Logan and Krishnan 2012 indicated that over the last five years
the company has grown substantially by means of acquisition, greenfield and brownfields projects.
Newcrests current operations and projects are shown in Figure 1.
Newcrest remains focused on its overall strategy of gold, low cost, long life and moderate growth.
In this context, the company has developed two large scale sublevel caving (SLC) and one block
caving (BC) operation from 2000 to 2009 with Ridgeway SLC mine in New South Wales
commencing production in 2001, Telfer SLC mine in Western Australia in 2005 and Ridgeway
Deeps BC mine in 2009 under Ridgeway SLC mine. In 2010 Newcrest started construction of Cadia
East (CE) using the panel caving (PC) method which commenced commercial production in
January 2013. Newcrest is also planning to use PC to develop the Golpu ore body in Papua New
Guinea within 10 years.
The major challenges faced in engineering these modern generations of block and panel caving
mines at Newcrest involve geomechanics, cave engineering and mining issues. Many of these
challenges arise because of the high rock mass qualities in which the critical issues of cavability and
fragmentation are accentuated, the greater depths at which caving is being initiated, the faster
ramp-ups required to achieve higher production rates, the associated challenges with extraction
level stability, the increasing heights of caving columns and the technology associated with ore
handling from the drawpoints to the plant (Brown 2004).
In the last 13 years, Newcrest has gained unique capabilities in designing, planning, implementing
and operating large scale SLC, BC and PC mines in these challenging environments. To continue
turning previously uneconomical deposits into ore reserves, new processes have been developed, as
shown in Figure 2.
Figure 1 Newcrests operations and advanced projects
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Figure 2 Newcrests caving technology step changes
CAVING APPROACH
For Newcrest, caving has become the bulk underground mining method of choice. This strategy is
expected to continue in the foreseeable future with the development of more caving projects across
the company. Block and panel caving projects involve consideration of a number of factors that are
related to the method of mining. These factors are considered in increasing detail as the project
develops through the concept, prefeasibility, feasibility, detailed engineering/implementation and
operational stages.
Newcrest is using caving methods in strong rocks, heterogeneous ore bodies, at greater depths and
in challenging geotechnical environments. These applications have required systematic
investigation, detailed technical analysis, engineering design, disciplined implementation, piloting
and operation.
Newcrest is applying these developments to gold-copper projects to competitively increase asset
value and earnings. Block and panel caving methods now offer economies of scale opportunities
and competitive advantages to achieve high production rates at lower production costs. This
enables exploitation of lower grade mineral endowments at higher margins. Newcrest is thus
operating low grade, high margin mines, with a SLC operation at Telfer, a BC operation at
Ridgeway Deeps and a PC operation at Cadia East, and plans to develop another PC project at
Golpu.
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The approach implemented by Newcrest to develop modern caving projects such as Cadia East,
which is a large, low grade, strong and deep orebody, includes the following four areas a) overall
cave design; b) mine layout set-up; c) individual cave block set-up; and d) cave production, as
shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3 Newcrests approach to block and panel caving development
Overall Cave Design

Modern cave design practices at Newcrest are based on a step change process and the deployment
of new technologies to deal with the new generation of caving. These are summarised through the
following key design factors:
Grade engineering strategy by macroblock
High block heights
Cave reliability (cavability and fragmentation)
Strong extraction level layout
Undercutting Strategy
Grade Engineering Strategy by Macroblock

The strategy selected to exploit the Cadia East orebody is based on grade engineering which
maximises the amount of early metal processed by targeting the high grade first (>1g/t Au) and the
low grade second (~0.5g/t Au). To enable this, a unique macroblock configuration has been adopted
for panel caving 1 (PC1) and panel caving 2 (PC2) which allows a production rate of 26Mtpa for the
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first 10 years of the operation at a gold grade greater than 1g/t Au. This approach increases the
financial return per tonne processed while at the same time reducing the cost per metal unit
through reductions in energy and water use, transforming the economics of large, low grade
mining operations. A similar macroblock concept has been developed by Codelco Chile for its
Chuquicamata Underground project (Hormazabal et al 2010). The macroblock configuration
adopted by Cadia East is shown in Figures 4 and 5.
Figure 4 Plan view of the macroblock configuration for Cadia East
Figure 5 Section of the macroblock configuration for Cadia East
High Block Heights

Block height is the height of the block to be caved from the extraction level to the surface, the base
of a pre-existing open pit, a level or a mined-out area above.
Considering that Cadia East is a large and low grade ore body, the approach taken to establish the
block height was that this should be as large as possible in order to be able to extract the maximum
amount of ore from the investment made in developing PC1 and PC2. However, experience with
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very large block heights is limited, although increasing. There is always the residual uncertainty
that caving may stall at large heights causing loss of production, the abandonment of the
macroblock, or the need to use expensive cave induction techniques (post-conditioning). In the case
of Cadia East, the block height varies from 400m to 1,050m which are high block heights, however
Newcrest is implementing a preconditioning programme to ensure that caves will initiate and
propagate properly to surface. Figure 6 shows the mine configuration and block heights for Cadia
East.
Figure 6 Cadia East mine configuration and block heights
Cave Reliability
Cave reliability involves the two key sucess factors in a caving operation which are cavability and
fragmentation. Brown 2007 defined cavability as a measure of the ability of an orebody to cave
under particular circumstances and fragmentation as the distribution of sizes of the broken ore
reporting to the drawpoints, that will be produced as a result of the caving process (secondary
fragmentation).
The new generation of caving at Newcrest are large ore bodies (>2Bt in resources), low grade (<1g/t
Au and <0.3% Cu), heterogeneous rock mass, very deep (>1200m), high to very high rock mass
quality (Rock Mass Rating, RMR>60) and low frequency of discontinuities (Fracture Frequency,
FF<2 fractures per metre). All of these parameters could impact on the caving perfomance with
difficult cave initiation, low cave propagation rates, not propagating vertically upwards, not
recovering all the reserves, increasing the ramp-up period to achieve the steady state production
rate, and producing coarse fragmentation, which increases the hang-up frequency requiring more
secondary blasting activities.
Based on all of these attributes as well as the proposed mining geometry and strategy (i.e. block
heights up to 1,050m, and the requirement to achieve high production rates earlier (> 72ktpd)), a
decision was taken to implement an intensive preconditioning programme at Cadia East. The
preconditioning programme included engineering cave initiation, caving propagation,
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fragmentation size reduction particularly during the early stages of cave initiation and managing
the stresses on the working areas.
Preconditioning is a process implemented before the initiation of caving to alter the inherent
characteristics of the target rock mass to enhance its caving and fragmentation characteristics.
Figure 7 shows the intensive preconditioning design which has been implemented at Cadia East.
The combination of hydraulic fracturing and confined blasting was used. Catalan et al 2012
described in detail the process involved in modifying the characteristics of the rock mass using
fluid injection (i.e hydrofracturing) and fully confined blasting. Hydraulic fracturing is expected to
affect the overall rock mass behaviour through the introduction of additional, artificial, large scale
fractures to enhance cave initiation and propagation (Araneda & Sugarret 2007 and Araneda et al
2007). Confined blasting is likely to damage intact rock and reduce rock strength and stiffness by
blasting in a fully confined environment and reduce the fragmentation size (Sugarret et al 2004). A
further refinement of the intensive preconditioning design is the addition of a cave propagation
raise at the caving start point. A detailed description of the background and implementation of the
cave propagation raise is provided in a paper by Manca & Dunstan 2013.
Figure 7 Intensive preconditioning programme implemented at Cadia East
Strong Extraction Level Layout

The extraction horizon is the level through which the caved or broken ore is extracted and
transported away from the cave. Brown 2007 defined the extraction level layout as the arrangement
of extraction and drawpoint drifts, drawpoints and drawbells on the extraction level. The
commonly used extraction level layouts are the so-called El Teniente and the Herringbone. The
choice between the layouts is often governed by ease of development, size of the mining footprint
and pillar stability. Newcrest has used the Herringbone layout until now, however the El Teniente
layout has been adopted by Cadia East operations to allow rapid cave preparation, resulting in
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higher ore recovery and improved long term pillar stability for extraction of the high draw
columns.
Cadia East has also been designed with a stronger pillar dimension between the undercut and
extraction levels of 26m floor to floor. This is around 50% more than the conventional cave design
parameters. The extraction drift spacing is 32m and drawpoint spacing is 20m to provide additional
pillar core strength. The drift dimensions are 4.5m wide and 4.5m high (finished with ground
support installed). Figure 8 illustrates the design of the extraction level for Cadia East PC2 which
integrates the extraction drives with the perimeter drive improving the tramming layout for the
LHDs. Of note is the integrated extraction/perimeter layout for optimised LHD tramming. This
concept is discussed in further detail in a paper by Manca & Dunstan 2013.
Figure 8 El Teniente extraction level layout used at Cadia East PC2
Undercutting Strategy
Undercutting strategy is the planning, design, implementation and management of the undercut.
There are three strategies called post, advanced and pre undercutting. Cadia East adopted the post-
undercutting strategy because the interaction between development, construction and production
activities can be better scheduled and managed, macroblocks can be brought into production more
quickly than other undercutting strategies, and the stresses on the working areas can be managed
by the implementation of the intensive preconditioning programme. Figure 9 shows the post-
undercutting strategy currently used at Cadia East.
212
Figure 9 Post-undercutting strategy used at Cadia East
Mine Layout Set-up

Mine layout set-up refers to the strategy adopted to establish a mine from initial mineral resource
definition through to mine construction completion. The mine set-up can be split into the following
areas a) data capture; b) access development; c) mine construction. The definition, study, designs
and construction of a deep cave mine is an expensive and time-consuming task. Only a few mining
companies can sustain this level of commitment. Strategies to undertake this process can vary
according to early data availability, existing infrastructure, topography and ground conditions.
Three strategies as applied within Newcrest are shown in Figure 10.
In the case of Strategy 1, little data is available early in the set-up and there is no existing
infrastructure (access, ventilation, services, material handling system) and a staged approach is
applied to data capture and accessing the cave. This was the scenario for Ridgeway SLC and Cadia
East PC1.
Strategy 2 is applied in the case of no resource data, poor ground conditions requiring commitment
to long lead access items such as blind sunk shafts and mechanically excavated decline access, and
where there is no existing infrastructure. This strategy is being considered for the Golpu project.
Strategy 3 can be applied where there is adequate early data and existing infrastructure to allow an
early commitment to undertake advanced mine infrastructure establishment. There may also be
adequate information to install sacrificial items that can be justified in terms of economic and
schedule benefits. Also, dependent on the extent of advanced infrastructure establishment, there
may be an opportunity to defer steady state infrastructure to a period after the main mine
construction when demand on resources is reduced. The combination of these phases leads to a
reduced mine construction period which in turn provides a faster ramp-up to steady state
production. This strategy was applied to the Ridgeway Deeps BC and Cadia East PC2.
213
Figure 10 Mine set-up strategies
Cave Block Set-up

In any cave set-up the priority given to activities that enable the establishment of a cave production
area is the key factor affecting the successful ramp-up to steady state cave production . At Cadia
East, the order of priority for enabling activities is 1) primary ventilation establishment; 2) efficient
material removal establishment; 3) drawbell drive development; 4) undercut drive development; 5)
drawbell establishment; 6) undercut excavation; 7) extraction drive development. The order of
priorities is illustrated in Figure 11.
The key mining rates during block and panel cave construction are those associated with
development, undercutting and drawbell establishment. These effectively determine the cave
establishment and ramp-up times.
214
Cadia East has developed a unique Hybrid Post/Advanced Undercutting cave establishment
sequence which has provided greater benefits in terms of efficiency and long term pillar integrity.
This sequence is discussed in detail in a paper by Manca & Dunstan 2013.
Figure 11 Cave set-up priorities
Development Rate
Newcrest has introduced a new tunnelling process (rapid development) into its operations which is
a combination of leading tunnelling technologies including long round drilling, high powered
drifters, automated drilling, emulsion charging and high capacity load-haul. This process is
discussed in further detail in a paper by Willcox 2008.
The rapid development technology allowed an average development rate of 265m/month with a
record of 311m/month in a single heading (access decline) and an average development rate of
540m/month for multiple headings to be achieved.
Undercutting Rate
The undercutting rate is the rate at which the undercut front is advanced and it is expressed as an
area per time period (m2/month). The most recent industry benchmark for block and panel caves
indicates that the undercutting rate is in the range of 5,000 to 6,000m2/month for low undercuts
(Chitombo, 2010). Cadia East is achieving an undercutting rate of around 6,000m2/month to rapidly
establish the cave and provide sufficient drawpoints available for production which reduces the
ramp-up time. The also includes high undercutting to 20m to avoid coarse fragmentation during
the cave initiation and feed the mill with finer ore earlier. Further detail on this design is provided
in a paper by Manca & Dunstan 2013.
215
Drawbell Establishment Rate
Drawbell is the excavated structure with the shape of an inverted bell, which channels caved or
broken ore to a drawpoint. The drawbell establishment rate is the rate at which the drawbells are
opened and it is expressed in number of drawbells per time period (e.g. #/month). Cadia East is
planned to achieve 12 drawbells/month to match the undercutting rate of 6,000m2/month.
An integrated undercut/drawbell design which combines the development of the two excavations
into a consolidated sequence has been developed at Cadia East. Further detail on this design is
provided in a paper by Manca & Dunstan 2013.
Cave Production
The key factors to successful steady state cave production are a) enable rapid progression to a high
draw rate; b) rigorous draw management; and c) rapid and effective secondary breakage.
Draw Rates
Draw rate is the rate at which caved or broken ore is drawn from individual drawpoints or a group
of adjacent drawpoints and it is expressed in millimetres per unit time or tonnes per area per time
period (mm/day or t/m2/day). Considering the benefits from the intensive preconditioning
programme implemented at Cadia East, the draw rate has been increased by 20% relative to
benchmarks.
The draw rates established for Cadia East during the cave initiation (up to 30% of the block height)
vary from 115mm/day to 280mm/day with an average of 190mm/day. Higher than 30% to the top of
the block the draw rates vary from 280mm/day to 400mm/day with an average of 320mm/day.
Draw Management
Newcrest has developed and implemented a draw management plan in its caving operations to
control the tonnages drawn from individual drawpoints. The main objectives of this plan are: a)
minimise overall dilution and maintain the planned ore grade delivered from the mine to the mill;
b) maximise ore recovery; c) ensure a proper cave propagation to surface with a safe air gap; d)
avoid damaging load concentrations on the extraction level and avoiding the creation of conditions
that could induce operational hazards such as rockbursts, collapses or inrushes. The draw
management plan implemented at Ridgeway Deeps BC has met two of these four objectives. Cadia
East has also implemented a draw management plan but at this time it is too early to conclude
which objectives were met.
The current Cadia East status at the time of writing this paper is illustrated in Figure 12.
Secondary Breakage
Secondary breakage is the additional breaking of caved or broken ore by mechanical means or by
explosives to reduce large fragments to the size required for loading and transportation. Ridgeway
Deeps and Cadia East operations have implemented rapid and effective secondary breakage
methods with a fleet of water cannons, mobile rock breakers, low impact or non-explosive breakage
methods and high reach hang-up rigs.
216
Figure 12 Cadia East cave status
CONCLUSION
The caving industry is now moving towards the next generation of caving geometries, also called
supercaves. Previous practice and knowledge has reached its limits, especially in the geotechnical,
cave engineering and mining areas, therefore it is required to develop methods which consider
more of the governing physics of the caving processes rather than empirical rules. Based on
Newcrests applied caving experience in designing and constructing operations, the authors believe
that the following challenges will become even more crucial for the next generation of super caves:
Early grade engineering by macroblock sequencing
High block heights
Rapid mine and cave set-ups
Cavability (cave initiation and propagation)
Finer fragmentation (primary and secondary)
Rapid ramp-ups to steady state production
Continuous production systems
Newcrest is increasingly focused on a step change process and the deployment of new technologies
to yield unique value in the face of these super caves challenges.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Newcrest Mining Limited for allowing the publication of this
paper. We would also like to acknowledge all those involved in Telfer, Ridgeway Deeps and Cadia
217
East feasibility, construction and operations teams for their invaluable effort in making these
projects real.
The authors also wish to acknowledge Codelco Chile for its contribution, collaboration and open
discussions on Cadia East throughout the project life cycle from Pre-feasibility to Implementation.
REFERENCES
Araneda, O. & Sougarret, A. (2007) Keynotes address: Lessons learned in cave mining, El Teniente 19972007,
Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Block and Sublevel Caving, 810 October 2007, Cape
Town, South Africa, pp. 5971.
Araneda, O. et al (2007) Rock preconditioning application in virgin caving condition in a panel caving mine,
Codelco Chile El Teniente Division, Proceedings of the Fifth International Seminar on Deep and High
Stress Mining, 68 October 2007, Perth, Australia, pp. 111120.
Brown, E. T. (2004) Geomechanics the critical engineering discipline for mass mining, Proceedings of the
MassMin 2004, A Karzulovic and M A Alfaro (eds), 2225 August, 2004, Chilean Engineering Institute,
Santiago, Chile, pp. 2136.
Brown, E. T. & Chitombo, G.P. (2007) Underground mass mining by caving. The way of the Future, Sustainable
Minerals Institute, University of Queensland: Brisbane.
Catalan, A. et al (2012) How can an intensive preconditioning concept be implemented at mass mining
method? Application to Cadia East panel caving project, Proceedings of the 57th Annual ARMA
International Conference & Expo, September 2325, 2012, Chicago, USA, pp. 2427.
Chitombo, G.P (2010) Cave mining 16 years after Laubschers 1994 paper Cave mining state of the art,
Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Block and Sublevel Caving, 2022 April 2010, Perth,
Western Australia, pp. 4561.
Hormazbal, E. et al (2010) Geomechanical evaluation of caving macro-block options at Chuquicamata

Underground Project in Chile using three-dimensional numerical modelling, Proceedings of the Second
International Symposium on Block and Sublevel Caving, 2022 April 2010, Perth, Western Australia, pp.
469482.
Logan, A. & Krishnan, N. (2012) Newcrest Technology Step Change, XXVI International Mineral Processing
Congress (IMPC 2012), 2428 September 2012, New Delhi, India, pp. 2651.
Manca, L, & Dunstan, G. (2013) Cadia East A Case Study in Innovative Design and Implementation,
Proceedings of the Third International Seminar on Mine Planning, 2426 July 2013, Santiago, Chile.
Newcrest (2010) Cadia East Feasibility Study, Internal report, 2010, Orange, New South Wales, Australia.
Sougarret, J. et al (2004) New Vision in Caving Mining in Andina Division, Codelco Chile, Proceedings of the
MassMin 2004, Santiago, A Karzulovic and M A Alfaro (eds), 2225 August, 2004, Chilean
Engineering Institute, Santiago, Chile, pp. 542546.
Willcox, P. (2008) Rapid tunnelling technologies at Cadia East, Proceedings of the Tenth AusIMM Underground
Operators Conference 2008 Boom and Beyond, 1416 April 2008, Launceston Country Club, Tasmania,
Australia, pp. 263268.
218
Estimation of maximum production
capacity through material handling
system simulations
Simulation of material handling systems is important from a short to long Eduardo Viera. Codelco, Chile
term planning standpoint, evaluating the production impacts that generate

change to the main variables involved in material handling systems. Such
tools can identify weaknesses and strengths facilitating decision-making
aimed at continuous operational improvement.
This kind of tool has been used in the short term planning stage at the
Diablo Regimiento mine, El Teniente Division, to estimate the production
capacity of the material handling systems, considering different variables and
operational constraints.
The defined methodology consists of the following steps: (i) Identification
of technical parameters (rated capacity of the equipment involved, production
cycle times, operating hours, operational interference and haul distances);
(ii) identification of the main variables affecting the material handling system
(hang-up frequency per production area and time taken to regularize this
condition); (iii) conduct simulations considering a planning horizon (3 months
for this study).
The histogram of the daily production capacities from the simulations
indicates that higher frequency range of production is between 24,000-
26,000tpd for Diablo Regimiento. There is no continuity in the distribution
of the values obtained, noting 2 groups of values indicating different operating
conditions. The first group of values (21,000tpd average) is the result of a low
operational continuity due to major maintenance and high hang-up frequency
in draw points. The second group of values (26,800tpd average) reflects a
condition which is completely contrary to that mentioned above resulting in
a high availability of the operating area and a low incidence rate of operating
events affecting production. It was established that the highest production
capacity of the area is approx. 29,000tpd and can be achieved under an optimal
operating stage characterized by a low hang-up frequency and high area avail-
ability in lower haul distances.
***
219
INTRODUCTION
Material handling systems simulations allow to perform productive capacity estimations by
considering different variables that influence the process. The importance of using simulations lies
in that it makes possible to evaluate different scenarios, which might be deployed according to its
positive or negative impact on the productive capacity.
Short-term planning of El Teniente Division develops a monthly production plan, which goal is to
schedule the production and activity rates, during the corresponding month. In order to elaborate
the monthly schedule, it is necessary to fully know the maximum productive capacity for the
different sectors. This allows to estimate every program requirement degrees, and also establishing
gaps in the case of operational contingencies within the areas which conform El Teniente.
The mine Diablo Regimiento is located to the south of the site, and it consists of 5 phases, 3 of which
are currently operative (FI, FII and FIII). The method of operation is Advanced Undercutting on
drift with constructive work draw points ahead of undercut. The material handling system
considers extraction with LHD, transporting the extracted material to crushing plants, which after
being crushed is transported by conveyors belts to the main ore passes.
The work developed in this study aims to determine the production capacity for sector Diablo
Regimiento, considering the most important variables affecting operational continuity. The
obtained results are going to establish guidelines for short-term planning for programs to be
implemented in the future.
METHODOLOGY
In order to perform capacity estimations for the mine Diablo Regimiento, the following
methodology has been established: (i) Identification of technical parameters, (ii) Identification of the
major variables affecting the material handling system, (iii) Conducting simulations using
ProModel, considering some planning horizon.
Technical Parameters
Technical parameters used, mainly correspond to the production equipment ratings, which are
summarized in the table below:
Tabla 1 Nominal technical parameters
Equipment Capacity/Productivity
Toro 0010C 14 ton
Jaw Crusher 846 ton/h
Plate Feeder 790 ton/h
Conveyors 846 ton/h
Flowsheet of the material handling system of Diablo Regimiento is summarized below:
220
Figure 1 Flowsheet of Diablo Regimiento
The main operational problems that affect the operation of the crushing plants at Diablo
Regimiento, are bogging of crushers and chutes, and cuts of conveyor belts.
Main Variables
It has been possible to establish that the following variables as affecting the operational continuity
to the material handling system:
Tabla 2 Variables
Equipment Comments
Hang up frecuency See Graphic 1
Time of secondary breakage 1,8 production drift/shift
Scheduled Maintenance per Phases 40 hr/month
Interferences of constructions and repairs of production drifts 180 ton/hr
Post Blasting Insulation 4-8 hras post tronadura
Humidity percentage in mud draw points 7-8% H2O/kg sample
Productive impact of the variables, mentioned on table 2, depend on the spatial location within the
productive sector they occur, as the productivity of every production drift of Diablo Regimiento is
221
different. This is due to the different media transportation distance which the production drift
show, which is the result of the layout geometry and/or states condition of the points:
Figure 2 Draw points status of Diablo Regimiento
It can be seen that the operative area (green draw points) which has FI is concentrated to the south,
on the opposite, FII where the operative area is homogenous in all of its extension.
Humidity of draw points influences productivity per area, because when it detects high humidity
(about 7%) the extraction of specific draw point is stopped and productivity of surrounding area is
limited.
For instance, points cluster (7 draw points) monthly scheduling is usual to be 6.000 ton/month. If
the central point shows humidity rise over 7%, its extraction is stopped, and the neighboring 6 draw
points get limited to 1.600 ton/month, which is equal to a 77% loss regarding to the original stage.
A relevant variable to perform maximum capacity simulation is frequency of hangings draw points
and time in which this condition is normalized. Two points above are reflected in the rate of
extraction between hangings (REH), which indicates how many tons are mined between hang up of
production drift. To incorporate this indicator, we conducted a survey of hanging points for 3
months and was associated with extraction in that period.
222
By plotting the REH v/s average extraction percentage of primary column per each production drift
we get the following graph:
Figure 3 REH vs Average percentage of column height extraction
Three different behaviors can be seen:

Draw points with drawing average less than 30% of the primary column: Average REH 551,
which reflects the high percentage of oversizing at the beginning of the extraction to the column
(more hanging frequency).
Draw points with drawing average greater than 30% of the primary column: Average REH
1638, which reflects the decreasing of fragmentation curve of draw point (lower frequency of
hanging).
Draw points with humidity and drawing greater than 30% of the primary column: Average
REH 1379. The kind of hangings is different, since the slim wet material makes cohesive arches
that avoid the normal flow (bigger hanging frequency).
The variables defined above are incorporated in the simulation of a different form, because as noted
above, there are production drift that have higher rate of hangings and humidity than others.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The results obtained in the simulations deliver a daily productivity, which depends on the
occurrence frequency of the variables involved, previously defined. When performing a frequency
223
histogram per ranks of productivity, 2 distributions can be seen, which are analysed by separate.
First rank values distribution shows as follows:
Figure 4 Analysis of results 1
The frequencies histogram 1 shows an average of 21.055 tpd and 23.200 tpd as maximum. When
performing a cause analysis, it can be seen that the occurrence to the values of this distribution are
directly proportional to the amount of hung points, and the times in which the crushing plants are
out of service. These productivities are shown into productivity loss at F1 and F2 (83% and 62% c/r
to the maximum respectively watched).
Second rank distribution of values can be seen as follows:
Figure 5 Analysis of results 2
224
The histogram of frequencies 2 shows an average of 26.580 tpd y 29.830 tpd as maximum. On
distribution 2, the highest values are shown (over 29.000 tpd), which are reached when F1 and F2
rise its productivity over 7.000 tpd and 15.000 tpd, respectively (also considering an opposite
scenario to the one mentioned on distribution 1).
CONCLUSION
When performing simulations to estimate the maximum productivity rate for Diablo Regimiento, it
is possible to state that the maximum productivity rate is 29.000 tpd.
In case of having a minor area availability, due to a high concentration of hang ups, and less
availability of crushing plants, the rank for possible values decreases dramatically, which
maximizes when they concentrate in the high productivity zones (less carrying distance and/or best
drawing point). This is translated into a loss of F1 (17% approximately) and F2 (38% approximately)
productivity.
Using the second distribution of results is defined mode to consider short-term programs, which
can be seen in the following graph:
Figure 6 Define of daily productivity rate
The values considered between 24-26 ktpd depend of singularities of each month (operational
events not considered in medium-short term planning).
REFERENCES
Hadjigeorgiou, J. ; Lessard, J. & Mercier Langevin F. (2005) Ore pass practice in Canadian mines,
The journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
225
Planning lateral dilution at
Large Panel Caving mines
Block caving methods are the lowest cost and highest productive methods Ral Castro. Universidad
de Chile
known to date. The planning of caving mines involves the calculation of the
ore reserves starting from the block model to derive to what is known as the Francisco Armijo. BCTec Ingeniera
y Tecnologa, Chile
diluted block model. From this, a program plan is built using a mixing model
which is a representation of the metal and tonnage that would be draw through
mining. In some cases the panel under study could be adjacent to an old ex-
tracted area with a high percentage of extraction (above a 100% of extracted
column). In this scenario dilution models using vertical mixing (Laubscher,
1994) would over estimate dilution entry and therefore the ore reserves to be
recovered. In this article we postulate a new method to plan what is known
as a lateral dilution prone sector. For this we first carried out a back analysis
of two sectors at Andina Panel III, one corresponding to the LHD and another
to the Grizzly systems, to gain understanding of the mechanisms of lateral
dilution. The results of the back analysis indicate that lateral dilution is a
result of the subsidence due to flow, the existence of a differential caving
propagation rate and the rock mass heterogeneity. Once the planning of lateral
dilution is identified the draw strategy could be adapted to obtain the maximum
benefit from the exploitation.
***
227
INTRODUCTION
There is evidence that when there are sector of a panel caving close to an exhausted sector there is
an early entry of dilution. This early dilution affects drastically the underground mining business.
METHODOLOGY
The methodology involves three steps: (i) data collection and statistical analysis of extraction at
Andina Panel III mine, (ii) back analysis of sectors from Panel III Andina mine and (iii) Planning a
sector adjacent to previously exploited.
Data analysis of Panel III Andina mine

In this stage we analyzed both the LHD and the Grizzly material handling systems used at Andina.
The first sector selected is an extension of the Grizzly where secondary ore was extracted, while the
second corresponds to a sector located in primary ore extracted by LHD equipment. As it is shown
in Figure 1, the LHD and Grizzly sectors are areas where due to the mine sequence contiguous
drawpoints were extracted at very different time in between (8 to 10 years).
Figure 1 LHD and grizzly sector for back analysis
This sequence means that the percentage of extracted tonnage is very different for adjacent
drawpoints. The extraction of exploited sectors reaches 120% of extraction relative to the amount of
ore in-situ. Figure 2 shows the extraction in terms of % of equivalent in-situ column for the LHD
228
and Grizzly areas. This shows that both sectors were extracted more than a 100% before the new
drawpoints were started.
Draw sector
Draw sector
Figure 2 % draw column LHD sector (left) and grizzly sector (right)
The Figure 3 shows the profile of Rock Mass Rating (RMRs) for the grizzly sector. This indicates
that for this sector there was a more competent rock at the top of the drawpoints as the primary ore
was sitting on top of the secondary rock. This difference in rock mass could be influenced by the
results of the caving profile.
Figure 3 Geotechnical parameters for the Grizzly sector
Figure 4 shows the dilution entry for the Grizzly in terms of tonnage. The average tonnage of in-situ
ore for the Grizzly is 69.800 ton while LHD sector is about 108.000 tons. Most of the drawpoints
229
located at the West have dilution before 20.000 tons were extracted while the mean of dilution entry
is 34.350 tons. At the LHD sector something similar happened with dilution entry being 20.000 tons
at drawpoints located to the South and decreasing towards the North. In this case dilution entered
at 83.000 ton. The PED 3% is defined as the tonnage (relative to the in-situ column) at which the
dilution reported at a drawpoint is at least 3% of total accumulated tons extracted.
Figure 4 PED 3% LHD and grizzly sectors
The above data indicate that dilution entry is smaller when drawpoints are located next to an
exhausted area. These results are on line with similar findings at El Salvador Division where lateral
dilution was observed (Paredes, 2012). From this analysis it was hypothesized that the caving
propagation and some boundary condition, or subsidence, caused dilution from the exhausted
mine.
Simulations sectors from Panel III Andina mine

At this stage we carried out simulations using Rebop 3.1 to evaluate some of the hypothesis about
lateral dilution. For that we carry out simulations of ore extraction for both sectors in order to
compare the amount of drawpoint with dilution and PED 3% with data mine. Rebop 3.1 is an
emulator of gravity flow where the main input parameters are the block model, primary
fragmentation, caving propagation profile and ore swelling.
The simulations were performed in two stages. First, in the Grizzly sector a case with and without
the effect of flow subsidence was conducted. Flow subsidence is defined as an angle measured from
the horizontal at which material would flow. For the purpose of the modeling we assumed that this
angle was a variable to be determined by the comparison between the simulated and actual data.
Once the influence of this parameter was quantified a more detailed analysis of the rate of caving
was conducted using the LHD sector.
In the case of the Grizzly sector two simulations were carried out (SIM 1 and SIM 2) considering a
propagation caving factor as a function of the distance to the exhausted mine as indicated in
230
Figure . Thus, the caving propagation rate is (10:1) for drawpoints adjacent to a previously
exploited sector (40 m away) and is 1:1 for 80 m away. SIM 1 does not incorporate the effect of
subsidence in the decreasing ore column of the new sector, while SIM 2 it does. In this case we also
include the influence of a change in rock mass in height. That is, we assumed that the caving did
not propagate in height but reaches the contact between primary and secondary ore and stopped
there. The nomenclature HRMR is assigned to the simulation where the hang up is the same
occurred at the interface while the H50 notation is for a hang up occurring 50 m below the interface.
This does not mean that an air blast occurred but that the material will flow from the West side of
the sector inducing lateral movement of broken rock.
Figure 5 Caving propagation Grizzly (left) and LHD sector (right)

The mine data indicate that in the Grizzly sector the dilution entered at 34.350 tons with a standard
deviation of 27.770 ton and 156 drawpoints reported dilution. Table 1 indicate that simulation SIM 2
HRMR is close to the actual data with a PED 3% equal to 21.000 ton and a deviation of 22.580 ton
with 144 drawpoints that reported dilution.
Table 1 Simulations grizzly results
Profile Subside
Standard Drawpoint
Simulation caving nce due PED 3%
deviation with dilution
propagation to draw
HRMR 65.000 [t] 31.800 [t] 34

SIM1 10:1 5:1 1:1 90
H50 59.000 [t] 28.700 [t] 49
HRMR 21.000 [t] 22.580 [t] 144

SIM2 10:1 5:1 1:1 70
H50 48.800 [t] 28.500 [t] 58
231
Mine data no info no info no info 34.350 [t] 20.770 [t] 156
The mine data indicate that in the LHD sector the dilution entered at 83.000 ton extracted with a
standard deviation of 43.000 ton and that 107 drawpoints reported dilution. Table 2 indicates that a
simulation with a caving propagation rate as a function of distance to an exhausted sector is closer
to reality that when a constant rate is considered.
Table 2 Simulations LHD results
Parameters SIM 1 SIM 2 Data mine
Profile caving propagation (m/m extr) 10:1 5:1 1:1 3:1 no info
Drawpoints with dilution 95 82 107
PED average [t] 89.700 114.000 83.000
Standard deviation [t] 17.000 16.500 43.000
CONCLUSION
The above data shows the relevance of including the possibility of having lateral dilution when
planning large panel caves. This scenario is more habitual that currently thought as a given
sequence might end up with draw points extracted at very large interval in terms of tonnage. In this
article we postulate that for this to be taken into account both subsidence due to flow and cave rate
should be considered explicitly. The planning of this type of sequences should consider for example
a differential draw strategy as a function of the remaining in-situ column height.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Codelco IM2 for the sponsor of part of this project and to Dr.
Mauricio Telias at the University of Chile for valuable contribution through this project.
REFERENCES
Paredes (2012) Mecanismos de entrada de dilucin en minas de block/panel caving, Tesis para optar al grado
de Magster en Minera, Universidad de Chile.
Castro, R., Paredes, P. (2013) Dilution Entry Mechanisms in Panel Caving, Journal of the South African Institute
Mining and Metallurgy (under review).
Laubscher, D. (1994) Cave Mining the State of the Art, Journal of South African Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy.
232

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chap.

DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM REMARKS

Figure 1 Deflectors action

Organizational concept to guide the construction

ANALYSIS OF THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS IN THE ACCESS AND

Table 1 Distribution of deviations in a cycle of 22,5 hours for 5 meters drilling

Type of Deviation Average of hours Percentage of hours losses

Improvements in management and logistics

Management to eliminate downtime

Key operators and leverage of other to optimal level

Regularization shotcrete delivery time

Review of the quality tests applied

Disuse of boltec equipment

Modification the jumbo of three booms

Correct use of jumbos technology of navigation

Change the coil bolts for mechanical bolts

Changing the dynamite for emulsion in cartridge

Optimizing the required tunnel support and construction drawings

Optimizing the placement process of steel sets

Optimum choice of drilling length

Activity Astaldi Unimproved advance Expected improve

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

Most relevant studies

Figure 3 Draw control strategies (Ferrada, 2013)

Estimation of mineral resources

Ton (kton) Cut

Figure 4 Dilution entry point sensitivity analysis

Table 1 Mineral resources in rib pillar

Rib Pillar Tons (kt) Cu (%) Mo (ppm) Area (m2)

Propagation caving Subsidence Lv 1841

Figure 5 Subsidence restrictions (Ferrada, 2013)

BMU Rib pillar

Figure 6 Coexistence BMU - Rib pillar

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Codelco VP - PMCHS (2011) Criterios del Plan de Produccin. Codelco VP.

Parameter Scenario Value Unit

LHD Fleet Allocation of LHD 1 to 8 [#]

Collapsed Area Collapsed Area in the Macro Block 5 %

Figure 1 Scheme collapsed area in the Macro Block

Figure 2a and Figure 2b).

Figure 2a Production sensitizing the collapsed area

LHD Effective Yield by Collapsed Area

260 1,0 1,0

260 1,0 1,0

310 12,1 12,0

280 5,8 6,0

270 3,8 4,0

260 2,2 2,0

Vicepresidencia de Proyectos, Proyecto Mina Chuquicamata Subterrnea, CODELCO (2012) Informe de

Mine planning criteria

Table 1 Expected extraction rate for different technology

Maximum extraction rate mine planning LHD + LHD + PC CM + PC

Table 2 Planning scenarios to measure technology impact

Correlative Scenario Technology Production capacity Production levels Comparison base

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Technical and economical results

Table 3 Main results from planning scenarios

Table 4 Economic results for planning scenarios. CM results appear highlighted

Table 5 Main result from key areas from planning scenarios

Geometallurgical and Lifts coexistence results

Comportamiento de Dao Puntos de Extraccin Mina Ten 4S - ESM - DR

65 T4S PCC (Histrico)

Figure 1 Behavior of the damage in draw points